GAS TURBINES

COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, delegates will be able to:
1- Explain the function of a gas turbine.
2- List the most common types of gas turbines in use.
3- Understand the thermodynamic principles of gas turbine
systems.
4- Understanding some of the criteria for selecting a gas
turbine for a given set of design conditions.
5- Explain the main aspects of gas turbine protection and
control.
6- Appreciate how the design of an overall-plant control
scheme relates to the gas turbine system.
7- Explore the safe and efficient operation of a gas turbine
system, using dynamic simulation model.
8- Explore common operating problems.

CONTENTS

2
1- INTRODUCTION
- Fluid mechanics properties and laws
- Thermodynamics principles
- Definition of a gas turbine
- Historical background about gas turbine
- Brief idea about types of gas turbine
- Brief idea about advantages of gas turbine
- Brief idea about applications of gas turbine

2- TECHNICAL PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINES

- Working principles of gas turbine
- Turbine operation

3- MAIN COMPONENTS OF GAS TURBINES

- Compressor
- Combustion
- Turbine
- Air intake system
- Exhaust System

4- AUXILIARY SYSTEMS FOR GAS TURBINES

- Lube oil system
- Fuel oil system
- Fuel gas system
- Hydraulic trip oil system

5- OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF GAS

TURBINES
- Introduction
- Turbine operation
- Maintenance

3
 UNIT (1)

INTRODUCTION

4
 Definition of a gas turbine
1-Definitions:
Since long time, the theory and method by which gas turbine
operates was known even before knowing the material from
which the gas turbine should be built and before knowing the
fluid mechanics theories and fluid flow. Engineers waited the
development of material science very long to obtain some
materials that endure high temperatures that happen in the
turbine system.
The gas turbine is defined as a type of prime movers that can
transform the fuel energy to useful mechanical energy developed
at its shaft at high rotational speeds. The gas turbine consists, in
its simplest form, of two main parts, they are:
1- Gas generator section.
2- Power conversion section.
The gas generator section by itself consists of:
1- The compressor.
2- The combustion chamber,
3- The turbine, the turns the compressor.
There are different types of gas turbines depending on the
nature of inlet and exit of the gases. Figures (1/1, 2/1, 3/1, 4/1)
show the different types of these turbines. Figure (1/1) is a
section of a gas turbine that operates according to the basic
cycle, while Fig. (2/1) is a section in a turbo-jet that is equipped
with afterburner. As for Fig. (3/1) is a section in non-mixed
turbo-fan engine.

5
6
7
 PRINCIPLES OF

FLUID MECHANICS
&
THERMODYNAMICS

8
 FLUID MECHANICS

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The equations of fluid mechanics allow us to predict the
behavior of fluids in various flow situations. To use the
equations, however, there must be information regarding
properties. The properties, which are discussed in this chapter,
include viscosity, pressure, density, kinematic viscosity,
surface tension, specific heat, internal energy, enthalpy, and
compressibility.

Viscosity:
A fluid has many properties. One important property
is viscosity, which is a measure of the resistance the
fluid has to an external applied shear. Because this
property arises from the definition of a fluid, it is
examined in that regard. Consider again a fluid-filled
space formed by two horizontal parallel plates shown in
figure. The upper plate has an area A in contact with the
fluid and is pulled to the right with a force F/ at a
velocity Vi. If the velocity at each point within the fluid
could be measured, a velocity distribution like that
illustrated in the figure might result. The fluid velocity at
the moving plate is Vi because the fluid adheres to that
surface. At the bottom, the velocity is zero with respect

9
 to the boundary, owing to the non-slip condition. The
slope of the velocity distribution is: dV1/dy.

If this experiment is repeated with F2 as the force, a

different slope or strain rate results: dV1/dy. In general, to each
applied force there corresponds only one shear stress and only
one strain rate. If data from a series of these experiments were
plotted as T versus dV1/dy., the shown figure would result for a
fluid such as water. The points lie on a straight line that passes
through the origin. The slope of the resulting line in the figure is
the viscosity of the fluid because it is a measure of the fluid's
resistance to shear. In other words, viscosity indicates how a
fluid will react (dV/ d y) under the action of an external shear
stress ().

The plot of that figure is a straight line that passes through the
origin. This result is characteristic of a Newtonian fluid, but
there are other types of fluids called non-Newtonian fluids. A
graph of T versus dV/ dy, called a archeological diagram, is
shown in figure for several types of fluids. Newtonian fluids
follow Newton's law of viscosity and are represented by the
equation

10
 ( dV / dy )

Where:

= the applied shear stress in dimensions of F/L2{ Ibf/ft2

or N/m2)
= the absolute or dynamic viscosity of the fluid in
dimensions of F. T/L2 (Ibf.s/ft2 or
N.s/m2 )
dV/ dy = the strain rate in dimensions of 1/T (rad/s).

In the cgs system of units, the unit for viscosity is

poise, corresponding to 1 g/cm .s. The centipoises is 1/100
of a poise. The SI system, unit for viscosity is 1 kg/m.s. It
has no particular name. It is 10 times the size of the poise,
as it is clear from the basic units.

11
 Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, oil, and air. If
a fluid cannot be described by Equation 1.3, it is called a
non-Newtonian fluid. On the basis of their behavior, these
fluids are divided into three categories: time-independent,
time-dependent, and viscoelastic as in figure.

Density:
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume,
represented by the letter p. If the mass of 1 ft3 of water is
1.94 slug, its density is p = 1.94 slug/ft3. If the mass of 1
m3 of liquid is 820 kg, its density is p = 820 kg/m3.
Density has dimensions of M/L3. The density of various
substances is given in the property tables in the appendices
of any Fluid Mechanics Hand Book.

One quantity of importance related to density is

specific weight. Whereas density is mass per unit volume,
Specific weight is weight per unit volume. Specific weight
is related to density by:

SW = g , with dimension F/L3 (Ibf/ft3 or

N/m3)

Another useful quantity is specific gravity, which is

also related to density of a substance. The specific gravity
of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of
water at 4 C:

SG= /w (w density of water)

For usual w is taken to be 1.94 slug/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3.

12
 Specific heat:
The specific heat of a substance is the heat required to
raise a unit mass of | the substance by 1 . The dimension
of a specific heat is energy/ (mass. temperature): F. L /(M.
t). The process by which the heat is added also makes a
difference, particularly for gases. The specific heat for a
gas that undergoes a process occurring at constant pressure
involves a different specific heat than that for a constant
volume process. For example, the specific heat at constant
pressure Cp for air is 0.24 Btu/(Ibm . R), or 1005 J/(kg .
K), and the specific heat at constant volume Cy is 0.17
Btu/(Ibm . R), or 717 J/(kg . K). Also of importance when
dealing with these properties is the ratio of specific heats,
defined as

= Cp /Cv, (For air, the ratio of specific heats

y is 1.4)

The Btu (British thermal unit) is the unit of energy

measurement in the English engineering System. One Btu
is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 Ibm of water by 1 F. However, because we are using
the British gravitational system, the units encountered are
Btu/ (slug. R) . Both specific heats vary with temperature
for real substances, but to simplify calculations they are
assumed to be constant.

Internal Energy:
Internal energy is the energy associated with the motion
of molecules of a substance. Consider a quantity of gas.
The gas can have three types of energy: energy of position
(potential energy), energy of translation (kinetic energy),
13
and energy of molecular motion (internal energy). Adding
heat to a quantity of gas at constant volume affects only
the motion of the molecules and does not increase the
potential or kinetic energies of the gas. This effect is
manifested as an increase in temperature. In fact, for a
perfect gas with constant specific heats, it can be shown
that:

U = Cv T

Where U is a change in the internal energy per unit

mass of the gas with dimensions of energy /mass (F. L /
M).

Enthalpy:
A quantity that appears often in equations is (u + p/r),
this quantity is given the special name enthalpy, h. adding
heat at constant pressure goes into increasing the internal
energy of the gas and raising the position. Again for a
perfect gas with constant specific heats, it can be shown
that:
h = Cp T

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM:
Bernoulli's Theorem is a special application of the first
law of thermodynamics for flowing fluids. The energy
content of a flowing fluid can be split into three
components:

Elevation Head, Velocity Head, Pressure Head

14
Bernoulli's Theorem states that the sum of these three
energy terms at one set of conditions is equal to their sum
at another set of conditions.

Accelerating fluid

Bernoulli's equation shows that we can convert the Kinetic

energy of a gas to pressure (potential) energy by
decreasing it's velocity.

Velocity Head + Pressure Head + Elevation Head =

Constant

Decrease in velocity head causes an increase in pressure

head.

Bernoulli's Equation
U2 p
z cons
2g g

U = fluid velocity, g = gravitational constant, p =

pressure

= density, z = elevation head

U2 p
2g
velocity head , g
pressure head , z = Elevation
Head

NB: Each term has dimensions of length and can be

regarded as representing a contribution to the total fluid
head. Incompressible, frictionless flow is assumed.

15
 THERMODYNAMICS

PRESSURE:
The pressure is the normal force per unit area, and its
dimension is (N/m2). The pressure measured by any instrument,
that reads zero when it is open to the atmosphere, is called gauge
pressure. The absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure plus
the atmospheric pressure. The standard atmospheric pressure, (at
sea level and 15 oC), is:

1 bar (105 Pa or 105 N/m2)

or 76 cm Hg
or 10.3 m of H2O
or 14.7 Psi

Then:
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure

TEMPERATURE:
Two types of temperature scales are found,
namely centigrade and Fahrenheit. The absolute temperature is
the local temperature plus 273 for centigrade scale or 460 for
Fahrenheit scale. To convert from one scale to another the
following two relations are used:

C= (F-32) x (5/9)

F= C x (9/5) +32

16
 First Law Of Thermodynamics (Conservation Of
Energy):
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed during a
process (e.g. compression), although it may change from one
form to another.

Potential Energy:
Energy due to a body's elevation (pressure).

Kinetic Energy:
Energy due to a body's motion (velocity).
From the first law of thermodynamics, it is possible to convert
energy from one form to another. To understand the principles of
compression we need to consider thermodynamics.

Gas Laws:
Boyle's Law:
At constant temperature, the volume of an ideal gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure.
1
V
p

Therefore: PV = Constant, Where: V =

Volume and P = Pressure

Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of an ideal gas is
proportional absolute temperature.

V T

Therefore: V/T = Constant, Where: V =

Volume and T = Absolute temperature
17
 Ideal Gas Equation
From Boyle's Law and Charles' Law: PV = RT
Where: R = Universal Gas Constant
This is true for all ideal gases, no gases are ideal and this
equation is corrected by using compressibility factors,
which are determined experimentally. Several forms of
ideal gas equation are as follows:

Pv = RT

PV = mRT

PV = nMRT

PV = nT

(Where: P is the gas absolute pressure, v is the gas

specific volume, R is the gas constant, T is the gas
absolute temperature, m is the mass of the gas, n is
number of moles of the gas, M is the gas molecular
weight, is the universal gas constant and =MR)

Decreasing Volume
From Boyle's Law (PV = Constant), it can be seen that
if you reduce the volume of a gas then it's pressure will
increase. PV = Constant, as V reduces, P increases
(assuming constant temperature).

Compressibility
18
 All gases deviate from the ideal gas law and these
deviations are accounted for by the compressibility
factor (Z). The ideal gas equation is modified to:

PV = ZRT, Rearranging:
pv
Z
RT Z is experimentally
derived from actual gas data and is often
generated from equations of state.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

This is more abstract and can be stated several ways.
Heat cannot, of itself, pass from a colder to a hotter body.
Heat can be made to go from a body at lower temperature to
one at higher temperature only if external work is done.
The available energy of the isolated system decreases in all
real processes.
Heat or energy (or water), of itself, will flow only downhill.
Basically, these statements say that energy exists at
various levels and is available for use only if it can move
from a higher to a lower level. In Thermodynamics a
measure of the unavailability of energy has been devised
and is known as entropy. It is defined by the differential
equation:
dQ
dS , Where: S = Entropy,
T Q = Heat, T
= Temperature

Note that:
19
Entropy (as a measure of unavailability) increases as a system
loses heat, but remains constant when there is no gain or loss of
heat (as in an adiabatic process).

DEFINITIONS:
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS:
Constant temperature process
POLYTROPIC PROCESS:
A reversible process
ADIABATIC PROCESS:
No heat gain to or lost from the system
ISENTROPIC PROCESS:
Reversible and adiabatic process

Compressor Cycles
Compressors are compared to theoretical
compression cycles as a basis for calculations and comparisons.

Isothermal Compression:
This occurs when the temperature is kept
constant as the pressure increases. This requires continuous heat
removal.

p1 V1 p2 V2 const

It is not commercially possible to remove all heat

although compressors are usually designed for as much heat
removal as possible.

Adiabatic Reversible (Isentropic) Compression:

20
 This occurs when no heat is added or removed during
compression.

p1 V1k p2 V2k const , Where k = ratio of specific heat

Adiabatic compression is never obtained because there is always

some heat removed or added.

Polytropic Compression:
This is the cycle along which actual compression takes place.
p1 V1n p2 V2n const

The exponent n is determined experimentally for a given type of

machine and may be lower or higher than the adiabatic
exponent k. In positive displacement compressors n is usually
less than k.
n 1
n or n can be calculated from test data if the suction
and discharge n pressures and temperatures are
known.

n 1
T2 p2
(can be derivation)
n

T1
p1

21
 3- Historical background about gas
turbines:
1- Early model of gas turbine:
Utilization of gas turbines, driven by combustion gases
flowing from fire, began since long time. It was during the era of
the Hero of Alexandria at year 150 BC. In addition, at the same
time Chinese used windmills (that may be considered one type
of gas turbines).

2- Gas turbine models between 1791-1930:

1- John Barbar turbine (Fig. 4/1):
It is to be sure that the real gas turbines era had begun
in 1791 when John Barbar get a patent for his pioneer invention
concerning gas turbines. That invention consists of reciprocating
compressor and a combustion chamber and an impulse turbine.
He was able to recognize the need of cooling the turbine blades
and suggested the water injection.

2- Stolze turbine:
In year 1872, Stolze was able to get a patent for his
invention concerning gas turbines. The design of that invention
consisted of the following parts:
Multi-stage axial flow compressor, which
perhaps was the first type at all.
Multi-stage reaction turbine whose shaft is
connected to the shaft of the compressor.
Heat exchanger.
Combustion chamber.
The turbine was ten stages, while the compressor was
only nine stages.

22
 3- Charles G. Curtiss turbine:
In June 1884, Charles G. Curtiss presented a
complete gas turbine that was the first gas turbine designed in
USA.

4- Stolze second turbine:

The second gas turbine built by Stolze in France in
year 1900, was the first real turbine capable to produce work.
However, the tests carried on it were not encouraging because its
very low unsatisfactorily efficiency.

5- Armanganed Brothers turbine:

Armanganed Brother carried series of effective trials
to build a large gas turbine in Paris at the same time during
which Stolze was building his turbine. They began their trial on
a 25-HP De Laval turbine using an air compressor that work by
the compressed air from the principal Paris compressed air
network. After this, they produced another turbine using a
centrifugal compressor of four bars designed by Rateau in year
1905. In addition, they used Curtiss turbine wheel whose
diameter was 37.4 inches. The turbine was running at 4250 rpm,
while the turbine exit gas temperature was 1040 oF. That turbine
was able to produce compressed air instead of mechanical power
and its thermal efficiency was 3%.

6- Holzwarth turbine:
The efforts of Holzwarth in the field of gas turbines
were the most important efforts appeared after this, and to him
was the grace in building the first practical and economical gas
turbine. Holzwarth turbine was operating by explosion cycle
without pre-compression. It was a rotating engine of intermittent
combustion. The first turbine of this type was built and tested in
23
Hanover. Who is interested of more details about Holzwarth
turbine should look to Stodola book.

7- Sanford Moss turbine:

Sanford Moss was able to operate the first turbine
in USA in year 1919, and at the same year, the first civil
airplane could fly using a gas turbine.

3- Developments between 1930-1940:

Many developments happened during the thirties
especially Velox boilers and the first gas turbine that worked
successfully in power generation was built by the efforts of
Brown Boveri. The British and German governments did great
efforts to develop gas turbines which are used in airplanes
propulsion. Among the efforts exerted during the thirties are:
1- Brown Boveri efforts:
Thanks to Brown Boveri, that building of gas turbines
to generate electrical energy had increased either in power
stations or in other industrial applications. The first gas turbine
built by Brown Boveri was used to operate combustion air
compressors used in Velox boilers. The first turbine built to be
used in Velox boilers in the year 1932. That turbine used
auxiliary power, as the power needed by the compressor was
higher than that developed by the turbine. After while it was able
to increase the developed power from the turbine to be higher
than that needed by the compressor. This was realized by using
charging sets added to the turbine.
In November 1936, new utilization of the charging sets
appeared when Sun Oil Company in Philadelphia in USA
declared the discovery of the supercharger. It was to burn the
carbon residuals of petroleum product distillation to produce the
maximum power of the combustion process. In year 1939,
24
Brown Boveri had built the first power station using large gas
turbines to produce 4000 kW. That unit worked on a simple
cycle, as it was stand-by unit. In year 1940 that unit was used in
an underground-power station in Newchatel. The total hour's use
of this unit did not increase more than 1200 hrs, till year 1953.
Brown Boveri invited Stodola to carry standard tests on
that unit. The results of these tests are shown in table (1/1). In
year 1939, the first gas turbine-using mazoot to produce 2
megawatt. It was used during 6000 hrs. Since that year till 1977.

Table (1/1) test results carried by Stodola on Brown

Boveri gas turbine
Type of test results
1st test 2nd test 3rdtest
Load (kW) light 4021 3057
Fuel mazout mazout Mazou
t
Compressor pressure ratio 3.82 4.38 4.38
Compressor efficiency (%) 86.4 86.4 86.4
Compressor speed (rpm) 3020 3020 3030
Compressor air flow (Lb/hr) 499620 498176 498049
Turbine inlet temperature 705.2 1067 987.8
o
( F)
Turbine efficiency (%) 85.4 88.4 88.4
Fuel consumption (Lb/kW) - 1.078 1.193
Thermal efficiency (%) - 18.04 16.37

25
 2- British efforts:
With the beginning of the thirties two separate groups
began in building and testing gas turbines utilized in power
stations and airplanes in England. One of these groups worked
under the supervision of Whittle in jet engines using centrifugal
compressors. The other group worked under the supervision of
Griffith and Constant in building and testing axial flow
compressors.
In 1930 Whittle had registered his first patent in this
field but he failed to get financial support from British aviation
ministry or special association that is why he oriented his efforts
to theoretical studies since 1930 till 1936. Power Jet Ltd.
Company was formed and made the commitment to transform
his theoretical studies to simple jet turbine. It was a single-stage
centrifugal compressor of bilateral intakes and a single-stage
turbine connected directly to the compressor having single
combustion chamber. The test of the first turbine of this type was
in 12 April 1937, during 11 days. The combustion chamber
represented the principal problem and the compressor
performance was less than all expectations.
Redesigning this turbine was in 16 April 1938 till 6
May when big damage happened due to the failure of wheel
blades. The third trial was under test in October 1938.
In summer 1939 British aviation ministry signed a
contract with Power Jet Ltd. Company for building an airplane
turbine knew by W1 which was tested in 1941.
The other group under the supervision of Griffith and
Constant began building and testing the axial flow compressors
in the Royal Aircraft Establishment.

26
 3- German efforts:
Hans Von Ohain paid attention to gas turbines used in
propulsion at the beginning of the year 1935. He was able to
register a patent in turbo-jet engine supplied with centrifugal
compressor and Ernst Heinkel appointed him as a general
manager to Ernst Heinkel Company in 1936. In 1938, he was
able to test the first turbine used for airplanes and after
redesigning this turbine to be the model He 5-36, that had the
following specifications:

Compressor Centrifugal
Weight of unit 795 Lb
Static thrust for unit 1100 Lb
Specific fuel consumption for thrust 1.6 Lb/(Lb-hr)

4- USA efforts:
The efforts were concentrated on raising the gas
turbine efficiency. The efficiency was raised to be between 60-
65% for compressor and 65-70 for the turbine

4- Developments between 1940-1945:

1- British efforts:
Power Jet Ltd., under supervision of Whittle,
continued developing the turbine W1 and the turbine wheel was
cooled by water. The first Gloucester airplane trip powered by
gas turbine was in May 1941. In June 1945, Rolls-Royce
produced a more powerful engine known as Derwent (V) of
repulsion 3500 Lb.

27
2- German efforts:
Since 1939 to 1942, German began developing the
Von Ohain engine using centrifugal compressor after this at the
end of 1941 they replaced it by Heinkel engine of axial-flow
compressor. In November 1942, Junkers 004 (known as Jumo
004) was tested and installed in airplane Me-262.

2- USA efforts:
Turbo dyne (2500 HP) was suggested to the army in
1940 by Northup Aircraft Inc.
Lockhead Aircraft suggested engine L1000
Westinghouse Electric Corporation built (The 19) as a
turbo-jet using axial flow compressor.
Wright Aeronautical Corporation failed to produce
Whittle engine.
General Electric began in 1941, after getting the
design and drawings of W2B from Power Jet, Ltd. And
produced engine I installed in sirplane Bell P-59 A in 1942. In
1945 they began building engine G35.

3- Other efforts:
A side of using the gas turbine in airplanes, Swiss
Federal Railway installed an engine of 2200 HP in a
train.

5- Developments between 1945-1950:

During this period, old companies returned their efforts
because the governmental support was good in this field.
Therefore, gas turbine development continued in a fast rate
to compete other prime mover either diesel engines or
steam turbines.

28
 BRIEF IDEA ABOUT TYPES OF GAS
TURBINE
There are two types of gas turbines, they are:
1- Constant volume gas turbine.
2- Constant pressure gas turbine.
Constant volume gas turbine:
The constant volume gas turbine, Fig. (5/1) consists of an air
compressor that sucks atmospheric air at point (1). It compresses
the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber through
charging valve (a). At the combustion chamber a quantity of fuel
is injected through nozzle (c) by the fuel injection pump.
Therefore the fuel-air mixture burns by the electric spark (d),
due to which the pressure increases suddenly follows by opening
the valve (b) to discharge the combustion products to the turbine.
There, the pressure energy is converted to mechanical energy on
the turbine shaft that may be used to drive an electric generator
to produce electric power. Finally, the exhaust gases escapes to
the atmosphere.

29
THE HEAT CYCLE:
The constant volume gas turbine follows a cycle called
constant volume cycle, as the combustion of the fuel-air mixture
takes place at constant volume. The only effect due to heat
addition in the combustion chamber is to increase the pressure
only.
Figure (6/1) shows the heat cycle curve, where air of volume
(1-5) enters at atmospheric pressure at point (1). Air is
compressed to point (2) where its pressure is increased and its
volume becomes (2-6). At this point air enters the combustion
chamber and its temperature increases due to burning of the fuel
injected. Therefore, the pressure increases from point (2) to point
(3) at which delivery valve (b) opens to permit gases to pass and
expand through the turbine. The gas pressure decreases and its
volume increases, which is represented by curve (3-4). The
exhaust gases leave the turbine at point (4).

30
 In the constant volume gas turbine, usually multi-combustion
chambers are used that are charged by the compressed air one
after another using the same compressor. An automatic timer for
the valves regulates the charging periods. That is, after charging
a combustion chamber by air the charging valve (a ) is closed,
fuel is injected inside this combustion chamber, the fuel-air
mixture is burned that an increase in pressure occurs after which
delivery valve (b) opens to exit the exhaust gases as a fast stream
facing the turbine blades. As the pressure inside the combustion
chamber decreases the gas speed decreases. When the pressure
reaches to almost atmospheric pressure the delivery valve (b)
closes and charging valve (a) opens to recharge the combustion
chamber by air.
The most important disadvantage of this type of turbines is
the reduced of thermal capability, that is why it is not widely
used and direction to the other type (constant pressure gas
turbine) happened.

Constant pressure gas turbine:

The constant pressure gas turbine, Fig. (7/1) consists of an air
compressor that sucks atmospheric air at point (1). It
compresses the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber,
where it burns at constant pressure. The air volume and its
temperature increase. Then, the gases pass to the turbine, where
it expands and its pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure.
The pressure energy changes to mechanical energy on the
turbine shaft.

31
THE HEAT CYCLE:
The constant-pressure gas turbine follows Brayton cycle
called constant pressure cycle, as the combustion of the fuel-air
mixture takes place at constant pressure. The only effect due to
heat addition in the combustion chamber is to increase the air
volume only.
Figure (8/1) shows the heat cycle curve, where air of volume
(1-5) enters at atmospheric pressure at point (1). Air is
compressed to point (2) where its pressure is increased and its
volume becomes (2-6). At this point air enters the combustion
chamber and its temperature increases due to burning of the fuel
injected. Therefore, the volume increases from point (2) to point
(3) without no pressure increase. The delivery valve (b) opens to
permit gases to pass and expand through the turbine. The gas
pressure decreases and its volume increases, which is
represented by curve (3-4). The gas volume increases from (3-6)
32
to (4-5) and the pressure decreases from point (3) to point (4).
The exhaust gases leave the turbine at point (4).
From the cycle, it is clear that exhaust and combustion take
place at constant pressure while compression and expansion take

place continuously without intermittence. Therefore, output

power is generated at constant rate.

BRIEF IDEA ABOUT ADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE:

Gas turbines have the following advantages:
a- Supply and installation of a gas turbine can be done in short
time not exceeding few months.
b- It does not need water source for operation.
c- Operation and loading of the unit takes short time not
exceeding few minutes.
d- It is possible to use either liquid or gaseous fuel or their
mixture for gas turbine operation.
e- It is possible to use exhaust gases in heating processes or to
help in operation of steam turbine in combined systems.
33
 f- It can be installed in deserts and remote areas, as it does not
need water for cooling.
g- It needs few operators and can be remote-operated.

BRIEF IDEA ABOUT APPLICATIONS OF GAS

TURBINE:

It is well known that airplanes use gas turbines but they are
also used in surface transportation and many other stationary
applications. Scientifically, the field of stationary applications
includes many purposes of high efficiency. This field is always
increasing while that of aviation has no innovation. Here, in a
scientific view the stationary applications are discussed as
follows:
In electricity generation
In oil and gas industry
In combined cycles or heating purposes
In chemical and process industry applications

34
 UNIT (2)

TECHNICAL PRINCIPLES
OF GAS TURBINES

FIRST:
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINES

SECOND:
TURBINE OPERATION

35
 FIRST
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINES

INTRODUCTION:
Gas turbines are considered as a heat engine working
according to thermodynamic cycle of constant pressure. Air is
used as the working medium in the majority of practical
applications, where it is compressed and heated up then
expanded. From thermodynamic point of view, it is possible to
prove that the work taken from air or exerted on it, at high
temperature levels, is higher than that at low temperature levels.
Therefore, it is possible to obtain a quantity of work from the
turbine during expansion stage of the cycle higher than the work
exerted during compression. The difference is sufficient to
overcome all different sources of losses in addition to a huge
quantity as output power used in different purposes.
As it is possible to add heat to the cycle by burning the fuel
internally in the working medium (the air), or adding it from
outside source, therefore the cycle may be called of internal
combustion or external combustion type.
Air must be the working medium in case of internal
combustion, as oxygen is necessary for combustion. If the cycle
is of external combustion, it is possible to use any type of gases
or vapors. If any other gas, rather than air is used, the cycle
should be closed cycle.
Explaining the details of thermodynamics is out of this
course, but some of principle thermodynamics are shown as
follows:
P1 V1 P V
1- T1
2 2
T2

2- P1V1 P2V2

3- T . R ( P. R ) ( 1) /
36
 Cp
4-
Cv
Where:
P: The absolute pressure.
V: The volume.
T: Absolute temperature.
: Specific heat ratio.
The symbols (suffixes) are as follows:
1: For compressor inlet
2: For compressor outlet

The simplest cycle:

In its simplest form, the gas turbine consists of three main
components, working according to the open internal combustion
cycle. Figure (1/2) shows a diagrammatic section for this
turbine, while Fig. (2/2) shows the symbolic representation of it.
From this turbine, high-speed gases are obtained that cause jet
thrust as in airplane engines, or a shaft power as rotational speed
and torque that can be used in driving different engines. As
mentioned previously, it has:
Compressor.
Combustion chamber.

37
 Turbine wheel.

38
 All thermodynamic functions occur at adiabatic
compression, then heating at constant pressure followed by
adiabatic expansion. These processes occur at the same sequence
continuously. The working medium (the air) enters the cycle at
the compressor inlet, where its pressure increases to several
atmospheric pressure values. The pressure ration used depends
upon cycle design. The pressure ratio is 6:1 for middle size
turbines. The air temperature increases due to the adiabatic
compression. The air temperature increases more by the effect of
heat addition due to fuel combustion to the maximum cycle
temperature Tmax. The flame temperature is much higher than this
maximum temperature because the air coming from the
compressor at T2 cools the combustion products. The maximum
temperature depends on the thermal cycle design and the
estimated life of the turbine. As the maximum increases the
turbine life decreases. In heavy turbines of long life and uses
mazout as a fuel, the maximum temperature reaches 650 oC.
This temperature increases to 900 oC in small turbines of high
efficiency and long life.
Finally, the working medium pressure reaches to
atmospheric pressure due to expansion through the turbine
blades. The power generated is sufficient to drive the compressor
and the load. In normal case, two third of the generated work is
consumed in driving the compressor and the other resisting parts
and the other third is the useful load used in any external
applications.
Mechanically, the gas turbine is very simple, as the
compressor is of the rotating type either the axial-flow or the
centrifugal type, which is directly connected to the turbine
forming the rotor. The rotor is carried by one or two couples of
bearings, either journal or roller bearings in condition that one of
them is thrust bearing. The output power can be taken from
either sides of the rotor, but it is preferable to take the power at
39
the cold end to overcome the problems that may happen at the
hot end.
If we exclude the auxiliaries, as oil and fuel pumps the
only movable part in the turbine is the rotor.
The burning system consists mainly of one or more
highly developed blow-lamps. They are designed specially to
insure keeping suitable and continuous flame at all operating
conditions. This system also insures a mixing zone to mix the
gases coming from the flame zone with the relatively cold air
coming from the compressor, before entering to the turbine.
The compressor, the combustion chamber and the turbine
are connected by carefully designed gas ducts. Depending on the
type of application, the combustion system may be separated. If
the turbine is used in stationary application, the turbine
construction may include air filtration plant, inlet and exit
exhaust ducts and silencers.
The idea of obtaining net work from the gas unit depends
upon an important physical characteristic. This characteristic is
that the work required to or obtainable on raising or lowering the
pressure of a quantity of gases increases as the gases temperature
increases. This is clear due to divergence of the constant pressure
lines as the temperature increases on the temperature-entropy
diagram (T-S diagram). On this diagram the vertical difference
in temperature represents the work required to increase or
decrease the pressure of a quantity of gases. As the temperature
of the gases increases this vertical in temperature increases, as
shown in Fig. (2/2m). This figure represents the T-S diagram of a
simple cycle having a single turbine. We find that the distance T2
T1 represents the work required to raise the pressure of the air
quantity taken from atmospheric pressure P1 to the pressure P2.
In the combustion chamber a quantity of heat is added
from point 2 to point 3 by burning the fuel to raise the gas
temperature from T2 to T3 at the constant pressure P2. It may be
40
considered that the quantity of the gases equals the quantity of
the air entering the compressor. On expanding through the
turbine, the output work is represented by the distance T3 T4.
Due to the divergence in the pressure lines, mentioned above, on
the T-S diagram it is found that the output work of the turbine
due to gas expansion is larger than the work required to the
compressor. The difference is the net useful work. This work
represents one third of the total work obtained inside the turbine.

The simple cycle with free power turbine:

Now it is suitable to attack the other thermal cycles that are

used in gas turbines to complete all the basics of operation.
Comparing the previous Fig. (2/2) and Fig. (3/2), the clear
difference among them is that: the turbine in Fig. (3/2) is divided
to two parts. These parts are; the high-pressure turbine and the
low-pressure turbine. In this design the mechanically separated
turbines have to provide power to drive the compressor and to
41
provide the output power. The high-pressure turbine is connected
directly by the compressor while the low-pressure turbine is
responsible of providing the output power. Gas ducts only
connect the two turbines. The unit containing the compressor,
the combustion chamber and the high-pressure turbine is called
charging set or gas generator, while the other turbine is called the
power turbine. The two sets are always connected
aerodynamically and thermodynamically, but they do not
necessary have the same speed. This leads to flexibility better
than the single-shaft turbine. For example, the power turbine
drives an alternator, and then this turbine is adjusted to be
coinciding the necessary frequency of the system. The speed of
the charging set may be increased or decreased according to the
load demand. Adversely, the power set speed may be changed
according to load (other than alternators) and the charging set
speed remains constant as in case of driving cars or trains.
There is only one problem occur as a result of separating the
two turbines; this problem is the lack of response of the engine
on changing the load. For example, the power set may have
over-speed when the load decreases suddenly. Therefore, it is
necessary to have an advanced system or highly sophisticated
control system.
When the power set drives an electric generator it is
necessary to take all precautions to prevent the power-turbine
from over-speed when the load decreases suddenly.
In this case, the charging set takes the work represented by
T3-T4 that is needed for the compressor and the power set takes
the work represented by T4-T5 which is the net work taken from
the cycle as an output. Figure (3/2 m) shows a simple open cycle
for this unit on the T-S diagram.

42
RECUPERATION:
Usually, the exhaust gases leave the turbine, in the simple
cycle, at a temperature much higher than that of the air entering
the compressor. Therefore, it is obvious; to improve the thermal
efficiency of the cycle if we supply the turbine by means to
recuperate the maximum possible quantity of heat leaving with
the exhaust gases. This heat must be given to the air leaving the
compressor before entering the combustion chamber. Any
temperature increase of air at this location safe a quantity of fuel
to be injected in the combustion chamber to reach the necessary
maximum temperature Tmax. It is possible using heat exchangers,
and in this case, the diagrammatic drawing of the unit should be
43
as shown in Fig. (4/2). The efficiency may increase by 20-27%
approximately on using a reasonable-effectiveness heat
exchanger. The real advantage obtained from using a heat
exchanger, which is manifested as a reduction in the fuel
consumption rate, depends on the general considerations of the
thermal cycle.
Recuperation and adding heat exchangers increase the
manufacturing cost of the engine and the unit size increases. In
addition, the engine reliability decreases due to the sever
conditions caused by the heat exchanger. The sophisticated
control system, used in the separated turbine engine, may have
more problems on using the heat exchangers, due to the pressure
needed in its passages. Then, the only advantage of using the
heat exchangers is increasing the engine efficiency, which in
some cases does not worth in front of the mentioned problems.

44
 This does not mean that the problems prevent using heat
exchangers because there are many engines use in their thermal
cycles heat exchangers especially in power plants. These cycles
differ from the other cycles by making use of exhaust gas
temperature T6 to heat up the compressed air coming from the
compressor. Through the heat exchanger the temperature of the
compressed air rise from T2 to T3 that makes less fuel going to
the combustion chamber to reach the maximum temperature
Tmax. Therefore, adding heat occur from point 3 to point 4 instead
of point 2 to point 4. Obviously the exhaust gas temperature T6
must be higher than air temperature T2 to heat it up.
Figure (4/2 m) represents on T-S diagram an open simple
cycle with heat recuperation.

45
INTERCOOLING:
There is a known thermodynamic fact, that is: the ratio of
exerted work to compress any gas to a certain pressure ratio
reduces if the compression takes place isothermally rather than
adiabatic compression. Isothermal compression is not feasible
practically in gas turbines, but approaching a constant
temperature during compression is feasible by using two- or
multi-stage compressor and adding inter-coolers between stages.
The inter-cooler cools the compressed air before compression in
the following stage. By this way, the work of compression
reduces to the necessary value as shown in Fig. (5/2).
Intercooling may help in reducing the size of the main gas
turbine components. Its use does not improve the cycle
efficiency, as the heat extracted by the intercoolers can not be re-
admitted to the air.
As shown in Fig. (2/5 m) the distance T3-T4 is less than the
distance Ta-T2 when using only one compressor without
intercooling. Therefore, the work done to reach the same
pressure ratio reduces on using intercooler. In opposite, we need
more fuel to reach the maximum temperature as combustion
begins at point 4 to point 5 instead of beginning at point a to
point 5.

46
47
RE-HEAT:
Re-heat is to add another stage of combustion after having
partial expansion of gases. This occurs when the engine has two
separated turbines having a second combustion chamber in
between that raises the temperature of the partially expanded
gases to reach again to the maximum cycle temperature, Fig
(6/2). Re-heat, as recuperation does not improve the cycle
efficiency. The idea of using re-heat is to avoid reaching very
high maximum temperature causes danger on the turbine and its
blades as shown in Fig. (6/2 m). in this figure the maximum
temperature becomes T which the turbine and its blades can not
endure.

48
49
COMPLEX CYCLES:
Theoretically, gas turbines may be considered able to work
according to different cycles, as it contains multi stages of
compression and expansion. Figure (7/2) shows a diagrammatic
drawing of a gas turbine unit using a separate power set. This
type of units is considered practical in large prime mover over
20 megawatts or more. Figure (7/2) shows the T-S diagram of
this unit that includes intercooling and recuperation added to
having three turbine stages to reduce the maximum temperature.
This is done to reduce the sizes of the turbines and compressors
as well as improving efficiency and reducing the cost.

50
51
CLOSED CYCLE:
These cycles are considered as external combustion cycles
shown in Fig. (8/2). The working medium that is air in many
application (not necessary air in other applications) flows in a
closed cycle where the exhaust gas exits from the turbine is
cooled before re-entering the compressor. The thermal efficiency
of the closed cycle, using conventional fuel, at part load, is
higher as the mean pressure in the cycle may mach the type of
fuel keeping the same maximum temperature constant during
load range.

52
AIR-BLEED CYCLE:
It is possible to use the charging set in the simple gas
turbine unit in a very useful way to produce moderate
pressurized air to avoid using a separate compressor driven by
the power turbine. Figure (9/2) shows this arrangement that has a
large size compressor that supplies the cycle with the necessary
air and the rest that may be used in different applications.

53
 SECOND
TURBINE OPERATION
From practical point of view, knowing how to operate a
gas turbine is more important than knowing all the design
specifications. Every body deals with a gas turbine must know
how to operate it

ENGINE STARTING:

When we would like to know the steps of operation of a

gas turbine, we should take into consideration the steps of
operation of the plant that the gas turbine represents one of its
components. In power plats, we must realize the correct air
valves setting, the switches. In addition, leaving the unit to a
long period of preheat, and that the generator is in its correct
phase that suits the local grid, and many other aspects that that
proceed the turbine starting. In big units some additional factors
that must be watched during turbine stating as control of cooling
water circuits and following the engine operation as its
temperature increases. The increase in temperature affects the
54
thermal stresses of the thick metal components and their
expansions in different rates. In addition, the exhaust gas
temperature must be surveyed and the manual compressor
control valves. These requirements differ from unit to another,
but they agree in the general rules.
The changes in the net engine shaft torque due to change
in rotational speed on starting from rest until no load speed
(acceleration from rest to idle) is shown in Fig. (10/2). The
negative torque that begins from zero until reaching the self-
sustaining speed represents the need of the compressor during
this period to external torque greater than that produced by the
turbine at the first stages of operation. Both the turbine and the
compressor are very inefficient at low speeds. Because airflow
angles and contraction or expansions happening in the passages
do not match the compression or expansion of gases and the low
flow velocities limit the exerted momentum and the work
capacity.
The starter supplies the turbine by the necessary torque to
start operation. The torque is equal to that needed for the
compressor in addition to extra torque to accelerate the shaft.
In multi-shaft engines, the starter drives only the high-
pressure turbine. That is why, in multi-shaft engines, we need a
starter smaller than that needed for an equivalent engine having
a single shaft. Usually the starter is an electric or hydraulic
motor or a compressed-air-driven turbine, connected to the
engine shaft by system of gears. It may also be a jet of air
directed to the turbine blades. Starters separate automatically
when the turbine speed becomes little bit higher than the self-
sustaining speed ( usually it equals 40-50% of the shaft design
speed of the high-pressure turbine). The compressed air, needed
for the jets, may come from a separate small turbine or from
compressed air bottles or cartridge.

55
 Starting procedure may greatly affect the turbine life, and
ignition plugs must start working before fuel injection to the
combustion chamber to assure direct fuel ignition rather than its
accumulation in the combustion chamber. Accumulation of the
fuel inside the combustion chamber may cause explosion or
excess heating of the turbine and the passages.
It is important that the turbine turns before letting fuel to
the combustion chamber in order not to burn the blades taking
directly the gases from the initial ignition zone. Letting the
turbine to run fast before starting ignition is an important and
preferable action.
There are standard checks should be done as measuring
the temperature, the time delay taken to begin ignition after
beginning fuel injection. Also, after reaching the self-sustaining
speed, the starter should stops and the turbine continues
accelerating its speed to reaching the idle speed. The time
needed to reach this speed should be recorded.
If the starter does not stop automatically at the suitable
speed, dangerous damages may happen to the engine if this was
not noticed before reaching the operating speed. Usually the
automatic ignition system turns off after the completion of the
starting process, unless in bad weather cases when the humid air
turns off the flame.
In some cases, starting the turbine fails due to some
circumstances. For example, if there is inadequate starter torque,
or if fuel flow is insufficient or if the ignition system fails
starting at the suitable moment. In addition, if the turbine reaches
waving at low speeds may fail to reach self-sustaining speed,
especially if it starts when it is cold. In this case, the cold engine
metal absorbs heat from the flow and then it over heats when
starts while it is hot due to previous operation.

56
 The suitable solution of starting problems in using good
starter with good connections assure suitable pressure and volt
continuation.

ENGINE TESTING AND CORRECTION OF DATA:

Tests carried on engines to assure the good
manufacturing and that the engine realizes the specified
performance. These tests are considered as a part of the
commissioning process, especially in heavy installation engines.
The tests may be the initial tests after the engine manufacturing,
because heavy engines are not assembled unless at the
determined site. As for the small engines, they are tested in the
factory before delivery and in site after installation. In general,
these tests carried in this stage to be sure that all systems work
efficiently and the turbine is satisfactorily connected to fuel
supply, control system, air and gas passages and others. Tests
may be repeated from time to time to prevent any mal-function
and to make the periodic control adjustments.
In many cases, engines are manufactured for the
development purposes, they are not for sail. This accelerates of
the fault finding process, as these engines are subjected to sever
conditions in testing as different frequencies and stresses to
determine blade life and blade reliability. Tests may also be
carried on loading similar customer load. Tests may be carried at
site or in open area furnished by special test beds.
It is necessary to take the standard precautions before
carrying tests which include:
Safety and completion of all connections.
Calibrate instrumentation.
Inspection of air intake and exhaust passage to be
free of tools or debris.
Inspection for any leakage.

57
 Inspection of the environment and spaces in front
of air intake to be free from tools, nails and small
parts.
Be sure that exhaust exit is in free space outside
the engine location.
Figure (11/2) shows a schematically drawing of a standard
unit used to test gas turbines. In the unit, air is drawn through
acoustically absorbent splitters. The absorbers have crooked
passages to prevent direct noise. The majority of air passes
through the turbine as a working medium, while the rest
surrounds the turbine to it then mix with the exhaust gases
before passing on the quiet system. The gas engine is bolted on a
floating cradle in the test location and connected to the
dynamometer or to a test propeller according to the need.
Two sets or more to fix the gas turbines on them may equip
the test unit. Each set is installed in separate room. The gas
turbine is connected by air and fuel lines and by the control
equipment at the same time when another gas turbine is being
tested in the other room.
Usually one control room equips the test unit containing
tools and instrumentation. On carrying a test the unit should be
calibrated to know the ambient conditions to determine the
correction factors according which the measured performance is
adjusted. Two principle corrections exist:
1- The correction to make up the cell depression as the air
entering the test cell intake suffers depression equals P1.
This depression reaches (10-20) mm water gauge. This
means that the engine works at pressure less than the
normal atmospheric pressure and inlet pressure to the
engine may be lower than the atmospheric pressure by
P1 if a mesh is installed on the entrance.

58
2- The second correction concerns drag and thrust, this is
related to jet engines used in airplanes, not with stationary
units.

59
 UNIT (3)
MAIN COMPONENTS OF
GAS TURBINES

FIRST : COMPRESSOR

SECOND : TURBINE

THIRD : COMBUSTION CHAMBER

FOURTH : AIR INTAKE SYSTEM

60
 FIFTH : EXHAUST SYSTEM

FIRST
COMPRESSOR
Three types of compressors are used in gas turbine unit; they are:
1- Axial-flow or turbo compressor.
2- Radial flow or centrifugal compressor.
3- Positive displacement compressor.

The last type is not being used nowadays in gas turbines. It

was firstly used in Lysholm engine that was used in Elliott
marine gas turbine. The axial-flow compressor is almost the only
one being used with gas turbines.

WHAT IS THE AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR?

61
 In discussing the axial-flow compressor, it is suitable to
begin by showing a diagrammatic sketch representing a section
of an axial-flow compressor as in Fig. (1/3). The figure shows
that the compressor is a turbine of reversed performance. When
the compressor rotor is rotated by any prime mover, the rotor
blades push the air (or any gas) as a flow passing through these
blades and the fixed blades of the stator. This forces the air to
continue flowing to the outlet even if its pressure is many time
the intake pressure. The rotor blades and the stator blades may
be repeated many times in multi-stage compressors. This
increases the pressure by each stage, and the final pressure may
be many times higher than the pressure produced by one-stage
compressor. Figure (2/3) shows the rotor and the upper half of
the stator containing thee stages.

62
 The other type is the centrifugal compressor that resembles
the known centrifugal pump, except the diffuser of the
compressor transfers much quantity of kinetic energy to pressure
energy. Figure (3/3) shows a centrifugal compressor having
more than one diffuser.
In spite of the big competition between the two types in the
earlier days of inventing the gas turbines, yet nowadays the
axial-flow compressor is almost the only one that is used. They
are of lower size and weight and of higher efficiency in addition,
they can be designed at small diameters and very high speeds. In
small size gas turbines (up to 500 HP) centrifugal compressor
are used. Some companies used the two types in a single turbine

63
as Centrax CS 600, Boeing 550 and Lycoming TF 20 designs, as
shown in Fig. (4/3).

64
PREWHIRL OR INLET GUIDE VANES:
These vanes or blades orient the air on entering the
compressor in direction to avoid shocks and losses. These blades
mat be fixed or adjustable to match all rotational speed of the
compressor rotor. Figures (5/3) and (6/3) shows the compressor
characteristics in case of prewhirl.

65
66
SILENCING AND FILTRATION:
Air entrance to the compressor causes high degree of
unacceptable noise that causes environmental pollution. This
noise has a higher pitch tone, which can be attenuated by using
splitters or air filters made of fabric types. Any one of these
methods attenuates the noise to an acceptable level.

When no filters are used, it is recommended to clean the

turbine blades, following the manufacturer manual to know the
cleaning period and the method of cleaning. In case of using
filters, the filter packing or components should be cleaned
according to its design. If the filter becomes dirty, this affect the
compressor performance due to the power lost in overcoming
the resistance of the dust and dirt. This leads to lowering the unit
efficiency. Care should be taken when the weather is full of
clouds and humidity because this with the dust and dirt causes
accumulation and plug the filter porous.
67
COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE:
Usually the relation between the pressure ratio and mass flow
rate indicates compressor performance. To compare easily the
compressor performance at different working condition of
barometric pressure and ambient temperature, it is preferable to
plot the curves in dimensionless equivalents of pressure and
mass flow and speed.
The most important equations are:
P2
Pr essure ratio
P1
m T1
Mass flow
P1
N
Speed ( rev / min)
T1
m T1 N
Neither P1
nor T1 are, strictly speaking, dimensionless
numbers. They need the addition of a characteristic dimension of
the compressor.

SURGE IN COMPRESSORS:
From Fig. (5/3) we notice that the performance curves
are limited by a surge line, to the lift of which there are no data.
The reason for that is the inefficient and unstable compressor
operation to the lift of the surge line. At any speed, if the
delivery valve is controlled to reduce the compressor discharge,
the delivery pressure increases systematically until reaching the
surge line. At this point or near to it, the pressure becomes
unstable and high noise occurs. The reason of this is discussed as
follows: at low flow rate the air velocity entering the rotor blades
becomes small and wrong relative angle causes shocks and
turbulence around the blades that weakens the compressor
performance. If this happens during the turbine operation, the
power developed reduces and the engine may stop running. This
may also happen if excess fuel enters the combustion chamber
when the turbine is at low speed at idle. The high temperature
68
produced in the gases entering the combustion chamber
increases its specific volume so that the turbine can not swallow
it and surge occurs.
When surge occurs in a turbine equipped with centrifugal
compressor the turbine may recuperate its power again and
returns to operation. This is not the case if an axial-flow
compressor exists, even if the fuel flow rate is reduced and the
turbine needs initiating a fresh start.
Industrial gas turbines are equipped by governor unit to
limit the rate of acceleration to operate at safe limits.

DIFFUSERS:
The diffuser is a device used to transfer kinetic energy in air
to pressure energy by decelerating its velocity through divergent
passages designed specially to avoid formation of eddies. Since
the diffuser depends in its operation on its geometric shape,
therefore it should be clean of the deposits of dirt and dust.
Two effects occur in the diffuser; they are velocity
reduction and density increase. The two effects have opposite
effects. Reducing velocity needs large cross sectional area to
pass the same mass flow, while increasing the density needs the
opposite. The kinetic energy is proportional with the square of
the velocity. The ratio between the two effects does not stay
constant. When the value of the speed is low the important
change is due to velocity change, while the density change is
important when the velocity is very high. The two effects cancel
each other when the velocity equals sonic speed. That is why the
subsonic flow diffusers are of diverging passages and the
supersonic flow diffusers are of converging passages.

COMPRESSOR DESIGN:
69
The design details of any type of compressors are out of this
course, but some design characteristic of the axial-flow
compressor are shown as follows:
a- Construction:

It is constructed of number of successive stages; each

consists of a rotating disc carrying a group of blades,
followed directly by a stationary blade ring. It is possible to
have a stationary blade ring or guide blades at entrance, and
the last a stationary blade ring is called outlet guide vanes
to force the flow in the axial direction. Figure (7/3) shows
the ideal arrangement of an eight-stage axial-flow
compressor of constant mean radius, indicating the method
of blades fixation to the rotor.

The fixation may be:

70
 Dovetail root
Fixing pin
Fir tree
Straddle T root
The figure shows that fixation, at the fifth stage, is by
integral cast of the blades with the rotor, while fixation in the
stages from 6-8 by dovetail root. The latter method is
suitable for airplane gas turbines, while the root fixing as T
diverged from the two sides suits the big gas turbines used in
industrial applications. We will explain, in details, the fixing
methods on showing turbine construction, since fixing
methods are the same for compressors and turbines. Slight
difference is found because the rotor blades of the
compressor do not have protection shield as those of the
turbine. The figure shows the design components of the
rotor, which are:
- Stage 1 on a disc
- Stages 2 and 3 on a drum
- Stages from 4 to 6 on (through-bolted discs)
- Stages 7 and 8 on clamped discs splinted to a
shaft
In general at low speed, the drum construction and light
blades are the most convenient. It consists of group of
rings in welded assembly. When the blades are heavy it is
important to have inner hub as stages (3-8) in the previous
figure.

71
b- Operation and performance:
The performance of an axial-flow compressor is
simply due to scooping action of rotating blades to the air and
throwing it (hurl) to the following stationary blades. These
blades decelerate the flow to raise its pressure and orient the
flow to enter the following rotating blades in the suitable
direction and so on. Finally, all the stages produce the
required pressure ratio, which is greater than unity.
Decelerating the flow is a diffusing process that produces
increase in the pressure (inspite of friction that causes some
pressure drop). It is known that the energy is added through
the rotating blades, but diffusion occurs in both rotating and
stationary blades. The ratio between the diffusion occurs in
the rotating part to the total stage diffusion by the degree of
reaction (D). The diffusion happens because the blades
diverge on approaching the trailing edge, opposite to that of
turbine. Figure (8/3) declares the changes in the magnitude
and direction of air speed.

72
c- Compressor material and manufacture:
The axial-flow compressor blades are made of
different materials as fibrous composites, aluminum,
titanium, steel and nickel alloys. These materials are arranged
according to the hardness, which increases from fibrous
composites to nickel alloys. Although the blades made of
fibrous composites are well in strength-to-weight ratio but
they can not support shocks due to drops of rain or hail, if the
turbine works at rainy weather. Aluminum blades are suitable
for airplane engine for its lightweight and its softness and the
resistance to corrosion. Titanium is suitable for compressor
first stages due to its durability, stiffness and lightweight, but
it suffers, usually, from rapid fatigue failure due to vibrations.
As for steel, it is safer but of heavy weight. Nickel alloys are
used at very high temperature (700 K).
The rotor is usually made of steel either the shaft or the
discs. In airplane engine, titanium is used in primary stages
and nickel alloys in the back stages. Stator vanes are made of
the same material, nevertheless steel is the most usable,
because the stress upon these vanes differs than those of the
rotor.
The compressor casing is made of cast magnesium,
aluminum, or steel. Soldering of titanium or steel, depending
on weight and cost and application may make it.

d- Operational problems:
Some problems concerning the compressor operation that
affect its design and use. The most important of these
problems are:
- Performance defect.
Compressor may fail to produce the required pressure
ratio at any value of the operating speed range and its
73
efficiency may drastically decrease. There is no mean to
overcome this problem unless using the available data
obtained from cascade testing and experience. These tests
are used to study the flow and blade twist angles to have the
best flow through the blades. Despite determining the
angles and profiles of blades at design stage, yet they
change during operation because of:
1- Dirt and dust accumulation due to weather.
2- Salts accumulation at marine environments.
3- Dust and sand accumulation at desert environments that
blunt the blades.
Overcoming performance defect is done by periodic
cleaning of the blades, either by water jet, water mixed by
alcohol or by spraying some detergents in the flow passages
at idle speed or driven by the starter. The difficult
accumulation is cleaned by blasting the blades by a stream
of air carrying walnut shells, granulated coke or rice grains.
Orifices and air intakes should be covered to avoid their
blockage or blockage of heat exchangers of small passages.
The eroded blades may be corrected if they are not badly
damaged, and filing and polishing the blunted leading
edges.
Filters, of 99.99% efficiency, are used to protect blades
from erosion and dirt accumulation in dusty weather.
Another reason for performance defect is the increase of
blade tip clearance. This can be overcome using abradable
lining for casing.
- Damage due to abnormal conditions.
This damage occur due to entrance of solid objects with air
as pieces of stones, birds, animals, head covers, mechanical
parts (nuts, bolts, sleeves, washers etc) or tools
(spanners, pliers, wrenches, etc). These things enter due

74
to strong suction of air that causes eddied and pre-rotation
carry them to the compressor, Fig (9/3)

- Operational errors
Operational errors mean, in general, reduction in flow
and pressure ratio at the rotational speed. These defects
appear in both centrifugal or axial- flow compressors, either
they work in compressor plant, turbo-chargers or in gas
turbine. This error is accompanied by stopping airflow or
surge that causes forward and backward airflow. Another
error is the deep stall which is a case in which both the flow
and pressure become so very low that causes dangerous
turbine overheat. Sometimes, continuous operation in this
case causes blade breaking that damage both the
compressor and the turbine.
Sometimes operational errors occur due to internal
causes as blade erosion or dirt accumulation without
75
 cleaning it quickly or due to external causes as upstream or
downstream surge in the flow or passage distortion.
SECOND
THE TURBINE
Complete gas-turbines power plant contains of a group of
units; each consists of a compressor, combustion chamber, heat
exchanger and a turbine. The most important part is the turbine,
which is the producing power component that needs periodic
maintenance. It receives the highest temperature gases.
Therefore, it suffers of thermal stress, and must be of special
design characteristics and material. Thermal expansion is the
cause of all problems that face the turbine and needs care to
overcome it. Thermal expansion problems are severe at starting,
due to the differences in expansion of different parts.

76
 1- GENERAL LAYOUT
Three different designs of turbines are found depending on shaft
support.
Overhung power turbine: Figure (10/3) shows a
section of this kind of turbines used in small units.
Two-bearing turbines: This design is used in bigger
size turbines and is shown in Fig. (11/3).
Three-bearing turbines: This design is used in the
turbines having only one driving shaft with the compressor.
This design increases the value of the first critical speed, but
it needs great care in assembly, Fig. (12/3).
The small axial-flow turbines need very small clearance
between the blade tips and casing. Since this needs very fine
machining, therefore they are centrifugal type turbines. The
centrifugal turbine is in reality a centrifugal compressor with
reversed flow, Fig.(13/3).

77
78
1- MATERIALS
Turbine parts are made of austenitic steel or of nickel-chrome
alloys that are able to sustain stresses at very high temperatures.
Therefore, they are used in manufacturing the blades and vanes
as well as rotors of small turbines. Because they are hard in
forging, the rotor of big turbines can not be made one unit but in
separate discs that bolted together or welded. Many trials were
made to make the blades from ceramic materials, but all are too
brittle and can not support tension and suffer of cracks due to
thermal shocks.

2- COOLING
Turbine reliability increases if the rotor and blades are cooled
in addition of getting long periods between overhauls. Cooling
also permits using cheap materials. Reducing the temperature of
the rotating parts reduces the casing. Naturally air is the suitable
coolant due to easy use, in spite of using water in cooling the
turbine built by Solar company of U.S. Navy, Fig (14/3).
The simplest method of cooling a turbine is to direct part of
the compressor air at any intermediate stage in the radial
direction towards the rotor center to pass over blades. This air
will mix with the main stream of gas to exit the turbine with the
exhaust. This is called boundary layer cooling. It has an
excellent effect as the maximum temperature did not exceed 350
o
C when the gas temperature was 727 oC in one application.
Boundary layer cooling method is not used in multi-stage
turbines, which are used in industrial applications. In these
application the cooling system shown in Fig. (15/3) is used,
where the blade roots are made in such a way that a passage is
left to let the cooling air to pass. This cools the rotor and the
blade roots that suffer of high stresses. Turbine casing is cooled
in the same way or as shown in Fig. (16/3), where vanes are
mounted on separate carrier rings made of austenitic materials
79
inside the casing as well as ventilated annular air space between
them. Air is taken from the main circuit before passing in the
heat exchanger or to the combustion chamber using small
auxiliary compressor. Air may be cooled and filtered before
being admitted to cooling passages. After cooling, this air is
mixed with the main gas stream. Special materials are used in
uncooled gas turbines, as austenitic steel bolts.

80
81
3- BLADING
There was no difference between impulse and reaction
bladed old turbines. Nowadays, turbine blade should be of the
two types together. The reaction increases from top to root. In
pure impulse turbine, the fixed vanes work as nozzles and the
rotating blades as buckets (see Pelton wheel shown in Fig.
(17/3)). In the other hand, in reaction turbine the fixed and
rotating blades are similar doing as nozzles, but the jet exiting
from the fixed blades is much less powerful. The jet speed is
higher than the rotating-blade linear velocity. The effect that
generates power is the reaction of the reward-pointing jets
caused by the fluid leaving at the back of the rotating blades. In
impulse turbine, the jets leaving the fixed blades are of speed
much higher than double the rotating blades. Blade tip has
higher linear speed than its root. Then, at tip reaction effect
occurs and at root impulse effect is found.

82
4- TIP CLEARANCE
Tip clearance is one of the conventional problems in turbo-
machinery. Expansion due to heating and contraction due to
cooling in rotor blades must mach that of the casing or stator
diameter to keep constant clearance. In addition, the casing
should be circular all the time for the same reason. This
clearance should be small to avoid leakage and not too small to
avoid friction between blades and casing.

5- BLADE FIXING
Figure (18/3) shows blades fixing methods. Fir tree root is
suitable to mount the blades through axial (side-entry blading) or
circumferential grooves in the root. Side-entry blading is better,
but it is difficult to be used in multi-stage engines. Obviously,
the blades are heated more than the rotor itself; therefore, blade
expansion is greater than the slots in which it is mounted. So,
clearance should be found to avoid slot cracks due to blade root
expansion. Due to the clearance the blades move slightly during
maintenance, this is normal.
The blades may be mounted to the rotor by other methods,
among of them:
- Welding: where the blade root is made like a tooth
mounted in a groove in the rotor the it is welded.
- Accurate casting: the wheel with all discs and blades
are totally made as a unit by fine casting from suitable steel,
which is thermally treated to increase hardness and
toughness.
- Integral forging: as in casting, the disc and the blades
are totally made by forging. After machining, they are
mounted on turbine shaft, Fig. (19/3).

83
84
6- VIBRATIONS
When the turbine is properly balanced no vibration occurs.
The blades are designed and tested to determine the natural
frequency. In long blades, locking wire are used to reinforce
them and to increase the natural frequency to safe values, despite
the loss the wires cause. Whirling effect is the vibration occurs
when the rotor shaft rotates at double the natural frequency. The
shaft surges as the it surges when it falls on bearings during
assembly. It is said that the turbine has elastic shaft when it
surges before reaching its normal running speed. When it surges
at speed higher than its normal running speed, it is called stiff
shaft turbine. If it is elastic shaft, its speed should be accelerated
quickly during passing by the critical speed, where whirling
occurs. No one can predict the type of shaft during
manufacturing, but after testing it.

CASING
Simplicity should be considered on designing the turbine
casing. Lack of its symmetry leads to unequal expansion on
heating up and losses the actual circular form. This may lead, by
consequence, to dirt accumulation or difference in blade tip
clearance. Experience, shows that casing should be one unit to
avoid distortion and the rotor is inserted inside it. This is
impractical if we have more than three stages. Gas admission
should be regular around casing to have uniform gas velocity.

7- SEALS
Some form of seal is required to prevent working gas leakage.
Labyrinth type sealing system, which is a group of projections
on the turbine shaft matching others on the inner surrounding
stationary casing sleeve. To form complicated passages
preventing leakage. Figure (20/3) shows three types of these
labyrinths, which is composed of number of throttling points in
85
series. Despite the effectiveness of the labyrinth in reducing
leakage yet, this small leakage affects the bearing due to heating
them in abnormal way. Therefore, cooling air should be at
pressure higher than gas pressure inside the turbine to return the
leakage to inside.

8- BEARINGS
Usually the bearings are conventional in design, made of
plain white metal and using forced lubrication. No problems are
mentioned due to temperature, as the big turbines have cooling
systems. In uncooled turbines, the shaft is made of austenitic
steel, which is a bad conductor. In the charging set (compressor
and turbine assemblies) that has overhung rotor, the shaft is
shortened, therefore sealing system, which is near to bearings, is
cancelled. The bearing will be subjected to pressure equals the
compressor delivery pressure. By this way, gas seal through the
bearings is found. In small turbines ball bearings and angular
contact bearings (to compensate axial thrust) are used. Oiling the
tilting pad thrust bearings is done by injecting oil at bearing from
down, letting flow at bearing top.

86
9- THRUST BLOCK
The axial thrust is acting towards turbine delivery, which
tends to push the rotor. Any movement of the rotor may damage
labyrinth glands or blades. Therefore, thrust-block setting
protects the turbine. It is important that the axial flow from the
compressor must be in the same direction the flow in the turbine
to compensate each other and the difference will be carried by
the thrust-block.

10- LAGGING
Until now the best substance, to cover and insulate the turbine
casing is not known. Some substances that include silica-based
have good insulating properties and endure high temperatures,
but it is found in somewhat coarse granular form. It is also
difficult to have good means for fixing it to stay in place during
operation. The best way found to fix a lagging or an insulating
layer is preparing a thin layer (5 cm approximately) claded by an
aluminum or steel sheets. A clearance should be left between the
cladding and the insulating layer to let a stream of air passing to
cool the casing surface.

87
 THIRD
COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
Burning liquid fuel in gas turbines is smokeless, regular
and continuous combustion, because there is excess air and
needs ignition starter. Figure (21/3) shows a diagrammatic
sketch of a typical combustion chamber that has the following
items:

1- PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AIR:

Air enters the combustion chamber through a ring that
separates the air stream into two parts. One takes central cone
flow and the other as an outer annulus. The first is used in
combustion and is called primary air and its volume is 20%
more than the quantity needed for complete combustion of the
88
injected fuel at full load. The outer annulus air is to cool the
flame tube and diluting products of primary combustion, in order
not to exceed the maximum temperature Tmax. The combustion
temperature may be controlled at (1500 2000 oC at flame core)
by using small air quantity at combustion zone. This high
temperature assures that combustion is complete. Using good
combustion chambers lead to 99% combustion efficiency.
Combustion efficiency is measured by dividing the quantity
of heat given to the air entering the turbine by the calorific value
of the fuel. The loss in efficiency (1%) is due to unburned or
partially burned residual of fuel. It may be in the form of carbon
or carbon monoxide that leaves the unit with the exhaust.
Completeness and temperature of combustion depend on the
mixing level between air and fuel. Complete mixing reduces
greatly the quantity the excess air entering the primary zone that
leads to condense combustion heat and short flame does not
reach the secondary mixing zone. It is important to know that
long flame means that combustion is still on. Continuation of
flame till reaching the secondary mixing zone may be stopped
burning of the rest of fuel by the action of relatively cool
secondary air that joins combustion gases there.
Air entering in eddies flow improve mixing that results
complete combustion.

2- SWIRLER
Stability of combustion, in the primary zone, is achieved by
the swirler system that makes air flowing as miniature free
vortex that has less pressure at primary zone center than at
periphery. Getting far from the swirler, the whirling effect
weakens and air pressure becomes more regular and returns in
recirculation way, Fig. (22/3). This forces the flame tongue
towards entrance preventing flame from getting off.

89
3- TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
There are many types of combustion chambers in addition to the
straight-through flow, shown in Fig. (23/3). Among these types
are the annular, reverse-flow and elbow type. While the
combustion chambers of the straight-through flow are situated
on regular circumferential distance around the turbine, as in
airplane, those of reverse flow are situated on or beside the
turbine, as freestanding units. The annular type is as the straight-
through flow. Sometimes the reverse flow combustion chambers
are situated parallel to the axis or in conical form around the
turbine as those of Westinghouse. Small turbines have the
reverse flow type situated vertically, angularly, or transversely.

90
 Increasing of the turbine, twin reverse-flow chambers are
more suitable. In very large industrial turbines (more than 20
megawatts), single or twin chambers are used situated far from
the turbine.
The essential criterion on which the success of combustion
system is determined are obtaining uniform gas outlet
temperature without fuel impingement on the walls, small in size
and sustaining long life. Manufacturers prefer cylindrical
chambers having swirl-type air director.
Vortex type chamber is not famous because of its
geometrically complicated internal configuration that leads to
cooling problems. In annular type, continuous exiting of gases
exerts regular moment on blades that leads to smooth rotation.
The inlet of air, in reverse flow type, is near to discharge end,
then reverse flow along the outside of the flame tube before
passing into the primary zone. This make useful preheat of the
primary air, Fig. (24/3).

91
 Figure (25/3) shows an elbow-type chamber in which big
eddies are generated without need to a swirler.

92
93
4- REFRACTORY LINING
Lining of refractory material as aluminum oxide firebricks
internally covers flame tube, Fig. (26/3). This lagging material
prevents heat loss from combustion zone and protects the flame
tube from high temperatures. The radiant heat from the liner
helps in entering fuel ignition to continue combustion and make
it stable, especially in heavy fuels that do not volatilize so
readily.
The difficulty is focused in finding liner that last long life,
because usual materials either oxidize very fast or gets mosaic
cracks due to thermal shocks happening from frequent operation
and stop. The liner, then smashes to pieces those are carried and
damage the turbine blades.
Finally, manufacturers succeeded to have liner composed of
huge number of small bricks containing voids between them for
air-cooling.

94
5- FLAME TUBE
It is the hottest part in any gas turbine either with or without
refractory liner. Therefore, it erodes by the effect of combustion
around it or by distortion. The life of the flame tube differs from
type to another. Those in airplanes have life less than 1500 hrs,
while in heavy industrial gas turbines flame tube life is ten times.
The life depends by the efficiency of cooling system.
English National Gas Turbine Establishment found that when
cooling air is oriented so that an internal cooling film exists, the
flame tube life is much less than if the air layer is outside that
takes heat away.

6- MIXING ZONE
Pattern of holes and openings in the secondary zone is
designed on theoretical basis, and then it is usually modified
after testing to reach best mixing between cold and hot gases,
determined by the temperature distribution inside combustion
chamber. If the temperature distribution over cross-section of the
duct is not reasonably regular the turbine heats up in
asymmetrically manner and distorts.

7- BURNERS
Burner or fuel nozzle secures a consistent form of spray.
Beginning by no load and ending by full load, fuel consumption
changes ten times or more. Some burners have two separate
characteristics, one for high flow and the other for the low flow.
Mechanical means can switch from one to the other depending
on fuel delivery pressure. Swirl pressure-jet atomizers are used
in European industrial turbines, but simplex type is largely used
in single shaft turbines that used distillated fuel. The flow rate of
this fuel is low that can be obtained without high pressure.

95
 Fuel sprayer, having two nozzles, is used in airplanes, where
one is a pilot and the other the main discharge orifice. It is also
used in stationary applications and is called duplex. The two
nozzles at concentric and arranged so that pilot spray cone angle
is less than principle cone angle. The main nozzle discharges
when the pressure in the pilot nozzle reaches 40 kg/cm 2. This is
externally controlled.
It is not preferable to use moving parts in the sprayer
assembly for fear of solid particles that mat jam.
Spill atomizers suit units that need high level of combustion at
a wide range of loading. Operation of this type depends mainly
on admitting fuel far from atomizing nozzle by a valve at the end
of system that lets fuel passing completely outside atomizing
nozzle zone, or passing only part of it, Fig. (27/3).

96
8- FUEL /AIR RATIO
In complex cycle, the rate of airflow depends on load and fuel
flow. In some cycles (simple cycle with heat exchanger) airflow
rate stays constant at all loads, that makes the air/fuel ratio very
low at low loads that needs special care in burner design and its
maintenance to avoid accidental blow-outs. In complex cycles,
fuel/air ratio decreases at transient conditions, such as sudden
decrease in load, to a low value. This occurs on running at full
power.

9- FLAME MONITORS
Alarm systems may be mounted to the unit to shut down the
plant by closing fuel line when accident extinction of flame in
any combustion chambers. This occurs to avoid explosion due to
fuel accumulation. It works by photo-electric cell that receives
light through mica window inside chamber, or by the ions of the
gas in the flame that play as conductor.

97
10- HEAVY FUEL
There is no difficulty in burning heavy fuel oil (mazout) in
combustion chambers. The oil is preheated the fuel to reduce its
viscosity and to be easy ignition. Fuel should be controlled in
order not to touch the tube liner as this type of fuel has very high
erosion effect. Heavy fuel is so slower in burning that it needs
longer chamber so that every particle finds time to burn inside
the chamber. Sometimes fuel is injected with air to help
atomizing it. Down-stream of the combustion chamber, bad
effects appear in the ducts, turbine blades and heat exchangers
due to condensation and solidification of the products of
combustion. Care should be taken to avoid sodium and
vanadium salts.
Vanadium pentoxide is soft and sticky and analyzes into oxide
sticks to turbine blades, forming rough surface, which increases
erosion rate. Efforts are made to reduce combustion product
effect on the unit by reducing fuel droplet size or reducing
maximum temperature of the cycle.
Another method to avoid this bad effect by additives, like
silica, magnesia, zinc oxide and kaolin, that raise melting point
or softening the ashes of combustion to stay at its solid case at
the operating temperatures.
In Swiss, practical experience showed that in a 20-megawatt
power station, they get rid completely of turbine deposits, by
adding additives of perlon 602 to mazout.

11- GASEOUS FUEL

All gaseous fuels are suitable for gas turbines and the majority
is considered as ideal fuel. Natural gas, for example, is a clean
fuel presenting no problems in condition to get rid of any
suspended fluids. Usually it is found at sufficient pressures to be
used directly through regulators and control equipment without
pumping to avoid fuel pump problems. Sometimes, natural gas
98
is found at high pressure to be used to obtain extra power by
expanding it in a simple expansion turbine before admitting to
combustion chamber. Even, if the pressure is low a turbine like
this can be used as a starting motor. Combustion chambers using
gaseous fuel are similar to those using distillated fuels, the
difference is in the burner or sprayer that will have larger
passages on using gaseous fuel. Gaseous fuel burns easier and
faster and has luminous flame, and has no burner problems.
There is a general problem on using gaseous fuel, which is
the reduction of fuel air ratio, at light load, even at primary zone,
to an extend that there is no burning. Therefore, it is necessary to
overcome it by controlling fuel flow to the limit of continuation
of combustion. Figure (28/3) shows a sketch of a gaseous fuel
system used in small gas turbine (250HP).

99
12- SOLID FUELS
Solid fuel as cock can be used in gas turbines, but the problem is
concentrated in blade heavy erosion if fuel ashes pass to the
turbine. In addition, some other difficulties appear due to dust
accumulation in ducts, nozzles and blade passages. Pulverizing
the cock is important and causing eddies is also important to
have continuous combustion. The combustion chamber should
be longer. Figure (29/3) shows a section of a combustion
chamber in Ruston and Hornsby turbine.

13- REPRESENTATIVE COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

There are many systems of combustion chambers used in gas
turbines, they are:
1- Budwarth Buzzard systems.
2- Orenda OT-5
3- Orenda OT-C-5
4- Dowty fuel system, Figs. (30/3 31/3)
5- Lucas system, Fig. (32/3)
6- Austin system, Fig. (33/3)
7- Rover system, Fig. (34/3)
8- Sulzer system
9- Brown Boveri

100
101
102
103
 FOURTH
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
Accumulation of dirt and dust on compressor blades in gas
turbines is a big problem facing the designers and the operators
especially in polluted air sites that carries dust and sand. Axial-
flow compressors are sensitive and the performance is badly
affected due to that accumulation and tends to surge. This leads
to low produced power and in the overall thermal efficiency.
Huge accumulation may affect unit starting and turbine
operation at low loads. Therefore, it is necessary to have efficient
filtration system before compressor entrance.
Since air/fuel ratio, in gas turbines, is large, therefore air
intake installation is bigger in size than the turbine itself. In
industrial environment, the filter packing is throwaway elements
of static or moving screen. Figures (35/3 and 36/3) show the
types of replaceable packing, while Fig. (37/3) is the rotating
filter.

104
105
106
 In desert sites, it is important to have screens to trap sand
from air before entering the main filter, which may be rotating
and oil-wetted. Figure (38/3) shows a filter equipped with sand
trap screen, while Gig. (39/3) shows a section in the rotating,
which is cleaned automatically by oil bath. In rainy weather,
water drops accumulate in the oil tank of the filter; therefore, it is
important to notice oil level and to get rid of water.
Electrostatic filters prove high efficiency, inspite its huge size
and cost. They need to clean electrodes regularly and to prevent
humidity from entering to avoid short circuits.
Noise caused by the compressor represent turbulence and
annoyance source especially in inhabitant areas near to power
stations. Wide range frequency hurt human ears, therefore tuned
splitters are situated in intake duct to attenuate sounds.

107
 FIFTH
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Portable or mobile units have stub duct for exhaust facing
upward, but stationary units, especially those near to inhabitant
areas, should have advanced exhaust system to suppress noise
and to discharge gases at elevated location in upward direction.
Chimneys are made from steel sheets up to 300 feet high, and
may have silencing equipment as concentric splitter, situated
inside them. We must not exaggerate in the degree of
attenuation, as this affect turbine efficiency due to friction.
Figure (40/3) shows the standard model of noise and the degree
of attenuation in power stations. Fig. (41/3) shows exhaust gas
duts of an electric power station using gas turbines.

108
109
110
 UNIT (4)
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
1- Lube oil system
2- Fuel oil system
3- Fuel gas system
4- Hydraulic trip oil system

111
1- Lubricating oil system

112
1- Components of the system:
a- Main lubricating oil pump:
(V103) is the gear pump connected to the main gearbox of
the unit. It works all time at rated speed or loading. Its
pressure reaches 1,5 kg/cm2.

b- Auxiliary lubricating oil pump:

(2792) is the centrifugal pump driven by A. C., situated
inside main unit oil tank. Its pressure reaches 1,5 kg/cm2.
On the delivery line, a non-return valve (2794) and a
constant pressure valve to (2791) are mounted.

c- Emergency cooling oil pump:

(2800) is the screw pump driven by A. C., Its pressure
reaches 0.6 kg/cm2. On the delivery line, a non-return
valve (GT 4087) and a constant pressure valve to (2803)
are mounted.

113
d- High pressure oil pump or jacking pump:
(4085) is a piston pump driven by A. C., Its pressure
reaches 300 kg/cm2. On the delivery line, a non-return
valve is mounted.

e- Main oil tank (GT 4001):

It is situated underneath the unit, inside which are
auxiliary oil pump (2792), emergency cooling pump
(2800) are mounted. Minimum and maximum marks are
put on a graduated vertical scale fixed to the tank to know
oil level. An extraction fan is mounted on the tank to
remove vapors inside tank (4002) and a filter (4005)for air
to pass to replace vapors. A float (4004) is also mounted to
indicate low oil level inside the tank.

f- Main oil cooler (c100):

To cool oil leaving auxiliary or main oil pump, in which
cooling water cools oil to the suitable operating degree.
Cooling degree is controlled by the quantity entering the
cooler.

g- Thermostat:
To have an electric signal for the alarm when the oil
temperature leaving cooler is high mounted, or to stop the
turbine at this temperature.

h- Pressure switch (2736):

It gives signal when oil pressure decreases under certain
limit to stop the turbine or start the emergency cooling oil
pump.

i- High pressure oil pump filter (4012):

To filter oil before entering high-pressure pump.

114
 j- Pressure switch (GT 4010)
To give signal about the situation of the jacking pump if
works or not, to be able running the unit by an electric
signal.

2- Lubricating oil system working:

a- Start up:
On preparing the unit to start, pump (2792)
works to supply bearings by the required lube oil after
passing by the principle cooler (C100) through line
(GT4050) and line (GT 4054).
Before starting to drive the engine by the starting
device, jacking pump (GT 4085) is driven to raise
shaft from bearing to prevent friction by passing oil at
300 kg/cm2 in the bearings of compressor, turbine and
generator. The oil from the main lube oil line reaches
this pump at 1.5 kg/cm2.
After rotation of the engine at sufficient speed
(1600 rpm), it is possible to depend on the dynamic
pressure to have continuous oil film between the shaft
and bearing. At this speed, the high pressure oil pump
is automatically separated.
When unit reaches rated speed auxiliary lube oil
pump (2792) is stopped and we depend on the main
lube oil (V103), driven by main gearbox.

b- Stop down:
On stopping the engine for any reason, the auxiliary lube
oil pump (2792) immediately rotates to supply bearings by
the necessary lube oil. It works until the temperature of the
gases entering the turbine to 70 oC, at which lube oil is
stopped completely.
115
c- Alternating current off:
When the alternating current is off, known by pressure
reduction of lube oil using pressure switch (2736). When
the pressure reduces to less than 0.3 kg/cm2, emergency
cooling oil pump (2800) works automatically by D.C from
group of batteries.

116
2- Fuel oil system

117
1- General introduction:
Fuel oil system is similar to all petroleum fuels, but differs
in the way of connection to unit (forwarding facilities) it is
fed at low pressure through the primary filter and stop valve.
The high-pressure fuel leaving the pump is regulated by
dozing device, which is working by the servo-valve. After
this the needed-doze fuel pass to a high-pressure filter, then
divided equally to each nozzle by the flow divider.
In Brown Boveri units of single combustion chamber, a
simple system is used to control the doze by changing the
nozzle opening. This unit is fully discussed in the following
items.

118
2- Components of liquid fuel of gas turbine model (BBC
11L):
a- Main fuel tank (k100):
The tank capacity is about 1000 tons. It supplies the daily
tank through the electric valve (5224). Level switches
control its opening and closing according the out flow from
the daily tank.

b- Daily tank (k101):

It is underground tank of 30 tons capacity. It has the
following:
Three level switches
a- Level switch (5204) controls the valve of filling the
daily tank from the main tank, according to upper
and lower thresholds.
b- Level switch alarm (5203) to indicate in alarm
signal the fuel level in the daily tank if valve (5224)
does not work.
c- Level switch tripping that trips the unit if fuel level
is low enough to cause danger to the unit.

Manual pump (5228)

It is a gear pump driven manually to such water and
dirt at a point in the tank bottom.

Level graduation (5212)

It is used to indicate directly fuel level inside the tank.

Breather valves (5227, 5226)

They are used to get rid of fuel vapors from inside the
daily tank and fuel line.

119
 Fuel pump (5214)
It is a centrifugal pump has a discharge pressure of 30
kg/cm2, equipped by a constant-pressure valve
(R2643) to fix the pressure at the required value.

c- Pressure gauge (7165):

It is used to indicate fuel pressure exiting the fuel pump

d- Pressure switches (R2740, R2741):

They are used to stop if the fuel pressure falls to certain
limit that causes danger to the unit.

e- Three-way valve (5150):

It is a three-position valve driven by the motor 5151,which
works through the operation panel supplied by three limit
switches (5156, 5157, 5159) to determine the following
valve positions, which are:
Circulation, in which the valve is completely
closed in front of fuel leaving the fuel pump.
Pressure, in which the fuel returns back to the
daily tank.
Operation, in which fuel is distributed to nozzles.

f- Solenoid valves (5195, 5196):

They wok electrically to open and close the fuel ways to
combustion chamber through the nozzles, and exiting the
return fuel from the nozzles back to the tank.

g- Return fuel cooler (5230):

It cools the return fuel before going to the tank by cooling
water entering and exiting through valves (5231, 5232) .

120
 h- Pre-ignition system :
It is a gas bottle supplies the ignition nozzle by gas fuel at
the time of spark coming from the spark device, to cause
small flame as initiative to complete combustion to fuel
coming from main nozzles. It may also be a liquid fuel
delivered by a small pump (5217).

3- Fuel-oil system principle:

On starting operation, the three-way valve should be on
position circulation. Fuel pump (5214) is driven after
supplying lubrication and control oil to the unit. At the same
time motor (5151) changes the three-way valve to position
pressure to return fuel to the tank.
The starter drives the unit until the ignition speed (20% of the
rated speed), at which the spark begins and fuel is admitted to
ignition nozzle. At the same time motor (5151) changes the
three-way valve to position operation, in which fuel is
pumped to combustion chamber through the nozzles. The
required fuel is admitted according nozzle opening and the
excess is returned back to the tank through the cooler (5230).
Nozzle opening changes to change the quantity of admitted
fuel to control the required combustion temperature.

121
 3- Fuel gas system

In this type of units, the gaseous fuel is used in the same nozzles
but in different way to control the quantity of used fuel before
entering the combustion chamber. Natural gas is a clean fuel,
free of impurities that may cause damage to combustion
chamber, burner and turbine blades. The fuel gas system
contains the following:
1- Stop valve (GT 8001), which works electrically by a motor
to open and closed the fuel line.
2- Gas main line (GT 5400), which follows the stop valve.
3- Gas escape valve (GT 8002) to let gas to escape from the
gas line after stopping the unit and the principal stop valve
(GT 8001).

122
4- Gas reducing valve (2608), which controls gas pressure in
the line. It work either hydraulically or by speed oil
coming from the governor via gas pressure controller
(2602).
5- Gas balance tank, which makes continuous balance in the
line by make up.
6- Pressure switches in gas main (2742, 2737), which give
electric signal on increase or decrease of fuel pressure.
7- Combined ignition and gas blow off valve 2605, to supply
the nozzle by starting ignition gas and escaping gas on
stopping.
8- Gas regulating valve (2600), which regulates fuel quantity
and its pressure on starting
9- Change over valve, which increases gradually the oil
pressure in line (GT4411) on starting through increasing
gas quantity going to the nozzle from valve (2600) that
regulates the gas.

123
4- Hydraulic trip oil system

124
1- Introduction:
The hydraulic system supplies the control oil by taking oil
from main gear pump (2795) engaged to gearbox, or through
an auxiliary pump (2799) working by A. C. found on main oil
tank. It controls the oil pressure according to the following
factors:
a- Change of turbine speed on starting by the starting
valve (2679).
b- Change of speed according the sensitivity of the
governor (2675).
c- Decreasing the maximum temperature when exceeds
the permissible limit by the temperature transmitter (2707).
d- Stopping the unit when over speeds by the overspeed
device (2730).
e- Emergency stop by the main volt relay (2684).

2- Hydraulic control system principals:

a- On starting
Stopping the starting valve (2679) gradually, according to
which the escape oil quantity decreases and oil pressure
increases to point h that cause change over relay (2690) to
go down. This causes decrease of return oil from point c,
and by consequence, the control oil pressures in line (4425)
increases that goes to force amplifier. This causes
descending the nozzle arm connected to force amplifier
arm, and opens the nozzle greatly to let big fuel quantity to
the combustion chamber. The result is increasing the
temperature of the generated gases.

b- During operation and loading

The governor (2675) controls the oil pressure at h by
increasing oil pressure in line (4404), when speed decreases
and the governor balls approach. This caused reduction of
escape oil to make up this speed reduction by increasing oil
125
quantity through the nozzle. The opposite happens on
increasing the speed and the balls get faraway, then the oil
pressure in line (4404) decreases at h the nozzle opening
decreases to reduce fuel admission.

126
 UNIT (5)
OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE
OF
GAS TURBINES

1- INTRODUCTION
2- OPERATION
3- MAINTENACE

127
 1- INTRODUCTION
We can not go deeply in operation and maintenance of gas
turbines because of different types in their design. Each design
has its own characteristics. Therefore these subjects are
discussed in a general way, and we advise persons dealing with
gas turbine to see the unit manuals sent by manufacturers.
Usually, gas turbine works easily without troubles for long
periods after installation, tests, and overcoming difficulties at the
site. Therefore, it needs almost little care at its first periods of its
life. Experience proved that gas turbines are better than internal
combustion engines and steam turbines. This is true; if it gets
clear oil and fuel and works within the capacity range, for 10000
hrs between medium overhauls and the major overhauls are
carried every 25000 hrs approximately. Major components
change, as blade changes, occur every 50000 to 100000 hrs on
working at part load. These times concern medium and big units,
while small units need much care and short periods between
overhauls. It is important to carry routine examinations, repairs
and quick adjustments needed between overhauls to get the
highest efficiency of operation.
Gas turbine power plants should have recording system of
operating and maintenance data since the first moment of its
installation. Usually these units are well protected against human
mistakes or any other problems occurring during operation
stages. Protective devices trip the engine immediately at
emergency cases (which are, fortunately, rare), as flame
extinction, fuel supply interruption or over-fueling, compressor
surge, over-speed, lubrication-fuel failure, control system failure
and other problems.

128
 2- OPERATION
1- Starting:
Operation of all gas turbines passes by interlocked
sequence, during the action of protection devices. These
devices prevent series mistakes and prevent starting if
inadequate conditions exist. Despite the manual operation yet
all modern units start automatically or semi-automatic, to
reduce human mistakes to maximum. Starting automatically
or manually, the first step is to operate the auxiliary and
control systems that prevents turbine operation unless at
necessary condition assure safety. Among these conditions,
powering the control circuits, reaching the necessary oil
quantity to these circuits and the throttles at minimum fuel
flow, open of air intake and exit and others.
In heavy rotor turbines, it is important to heat the oil to
reduce its viscosity to have suitable starting torque less than
that of the starter. When the auxiliary system works in a
suitable way, the starting sequences begin if the unit works
automatically. If it works manually, starting depends on the
operator who pushes the bottoms and moves the arms and
wheels. If the turbine is big, it may have barring motor to
move the shaft before engagement of the starting device
clutch. The clutch may be engaged by a large solenoid,
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder. After this power is given to
the starter and the shaft begins running until reaching ignition
speed at which the barring motor separates.
Experience showed that the turbines using gaseous fuel
should continue running by the starter for few minuets before
starting combustion in the combustion chamber, to get red of
any internal gas accumulation occurred during previous trip.
There are three types of igniters according to design of
combustion chamber, they are:
129
 - Sparkler electrode.
- Glowing electrode
- Torch ( ignites by a spark or glowing electrode)
When the igniter is powered (this is done manually as it is
not automatically connected to the starter), the main fuel
flows to burners and the main flame appears and combustion
continues. Combustion chamber must be equipped by a mean
to detect the flame. Usually, this mean permits to see the
flame through suitable lens and through electric signal to
alarm lighting or extinction of the flame. At this point,
operator must be sure that flame began, if not he must
immediately stop the unit to avoid explosion of the turbine in
the next start.
System of ignition stops after continuation of combustion
and flame, for certain time according the designer, especially
if the unit works at humid and rainy weather. Usually the
igniter s are placed at moderate-temperature location in the
chamber, or to be equipped by a device to tire it to outside if
it is placed in the chamber core, when flame settles.
When the flame settles the fuel increasingly flows to raise
the temperature of the gases entering the turbine to get output
power.
When the turbine, at low speeds, is not able to drive the
compressor, as its efficiency is low, it is important to let the
starter continue driving the turbine until reaching one third of
its complete speed. At this point, the turbine can drive the
compressor by itself without the need of the starter. Then the
turbine reaches self-driving point. The speed increases until
the minimum-governor-speed value. It is important to control
sharply fuel flow in this stage to avoid overheating, or surge.
It the unit is manually operated, then control of air/fuel
ratio is not important because acceleration rate depends on

130
 operator, who depends upon apparatus and control desk
instruments.
In all cases it advisable that the operator surveys starting
through control panel to see lube oil pressure, temperature,
and speed and exhaust temperature. If the compressor stops
acceleration followed by sharp rise in the temperature of
gases entering or leaving the turbine, it is preferable to stop
the unit because the compressor surges. Yet, the turbine is
stopped by temperature control system.
If the unit is equipped by lube-oil pump driven by the
turbine, the auxiliary pump that works during starting
separates at certain point during starting series, by the
pressure switch. This switch remits this pump again to work
if any failure, during operation, happens to that main pump.
Alarm occurs to attract operator attention. Timing device
adjust starting sequences, in all automatic operating units,
and majority of manual starting units, as the overall timing is
necessary to prevent starting sequences done by control
devices, if any failure exists. For example, exceptionally low-
calorific-value fuel prevents reaching self-driving condition
that makes the turbine stay working under the effect of the
starter to infinity, unless the operator stops the unit if he
notices the length of time taken.

2- Availability:
a- Definition:
It is important that the operator knows the turbine
availability, to know the turbine ability when needed to be
operated. It is calculated on certain period by measuring the
time of the turbine operate with respect to this period.
hrs , available to run
Availabili ty x 100
hrs could be available

Example:
131
 360 hrs are needed to maintain a turbine every 8000 hrs, the
available time in which the turbine can operate = 8000-760
= 7240 hrs.
Then the availability is = (7240/8000) x 100 = 91%

b- Factors affecting availability:

1- Fuel type:
Type of fuel affects strongly the time of maintenance, and
by consequence the availability, Fig. (1/5).
2- Starting frequency:
It is the ratio between numbers of starting the turbine to
the operation time. If a turbine works during 10 hours for
only one start, then starting frequency is 1/10. Figure
(2/5) shows the relation between the starting frequency
and the time needed for maintenance. Increasing the

132
 operation time reduces the starting frequency that reduces
maintenance time. Therefore, the availability increases.

There are two ways of operation:

a-Normal start: When the turbine takes the base load.
This lets the turbine operates long periods. In this
case warming up time is normal and relation between
maintenance time and starting frequency is as in Fig.
(2/5).

b- Fast start: When the turbine operates as emergency unit

or black start or in the peak load. In this case it is
needed to operate and load the turbine quickly, which
means short (or no) heating up period. This affect
turbine safety and needs approached maintenance
periods and long maintenance time due to high stress in
fast starting, Fig. (3/5).

133
3- Loading:
In normal operation, the turbine works at base load, but
in emergency it may operate at loads above base load, or
excess load. In this case, it is subjected to abnormal
stresses that need approached maintenance and
inspection periods. That increases the maintenance time
and by consequence reduces the availability, Fig. (4/5).

4- Environment:
Turbines existing in desert places face dust and sand or
to salty environment, that affects compressor blades due
to erosion and corrosion, and by consequence long
maintenance time. This reduces availability.

5- Maintenance and operating procedures:

Carrying maintenance in time and solving operation
problems as well as continuous surveying turbine
operation keep the turbine safe for long period and
reduce maintenance time, this increases the availability.

134
 3- Pre-start operation (part 1):
Preparation a turbine to operation is divided into:
a- Pre-start inspection:

It is necessary to be sure of all turbine requirements and

devices when the turbine is in base load and takes the
necessary time for this inspection. When working as black
start the turbine should be ready for inspection and operation
at short time.

As an example, the single shaft turbine shown in Fig. (5/5).

b- Safety precautions:
1- Operator should be ware of safety rules, for example ear
muffs for ear protection.
2- The operation selector switch should be on off to prevent
sudden operation during inspection.

3- Co2 extinguisher system should be stopped before

inspection by putting the mechanical gag to prevent

working and filling the turbine with co2 gas during the
existence of any person in the unit, Fig. (6/5).

135
 4- In sometimes the operator should wear special custom as
gloves on dealing with acids or alkaline liquids

c- Inspecting the turbine section:

1- Inspect the switch gear room, where generator protection
devices and protective relays in set not in trip
2- Inspecting generator air filter section and compare louver
arm position that lets cold air to the generator, Fig. (7/5
a) and the thermostat reading, Fig. (7/5 b). The unit must
be clean of tools, cloths or any solid bodies near air filter.

136
3- Inspection of exciter and exciter brushes and the neutral
transformer, Fig. (8/5).
4- Inspection of gearbox for any oil leak and the ground
brushes.
5- Inspection of turbine section for cooling water from the
cooler.
6- Inspection of control air section, fuel lines and fuel
dividers for any leak.
137
7- Inspection of fuel oil pump section, gearbox, high
pressure-oil filter and pressure difference before and
after lube-oil filter, Fig. (9/5).
8- Be sure that the turbine low-running speed by the turning
gear.

138
 4- Pre-start operation (part 2):
a- Inspecting the remaining turbine sections:
1- Inspection of lube-oil section to be sure of pump
pressure and oil pressure at bearings by gauges shown in
Fig. (10/5).

2- The starter is a diesel engine, so inspect the engine and

the back of gauge panel as in Fig. (11/5), and noticing
any leakage. Inspect the fuel oil stop valve, Fig. (12/5 a).
Tightening of filter cover, Fig. (12/5 b).

139
3- Inspect gearbox section to be sure of no leakage of in
cooling oil pump. Be sure of over speed device, Fig.
(13/5).

Check the water level in the cooling system, Fig. (14/5),

and the lube-oil-sump level gauge, Fig. (15/5).

140
 4- Inspect again co2 room and return the mechanical gag as
in Fig. (16/5).

b- Checking the local control room:

The last part to be inspected is the control room. Survey the
following:

1- All AC and DC switches are in safe position for

operation.
141
 2- Check the batteries connection and solution level inside
them are correct.
3- Check of safety of all wires and connections inside
control panel.
4- The alarm annunciator panel, Fig. (16/5) must be clear
and free of any alarm signal before starting.
5- Push to check the safety of signal-lamps test.
6- Operating switch must be put on auto, and lamps shown
in Fig. (17/5) are lightening. That at left indicates
validity of all auxiliaries, middle lamp indicates free of
trip causes, and the right lamp that all requirement are
available and unit is ready to start.

5- Start up operation
a- Typical automatic gas turbine start-up sequence:
Figure (18/5) which is a relation between time and speed of
the turbine shows the sequences of operation.
1- Begin by starting the turbine using the starter device
until reaching 20% of the rated speed.

142
 2- Ignition begins by the spark to begin combustion of the
fuel/air mixture.
3- On reaching stable flame, the igniter will be off, and the
main flame of burners continues and turbine accelerates.
4- After self-sustaining speed starter is stopped.
5- Turbine accelerates by increasing fuel entering the
combustion chamber to reach the operating speed.
6- Synchronization is done automatically then loading

b- Operator responsibility:
Since the majority of unit has automatic starting sequences,
the responsibility of the operator is to survey these
sequences that happen in the exact time and in the
convenient way. Usually the operation is controlled from
remote or local locations. In all cases operation monitors
should be surveyed.

143
The first operation step is putting the operation selector switch
on auto, and then the operator turns the master control switch to
start. At that time, the three ready lights will be off, Fig. (17/5).
Signal lamp and sequence in progress light will be on, Fig.
(19/5). Auxiliary lube-oil pump starts automatically, then the
starter increases unit speed, then starting service lamp lights
therefore the operator can watch unit speed by the turbine rpm
meter, Fig. (20/5).
When the turbine speed reaches 20% of operation speed
igniter gives the required spark, then fuel valve opens and the
flame lights, Fig. (21/5). Turbine continues in that speed for
sometime to warm up, during which operator watch
144
temperatures to avoid overheating. On reaching self sustaining
speed, starter stops and its lamp stays on until the starter cools
then the lamp will be off.

145
 Turbine speed automatically increases, then the gear pump
lamp lights and auxiliary lube-oil lamp will be off. By this
operation is completed, after which synchronizing and loading
begin either automatically or manually according to the system.
Then the operator puts the operation selector switch on remote to
control the unit from the main control room, the above is the
normal operation sequences.
There is another type of operation which is the fast start in
which warming up time is too short, and unit loading takes place
automatically in fast way. This is done in emergency cases that
needs fast operation and fast service.

6- Power operation:
Steps done by the operator during operation and reaction on
emergencies are discussed.

a- Operating checkouts:
Taking care and inspection and checkout of the unit must
be continuous during starting and in service, which is
similar the pre-start checkouts, except regarding gauges and
indicators. The following should be followed:
146
1- Inspecting the turbine section: Watching any leakage and
any accidental problems. In switch gear room, survey
any device may trip the unit, and in exciter section,
notice brushes. In the load gear section, notice the
ground brushes that may cause fire if spark and oil leak
occur, stop the unit immediately. Notice oil pressures of
all pumps and pressure difference on filter to check filter
cleanness. Check gearbox and co2 house to be ready at
any time for operation, cooling-system water level and
lube-oil level indicator.

2- Control room checks: watching all indicator readings of

volt, current, load, temperature of gases and any monitor
reading.

147
b- Emergency operation: It is possible that faults will happen
that must be carefully noticed before starting, other wise

catastrophic event would occur. For example, vibrations ma

occur and excessive vibration signal will be off, Fig. (22/5).
In this case, automatic trip of the unit takes place and the
operator should notice-stopping sequences, which are,
flame light off and speed reduction. In this way, safe stop
occurred. If trip is not done automatically, the operator
must stop the unit by moving main switch to off, then he
may restart the unit following the steps to know the
vibration cause. This is called crank start where he checks
the starting sequences. He begins by operation selector
switch on crank, moving the master control switch to start
and notice any vibrations, which may be due to blockage of
bleed-off valve or compressor dirties.

148
The problem may be more difficult than this as bowed rotor or
bearing failure represent. That is why to let the turbine out of

service to be checked by maintaining it if the vibration cause is

not noticed during two crank starts.
During crank start, if the vibration does not happen
continue starting sequences until flame lamp is on, Fig.
(23/5), then he puts selector switch on auto.

149
7- Shutdown
Automatic shutdown sequence occurs by gradual reduction of
loading to zero, and running during a short time for cooling, and
shutdown is completed by fuel-flow stopping to the nozzles.
Operator should follow up the shutdown sequences. Starting the
shutdown begins by lightening of the sequence-in-progress light
and turning off the sequence complete light, Fig. (24/5). This
means that shutdown signal, coming from main control room, is
received. If that signal is not received, the operator puts the
selector switch on auto and turns main switch on off. The
operator should notice the megawatt meter to be sure of turbine
unloading, Fig. (25/5). The operator must check the local
breaker light to be sure off its separation. If this was not done
automatically, the operator checks the breaker trip fuses in the
switch-gear room, then separates the local breaker. Emergency
stop must not be done as it bypass cooling that may damage the
turbine. On separation of the local breaker, the turbine runs for
awhile to be cooled and when the speed reach certain low value
(about 4000 rpm) fuel stops flowing to nozzle and the speed
decreases to zero. At this point, flame light continue for awhile,
(as in this example it takes its signal from exhaust temperature),
and when the speed reaches approximately 1000 rpm, exhaust
temperature reduces and flame light will be off. If the flame light
takes the signal from the flame detector, it will be off when the
flame is off. When shutdown is completed the three ready lamps
light.

150
 MAINTENACE
Maintenance may be divided into three main types:

1- Running attention and services:

Tacking care and surveying the turbine during operation do
not need stopping it, as compressor and air intake cleaning.
On cleaning the compressor reduce the load and spray the
washing agent, which depends on fouling type, on the first
stage of the compressor according to the operation and
maintenance manual. Some solid particles can take help in
cleaning rate but it may block the cooling air passages and
erode the blades. It is recommended to record compressor
speed or delivery temperature to be sure of the effect of the
cleaning process. If the temperature of compressor delivery
and the operation time are plotted, then the needed time for
cleaning can be found, Fig. (26/5).

Intake filter maintenance is the first protection against dirt

and dust accumulation on compressor blades. Electrostatic
151
 filters are more suitable, but they are expensive and bulky.
Moving screen filters are famous in which the packing is on
the form of screen that continually rotates passing in oil path
to clean it.
Surveying all monitors, gauges and signals are very important
during operation and following the operation manual is
compulsory.

2- Semi-overhauls:
Tow or three-day maintenance is considered simple that
depends on unit design and operation conditions between
major overhauls. Aero-engine turbines, for example, need
only checking combustion system and some auxiliary systems
by replacing the assemblies that have troubles. Some large
unit have split casing to inspect the glands, bearing and the
blades of compressor and turbine.
Simple overhauling takes care of combustion system and
checking flame tubes, nozzles, fuel supply system and lines
and ignition system.
Figure (27/5) shows a louvered type flame tube that last long
life

152
3- Major overhauls:
It should be done under fine supervision, as it needs
dismantling of all unit parts of the unit then re-assembling it,
after changing the bad parts. As the details of major overhauls
differ from unit to another, yet the common features are
discussed. The turbine parts that inspected during the major
overhauls are:

a- Turbine rotor blades:

Check the cracks and change the blades that eroded the
make careful rotor balance to avoid running vibrations and
problems.

b- Turbine casing:
In case of split casing some pinches may found at joint face
that harden separation, therefore take care of the casing
shape and the fixed blades on it. Imperfect cooling may
cause cracks in the casing that are treated by welding and to
know the causes of the cracks.

c- Turbine rotor:
Accurate spigot location is very important as any
displacement of the rotor may cause unacceptable
vibrations, Fig. (28/5). Change the rotor if it has any cracks,
therefore stringent test is carried, especially the rotor bore
that may have stresses. Also, the rotor rim must be tested
and take care of bolting on assembly to avoid blots
overstressed or loosened on heating up or on loading.

153
d- Temperature coloration:
This may be good indication for the conditions by which
the turbine is facing of heating and cooling that may cause
internal stresses.

e- Fretting:
High friction may cause welding of parts or their corrosion

f- Cracks:
Cracks of other parts rather than blades or rotor may cause
damage due to flowing of pieces of these parts that may
damage the blades.

g- Erosion:
Over-washing, or using in effective air filtration in bad
weathers may cause erosion to compressor blades.

154
h- Corrosion:
Using liquid fuels cause ashes that may corrode the blades,
Fig. (29/5). Fuel can be properly treated to reduce the
corrosion effect.

i- Rotor journal bearing:

Scratches or hair cracks on the white-alloy surface may be
acceptable. It is damaged due to bad lubrication, oiling, or
heating up. The thrust bearings are examined for
overheating and distortion.

155
 j- Heat exchangers:
Internal cracks of heat exchanger walls are common
especially at welded points in corners. They must be
hydraulically tested by compressed air at pressure equals
1.5 the working pressure to estimate the time during which
the pressure may reduce and compare it with that of the
factory.

------------------------------------------------------------------
MAINTENANCE SKILLS:
Maintenance needs special precautions and skills to carry the
required sequences perfectly. Checking the manuals is important
never the less the following the common maintenance skills are
discussed as follows:

a- Dismantling of the unit:

1- Separate:
The unit connections and close all valves and cutout
circuits. After taking off the metal covers, unscrew the
horizontal joint bolts. Plug all open pipes and flanges, then
unscrew the dowel bolts using lever pipe.

2- Preparation steps:
Be sure of the number of the bolts to be unscrewing
and collecting all nuts.
Be sure of disconnection of all joints for oil and
sealing air before raising the upper half of the casing.
Take off the bolts connecting throttle valve flange to
separate it from the cylinder.
Take off the turbine casing and gland casing to be able
of inspection of the blades and bearings.

156
3- Removing cover:
Removing the unit cover represents a big problem. A
hook and wires passing through the eyebolts can raise it.
Figures (30/5 to 33/5) show the different ways to raise it.
Some turbines include lifting beam and cables.

157
158
159
4- Check the condition of spindle in place:
Check the rotor after taking off all covers to fix the
blades and other inspections as:
Coupling check: Take away the fixing studs of the
coupling and check alignment.
Measuring the clearance: Axial clearance must be
checked (0.01 0.015 inch).

5- Removal of spindle:
Usually lifting beam and cables are used to raise
the spindle. The cables are used at the spindle ends, as
they are the only usable places. Be sure that the spindle
be horizontal all the time.

6- Inspection of spindle after remove:

It is important to inspect the shaft from all sides as
follows:
Cleanliness from soft and oil deposits and hard scales.
Inspect erosion especially in the last rows.
Look for cracks and blade lashing wires.
Inspect the shrouds.
Inspect the raised wedges.
Inspect for blade friction.
Inspect for thin blade edges.
Inspect for strange objects attached to the blades.

7- Cleaning the spindle:

Clean the spindle and blades by jet of air carrying
particles of aluminum oxide, after covering bright
surfaces on the spindle

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 b- Bearing care:
Inspection and cleaning the bearings is the most important
duty of the maintenance department.

1- Design hint about bearing:

Journal bearing:
It is a cylindrical hole lined by white metal, inside
it the spindle rotates, Fig. (34/5). It is used in heavy radial loads.
Therefore, it carries the rotor beside the dynamic forces
generated. They may be classified as hydrodynamic operation
bearings, because their ability to carry heavy loads comes due to
the thin oil film wedge caused by the relative movement
between the shaft journal and the liner, Fig (35/5). Figures (36/5)
shows the pressure distribution in the oil layer between them,
and Fig. (37/5) shows standard types.

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 Thrust bearing:
It is composed of a ring or collar rotates against
fixed plate or surface, Fig. (38/5). It is used to carry axial forces
generated at compressor and turbine blades. In addition,
hydrodynamic effect occurs due to the oil film shown in Fig.
(39/5). The oil pressure is shown in Fig. (40/5), from which it is
noticed that the least oil layer, and by consequence the highest
temperature in the bearing occurs at ends.

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 The way of oiling the thrust bearing is identical to that of
journal bearing. The oil comes from the bottom centerline of
each bearing housing, running in the passages around the
external surface of the linear then into the radial slots on the rear
face from which to the inner surfaces. There are many kinds of
bearings, for example that of General Electric, Fig. (41/5).

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 2- Bearing maintenance:
- Journal bearing-liners
Bore diameter
Outside diameter
Babbitt surface
- Journals
Journal diameter
Journal surface
housing

- Thrust bearing-base ring assembly:

Base-ring outer diameter
Babbitt surface
Oil dam clearance
Land taper
Axial clearance
- Thrust-bearing runners:
Face run out
Runner surface

- Thrust bearing housing

c- Care of flexible coupling:

1- Thrust bearing housing
2- Flexible member of coupling
3- Gear type coupling
4- Maintenance of flexible joint

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