Module 1.3 - B1B2 - Rev 00 (Full Permission)

Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
MODULE 1
SUB MODULE 1.3
GEOMETRY
Rev. 00 1.3
Oct 2006
For Training Purposes Only
Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

Geometry Introduction .................................................... 1 Rules of circles ...................................................20
Definitions ....................................................................... 2 Graphical representations .............................................23
Symbols used in geometry.............................................. 9 Graphs................................................................25
Postulates and corollaries ............................................. 10 Nature and use of graphs ..............................................26
Simple geometrical constructions ................................. 11 Graphs of equations/functions.......................................27
Drawing a perpendicular from a point to a line ... 12 Circular graphs ...................................................28
Driving a straight line into number of equal Nomographs .......................................................28
Parts ................................................................. 12 Trigonometry .................................................................29
Bisecting an angle .............................................. 13 Solution of right triangles ....................................31
Duplicate a given angle ...................................... 13 Functions as lines ...............................................33
Duplicate a given triangle ................................... 14 Changes in values of functions...........................34
Angle relationships ............................................. 15 Trigonometrical relationships.........................................35
Parallel lines....................................................... 16 Functions of particular angles.............................36
Triangles ............................................................ 17 The laws of functions .........................................37
Right Triangles ................................................... 18 Functions of angles greater than 900 ................38
Parallelograms ................................................... 18 Cartesian and polar coordinates...................................39
Polygons ............................................................ 19 Cartesian coordinates.........................................39
Rules of polygon ................................................ 19 Polar coordinates................................................40
Circles ................................................................ 20
Rev. 00 i 1.3
Oct 2006
The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up
to date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued.
Rev. 00 1 1.3
Oct 2006
GEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION
Plane geometry is further divided into
The word geometry is derived from geo, a Greek word meaning
earth, and metria, meaning measurement. Ancient Egyptians Theoretical geometry consisting of theorems
were perhaps the first people to study geometry. They were and
mainly concerned with problems of finding areas of rectangular
Practical geometry consisting of problems.
figures. Later Babylonians also studied the problems of finding
areas of various rectilinear figures. Both the Egyptians and
Babylonians used geometry for practical purposes. However,
Any separate geometrical operation, whether a discussion or a
they did not develop it as a systematic science.
construction, is called a proposition.
It is desirable to tell the importance of the study of geometry.
A theorem is a proposition in which a geometrical fact is proved
Primarily geometry teaches you how to reason. The habit of
by methodical reasoning.
correct thinking acquired in its study is beneficial to all. By its
study you will be able to converse more logically and read with a A problem is a proposition in which a geometrical figure is to be
greater understanding. actually constructed.
So we may say that geometry literally means the measurement In this section we shall not enter into the details of plane or solid
of the earth or land. Actually, geometry deals with the geometry. However, we shall examine the fundamentals, of
measurement of areas, volumes, and distances, so the name, each.
geometry, is descriptive of the mathematical science, which it
denotes.
There are two general types of geometry: that dealing with
plane surfaces, called plane geometry, and that dealing with
three-dimensional objects, called solid geometry.
Rev. 00 2 1.3
Oct 2006
DEFINITIONS Surface: A surface has no thickness but has length and

breath.
The study of geometry requires the use of many terms, which

are not used in everyday conversation, so it is necessary that we
become familiar ii with these terms .For this purpose have
presented a number of definitions for common geometric terms.
Point: A point is that which has no length, breadth, or Surface
thickness but has only position. Plane or plane surface: A plane or plane surface may be defined
in several ways as follows:
A surface such that a straight line that joins any
Point two of its points lie wholly in that surface.
A two-dimensional extent of zero curvature.
Line: A line has no breadth or thickness but has length.
A surface any intersection, of which by a like
surface is a straight line.
Line
Straight Line: A line having the same direction throughout its

length, if a portion of straight line is placed so that
both ends fall within the ends of the remaining
part, the portion must lie wholly within the line.
Straight Line
Rev. 00 3 1.3
Oct 2006
Solid: A solid, in the geometric sense, is that which has Broken Line: A line consisting of a number of different
three dimensions, that is, length, breadth, and segments of straight lines.
thickness.
Broken Line
Angle: An angle is the opening between two straight

lines drawn .in different directions from the same.
Solid
Equal Lines: Two lines are equal if, when placed one upon the
other, all corresponding points coincide.
Angle
Right Angle: An angle which is one-fourth of a circle, that is,

90.
Equal Lines
Curved Line: A line which continuously change direction.
Right Angle
Curved Line
Rev. 00 4 1.3
Oct 2006
Acute Angle: An angle which is less than a right angle. Reflex Angle: It is any angle that is larger than a straight angle
Vertex
Acute angle
Reflex Angles
Vertex of an Angle: The common point from which the two sides
of an angle proceed
Bisector: A bisector is a point, line, or surface, which
divides a magnitude into two equal parts.
Bisector
Obtuse Angle
Obtuse Angle: An angle, which is more than a right angle but

less than a straight angle
Adjacent Angles: Two angles having a common side and the
same vertex.
Straight Angle: An Angle of whose sides from a straight line, that
is, an angle of 180
Adjacent Angles
180
Straight Angle
Rev. 00 5 1.3
Oct 2006
Vertical Angles: Two angles with the same vertex and with sides Circle: A closed curve all portions of which are in the
that are prolongations of the sides of each other. same plane and equidistant from the same point.
Chord Radius
Arc
Diameter Sector
Vertical Angles
Circumference
Circle
Perpendicular Line: Straight line, which makes a 90 with

another straight line and is perpendicular to the Diameter: The length of a line passing through the center of
line. a circle and limited at each end by the circle.
Radius: A straight line from the center of circle to the
circle perimeter. The radius is equal to one-half
Perpendicular Line the diameter.
Circumference Length of the imaginary line enclosing the area
of the circle
90 90 Arc: Any portion of a circle.
Sector: The area within a circle bounded by two radii
and the arc connecting the ends of the radii.
Chord. A straight line within a circle connecting two
points on the circle.
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Oct 2006
Parallel Lines. Lines in the same plane, which can never Obtuse Triangle. A triangle having one angle greater than 90.
intersect no matter, how far they are extended.
a Parallel Lines Obtuse Triangle
Acute Triangle. A triangle having all angles less than 90.

Triangle. A plane bounded by three straight sides.
Triangle. Acute Triangle
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Oct 2006
Right Triangle. A triangle having one angle equal to 90. Scalene Triangle. A triangle which has no two sides equal.
90
Scalene Triangle
Right Triangle
Equilateral Triangle. A triangle in which all sides are equal.

Isosceles Triangle. A triangle having two equal sides.
Equilateral Triangle
Isosceles Triangle
Rev. 00 8 1.3
Oct 2006
Square. A plane figure bounded by four equal sides and having Trapezium. A four-sided plane figure with two parallel sides and
four right angles. two sides which are not parallel.
90 90
90 90 Trapezium
Square
Rectangle. A four-sided plane figure having four right angles.
Parallelogram. A four-sided plane figure whose opposite sides
are equal and parallel. 90 90
90 90
Parallelogram.
Rectangle
Additional terms are also used in geometry; however, above

illustration and terms used will provide a basis for continuing with
a study of the principles of geometry.
Rev. 00 9 1.3
Oct 2006
SYMBOLS USED IN GEOMETRY AXIOMS

Certain symbols are used in geometry to indicate terms and The proofs of geometrical propositions or theorems are based
relationships. The following listing gives the most commonly upon statements justified by reasons. We have already studied
used symbols : about axioms in our previous mathematics lessons. However, it
is better to have some additional knowledge about axioms. Self-
evident truths, called axioms, are used to justify or prove the
= Equality statements. The most important axioms are the following:
Is congruent to Equals added to equals give equal sums.
> Is greater than When equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders
are equal.
< Is less than
When equals multiply equals, the products are equal.
// Parallel
When equals divide equals, the quotients are equal.
Perpendicular
Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other.
Approximate (1Y)
The whole is greater than any of its parts and is equal to
Angle the sum of its parts.
Like. powers or like positive roots of equals are equal.
Triangle
Equals may be substituted for equals .
Parallelogram
Only one straight line can be drawn between two points .
Rectangle
The shortest distance between two points is a straight
line.
Circle
Therefore
Since
Rev. 00 10 1.3
Oct 2006
POSTULATES AND COROLLARIES

Following the axioms are other statements which are apparently
true and which may be proved easily. These are called
postulates or corollaries. Corollaries are usually based upon a
statement previously proved. A postulate needs no proof
because it is self-evident, however, it is a specific statement of
geometrical fact rather than a general statement.
Some commonly stated postulates are the following:
Two angles are equal if they can be made to coincide.
A geometric figure may be moved without altering its
size: or shape.
Straight angles are equal.
Right angles are equal. ,
A circle may be described with any point as its center and
any line as a radius.
Rev. 00 11 1.3
Oct 2006
BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE.

SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
The straight line given is ab. To bisect the given line, adjust the
compass so that it spans a greater distance than one-half the
length of the line. Place the point of the compass on A and strike
It is possible with a compass, a ruler, and a protractor to an arc CDE as shown. Without altering the adjustment of the
construct many geometrical figures, which accurately fulfill their compass, using B as a center, strike a second arc FGH. Connect
definitions or descriptions. the points J and K with a straight line. The line JK bisects the
In most cases the protractor is not needed. given line AB .
But it should be remembered that to make complex engineering
drawings we need to have sophisticated devices such as F
C
drawing boards, Engineers rulers, different types of papers etc. J
Knowledge of simple geometric constructions will be a great Bisector
assistance for a beginner of engineering drawings.
Under this lesson we will study the methods of dividing line into
given number of equal parts, bisecting lines and angles, drawing
lines perpendicular to lines, copying angles and triangles.
A B
G D
K
H
E
Rev. 00 12 1.3
Oct 2006
DRAWING A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT TO A LINE DIVIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL
PARTS.
Let the line to be divided be AB. Assume that we need to divide
In this case we are going to draw a perpendicular to a line from a
AB into 5 equal parts. Draw another line from A or B. Divide the
given point. The point given is P and the straight line is AB. From
second line in to 5 equal parts using the compass. This can be
the point P use the compass to strike arcs at A and B, using the
done by setting the compass to a fixed length and marking this
same radius in each case. Then from the points A and B,
set distance along the line. Then connect the open end of AB to
maintaining the adjustment of the compass, strike intersecting
the last marked point on the second line. After that draw lines
arcs at C. Connect the points P and C with a straight line. The
parallel to the connecting lines starting from the other marked
line PC is perpendicular to AB.
points to meet AB.
P
C
t
s
r
q
90
A p
B
A B
Rev. 00 13 1.3
Oct 2006
BISECTING AN ANGLE DUPLICATE A GIVEN ANGLE.

Let the angle given be AOB. Place the point of a compass at O Let the given angle be ACB. Draw a line and mark it DX. Strike
and strike arcs at A and B so that OA = OB. From the points A an arc AB having C as the center. Taking D as the center and
and B strike intersecting arcs with the same radius. Mark the CB as the distance, draw an arc DE using the radius AC. Using
point of intersection of these arcs as C. Draw the line OC. OC is the distance AB as a radius and E as the center, strike an arc to
then the bisector of the angle. intersect the previous arc. Mark the intersecting point of the arcs
as F. Connect D and F. Angle ACB = angle FDE.
A A F
C
C D X
O B B E
Rev. 00 14 1.3
Oct 2006
DUPLICATE A GIVEN TRIANGLE
Let the given triangle be ABC. Draw a straight line DX. Using AB
as a radius and D as the center, draw an arc cutting DX at E.
Using AC as a radius and D as a center, draw an arc in the
vicinity of F. Using CB as the radius and B as a center, draw an
arc to intersect the other arc at F. Draw the lines DF and EF.
DEF is the duplicate triangle.
C F
A B D E X
Rev. 00 15 1.3
Oct 2006
ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS
.
There are various specific relationships among angles, which
should be observed and understood. Some of these are given in
the following statements:
When the sum of two angles is 90, the angles are said
to be complementary, or complements of each other
When the sum of the angles is 180, the angles are said
to be supplementary or supplements of each other.
When two straight lines cross each other, vertical angles
are formed and the vertical angles are equal.
When a straight line meets another, supplementary
angles are formed.
Complements of an angle are equal
Supplements of an angle are equal
Rev. 00 16 1.3
Oct 2006
PARALLEL LINES When parallel lines are cut by a transversal as shown in

the diagram,
As previously explained, parallel lines are lines in the same Alternate interior angles are equal.
plane, which cannot meet, no matter how far they are extended. Alternate exterior angles are equal.
A straight line, which cuts across a pair of parallel lines, is called Corresponding angles are equal.
a transversal. The transversal makes angles with the parallel
lines as shown below Exterior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
a b
c d supplementary.
A few other facts concerning parallel lines are as follows
e f
g h If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are
parallel to each other.
Through a given point only one line can be drawn parallel
to another.
In the foregoing diagram the angles are named according to their
position in the diagram. If two straight lines in the same plane cannot intersect,
regardless of how far they are extended, they are
Angles a,b,g, and h are called exterior angles.
parallel.
Angles c,d,e, and f are called interior angles.
Two intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to a third
The pairs of angles a and h, and b and g are called line.
alternate exterior angles.
A straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is
The pairs of angles c and f, and e and d are called also perpendicular to the other.
alternate interior angles
The pairs a and e, b and f, c and g, d and h are called
corresponding angles, or they may be referred to as
interior-exterior angles.
Rev. 00 17 1.3
Oct 2006
TRIANGLES
According to their construction and dimensions, triangles have If three sides of one triangle are equal respectively to three sides
certain relationships with one another. The conditions of of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
congruency are particularly important to remember. These may
be stated as below. A D
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are

equal respectively to two angles and the included, side of
another triangle, the triangles are congruent. That is, they
are identical in size and shape.
B C E F
A D
The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles

triangle are equal. On the other hand if two angles of a
triangle are equal, the triangle is isosceles.
B C E F
A
If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are

equal respectively to two sides and the included angle of
another triangle, the triangles are congruent
A D B C
Also it should be remembered that the sum of the angles

of a triangle is equal to 180
B C E F
Rev. 00 18 1.3
Oct 2006
RIGHT TRIANGLES PARALLELOGRAMS

Theorems relating to right triangles are similar to those for other As previously explained, a parallelogram is a four-sided figure
triangles. However, the fact that the right angles are equal (quadrilateral) whose opposite sides are parallel. The most
makes it possible to determine congruency with fewer given important rules pertaining to parallelograms are stated below.
parts. Some of the theorem (rules) for right triangles are given
The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal
below:
The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal, and
If two right triangles have one side and one angle equal
consecutive angles are supplementary.
respectively, they are congruent.
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if the opposite sides are
If the two sides adjacent to the right angles in two right
equal.
triangles are equal, the triangles are congruent.
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if two of the opposite
The square of the hypotenuse in a right triangle is equal
sides are equal and parallel.
to the sum of the squares of the other two sides (the
Pythagorean theorem). The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
A Hypotenuse Parallelograms are congruent if two adjacent sides and
the included angle are equal.
Opposite
side A B
B C
Base
D C
(AC)2 = (AB)2 +(AC)2 Diagonal
Rev. 00 19 1.3
Oct 2006
POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane, closed figure bounded by straight lines RULES OF POLYGON
joined end to end. Hence, a polygon may have any number of
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to
sides from three upward. Polygons are given names descriptive
180 times the number of sides less two. Thus if a
of their characteristic number of sides. A four-sided figure is a
polygon has n number of sides the sum of interior angles
quadrilateral, a five-sided figure is a pentagon, a six-sided figure
are
is a hexagon, a seven-sided figure is a heptagon etc.
180 (n-2)
A regular polygon has all sides and angles equal.
Hence for a pentagon the sum of interior angles is
180 (5-2) = 180x3 = 540
B
b
When a regular polygon has n sides, each interior angle
a C is equal to:
A
c 2(n 2)
x90 where n = the number of sides.
n
e D If the sides of a polygon are extended consecutively in

d the same direction, the sum of the exterior angles thus
E
formed will be equal to 360 .
Rev. 00 20 1.3
Oct 2006
CIRCLES
A circle is a closed curve such that all points on the curve are RULES FOR CIRCLES
equidistant from a fixed point within the circle.
In the same circle or in equal circles, equal central angles
intercept equal arcs and equal arcs subtend equal central
angles.
A X
B P Y
Lets see some useful terms related to circle. We have already O
discussed some of these terms at the beginning of this module
A minor arc is one of less than 180.
A major arc is one of more than 180. All radii of the same circle or of equal circles are equal.
A semicircle is an arc of 180. In the same circle or equal circles, equal chords subtend
equal arcs.
A quadrant is a sector with an arc of 90.
A line perpendicular; to a chord and passing through the
A chord is a straight line in a circle connecting two points
center of a circle bisects the chord and the arcs
on the circle.
subtended by it
A tangent is a straight line of unlimited length, which has
only one point in common with a circle.
A secant is a straight line, which intersects a circle.
O
An inscribed angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is
on the circle.
A central angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is at A B
the center of the circle.
Rev. 00 21 1.3
Oct 2006
RULES FOR CIRCLES (Cont..) If tangents are drawn from an external point to a circle;
they are equal and make equal angles with the line
A line is tangent to a circle, if it is perpendicular to a
joining the external point and the center of the circle.
radius at the point where the radius meets the circle.
O
C
O
90
B
A
B
One-half the intercepted arc measures an inscribed angle

Through three points, which are not in a straight line, only
in a circle.
one circle can be drawn.
A
a
C O B
2a
O
B
C
A
Rev. 00 22 1.3
Oct 2006
Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
D
C
A B
O
In this case AB is a diameter which divide the circle into two

halve. Angles ABC and ADB are inscribed angles in the
semicircle. These angles are right angles.
Rev. 00 23 1.3
Oct 2006
Any point defining a given pair of related values is plotted with

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS respect to the two axes. For example, consider the plotting of the
following points.
In this chapter we consider the ways of presenting numerical
information in pictorial, diagrammatic and graphical forms. This Point A defined by x = 4, y = 4
subject is known generally as graphical representation. It Move 4 units along the x-axis in the positive x direction (to the
provides in almost all cases a much clearer presentation of right from the origin); move 4 units in the positive y direction
results and a much easier means of making assessments than (upwards). The point corresponding to x = 4, y = 4 is marked in
can normally be gained from trying to shift through a mass of as A in the figure.
data. Graphs, charts, diagrams are extensively employed in both
scientific and non-scientific disciplines from plotting experimental Points are usually marked on the graph paper by a dot. A small
results to assessing a companys trading performance-from circle may be drawn around the dot point to aid rapid recognition.
demonstrating the properties of a mathematical equation or Alternatively a small cross may be used.
formula to predicting energy requirements in the twenty-first Y
Y axis
century, from solving equations to representing medical 7
statistics. 6
5
A chart may be designed to provide almost any type of A
information. Charts are used to present pictorial data, numerical
Origin (O) 4
3
data, graphical data and various other types of information. 2
Consider the figure below to explain the framework used to plot 1

X axis
points in the graph. The pair of reference lines X'OX and Y'OY, X -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
which are drawn at right angles to each other, are known as -1 X
axes. The horizontal reference line X'OX is known as the -2
horizontal axis or the x-axis. The vertical reference line Y'OY is -3
known as the vertical or y-axis. Appropriate scales are marked -4
on these axes-it is up to us to decide the most suitable scale for -5
each axis for the problem in hand. In the figure for simplicity, -6
both the x and y-axes are marked at unit intervals to cover a -7
range -7 through to +7. The zero point O at the intersection of
the two axes corresponds to a point x = 0, y = 0. This point is Y
known as the origin.
Rev. 00 24 1.3
Oct 2006
Y axis
7
B
6
5
A
4
3
2
1
C X axis
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
D
-3
-4
E
-5
-6
F -7
Similarly any point like point A can be marked on the graph. So

in this case we have marked point B (5, 6), point C (2,1), points
D (-2,-2), point E (-3,-4), and point F (-7,-4). It should be
understood that in this graph the dotted lines are shown fro
clarity. They are normally not drawn.
After marking the required points, they are connected by a line
as it appear in the figure above. This line may be straight or a
non-straight depending on the values we have selected.
Rev. 00 25 1.3
Oct 2006
GRAPHS
The term graph is normally applied to the line, straight or DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
curved, which defines the relationship between two or more
quantities. A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting a 4.5
pair or number of related values as points on a piece of graph
20
paper and then drawing a "smooth curve through the plotted 4.0
19
points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x and y as 18
DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100

17
the symbols to denote two sets of related values. In introducing 3.5
16
graphs we will use x and y, but we could-and indeed will use 15
14
SPEED-KNOTS X 100
3.0
other symbols most relevant to our particular problem. 13
12
For example, if the speed or time of flight of an airplane 2.5 11
changes, the distance traveled in a given time will change. This 10
9
is illustrated in the graph in the next column. If any two of the 2.O
8
variables are known, the approximate value of the other can be 7
quickly determined. The dotted line indicates how distance is 1.5 6
5
determined when speed and time are known. The value shown 4
is 937.5 nautical miles. 1.0
3
2
0.5 1
1 2 3 4 5
TIME - HOURS
Rev. 00 26 1.3
Oct 2006
NATURE AND USE OF GRAPHS
A broken-line graph or a bar graph is used to show comparative

quantitative data. The broken-line graph is useful to show trends
in quantitative data over a period of time. In the illustration 100
below the broken-line graph and bar graph provide the same 95
information. In this case, the graphs represent the number of 90
engines completed in a large overhaul shop for each month 85

80
during the year.
75
70
UNITS COMPLETED
100
65
95
60
90
55
85
50
80
45
75
40
70
UNITS COMPLETED
35
65
30
60
55 25
20
50
45 15
40 10
35 5
30
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
25 MONTH
20
15 Bar graph
10
5
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTH
Broken line graph
Rev. 00 27 1.3
Oct 2006
GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS/FUNCTIONS. By using the graph, now we can find corresponding values of the
variables in the equation. When the equation x y = 5 is plotted
Graphs are often used to solve mathematical problems.
on the same graph, the line for the equation intersects the first
Equations with variables such as x and y can be plotted on a
line at a point where x = 6.5 and y = 1.5. These values satisfy
graph. It will provide a visual indication of the values of each
both equations.
variable as the other changes. Such a graph is shown below.
The first equation plotted on this graphs is x + y = 8. We already It is apparent, then, that simultaneous equations can be solved
know that when x is given a value of 0, y = 8. In the same graphically. For example simultaneous equations 2x+3y=6 and
manner, when y is given a value of 0, x = 8. It should be 4x+5y= 9 are solved graphically in the graph below.
understood that when the equation is of first degree; that is the
In the first equation, x = 0, y = 2, and when y = 0, x = 3 and in
variables in the equation are of power 1, the line of the graph is a
4
straight line. Therefore the line drawn between the plotted points the second equation, when x = 0, y = 1 or 1.8 and when y = 0,
provides all the values of x for any value of y and vice versa. 5
1
X = 2 or 2.25. When the lines are plotted on the graph, they
4
intersect at a point where x = -1.5 and y = 3. These values
8 satisfy both equations.
7 Y axis Y axis
6
5
X+Y=8 5
4
3 6.5,1.5 4
2 3
1
X axis 2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
-1
-2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X axis
-3 X-Y=5 -1
-4 -2
-5 -3
-6
-4
-7
-8 -5
Rev. 00 28 1.3
Oct 2006
CIRCULAR GRAPHS NOMOGRAPHS

Circular or pie graphs are used often to indicate a distribution A nomograph, also called a monogram or alignment
of money. For example, the circle graphs shown in Figure below chart, is a calculating chart with scales that contain values of
indicate the distribution of the gross amount of money received three of more variables. The distances between the lines and
by a general aviation agency during a year of operation. Each the scales on the lines are placed in such a manner that the user
sector of the circle represents a quantity of money. may employ a straightedge to line up two known values and
obtain a third value. Nomographs are often used in computing
horsepower problems, cruise-control problems, and similar
problems involving three or more variables.
PROFITS 4.3%
EQUIPMENT & OPERATION 1.5% TAXES 11.3%
MATERIALS & SUPPLIES 28.9%

UTILITIES 4.5
LEASE 3.1%
WAGES & SALERIES 46 4%
Rev. 00 29 1.3
Oct 2006
In trigonometry the ratios of the sides of a right triangle to one

TRIGONOMETRY another are given particular names. These are sine, cosine,
tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. These ratios are
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics, which makes called trigonometric functions and may be explained by the use
possible the solution of unknown parts of a triangle. When the of the triangle in figure below.
values of certain angles and sides of a triangle are known, it is
B
possible to determine the values of all the parts through the use
of trigonometric processes.
c
a
Trigonometric functions are based on the ratios of the sides of a
right triangle to one another. In the diagram below, the right
triangle ABC is superimposed on right triangle ABC with the A C
b
angles at A coinciding. The lines B'C' and BC are parallel: hence In the triangle ABC, side c is called the hypotenuse, side b is
the triangles are similar. In similar triangles the ratios of called the side adjacent to angle A, and side a is the side
corresponding sides are equal and so AB/AC = AB /AC'. In like opposite to angle A. The functions of angle A are then as
manner, the ratios of the other sides are also equal. follows:
Furthermore, any right triangle, which has an acute angle equal
to A will have the same ratios as those for the triangles shown in opposite a
The sine of angle A, called sin A, is =
the figure. hypotenous c
adjacent b
The cosine of angle A, called cos A, is =
B hypotenous c
opposite a
B The Tangent of angle A, called tan A, is =
adjacent b
A
C C
Rev. 00 30 1.3
Oct 2006
Also In the same triangle, the functions of the angle B are the co
B functions of angle A. That is,
sin B = cos A
c
a cos B =sin A
tan B = cot A
A C cot B = tan A
b
sec B =cosec A
adjacent b
The cotangent of angle A, called cot A, is = cosec B = sec A
opposite a
These relationships can easily be shown by noting the sides
hypotenous c
The secant of angle A, called sec A, is = adjacent to and opposite to angle B.
adjacent b
hypotenous c
The cosecant of angle A, called cosec A, is =
opposite a
The importance of the foregoing functions in the fact that a
particular function always has the same value for the same
angle. For example, sin 50 is always equal to 0.7660. This
means that in a right triangle, which has an acute angle of 50,
the sine of 50 will always be 0.7660 regardless of the size of the
triangle.
The table "Trigonometric Functions" in the Appendix of this book
may be used to determine the values of the functions of any
angle.
Rev. 00 31 1.3
Oct 2006
SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES

If any side and one of the acute angles of a right triangle are From table of functions we find cos 35 = 0.8192
known, all the other values of the triangle may be determined.
Then:
For example, if an acute angle of the right triangle is 35 and the
side adjacent to this angle is 6 inches long, we may determine b 6
= 0.8192 or = 0.8192
the other values as follows: c c
B
6
c c= = 7.32
a 0.8192
35
A C
b
From the table of functions we find tan 35 = 0.7002
Then
deg. Deg min Sin Cos Tan Cose
a a
35.0 35 0 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 = 0.7002 or = 0.7002
b 6
35.1 35 6 0.5750 0.8181 0.7028
35.2 35 12 0.5764 0.8171 0.7054 a = 4.2012
35.3 35 18 0.5779 0.8161 0.7080
35.4 35 24 0.5793 0.8151 0.7107
35.5 35 30 0.5807 0.8141 0.7133
Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180, the other acute
35.6 35 36 0.5821 0.8131 0.7159
angle of the triangle is 55.
35.7 35 42 0.5835 0.8121 0.7186
35.8 35 48 0.5850 0.8111 0.7212 The sides of the triangle are 4.2012, 6, and 7.32. We can verify
35.9 those answers by the formula a2 + b2 = c2 , which shows that the
square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum
of the other two sides.
Rev. 00 32 1.3
Oct 2006
If the sides of a right triangle are known, the angles can also be From the table of functions
determined. This is shown in the problem below. In this triangle
0.4706 = sin 284' (approximately)
ABC, side a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17.
Then angle A = 28 4 ' ( approximately)
B
c=
a= 8
C A
b
a 8
Then sin A = = = 0.4706
b 17
deg. Deg min Sin Cos Tan Cose

27.8 27 48 0.4664 0.8846 0.5272
27.9 27 54 0.4679 0.8838 0.5295
28.0 28 00 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317
28.1 28 06 0.4710 0.8821 0.5339
28.2 28 12 0.4726 0.8813 0.5362
28.3 28 18 0.4741 0.8805 0.5384
28.4 28 24 0.4756 0.8796 0.5407
28.5 28 30 0.4772 0.8788 0.5430
28.6 28 36 0.4787 0.8780 0.5452
28.7 28 0.8771
Rev. 00 33 1.3
Oct 2006
FUNCTIONS AS LINES denominator is always equal to 1, we can represent each

function by a single line. In the triangle ABO
The functions of a right triangle can be represented by a single
straight line if we adopt a triangle with one side equal to unity. By AB( Side _ opposite )
sin a = .
employing a unit circle as shown in figure below, this method can AO( Hypotenous )
be demonstrated.
And AB = AO sin a
Y
a E Since AO is equal to 1, the sine of angle a is AB. Continuing with
the same process and reasoning.
A C
OB
Cos a =
AO
a
X X
O B OB = AO cos a
Since AO = 1 Cos a = OB.
Similarly..
CX
Y Tan a = = CX
OX
EY
Cot a = = EY
OY
In the circle shown, diameters XX and YY are drawn with radii
OY and OX and another radius, AO, all equal to 1. AB is then OC
drawn from the end of the radius OA and perpendicular to OX. Sec a = = OC
OX
OA is extended to E, where it intersects the tangent
(perpendicular) drawn to OY. CX is drawn tangent to the circle at OE
Cosec a = = OE
X and perpendicular to OX. There are now three similar OY
triangles: ABO, CXO and OYE. The angle designated a is the
same in all three triangles. By arranging the functions so that the
Rev. 00 34 1.3
Oct 2006
CHANGES IN VALUES OF FUNCTIONS The values of the functions as the angle changes from 0 to 90
If we study the unit circle shown in Figure below very carefully, are as follows.
we can visualize what will happen to each function as the angle
sin a, 0 to 1
a increases or decreases.
cos a, 1 to 0
Y
a E tan a 0 to
C cot a, to 0
A
sec a, 1 to
a cosec a, to 1
X X
O B
As angle a increases;
Sin a will increase to I.
Cos a will decrease to 0.
Tan a will increase to infinity ()
Cot a will decrease to 0.
Sec a will increase to infinity ()
Cosec a will decrease to 1
Rev. 00 35 1.3
Oct 2006
TRIGONOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FUNCTIONS OF PARTICULAR ANGLES

The relations between functions and co functions have already The angles 30, 45 and 60 are particularly useful in the
been shown .However, certain relationships exist among all the solution of triangles. Hence, it is well to become familiar with the
functions, and these should be understood. numerical values of the functions of these angles. They are
given on the following table:
A
ANGLE 30 45 60
b c Sine 1 1 3
2 2 2
C a B Cosine 3 1 1
2 2 2
In the first discussion of functions, it was pointed out that
Tangent 1
sin A = a and 3 1
c 3
cos A =. b Co tangent 3 1 1
c
3
a
Sin A a c a
Then = c = = = tan A Secant 2 2 2
Cos A b c b b
c 3
In a similar manner it can be shown that Co secant 2 2 2
sin A = tan A cos A 3
cos A = sin A cot A
There are numerous other relationships which can be worked
out and if it is desired and become thoroughly proficient in the
use of trigonometry, a substantial amount of study and practice
should be given to this type of work.
Rev. 00 36 1.3
Oct 2006
THE LAWS OF FUNCTIONS THE LAW OF COSINES

LAW OF SINES The law of cosines is also useful in solving oblique triangles
and may be stated thus: The square of any side of a triangle is
By appropriate proof it can be shown that in any triangle the
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides
sides, of the triangle are proportional to the sines of the opposite
diminished by twice the product of the other two sides and the
angles. This is known, as the law of sines and is most useful in
cosine of the included angle.
solving triangles other than right triangles.
A
A
c b
c b

B C
B C D a
a
The law of cosines may also be written as
The law of sines may be written
BA2 = AC2 + BC2 2AC.BC.cos
a = b c
=
Sin A Sin B Sin C Or c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
a Sin A
or =
b Sin B
a Sin A
and =
c Sin C
b Sin B
and =
c Sin C
Rev. 00 37 1.3
Oct 2006
THE LAW OF TANGENTS FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90

The law of tangents is derived from the law of sines and is stated It is obvious that in Oblique triangles there will be times when the
thus: The difference between two sides of a triangle is to their functions of angles greater than 90 are needed. The following
sum as the tangent of half the difference between the opposite table gives the method for determining function values for such
angles is to the tangent of half their sum. angles.
c b
B C
a

The law of tangents may be written 90
( A B)
a b tan 2
=
a + b tan ( A + B )
2
sin (90 + ) = cos
Cos (90 + ) = -sin
Tan(90 + ) = -cot
Cot (90 + ) = -tan
For simplicity in computation it is best to work with angles of less

than 90, and this is possible in most, cases.
Rev. 00 38 1.3
Oct 2006
CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES The perpendicular distance of the point from the y-axis, that is
the value of x, is known as the abscissa; the perpendicular
distance of the point from the x-axis, the y value, is known as the
CARTESIAN COORDINATES
ordinate.
Cartesian and polar coordinates are discussed with graphs of
their type. First we concentrate on the conventional x -y or Y- axis
X(abscissa)
Cartesian coordinate (also known as rectangular coordinates) P(x,y)
graph. This form of graph is one of the most common ways of

presenting relationships and numerical information in graphical
form. Cartesian coordinate graphs are extensively used in Y(ordinate)
mathematics to illustrate equations and mathematical

relationships; and in science and engineering to plot
experimental results and to investigate the characteristics of
such results. O X- axis
A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting pairs of related

values as points on a piece of graph paper and then drawing a
"smooth curve through the plotted points. In mathematics it is
common practice to use x and y as the symbols to denote two
sets of related values. In introducing graphs we will use x and y,
but we could-and indeed will use other symbols most relevant to
our particular problem.
We already know how to mark a point on a graph and define it The mathematical convention used to indicate the coordinates of
as we have already studied the method of graph plotting. a point is (x, y), e.g.
The system in which a point is located in a plane by specifying Point B, x= -3, y=5 is indicated by (-3, 5)
its distance from two axes drawn at right angles (that is, the x
and y-axes) is known as the Cartesian system of coordinates. X value Y value
(abscissa) (ordinate)
The values of x and y defining a point are known as cartesian
coordinates.
Rev. 00 39 1.3
Oct 2006
The various areas into which the x and y axes divide the graph POLAR COORDINATES.
plane are known as quadrants
A second useful way of defining the position of a point is by
Y + means of polar coordinates, r and . The point P in figure below
is defined by the radial distance r = OP from the origin O and the
1st quadrant
angle = POX, which is the angle the radial line makes with
2ndquadrant
(-,+) (+,+) the x-axis. Plots made using polar coordinates are known as
polar diagrams. Such diagrams are very useful in graphing
certain forms of data.
Y
+
r cos
- O X P(r sin , r cos )
r
r sin
th
rd
3 quadrant 4 quadrant
(-,-) (+,-)

O X
-
In the 1st quadrant x and y values are both positive (+, +)
In the 2nd quadrant x values are negative, y values are positive
( -, + )
In the 3rd quadrant x values and y values are both negative (-, -)
The mathematical convention used to indicate the polar
In the 4th quadrant x values are positive, y values are negative coordinates of a point is (r sin , r cos ), e.g.
( + , -) If the radius (r) of a Point B, is 3 units and angle () it makes
with x axis is 30, then point B polar coordinates are
3 sin 30 and 3 cos 30
Rev. 00 40 1.3
Oct 2006

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Module 1 MATHEMATICS

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

SUB MODULE 1.3

Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

The training notes and diagrams are

DEFINITIONS Surface: A surface has no thickness but has length and

The study of geometry requires the use of many terms, which

Straight Line: A line having the same direction throughout its

Angle: An angle is the opening between two straight

Right Angle: An angle which is one-fourth of a circle, that is,

Curved Line: A line which continuously change direction.

Obtuse Angle: An angle, which is more than a right angle but

Perpendicular Line: Straight line, which makes a 90 with

a Parallel Lines Obtuse Triangle

Acute Triangle. A triangle having all angles less than 90.

Triangle. Acute Triangle

Equilateral Triangle. A triangle in which all sides are equal.

Additional terms are also used in geometry; however, above

SYMBOLS USED IN GEOMETRY AXIOMS

POSTULATES AND COROLLARIES

BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE.

BISECTING AN ANGLE DUPLICATE A GIVEN ANGLE.

DUPLICATE A GIVEN TRIANGLE

PARALLEL LINES When parallel lines are cut by a transversal as shown in

The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are

Also it should be remembered that the sum of the angles

RIGHT TRIANGLES PARALLELOGRAMS

(AC)2 = (AB)2 +(AC)2 Diagonal

e D If the sides of a polygon are extended consecutively in

One-half the intercepted arc measures an inscribed angle

Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

In this case AB is a diameter which divide the circle into two

Any point defining a given pair of related values is plotted with

Consider the figure below to explain the framework used to plot 1

Similarly any point like point A can be marked on the graph. So

DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100

NATURE AND USE OF GRAPHS

A broken-line graph or a bar graph is used to show comparative

engines completed in a large overhaul shop for each month 85

CIRCULAR GRAPHS NOMOGRAPHS

EQUIPMENT & OPERATION 1.5% TAXES 11.3%

MATERIALS & SUPPLIES 28.9%

In trigonometry the ratios of the sides of a right triangle to one

SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES

deg. Deg min Sin Cos Tan Cose

FUNCTIONS AS LINES denominator is always equal to 1, we can represent each

TRIGONOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FUNCTIONS OF PARTICULAR ANGLES

THE LAWS OF FUNCTIONS THE LAW OF COSINES

THE LAW OF TANGENTS FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90

Cos (90 + ) = -sin

Cot (90 + ) = -tan

For simplicity in computation it is best to work with angles of less

graph. This form of graph is one of the most common ways of

mathematics to illustrate equations and mathematical

A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting pairs of related

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