Topic 2 pattern in nature

outline the historical development of the cell theory, in particular, the contributions of Robert Hooke and
Robert Brown
The first ever recorded study of cells was no until the 17th century where Robert Hooke used a primitive
compound microscope and observed the cork cells and described as little boxes or cells distinct from
one another
Anton van Leeuwenhoek described unicellular organism from his experiment on stagnant rainwater as
animalcules
Robert Brown was the first to discover structures inside cells, he found the nucleus of plant cells.
Rudolf Virchow studied living tissue using a microscope showed that cells only arise from other cells if
other cells are present.
Walter Fleming described the cell division mitosis form observations on living things.
In 1839 Schwan and Schleiden formulated the cell theory, that all living things are made up of cells

describe evidence to support the cell theory

The light microscope revealed that cells are not empty and that protoplasm (the contents of a
cell) is not a uniform structure
The protoplasm structures revealed support Schwan and Schleiden theory that there are
similarities between plant cells and animal cells. The similar organelles are enclosed and made of
membranes
Organelles such as the nucleolus and nucleus are visible under the light microscope
Robert Hookes observations of cork cells and Leeuwenhoeks observation of many types of
unicellular cells provide that livings things were made up of cells

discuss the significance of technological advances to developments in the cell theory

Technological advances in the design of microscopes and techniques in preparing slides have added to
our knowledge of the cell theory
The structures of cells was visible to some degree with the early light microscopes and was further
revealed when techniques were developed for cutting thin sections of tissue from multicellular organism
and staining them for observations
Without innovation in lenses the cell theory wouldnt have been discovered
Thus, technological advances go hand in hand with the development of the cell theory
identify cell organelles seen with current light and electron microscopes
A Light microscope uses light and focuses with lenses to see small objects
Organelles Description
Cell Forms the boundary between the cytoplasm
Membrane and the outside environment
Controls the entry and exit of substances to
and from the cell
Flexible and holds contents of the cell
 Nucleus Contains the chromosomes the information in
the chromosomes is used to control the
development and functioning of the whole
cell

Cytoplasm Contains many organelles is where most cell

activities are carried out
The contents of the cell between the cell
membrane and outside the nucleus.

Cell wall

describe the relationship between the structure of cell organelles and their function
Organelles are the functional unit of cells
Cells are surrounded by a round semi permeable membrane the round shape permitting only
certain molecules into the cell and between they cytoplasm and the organelle
The nucleus is spherical and large and has large pores in the nuclear membrane to allow large
molecules such genetic information and proteins to move in and out
Mitochondria are surrounded by a double layer membrane, the inner membrane is greatly folded
this increases the surface area increasing reactions and the rate of reactions figure a
Lysosomes are small, spherical membrane bound organelles their size enables to effectively fuse
with vacuoles containing food or other substances that have been into the cell. Figure b
Ribosomes are tiny spherical bodies made up of RNA and protein. Their small size and rounded
shape increase the surface area for easy interaction with chemical during their functioning. Figure
c
identify the major groups of substances found in living cells and their uses in cell activities
All molecules are either organic and inorganic. Living things are composed of substances but they also
contain inorganic substances
Organic molecules contain carbon atoms bounded with other carbon atoms and from long chains
examples of organic molecules found in cells consist of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates are compounds consisting of CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. Carbohydrates
are important source of energy in cells they are broken down into glucoses when energy is needed
Other examples include:
Lipids such as fats and oils
P

identify that there is movement of molecules into and out of cells

For cells to function it must interact with its surrounding environment and with cells which surround it.
Cells need oxygen and carbon and nutrients such as sugars and amino acids and water
Substances that must leave the cells are wastes such as urea, uric acids and excess of carbon dioxide

describe the current model of membrane structure and explain how it accounts for the movement of some
substances into and out of cells
Cells are surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane, it regulates the flow substances in and
out of cells, making it selectively permeable
The cell membrane I 60% protein 40%lipid the fluid mosaic model suggests that the cell membrane is
thin sheet composed of two bilayers lipids called phospholipids
Phospholipids have a hydrophilic water loving phosphate protein HEAD
Phospholipids have hydrophobic water hating lipid protein TAIL
compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion
Involves random movement of particles
Movement of substances from high concentration to
low concentration
The movement of materials into and out of cells takes
place passively
Does not need to involve a differentially permeable
membrane
Involves liquids and gasses
Osmosis
Involves random movement of particles
Movement of substances from high concentration to
low concentration
The movement type involved is active transport
Always involves differentially permeable membrane
Involves only water

explain how the surface area to volume ratio affects the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells
Cells need nutrients, takes them in through its surface membrane. The area of this surface affects the rate
at which nutrients can enter the cell as well the rate to which wastes leave the cell
If a cell has a large volume, the organelles in the center of the cell are further from the outside.
If a cell is flatter or smaller, the organelles in the center are more exposed to the outer surface enabling
the cell to obtain nutrients effectively.
The greater the surface area to volume ratio increases efficiency of substances diffusing into or out the
cell
identify some examples that demonstrate the structural and functional relationships between cells, tissues,
organs and organ systems in multicellular organisms

Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are called tissues. Groups of tissues make up
organs. Organs make up systems.
Cells may be flattened e.g. in the tissue lining air sacs in lungs or elongate e.g. photosynthetic cells in
leaves these shapes giving a greater surface are to volume ratio then cube shaped cells
The exposed edges of the cells may be extended into fold, for examples root hair cells that absorb water
and salts in plants or the cell lining of small intestine that absorb nutrients.

distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient requirements

Autotrophic organism are essentially those who are self-feeding for example plant absorb
inorganic compounds form the soil and manufacture their own organic nutrients. Most of these
organisms produce their food by photosynthesis, they use light energy from the sun to
 manufacture organic compounds in the form of glucose from water and carbon dioxide.
However, some bacteria make their organic compounds through the process of chemosynthesis
which the process using from breaking chemical bounds to make their food
Heterotrophs need to take in organic and inorganic nutrients by consuming other organism such
autotrophs to obtain nutrients and energy for cellular functions
identify the materials required for photosynthesis and its role in ecosystems
Photosynthesis can only occur if the plant cells can obtain carbon dioxide, water and light from their
external environment.
Photosynthesis provides the continuous input of energy necessary to sustain ecosystems.
Photosynthesis enables green plants to obtain directly; animals obtain this indirectly from the food the
eat
identify the general word equation for photosynthesis and outline this as a summary of a chain of
biochemical reactions

Photosynthesis occurs a series of many biochemical reactions that take place in the green pigment
chloroplast of green plants. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, each stage is not a single chemical
reaction but rather a series of reactions.
The light phase energy from the sun is captured by chlorophyll pigments in the chloroplast of green
plant cells and is converted into chemical energy. Some of this energy is used to split h2o molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.

The light interdependent phase uses carbon dioxide and no chlorophyll and no light. Hydrogen is
released from the first reactions and combine with carbo to form sugars. This process requires energy as
it is a building up of reactions, energy is supplied form some of the energy from light.
explain the relationship between the organisation of the structures used to obtain water and minerals in a
range of plants and the need to increase the surface area available for absorption
Plants obtain water and mineral through their root system
Plant roots need a large surface area over which absorption can occur
They achieve this by having branching their root hairs behind tips
They uptake of water
Occurs in the process of osmosis
When water in the soil is at high concertation than the roots cells water will move from the soil into the
roots.
This is known as passive transport
The uptake of nutrients
The process of diffusion accounts for the uptake of nutrients
If the minerals are in high concentration in the soil than they are in the cells they will move passively
into the cells.
Examples include NaCl
Tap root systems have a main root from which side (lateral) roots emerge. Tap roots penetrate deeply
into the ground and some tap roots act as storage organs and swell up as food reserves. Examples of tap
roots are carrots, beetroots and parsnips.
Fibrous roots form network of roots close to the soil surface. They may spread out widely to anchor the
plant and to bind the soil and prevent erosion, the roots subdivide. These roots increase surface area for
the uptake of minerals ions.

explain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their role
The external structure of leaf is visible to the naked eye it consists of lamina (the blade of the leaf) and a
petiole which joins the leaf to the stem and a network of veins.

The internal structure of leaf is visible through the microscope which shows specialised tissues these
structures are all responsible to carry out photosynthesis.
Leaves are arranged along stems of plants which exposes them to maximum amount of sunlight
Most leaves are broad, thin and flat. This gives them a large surface area to capture sunlight
Cuticle leaves secrete a waxy substance which forms an outer layer or cuticle which essentially helps
maintain shape and provides a protective barrier
Epidermis forms a protective layer of cells on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf and is transparent
to allow sunlight to penetrate through photosynthetic cell within them.
Stomates are pores in the leaf which open and close, when they open they allow gaseous exchange.
describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of complex foods for exposure to digestive chemicals
Digestion of food occurs in two process mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.
Complex molecules are broken down into simple molecules by digestive enzymes through the process of
hydrolysis
Digestive enzymes work more efficiently when the food to which they are exposed to have a large
surface area to
Large chunks of food are broken down by teeth exposing a greater surface area which ultimately will
help digestive enzymes to react efficiently braking down the food.
1. Incisors: front teeth to grasp, hold and bite food
2. Canines: used for stabbing and gripping prey and for tearing flesh
3. Premolars: used for chewing and for cutting flesh and cracking hard body parts such as bones.
4. Molars: used for grinding and chewing
explain the relationship between the length and overall complexity of digestive systems of a vertebrate
herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with respect to:
the chemical composition of their diet
the functions of the structures involved
compare the roles of respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems
the respiratory system enables organism to breathe, take in oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide
external environment. Respiration allows organism to release energy from food during cellular
respiration.
The excretory involves expelling metabolic wastes from that have been made by cells as a
byproduct of metabolism. Nitrogenous gas are the main excretory wastes and are toxic if
accumulated thus being expelled from the body. The main role of the excretory system is to
remove metabolic wastes from the transport medium.
identify and compare the gaseous exchange surfaces in an insect, a fish, a frog and a mammal
Insects have systems of interconnecting tubes called trachea within their body, these traches are lined
with cuticle and open to the external environment though pores on the abdomen.
Tracheal system includes inflatable air sacs that hold a reserve of air that can be pumped into the tissues
needing extra supply of air such as wing muscles.
The respiratory surface of fish are usually gills over which water flows. Gills are finely divide, and the
incoming water flows over a large surface area at one time.

explain the relationship between the requirements of cells and the need for transport systems in multicellular
organisms

Unicellular organisms have a large SA:V ratio and therefore do not need a transport system to obtain
nutrients and rid wastes.
Multicellular organisms however, have a small SA:V ratio and cannot carry out simple exchange of
nutrients and waste, cells in the organisms would then starve or be poisoned by their own waste, they are
too large to rely on passive transports such as osmosis/ diffusion as that is too slow
Multicellular organisms need a series of tubes through which materials can be efficiently transported.

outline the transport system in plants, including: root hair cells, xylem, phloem, stomates and lenticels
Root hair cell Long extension of root Provides large SA for
cell to increase SA absorption of water and
minerals
Xylem Long tube, strengthen Transports water from roots to
with lignin, allows water leaves, doesnt require energy.
to pass through Only moves one way

Phloem Connected cells with Minerals and food is

sieves plates at the end. transported around the plant,
from the leaves.

Stomates Found in epidermis. Allow gaseous exchange to

Each pore has occur. Can close to reduce
guard cell on water loss by plant.
either side,
 Lenticels Breaks in bark Allows gas exchange in
stem for living cells
behind tough bark

compare open and closed circulatory systems using one vertebrate and one invertebrate as examples

A closed circulatory systems have the blood closed at all times within vessels of different size and
wall thickness
In this type of system, blood is pumped by a heart through vessels, and does not normally fill body
cavities
Examples include Humans and Annelid Earthworm
An open circulatory system allows for blood to slowly flow around cells and mixes with intestinal
fluids (e.g. Arthropods, Crustaceans, Molluscs and Insects)

identify mitosis as a process of nuclear division and explain its role

Mitosis is the process by which multicellular organism grows, repairs and maintains and reproduces
itself. It is a type of cell division that results in the production of cells which are identical to the original
cells.
It is a replication and division of a cell to produce two cells with same number of chromosomes as
parent cell. Two new cells are called daughter cells, these are genetically identical.
The role of mitosis is the growth and repair of the body.

identify the sites of mitosis in plants, insects and mammals

Plants

o Plant cells capable of mitosis are called meristematic cells

o Mitosis occurs in:

Root tips & stem tips: this result in increase in length of plant
 Cambium cells: there are cells in between the xylem and phloem. Mitosis here results in increased
thickness of the plant

Insects

o Mitosis occurs during metamorphosis

o In pupal form, the larval cells break down, and adult cells (call imaginal discs) undergo mitosis to create a
massive transformation from larvae to adults

Animals

o Mitosis occurs in many places including skin cells, hair cells, and nail cells
o Blood cells are also constantly being made in the bone marrow
o The cells lining the digestive tract are also constantly replaced

explain the need for cytokinesis in cell division

Cytokinesis which is the division of the cytoplasm occurs after mitosis
Cytokinesis is essential to ensure that the chromosome number is number in each cells remain
constant.
The chromosome number doubles in the process of mitosis to and one cell contains both set of
chromosomes. Division of the cytoplasm is results in two cells each with a set chromosome
identical to the parent cells.

identify that nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA

Chromosome consist of proteins and nucleic acids DNA. They are the genetic material fond In
the nucleus of cells and the contain the coded chemical instruction that direct growth and
function of the cell
These contain genetic information that determines heredity
It also has information in producing proteins, which in turn determines our characteristics
Mitochondria have a set of DNA of their own
It is a ring of DNA, like in a prokaryotic cell
Chloroplasts also have a circular ring of DNA in their own structure