ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE

AND GAME PRESERVE :

Evaluation of Wetland Mana11ement Techniques

Department of Natural Resources

Coastal Management Section
JANUARY 1983
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 ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE:
EVALUATION OF WETLAND MANAGEMENT rn..--..r... ..-...u..---r-.-.-,.-

K8l"en M..
Davis
Roberts

Coastal Section
Louisiana ...... a.v.II.U. Q.JI. Resources
P .. 0. Box 44396
Baton Rowe .. Louisiana 70804

Commerce
3300 , N .. W.
D .. C. 20235

1983

document was published at a cost of$ 1.71 per by the Louisiana

Natural Resources, P. 0. Box Baton Louisiana, the purpose of
1
ng out the requirements of the Louisiana Coastal Zone
... n Program
the atlthority of Act 361 of 1979. This was printed in accordance with
standards for printing by state established pursuant toR. Se 43:31 and was
in with the Title 43 the Louisiana Revised
This a under the Coastal
which is administered bv the U. S. Office of
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . .. . . . . $. iii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . iv
LIST OF PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
ACKNOWLEDGEJ\.1ENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... o .-. 1-1

........................ {) ....... 1-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 1-1

CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF THE REFUGE .. . ......... ...... 2-1

CHAPTER 3: PHYSICAL SETTING . ................................... . 3-1

0 3-1

3-1
J_\,t::;~J,VllCLl Setting .............. ~ ............................ . 3-1
.......................................... 3-2
Between 1930. and 197 8 ......... 3-9

CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF RECENT

MANAGEMENT . . . . . 4-1
Regional Hydrologic . . . . . . . 4-1
Classification Units . . . .. .. . . . 4-6
Passive Estuarin~ Management . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Description of Lake Q ~
4-8

Objectives of Management ................................. 4-10

Results of Management . ~ ....... 4-11
Controlled Estuarine Management ....... .... 4-17
Description of Unit 4 ......... 4-17
Objectives of Management .. ~ .... 4-23
Results of Management ................................... 4-24
Gravity Drainage Management ....... 4-3 2
Description of Unit 3 ........................................ 4-3 2
Objectives of Management ......... 4-34
Results of Management ............... 4-3 7
Forced Drainage Management ......... 4-40
Description of Unit 8 ................ 4-40
Objectives of Managew~nt ....... 4-40
Results of Managerri ent ............. 4-4 2

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . .. . . . . . . 5-1

REFERENCES R-1
PLATES

ii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3-1. Vegetation Zones in 1949 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 tt 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 II G II 0 0 e 0 & e 0 0 0 G e 3-6

Table 3-2. Vegetation Zones in 1959 3-8

Table 3-3. Vegetation Zones in 1978 . 3-10

Table 3-4. Distinguishing Features, Water Management, Wildlife

Usage and Vegetation Zones for Management Units in 1982 . . . ... 3-11

Table 3-5. Habitat Area in Miller Lake Transect for 1930,

1955/56 and 1974/79 ....... 3-12

Table 3-6. Habitat Area in Grassy Lake Transect for 1930,

1955/56 and 1974/79 ................. 3-13

Table 3-7. Habitat Area in Flat Lake Transect for 1930,

1955/56 and 197 4/79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Table 3-8. Habitat Change as Measured on Approximately 32%

the Refuge for 1930, 1955/56, and 197 4/79 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 3-17

Table 4-1. Trawl Data for 1981, Inside Price Lake Unit:
Full Species List ........................................... 4-18

Table 4-2. Trawl Data for 1981, Inside Unit 4: Full Species List . . . . . . . 4-29

Table 4-3. Trawl Data for 1981, in Union Canal near Humble '-'CUUJU.

Full Species List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-30

Table 5-l. Habitat Type, Vegetative Cover, and and Wildlife

Achieved With Water Management Programs Operating on the
Rockefeller Refuge . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Ll'"1r1"'11"J')n 3-1. drainage, and

;; 0 0 3-4

4-1. water balance for Gueydan,

1945-1968 ......................... 4-2

4-2. 0"\.U~~..;J the Mermentau River at

Structure and Grand
4-3

4-3. Mean monthly at Schooner Bayou Locks

and the Freshwater Canal at the Freshwater
Locks (north) . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

4-4. Mean at three stations in

Lake system, 1970-1978 . . . . . . . . . 4-5

4-5. diagram Wakefield weir 4-9

4-6. Vegetative transect and management events for

the Price Lake Unit, 1960-1974 .................... 4-12
L',~'l'll"'.f"""l. 4-7 o Seasonal of annual precipitation recorded
at the Rockefeller from 1960 through 1974 .......... 4-13

4-8. Mean monthly salinity and water levels recorded for

L';,...,, .. ...,. 4-9.
...~.,......... ""' 4-10.
the Price Lake Unit, 1967-1973 ..................... 4-15
Per cent coverage of Scirpus sp. in the Price Lake
Unit from 1960 through 1974 ............................. 4-16
Schematic front view of a concrete, variable crest,
reversible flap-gate control structure ..................... 4-21

4-11. Schematic front view of a concrete and stainless

steel radial lift gate control structure .................. 4-22

Figure 4-12. Comparison of mean monthly water levels and

salinities behind control structures at Catfish Point
and in Unit 6, 1963-19'18 ............................ 4....:25

4-13. Vegetative transect data management events

forUnit4, 1958-1974 ................................. 4-26
1-<'>I"MlYO'"' 4-14. transect data and management events
for Unit 6, 1958-197 4 .................................... 4-28

4-15. Schematic longitudinal section of a 36-inch flap-

gated metal culvert ....................................... 4-33
 4-lfi. Schematic longitudinal and top views of a 48-inch
aluminum flap-gate culvert .............................

Figure 4-17. Vegetative transect data. and mana.gem ent events

for Unit 3, 1958-1974 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38

Figure 4-18. Mean monthly water levels and salinities for Unit 3,
19 6 9-19 7 4 0 e 0 o o e e o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o e a o o e o o a s e o e 4-3 9

Figure 4-19. Schematic top of a double divergent pumping

unit .................................................... 4-41

Figure 4-20. Vegetative transect data and management events

for Unit 8, 19 5 8-19 7 4 . . . . . . . . . 4-4 3

Figure 4-21. Mean monthly salinities and water levels for Unit 8,
19 6 9-19 7 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 5

v
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate L Water Management and Control Structures

Plate 2. Vegetation- 1949

Plate 3. Vegetation- 1959

Plate 4. Vegetation- 1978

Plate 5. Saltwater Intrusion and Die-Off, 1947-1952

Plate 6. Habitat Area in Miller Lake Transect

7. Habitat Area in Grassy Lake T~E!nsect

Plate 8. Habitat Area in Flat Lake

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Louisiana Department Natural Coastal

Management Section, for their support and funding this nl"r\HOU'ltf- wish
to thank Mr. Joel Lindsey, Mr. Dave Chambers, and Mr. Frank mvHI.'IJ.L

Coastal Management Section for identifying the tasks and c;~I.J.ll~ the scope the
research.

The results of this project would have been limited had it not been for the
generous help provided by all the personnel we met at the Rockefeller State Wildlife
Refuge and Game Preserve. In particular, we wish to thank Mr. Allan :.l!i.::>HlJ.l!~
J ..

Chief of the Refuge Division, Mr. Johnnie Tarver. Assistant the

Division; and Mr. Ted Joanen, Research Leader of the Refuge Division, '-Cll.fi.l11
5 the
time to answer our many questions about and and in
general, the changes that have occurred on the refuge over the In
addition to answering questions, Mr. Larry MeN ease and Mr. Guthrie
on .the refuge, provided us with an abundance of reference material, both and
unpublished, from the refuge files. Mr. Perry also conducted an informative tour of
the refuge.

Current information on environmental conditions on the refuge, especially with regard

to fisheries productivity, was provided by Dr. R. H. Chabreck, Professor, School
Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, and his
graduate assistant, Mr. Bruce Davidson.

Mr. John J. Lynch, a retired biologist, formerly the U.S. Fish

in Lafayette, Louisiana provided us with valuable information on the chan!les in the
refuge habitats over the past 50 years. He took the time to answer our many
questions, as well as providing us with copies of unpublished data from his

Acknowledgements also must be made of the many people involved in the final
preparation of this report. The drafting was done by Mr. Curtis Latiolais and Ms.
Debra Faiers; the editing was undertaken by Ms .. Linda Richard; and the tvoinll was
performed by Ms. Ree Musso, Ms. Ludy Dyason, and Ms. Susan

vii
 EXECUTIVE

this is to document the management techniques that have been

on the State Refuge and Game Preserve over the
and to discuss the of these techniques in preserving fish
The execution this project involved literature research,
reconnaissance on the refuge, air photo interpretation and
habitat lUUJ-IJ-I.I.H;:;, and interviews with n.Poc:!t:m and retired personnel of the Louisiana
and and United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

The Rockefeller was purchased by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1914 and

deeded to the State of Louisiana in 1920. Mr. E. A. Mcilhenny, often called the
nFather of Louisiana Wild Life Refuges," was the moving force behind this acquisition
and donation, having recognized that the area "was highly adapted for a winter feeding
and for migratory wild (Mclhenny 1930:137). In addition to being
none the most important wildlife in the United States" {Joanen 1969:3), the
as a natural laboratory research on "marsh management, plant
culture and life history of the many forms of fish and wildlife
found on the refuge" (Joanen 1969:10). The information gained in these research
"demonstrates what man can do to improve on nature to benefit wildlife"
1969:10) and can serve as management guidelines for other state and Federal
management areas, as well as private property owners.

Management Techniques

The Rockefeller Refuge occupies approximately 76,000 ac of low-lying marshland

bordered on the south by a low beach along the Gulf of Mexico and on the north
a slightly higher, abandoned beach ridge (chenier). Most of the marsh has an
approximately 1.1 ft MSL and the average tidal fluctuation is 1 ft. Prior
to major man-made modification {i.e., drainage, navigation and petroleum canals, spoil
and ongrade road the vegetation consisted of bands of marsh
zones stretching in an east-west direction parallel to the beach ridges and ranging
from fresh near the chenier through intermediate and brackish, to saline along
Gulf Mexico. While tides associated with storms flooded (and still flood)
the marshes with saline waters on the average of once every
tides were histori norm within
channels and a freshwater head remained in the interior marshes
freshwater marsh vegetation. Natural events, such as geese and muskrat eatouts and
deep burns associated with droughts, and man-made processes, such as canal
initiated changes in the veQ"etation communities. Bv the mid-1950s. was evident
that active marsh management would be suitable
wildlife, especially - the the
refuge.

The wetland management techniques on the since 1954 have

developed in response and with an awareness numerous

1. natural and man-induced processes that tll..U:::\.:::1.

2. need for intensive management to

waterfowl,

3. utilization of petroleum canals and levees to create and

management units,

4. climate and weather, especially hurricanes, and

droughts,

5. environmental setting, marsh

shoreline erosion, marsh breakup, saltwater intrusion and canal
and

6. damage associated with eatouts, sawgrass die-off, and deep marsh burns
which require amelioration.

After evaluating the 17 nmanagement units" on the refuge in terms of ma.Iw 5 c;111

techniques and objectives, it is evident that there are four major management
programs in effect on 13 units on the refuge:

1. Passive Estuarine: Price Lake,

Pigeon Bayou to Rollover

2. Controlled Estuarine: Units 4. 5. 6

3. Gravity Drainage: Units 2, 3, 15

4. Forced Drainage: Units 1, 8, 13, 14.

ix
7 south 6 are not
characteristic of each
levels are controlled in

and to

units near the chenier

,._.,_.,.............. marshes. Water and levels can
conditions in
is
water. This also
,. ... ~ '"''OT1 through
and summer for
program requires proper
variable crest reversible
aluminum flap-gates) and

double divergent
seasonal similar to that
as to gravity dra.inage,
the impoundments and encourages the
excellent stands This is the most expensive
and energy to run the

units are nearer the Gulf of Mexico

The oassive management units
Wakefield
in natural bayous and
marsh level to preven
low tides. The main
which e
and
estuarine
usage, but is only in
units such as Price Lake.
small marsh pond

In the controlled estuarine management various control structures

lift gates and concrete variable crest reversible
levees can be manipulated on a seasonal basis to
estuarine organisms, such as brown and white
wildlife species, such as and and shore

The major, initial on the .u.v~f\.\:;J.

the quality of The

programs have been natural
conditions, man-made alterations the .LUH'U.:::I~UIJCo and
personnel to implement and and
gravity drainage management systems were the
refuge, consistency of wildlife food
waterfowl and indirectly benefiting other
deer and predators such as and a.n.l.~;a~..v.~.

marshes of the refuge, and controlled have

sustained waterfowl food production to some has been to
estuarine organisms which these low their _
stages. A summary of the management and ... .., . . ,...,...,.+ is illustrated in
the following matrix.

xi
 Habitat Type,

PASSIVE ESTUARINE

Wakefield Weirs Concrete VIU'iable

at -o.5 ft MSL Crest Reversible
Flap-Gates

EMERGENT
PERENNIAL
VEGETATION:

Fresh Ve-A Ve-A

Intermediate Ve-A

Brackish Du-P, Mu-F2,

Nu-F

Saline Mu-P,

EMERGENT
ANNUAL
VEGETATION:

Fresh I Ve-A
I
Intermediate Ve-A

Brackish

Saline Ve-L; Du-P, Ve-A Ve-A Ve-A Mu-P,

Mu-P, Nu-P,
Ge-P

AQUATIC
VEGETATION:

Fresh Ve-A Ve-A Ve-A

Intermediate I Ve-A

Brackish Du-G, Nu-F, Ve-M; Du-G,

Ge-P Mu-P,
De-P,

Saline Ve-A Ve-A Ve-A Ve-A

FRESH-TO-
INTERMEDIATE Ff-G, Cr-P, Wb-E, Al-E, Ot-G Ot-P,
WATER BODIES

ESTUARINE Ef-E, Sh-E, Ot-G, Al-G, Wb-E, Sb-F Ef-P,

WATER BODIES

SPECIES SYMBOLS SPECIAL NOTES

Vegetation Ve salinities
Geese Ge
Dabbling ducks Du
Shorebirds Sb Low L Brackish
Wading birds Wb Absent Saline
Muskrats Mu
Nutria Nu FAUNA (Habitat
Deer De Excellent
Alligators Al Good
Shrimp Sh Fair
Crayfish Cr Poor
Fr~hwater Fish Ff
Estuarine Fish Ef applies only
Otters Ot
The nr.J,::;,-.rn/p this is
implemented on the uvo.::f\.c.l.

referred to as the
effectiveness these
segmented into
and Results of Recent
Chapter 2 ul1"S{~u:-.1"Se:-.

management
natural research
understanding the
managers and the constraints
the physical environment and
programs implemented on the
four major types and an
management type is discussed
objectives, and management results.
and conclusions on the results

The execution of this

interpretation, and interviews with .L.I'-'''--U-.::>Aa.... u

refuge to determine the

arid wildlife habitat. Personnel
Chenier Plain
personnel. A "''-''J"''--'-IUL'C'll

their files and to meet with

results. Numerous
and water
the were
and Mr. J. Tarver
on October
 on the over the 40 years. This
because Mr. shared with us his
have occurred on the the mid-1940s in
the results various structures and programs.
retired U.S. Fish and Wildlife biologist and
and its an insightful
and 1940s and the changes that have

habitats throwrh time, three north-

32 of the
black and white (Tobin Research,
u. .... ,.., ......... Aeronautics and Space Administration
and U.S. C' ....... ,.n r nC'r!C'l topographic maps
data obtained in this exercise, when viewed in
uupuu.U.::lllOC::U data obtained the Rockefeller Refuge, provides
-.a ..,..._. .. ,,.,. of the ent programs for different units. It
areas where manaQ'ement effort is needed.

aspects of the refuge that

detail were because the
was demonstrate the of the management
and the scope of the project was
data relevant this
The idea of
perhaps originally \,;VH\,;1;;!.

Mcllhenny, a young man

enters the
cllhenny 1932). From March
the large bands Blue Geese
an experience that lett a
hundreds of thousands of
camp. Their
Mcilhenny's ears

The period 1850-1900 has

management in this
Preservation.
two eras, reflects the
gratuitous slaughter
Freshwater Bayou, the bison herds had been
extirpated a decade
migrated in IJ.U .J.J.V'U birds
(Trefethen 1964), was
Market hunting had reached a
numbers of waterfowl and
National Park had been created in
Park Protection Act making Yellowstone
fact (Trefethen 1964). The of
illegally killed wild game to
hunting as a major The as 1901
gave the conservation movement a the
first national Wlldlli e on a
wading birds from hunters.
attitudes of and
the conservation movement. In
done by plume hunters in Louisiana
Island. Here, in 1893. he
 and

was
in
Louisiana's
creation three

donated
the
decided that a much
wildlife
vuuuu;:, on land known
and New York, he
tract of
1913 this property was
as a wildlife
was on an
knew the waterfowl
here many times
title were
the North. The merits
'CHI.lVHOf the
Foundation . . . ,. . . ....,.h.-.c>rv'l
His work still not
Foundation and the

and these tracts

Game Preserve and the
192()
of land
 the
of
encourage production of
aimed particularly at muskrats. Each
supportive; that any
to be generated from within that
and especially those of the U.'-"'""'"..........

the refuge's

A combination of started
and 1940s. The old Intracoastal
and continued east-west was
the natural, freshwater
a more lateral, east-west This rn.nn.a.e!C

Rockefeller some of their

late 1930s and early muskrat
Louisiana with a subsequent occurrence area of
the Vermilion Parish marshes et al. access
canal for oil exploration was Harbor
Bayou into the was a
period of abundant and .LIVU..I.CIJ.O.HO.' U~t:;J.lllL.U~n in
1948, a severe and 1954 were
extremely dry with an severe moisture in 1954
(Muller 1970). Together, these
resulting in areas of marsh and
slightly brackish marshes where the
cutgrass (Zizaniopsis lHU.J.O.'V'Va,, and bulrush ..;...____......_

californicus) (Lynch thus

into several open water bodies in the 1950s.

At this point in its

drought, the refuge and
habitat quality,
stipulations contained in the deed and
improve, whenever the
 would

both

of the
enclose the
the area1s
locate
the
were
the chenier

""h-i.n.n.+iu..-. was to
brackish marsh

marshes were in
""""" ..... r~rr'\ '"'"""""" were

L as
draw-down
should be

served
time these
unbroken stands
water the

Water control structures

consisted of culverts
a lift on the inside
installed each
and 15
gravity drainage and uooaeo
with these structures occurred when
of the impoundments and
impoundments the stand

Through years
methods to water control
degrees of success. Both wooden and
flap-gates have been used in the culverts to
levels. The concrete
3, and 4, have been more
These gates add be from
or let into the

Forced drainage has ent

management one-way used on 2, 8, 3,
and 14 (Ensminger With these could be forced of
impoundments to allow
was dependent upon rainfall in the fall months
waterfowl. Later, in double pumps installed Units
14 to allow water to be in or out the and
various techniques, the g-reatest water-level control.
operate, however, because of the
hours of pumping time necessary

In addition to these active

intensive water-level control
 2-7

n.t>Au-itio only but a other

such as
and rather
COirtlOi!eX fietWQI!k Q.tJ>u~1'UJ>A I' ""'"""'"J'C' that function as enhanced
and fish and research
 CHAPTER 3:: PHYSICAL SETTING

In order to fully comprehend the that have occurred on the

Rockefeller Refuge and to that are
practical, as well as desirable, it is necessary to understand the This
chapter contains a discussion of the forms and processes that govern habitat
distribution, especially on the The function and value
of the refuge for wildlife and research is and chane:es in habitat
over the past 40 years are depicted on vegetation maps researchers.
Habitat changes and marsh loss were and
habitats from aerial photographs alone: three north-south transects which covered 32
percent of the refuge.

The refuge ties within the southeastern portion the Chenier Plain between
approxi.mately 9255' and 9230' west It is bordered on the south by
the Gulf of Mexico and on the north by the Grand Chenier Ridge The refuge
boundaries are very linear because the land was or
thereof and some section boundaries serve as the boundaries. Planimetering of
the most recent USGS topographic maps reveals that the refuge contains
approximately 76,042 ac, excluding 640 ac the boundary belonging to the
Vermilion Parish School Board. This figure J.uu ........ a. a loss ac
since 1914 due to shoreline erosion along the of Mexico. The acreage the
original purchase is given as 86,000 by Mcilhenny {1930) and ns5,000 acres more or
less" according to the Deed of Donation

The Chenier Plain, consisting recent sediments overlvinrz uu.,;vu.1.. the eroded
surface of the Prairie Formation, L of the
Mississippi River Deltaic Plain The sediments have a
minimal thickness along their with the Pleistocene the
 and range 20 to 40 thick along the

in the western portion of the

west to the Chenier Plain
the development of mud flats
eastward, sediment
Plain slowed. In some
beach ridges. This
and resulted in a
o?>n'oni- in the marsh, which
east-west roughly parallel

oldest are the Pecan Island trend, the back r.idge of Belle
Junius and Wildcat .... r~no.-.c have been radiocarbon dated at

yrs well sea level reached a. still stand

One the longest ridges is Grand
extends eastward the Mermentau for almost 70 mi and
Like most ridges, this one is narrow, about
curve inland over the marsh, and seldom exceeds
and Howe cheniers are very distinctive
oaks virginiana), on the otherwise low-
prominence, the region is
Chene is the French word oak (Gould and Morgan 1962).

the Chenier Plain region influence the

and it from the Deltaic Plain RetTion of
Louisiana. the chenier played a strategic role in the
movement water to and from the of
197 Palmisano The well-dt~fi

and
tidal inundation
 tidal channels and
number channel
30 years because
meandering tidal additional there was
only one or no openings. The average
mean sea level
channels and and the amount
meteorological
During periods of or which cause low winter
the marsh is subject to extreme low water. Extended low-water expose the
marsh to the threat of which new lakes.
the average tidal fluctuation in the area is 1 tides associated
onshore winds from storms the marshes at least once
bringing in marine mud and
of saline muds creates a firmer marsh than is . . ..,..ocoan't Plain
prevents the formation of highly marsh
impoundments on the refuge, beginning the
input of saline water and mud to areas nearest the
(Chabreck 1960b). However, extreme hinohma+ovo the levees
and cause the impounded areas to be than are desirable
under the management program. When this uauucu.D. are
until the levees are repaired and the salt is imoounded areas either
through pumping or normal and

The marshes on the Rockefeller occupy an basin the

Grand Chenier Ridge to the north and the lower sea rim beach to the south
(Figure 3-1). Prior to major man-made reached this
basin through precipitation and
freshwater rush marshes near the chenier The rush marsh zone was
primarily by bulrush, and cattail
Freshwater ponds in this zone IJ..;V1H.. a.J.m:;;;u

sp.), bladderwort
duckweeds
(Lynch 1942).
 3-4

SEA
BEACH
E SEA RIM
S M RSHES

GULF

MUD SOILS
Mar (Stream
e It )

5,

0 I

3-1. drainage, and marsh types

lower two-thirds of the
low salinity marsh
supported grey duck
brackish interior marshes were

The distribution
has been altered
4. The base map
maps, but the
taken maps
Linscombe

In the 1940s, the

direction to the coast
salt-tolerant grew near the Q'ulfft became
fresher toward the Grand
construction the Humble Oil
entered from Harbor the
Headquarters the canals in
trappers and local travelers and
Research, Inc. show open
water bodies despite a severe subseauent
Chenier Plain in 1924
these earlier burns, and dense stands
dendritic patterns slow
man-made burns were undertaken the
danger of

The
the Intracoastal
change the
 3-6

e1..t11.1vu Zones in 1949 (O'Neil

sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense)

to Intermediate cattail spp.)
bulrush californicus)
roseau cane (Phragmites australis)
, ___ ________ lancifolia)
9

{Zizaniopsis miliacea)

Three-Cornered coco (Scirpus robustus)

Grass or Coco Marsh wiregrass patens)
tn.:J:\.1;::)11 Marsh) hogcane (Spartina cynosuroides)

~~.-..-..;u~ln Drained black rush (Juncus roemerianus)

Marsh wiregrass (Spartina patens)
oystergrass (Spartina alterniflora)
sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense)

Rim sand and shell deposits

1 These marsh zones correspond to the rush marshes, interior marshes, sea rim
marshes and sea beach, respectively, shown in Figure 3-1.
east-west
rapid saline
freshwater, basin and
precipitation and local natural
drained out of the marshes but uoateo on
of the dendritic
drainage corners and ,...,...,..,.;,.....1-,
the marsh
which conformed to the

Between 1942 and 1

rl.nco+nr.n'"'rl on the as a
rush marshes
areas appear to be at the man-made
brackish marsh boundary.

A vegetation map (Plate 3) (Table illustrates the

inlandmost expansion of brackish marsh communities in the mid-1950So
The marsh hay cordgrass zone av1"onri.orl almost to the
ridge, and a broad area saltwater intrusion Humble Canal between
Grand Chenier and the North Island Canal. little intermediate
marsh, and the fresh marsh marsh the Canal
adjacent to the chenier ridge remnants. The of the
leveed impoundments along the northern oortion a

when saline to brackish marshes reached their most extent.

The sawgrass die-off was the most the one most

responsible for the increasingly
(1976) asserted that the massive southwest LIVU.l.::>J.UHU result
of saltwater flooding by
1982) have noted that the was dead
associated with the
bare mud of
the mysteries associated with
disappearance and the other
 3-8

Table 3-2. Vegetation Zones in 1959 (Nichols 1959b)

Marsh Complex bulrush (Scirpus californicus)

cattail (Typha
sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense)
cutgrass (Zizaniopsis miliaceae)

- - - - lancifolia)
roseau cane australis)

Marsh Complex bulrush californicus)

roseau cane (Phragmites australis)
hogcane cynosuroides)
bulltongue lancifolia)

Marsh Hay Cordgrass Zone wiregrass (Spartina patens)

Marsh) saltgrass (Distichlis spicata)
coco (Scirpus robustus)
oystergrass (Spartina alterniflora)
needlegrass rush (Juncus roemerianus)

Seashore Saltgrass Zone saltgrass (Distichlis spicata)

\IJCU..l.m:::; Marsh) wiregrass (Spartina patens)
oystergrass (Spartina alterniflora)

and Levee iva (Iva frutescens)

sea oxeye (Borrichia frutescens)
saltgrass (Distichlis spicata)
saltwort (Batis maritima)
hogcane (Spartina cynosuroides)
oystergrass (Spartina al terniflora)
 much of the interior
was already under stress because
the additional stress saltwater intrusion
caused it to die Because
hydrologic
were lowered
in the marsh muck. The
retard its reestablishement

late 197 8, the success

to control the
evident 4, Table
half Unit 6, and most the northern reaches
to marsh. The northernmost ru... ,,...,.,,.,...,C'
contained very low to almost
distinguishing features, water and
management units ""'"""~""'""''"' in 1982.

In order to and ,....,.,,...,.T.T

1930 and 1978, the habitats three north-south transects

Lake, and Flat Lake) were interoreted time black white
(Tobin Research, 197
photographs and topographic maps
for three of the time order
to quantify habitat vAH.A.Ub'V<J

on the refuge during this

Chabreck and Linscombe O'Neil
reconnaissance during the ac in
1974/79 and t"an.raco

1974/79. The areal data for the Flat

that are owned the Vermilion Parish ...,..._,,.""'" . .
 3-10

3-3. Zones in 1978 (Chabreck and Linscombe 1978)

Marsh wiregra.ss (Spartina patens)

deer pea (Vigna repens)
bulltongue (Sagittaria spp.)
wild millet (Echinochloa walteri)
bull rush (Scirpus ca.lifornicus)
sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense)

Marsh wiregrass (Spartina patens)

three-cornered grass {Scirpus olneyi)
coco (Scirpus robustus)*
widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima)

ua...~.J.uv Marsh oystergra.ss (Spartina a.lterniflora)

salicornia (Salicornia spp.)
black rush (Juncus roemerianus)
batis (Batis maritima)
saltgra.ss (Distichlis spicata)

more prevalent than three-cornered grass on the refuge

Table Distinguishing Features, Water Management, Wildlife Usage, and Vegetation Zones for Rockefeller Management

UNIT APPROXIMATE DISTINGUISHING FEATURE WATER MANAGEMENT WILDLIFE USAGE*

AREA (AC)
-~-~-~

1,250 Unit for 1980s; Forced Drainage

Unit

1,400 Least Impacted By Saltwater Gravity Drainage

Intrusion in 1950s;
Elevation

3,709 Gravity

5,1580 Open Water Controlled

Originlll
Objective:

4,900 Created as Result of Brackish

es; Hard to Manage:
Near Gulf

13,500 One of Moot Controlled Estuarine

Ecosystems;
White L~e System

500 Manegement A waits Outcome Basically Unmanaged Estuarine Organisms Saline

of Oil Industry in Area

1,030 Good Size for Unit; One Forced Drainage Waterfowl, Fresh
of Moot Productive Crayfish Intermediate

100 Permanently Flooded Gravity Drainage Fish (freshwater) Fresh to

(not presently managed) Intermediate

10 480 Good Size for Unit; Forced Drainge Waterfowl, Intermediate

Productive Crayfish
13 1,770 Good Size for Unit; Forced Drainge Waterfowl,
Productive Crayfish

14 . 2,400 Good Size for Unit; Forced Drainge Waterfowl, Intermediate

Productive Crayfish
15 900 Construction Objective: Gravity Drainage Waterfowl, Furbearers, Brackish
Does Lin~r Impoundment Alligators
Offer Management
Advantages

Price 7,500 Newest Impoundment; Passive Estuarine Wadinl:!' and Shorebirds. Brackish
Lake Excellent Area for
Birds and Waterfowl

South of 5,200 Hi~her Sea Rim Marsh Basically Unmanaged Estuarine

Price Lake With Little Management Waterfowl, Shorebirds to Saline
Pigeon n. 16,500 Needs More Manr;rement; Passive Estuarine Estuarine Or11:anlsms. Brackish
to MB.rsh
Rollover B.

South of ,200 Needs Basically Unmanaged Estuarine

Unit 6 Marsh Waterfowl, Shorebirds Saline

the fresh, intermediate and brackish marsh areas, the waterways.

Furbearers are common in lower salinity areas
 3-12

Table 3-5. Habitat Area in Miller Lake Transect for 1930, 1955/56 and 197 4/79*

HABITAT AREA IN ACRES

HABIT AT TYPE 1930 1955/56 1974/79 CHANGE

Fresh Marsh 0 0 0 0
Intermediate Marsh 2,672 1,661 1,648 -1,024
Marsh 4,181 3,668 -513
Marsh 1,026 1,157 504 -522
Canals 24 117 197 +173
Other Water 522 599 1,814 +1~292

TOTAL 8,425 8,287 7,831 -594

*Interpretations made from aerial photographs (Tobin Research, Inc. 1930; 1955/56)
and USGS topographic maps (197 4/79). Habitat data from O'Neil (1949), Nichols
and Chabreck and Linscombe (1978).
 3-6. Habitat Area in Lake Transect

HABITAT AREA IN ACRES

HABITAT TYPE 1930

Fresh Marsh 0 1 201 0

Intermediate Marsh 1,303 0 ,553
Brackish Marsh 6,013 4 322 -1,
Saline Marsh 1,130 1 726 386
Canals 4 252 291
Other Water
TOTAL 9,507 9.255

*Interpretations made from aerial photographs (Tobin Inc.

and USGS topographic maps (1974/79). Habitat data from O'Neil Nichols
(1959b) and Chabreck and Linscombe (1978).
 3-14

Table 3-7. Habitat Area in Flat Lake Transect for 1930, 1955/56 and 1974/79*

HABITAT AREA IN ACRES

TYPE 1930 1955/56 1974/79 CHANGE

Fresh Marsh 0 1,365 0 0

Marsh 3,253 24 1,666 -1,587
3,262 4,746 3,762 +500
Saline Marsh 1,149 788 893 -256
Canals 0 39 54 +54
Other Water 767 1,126 1,710 +943
TOTAL 8,431 8,088 8,085 -346

*Interpretations made from aerial photographs (Tobin Research, Inc. 1930, 1955/56)
and USGS topographic maps (1974/79). Habitat data from O'Neil (1949), Nichols
(1959b) and Chabreck and Linscombe (1978).
 Joanen et al.
aerial indicate that marsh best
the northern ~

levels can be lowered in sorin~ and summer

such as wild
lowered in

stands
of and bulrush. Water levels in could be
drainage, but the area is UU<J.LvU.U. as a brackish with
alter or ~v1uuv.::u.

When the data

_ must be The land-water
USGS topographic maps appears to
time of photography The USGS maps were revised
apparently, only with such as canals and
of the 1978 of shoreline
such as the the beach south Constance proves the
1 USGS maps rather than

all water on USGS maps may not be

water bodies. In areas such as the many VVU.I.vu

are very shallow (i.e., less than 6

water periods, they may appear as or bare mud rain can
turn a marsh short such as a
lake within a few hours. course, in leveed mon
practice to begin flooding the marshes in so
that taken in late fall should show more open water than
be on taken late summer. Such must considered
when analvzin~ data on land loss the in order to understand the
nland loss" is a desired result or an uuuc;..:n.l

must be retarded or reversed

 3-16

overall environmental trend for the Rockefeller Refuge has been an

decrease in marsh and an increase in open water. This trend can be quantifier1
the areal habitat data for the three transects that cover 32 percent of the
Between 1930 and 197 4/79, the land to water ratio changed
.-."'"""~"" ........ to 78:22 percent. Analysis of aerial photographs and maps for the
the that habitat changes along these sample transects are
of habitat changes on the entire refuge.

marsh in the the data show that the third of the refuge
ac because erosion between 1930 and 1974/79
appears to be more severe on the western
the than on the eastern portion (Plates 6, 7, and 8).

Between 1930 and 1978, waterbodies in the marsh near the gulf filled in with sediment
washed inland via marine erosional processes. Miller Lake (Plate 6), a round lake,
decreased in diameter because of shoreline accretion, and Little Constance Lake
was completely filled with marine sediments entering through Little
Constance Breakup appeared to be less severe in the saline marshes along the
because sediment was being added to this area via "over beacht' flooding
periods. However, this marsh zone decreased in area between 1930
1978 because the zone did not expand inland as fast as it was eroded along the

appears to be severe in the brackish interior marshes where there is little

active water-level management (i.e., Unit 5, Price Lake, and between Pigeon Bayou
and Rollover Subsidence may be a contributing factor to marsh breakup in
these units, because areas within these units which contain buried beach ridges that
are less prone to compaction have a denser vegetation cover than lower areas adjacent
the The northwestern portion of Price Lake shows extensive marsh
This section was the site extensive deep marsh burns, and geese and muskr-at
eat-outs in the 1940s and 1950s. Water levels are apparently too high during most of
year to of the eat-out areas.

Those units where water levels are drawn down to encourage production
such as Units 1, 2, 3, 8, 10. 13. and 14. show dense veQ."etative cover
 as Measured on of the
nnd data from

HABITAT TYPE 1930

Acres % Acres % Acres %

0 0 2,566 10 0
Intermediate 7,228 27 1,685 7 5,867 23
Brackish 13,456 51 14,656 57 11,752 47
Saline 3,305 13 3,671 14 1,783 522
Canals 28 1 408 2 542 2
Other 2,346 9 2,644 10 5,048 20
-
TOTAL 26,362 25,630 24,992

*Area lost to erosion along Gulf of Mexico between 1930 and 1974.
 3-18

and T"\OV"anrn '"11 ... , ........ the low water season. When the units are flooded
much of the vegetation is covered and the units
breakup. flooded conditions, the taller
oystergrass, and bulrush, constitute the
therefore marsh vegeta ..... vu.

unit that appears to have severe marsh breakup problems.

and sawgrass removed much of the in
of the unit in the late 1940s and 1950s. Early attempts to
down the water did not have the desired effect of
sawgrass or encouraging the expansion of wiregrass
it was to this as an estuarine area. It is
a organisms as crabs and shrimp, and it supports
a waterfowl food.

The discussion has touched on a few of the many factors that must be
considered in photographs and making value judgements about land loss
the success programs tor preserving fish and wildlife habitats.
the (Plates 6, 7, and 8) and the areal measurements
do a preliminary basis for understanding the
wetland managem techniques discussed in the remainder of this report.
 and

at the eastern

intrusion
The mean
control
per thousand

water
 4-2

POTENTIAl

SURPlUS

4-1. Average monthly water balance for Gueydan, Louisiana

1945-1968.
-1
en
:I 1
....w
w
l&.

CATFISH
CONTROL STRUCTURE (north)

----- GRAND CHENIER

-1-4--~--~~--~--~--T---~--~---r--~--~--~---,

4-2. Mean
River at the
Structure and
 4-4

...&
fl)

:.11
....
w
w
u.

SCHOONER BAYOU lOCKS (wast)

FRESHWATER

-1-L--,---,---~--r---~~---,--~--~---r---r--,

J f A M J J A S 0 D
MONTH

4-3. Mean monthly stages at the Schooner

Bayou Locks (west) and the Freshwater
Canal at the Freshwater Bayou Locks
1970-1978).
 20
FRESHWATER

15

-
~
~

....> 10
....~
c
;

0~--~--~--r---~~--~--~--~--~--~~r--,

Figure 4-4. three

Lake
 of marsh loss because
and intermediate matsh

between the
Chenier and the Freshwater
to

v that are not

The also
Canal. The
mi from the Catfish Point
Locks. The average head
west east 4-2 and a
average water continues
level Canal at its
v -0.18 ft from that
is evident that the
Grand Lake were it not
structures on Little Constance
which control a area
also an element in the
which calls structure
to ...... "" . . "> ..... 1- saltwater intrusion
These

units where
and fisheries
 Sl!Ufl
SJ

S!4l Japun
asn-nlflw
 v controlled with
tidal
level of effort
this

contains
water bodies
constructed and

low-level weirs
p..~.aun.::> with either
aluminum sheet When
8 to add
to the main
vertical to
wall across the drain to
as in the Price Lake
are driven
minimum 15 into
the structure.

the average marsh level. The

water over the
of
levels and reduction of
 was

Lake

levels in
water
least
tidal
would

weirs set o in
stabilize water
set 6 in below
insures
as
winds. 'The
water levels
establishment
and

and

a program
the
.._,.._,,u.,._,,;:_L) an
 than the installation earthern dams
saltwater the Price Lake Unit was not under any structural
until 1967. that weirs were
Miller and in the canal Miller
Harbor with the Humble '--'a.uc.u..

Personnel at the have run marsh transects on annual since 195 to

record water level and and to determine
and area
Joanen J oanen et al.
Price Lake was
For each year
one
n~~~n~ in the Lake Unit Ul\;J..U.u

and three-cornered grass.

was the most abundant annual, and
plant. The was summed each group and
the . . . ,. ,. .. ,..nnt-orro of area vegetated to compute the coverage
the transect The results are ,.......,...,....,'"' .... 4-6. The annuals
and the majority the so that the
of these groups indicates a favorable response to the
in the Price Lake Unit. The vef!'etative transect
data show that waterfowl foods were each year. a
rather emerges in terms the either annuals or
in the Price Lake

the the and summer

that allowed a cover
of annuals Price
Unit. the wetter years but
accounted for more than 16 ,......,. . . nanT \..JLU\A\.A.-L...I. the
transect. In omh.a.,.. 1 a severe marsh burn this
 100

AQUATIC PLANTS

EMERGENT ANNUALS
80
EMERGENT PERENNIALS

0
w
1-
<
t-ao
w
~
w
...z>
w 40
0
0:
w
0.

~
20 I
f-l.
t:,J
NO

DATA

0--L----
1958 60 65 70 74
YEAR

MANAGEMENT NO MANAGEMENT LOW LEVEL WAKEFffiLD WEIRS

EVENTS.
LEVEES ADDED
1
SEPT. 1965
SEVERE MARSH BURN
FOLLOWED BY HIGH
SALINE TIDES
CAUSED MARSH LOSS

Figure 4-6. Vegetative transect data and management events for the Price Lake Unit, 1960-1974.

l.).w,,.,..,~.,!
 100 l TOTAL RAINFALL
SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY
MARCH-AUGUST
80

~ 60
E
..1
..J
<!(
u.
~ 40
<!(
a:

20

NO
DATA

1958 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
YEAR

4-7. Seasonal patterns annual recorded at the .l.\.V'L!'I.I::::-.1.

Refuge from 1960 through 1974.

tilfl

pus 9961
 4-15

10

..
Q,
Q,

...z> 5
:i
<C
0

0~--,---~--~--~--r--,---,--~---r---r--,.~

1.5

.. 1.0
....
..;
w
>
w 0.5
-'
a:
...w
<C
~ -~r~_!.!!! - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0

-0.5~---r---r--,---,---~--~--~--~--~--~--~-,
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
MONTH
. . . , ......... .,.,. 4-8. Mean monthly salinity and water levels recorded
for the Lake Unit, 1967-1973.
OH.Lll.'ldWO::::> Rli.All.'l

Oll.'l'IV.LSNI
 4-17

Robert , ,.... ,.,"" .... """ 7 and

on the fish and
trawl were taken within the Price Lake Unit
December 1981 Table 4-1 lists a summary this in
the catch per month and total number
Some of the more abundant

The many avv>vJ.vo on this list substantiates

that Price Lake. under a ,......., ... "",,..,... is as an
nursery m-ound on the

To the in the Price

have been in ni"Ar!1l m or
muskrat and Snow Goose foods. This unit is continued marsh
with a in open water area. does allow
and egress, as the Lake Unit is now
The the
but the levee enclosure and weirs
may contribute to the water
levels.

During the period of initial saltwater intrusion into the most what is now
Unit 4 became open water due to a the sawgrass marsh. At oresent. the unit
encompasses about 5680 ac marsh and semi-
open water areas. '"'"'""''""',.... the northern eastern
boundaries of the unit were constructed the and are maintained
the the western and
boundaries of the unit were constructed oil '"''-''11!JU.1U......"". These va.11.1. 'Co:> now
 4-18

Table Trawl Data for 1981, Inside Price Lake Unit: Full Species List
--
MONTHLY MEAN CATCH PER EFFORT

SPECIES APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC TOTAL*

8.33 452.67 151.00 167.67 8.00 20.67 1.33 1. 33 4.00 2445

1.00 62.00 133.00 63.00 55.00 188.33 91.33 1781

41.67 18.33 14.33 45.00 17.67 10.00 27.33 3.67 543

3.67 125.00 37.33 52.33 13.33 11.00 21.67 0.33 794

0.33 0.33 2

9.00 7.00 4.67 3.67 2.67 81

1.00 0.33 0.67 6

0.33 104.67 15.00 18.67 9.67 8.00 10.67 239.00 11.00 1251

45.33 38.67 2.67 2.33 267

2.33 136.33 3.00 5.33 441

0.67

1.67 2.00 2.67 0.33 1.67 25

0.33 1.33 0.33 0.67 8

0.33

Dorosoma cepedianum 1.67 17.67 0.67 5.00 0.33 76

Wfzzard shad)
4.00 0.33 1.67 0.33 19

Menidia beryllina 1.33 0.33 0.33 34.33 109

--rfidewater silverside)
0.67 0.67 360.00 1084

Mugil rphalus 1.00 0.67 0.33 2.00 8.00 10.00 66

Striped mullet)
3.00 9

2.33 6.67 1.00 22.00 1.00 7.33 1.33 4.33 138

1.67 0.67 2.33

 4-19

SPECIES MAY JUNE JULY

0.33 0.33 0.33 1.00

3.00 9

Bagre marinus
(Gafttopsail catfish)

1.67 18.00 0.67 1.33 3.00

*Total number of individuals caught (3 replicates per month)

Source: Davidson 1982

 4-20

the resoonsibilit of repairing damage to these levees at no expense to

In the levees on either side of the Humble Canal have been
due to v>::~J.vucu. damage caused boat wakes. Refuge and oil
... '""............... ""' . . . levees are "'""'"""'"""'"". . . on Plate L

was water levels were controlled by numerous 36-in

metal culverts. These culverts will be described in the following section on
water exchange is managed via a
control structure L."'UHI..ttll seven variable stainless steel flap-gates
southwest corner A schematic drawing of a
this shows that the main portion is com posed
series vertical concrete walls topped a concrete walkway. A cross-section
the structure would appear "T"-shaped. Steel sheet pile wing walls extend from the
structure well into the levee on all sides to secure the structure against erosion. In
the channel and levee berm are covered with articulated concrete
mats to prevent Within the vertical concrete walls, stop-log bays
imbedding steel "U" channels in the sides of 4 X 8 ft holes.
each equipped a protruding handling pins, are seated in the bays
slots in the walkway up to the of the desired water level in the unit.
are attached to one side of a wooden frame that is the same
as the nun channels and stop-logs. These gates are seated in the bays on top of
With stop-logs at the desired elevation, the flap-gates can be diiected
excess precipitation from the managed area while preventing inflow
estuarine organisms and brackish water. The unit managed with these structures
be flooded or drained adding or removing stop-logs, respectively, depending on
conditions and rainfall.

The management classification can also be applied to Unit 6,

elements and goals are much different for this unit than for
4 and 5. Unit 6, 13,500 ac, is completely leveed except for an open
to Grand Lake through the Superior Canal. Although water levels can not
controlled in this a navigation lock on the Property Line Canal and two
concrete radial lift structures on Big Constance and Little Constance are
both alleviate flooding and prevent saltwater intrusion into Grand
concrete radial lift control structure is depicted in 4-11.
1z-v
 STORAGE SHED

WINDLASS \
~
STEEl RADIAl GATES I
1:-.:>
rubber seal on 1:-.:>

1. c front of concrete and stainless steel radial lift gate control structure.
 windlass and gear boxes.
or hand cranks. Each is curved and
walls the structure an arm and a on each Side. The can,
with water pressure on them.
small boats can pass

The of controlled estuarine are centered around multi-use

unit both estuarine ~ In Unit
"'"_,.,..,.+, .. .-..., are to admit to the unit uc\..jua.t..c numbers of
abundance at the same
favor

The main influencing is has

that draining shallow, open water areas allows and the
soft bottom muds. Upon the dried crust is more resistant to
by wind To allow comoaction of
bottom muds, the unit is drawn down one year out three. This is
in Februarv. when stoo-loe.'S are removed and the uao-g-ates are
on the Unit 4 control structure to ""'"'"''""' ..... water. From March
~Tune or July, the structure remains in this draw-down mode. Around
the unit is reflooded and are added to and ~ .................. ~y
water levels. Water is then held at this level

In with the statewide of and Fisheries

Louisiana Wilrllife and Fisheries program, the of
brown ~ L L is .__ in late and March. When
concentrations of are discovered in the the
are reversed for a short time to of
shrimp. water levels within the unit
switched back to the It takes about 19.8 million cu ft
raise the level Unit 4 v ,_,v,~'-'-'"'-''-'-' to
numbe~ and other into the unit detrim
 4-24

the water turbidity, and salinity. The same procedure is followed during peak
of postlarval white shrimp. Estuarine organisms are able to exit from
unit when the are discharging at low tide.

management for Unit 6 are to alleviate flooding due to

saltwater intrusion during low rainfall periods. When the water
the Canal and the Property Line Canal reaches
+2.5 to +3.0 ft msl, the navigation lock and radial gate control
are ooened (Ensminger Because the radial gate control structures
and must be manually operated, the gates
remain open .... ,..,.., ... ,-i of time even the water level falls below the
criticallevel. the heavy rains of late fall and early winter (Figures 4-2 and
the structures can remain open until April, on the average. During the late
winter and early spring, as surpluses begin to diminish, the marshes in the southern
of the unit experience some gentle tidal action as the mean tide level begins to
increase. estuarine organisms takes place during this time and saltwater
"""""'-.._ ... ., to enter the unit (Figure 4-12). When salinity increases become evident within
the structures are closed. Figure 4-12 shows that the gates tend to remain
closed May through August, but must sometimes be reopened during September
lower the water level in the unit.

In the structures may have to be opened in any month of the year to achieve
desired water levels, but each time, an exchange of saline and fresh waters is allowed
to occur before the gates are closed. This practice has led to a diverse wetland
environment in Unit 6, ranging from saline-brackish marsh near the structures to
fresh-intermediate marsh at the Property Line Canal.

An indication of the value of Unit 4 as a waterfowl impoundment can be seen from the
of coverage by perennial, annual, and aquatic vegetation (Figure
several years, annual and aquatic plants covered almost 40 percent of the
The dominant aquatic plant was widgeongrass, and the most
due to the normally brackish water conditions
 -D.
A

>=
!::
!
"""
<II(
0

UNIT 1883-1
1.0-, .MERMENTAU RIVER CATFISH POINT
CONTROL STRUCTURE (north)

-
"':. 0.5
w
"""
>
w
"""
a::
~ 0
<

~-5~--~----~--~--,---~--.--.---.--~~--.--;
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
MONTH

Figure 4-12. Comparison of mean monthly water levels and

salinities behind control structures at Catfish Point
and in 6 (USGS 1970-78; USACE
Chabreck 1963; Chabreck and Joanen
Joanen et al. 1967-1973).
 100

AQUA TIC PLANTS

EMERGENT ANNUALS
80 EMERGENT PERENNIALS

0
w
,...
<t
,... 60
w
(!)
w
>
....
z
w40
()
a:
w
Q.

20 ~
I
~
(j')

0 70 74
1958 60 65
I YEAR
I 1955- LEVEES BUILT
MANAGEMENT METAL FLAP-GATE CULVERTS FLAP-GATE CULVERTS LEAKING
EVENTS INSTALLED

CONCRETE VARIABLE CREST REVERSIBLE

I
LEVEE REPAffiS
FLAP-GATE STRUCTURES

WESTSIDE
SOME FLAP-GATE
1
ALL FLAP-GATE
CULVERTS PLUGGED CULVERTS REMOVED

Figure 4-13. Vegetative transect data and management events for Unit 4, 1958-1974.

~~
~~"'"""'""
 1,

observed this unit \LJ!A.::Jl!U.l in

the and summer

annuals and was low. The

year to allow \,;VlWV..LJ.ua.

and to en courage In years

which water was abundant and 1967
excessive the reason
because multi-use
order to animals
and

In Dr. Chabreck's research on fish and values

water ~ trawl were taken
out~de of Unit 4 (Davidson These indicate substantial
utilization within Unit 4 by brown and shrimp, blue crab, white trout
black drum, Atlantic croaker and
~ a few more opc;\,;.1= Unit
within the was
and commercial are that Unit 4 is viable
nursery ground in turn, spawned an enthusiastic cast net
for local sportsmen 1982). It has been that Unit 4 may as
much as 300,000 lbs shrimp in some years (Ensminger 1982).

Unit is under in that the is to

saltwater intrusion with levees and concrete control structures.
Unit 6 has been consistent producer of
are and annuals and are
In some years, stands ~
The monu~orl purposes and utilizes
Grand and Lakes enter area
 tOO

AQUATIC PLANTS

EMERGENT ANNUALS
80 EMERGENT PERENNIALS

Q
w
1-
<
1-60
LIJ
C)
w
>
1-
z
w4o
0
a: ~
I
UJ r:-.J
a. 00

\
20

0
1958 60 65 70 74
I YEAR
I
MANAGEMENT l NO MANAGEMENT f ~ CONCRETE RADIAL LIFT GATB STRUCTURES ,...
EVENTS I LEVEES
I BU~T
I
I

Figure 4-14. Vegetative transect data and management events for Unit 6, 1958-1974.

~~~ ~"~ili
 Full List

MONTHLY

APR JUNE JULY OCT NOV

119.33 485.33 3.67 0.33 3.67

45.00 126.67 61.00 19.00 100.33

4.67

1.67 2.33

0.67

1.00 440.67

6.67 5.67 24.67 10.00 0.67

0.33

0.67 1.00 0.33

0.67 8

0.67 2

1.67 2.67

8.33 3257.33 9804

6.67 1700.00

0.33 0.67 4.33 4.67 1.00 36

0.33

0.33 0.33

88.33 20.67 54.67 176.33

729.00
; shrimp)

individuals caught per month)

Source: 1982
 4-30

MONTHLY MEAN CATCH PER EFFORT

APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC TOTAL*

99.67 13.00 3.67 0.33 3.00 1.00 828

24.33 252.67 699.67 78.00 30.33 3803

2. 2.67 7.00 342

5.00 9.67 51

33 0.33

129.67 5.67 0.33

1.67 1.33 0.33 4.33 57.33

37.67 63.00 16.33 6.33 2.00 0.67 1.00 0.33 382

1.67 0.33 6

0.67

16.67 33 4.67 5.00 6.33 2.00 3.00 132

0.33

1.33 0.67 1.33 10

0.33

9.33 28

7.33 2.67 30

1.00 16.67 53

4.00 8.67 126.67 95.00 122.00 32.67 3.00 1191

 4-31

concluded

SPECIES APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC TOTAL*

4.00 0.33 0.33 1.00 17

7.00

1.33 4

0.33

2.00 1.00 0.33 2.00 16

1.33 0.33
catfish)

0.33

0.33

0.67 33 5.67 3.00 0.67 1.00 2.00 7.67

*Total number of individuals caught (3 replicates per month)

Source: Davidson 1982

 4-32

estuarine and is dependent on the opening

structures on and Little Constance and, therefore.
as in Unit 4. However. because water salinities
much of the time this
the An extraordinary amount
been done at the nvcl'-c.L most of it within
is not available to substantiate this it is believed that this
the main area for Mottled Ducks on the
that nests in substantial numbers in
that includes dewatering
is not beneficial
'-''"'''-U.'"'""'"' water is an essential for them, especially during
Mottled Duck does eat some vegetation and seeds, it feeds
matter such as snails, and crayfish (Bellrose 1976) and
waterfowl on water manipulations for food
1moortant runcnon by insuring that favorable habitat
both the Mottled Duck and the on the Rockefeller Refuge.

Unit 4, has been c;u:nroroa.hr by saltwater intrusion and resultant

The 3.700 ac Unit 3 (Plate presently contain perennial brackish
in elevated areas and fresher annual plant species and/or aquatic
lower areas where marsh has occurred.

with a variable crest, reversible flap-gate

one described Unit 4 (Figure 4-10). The structure
Canal in the northeast corner of the unit
was as were Units 1, 2, 4, 8, 13, and
metal culverts One of these was installed
levees for each 640 ac of managed area. The strncture
1en2:tn of corrug:ated metal culvert with a hinged metal flao-g:ate on t!le
 IMPOUNDMENT LEVEE CANAL
AQUATICS ANNUALS PERENNIALS I I I
I I I

>+:>.
I
w
HIGH TIDE w
-----------
_ _J.Q_W_T_!D_! __ _

SCREW TYPE LIFT GATE

Figure 4-15. Schematic longitudinal section of a 36-inch flap-gated metal culvert.

 stand on the side. The
the
The unit was bv closinf! the
of stand

because the metal was corroded

prone to the and
The stand did not allow
level within the unit. the
low cost. ease
not
culvert has
and stand pipe have
to variable control of water
u~:-.ll-'llr.u to orevent leakage. The end of the culvert
and the is double-hinged to give a
acts to a tight seal by releasing
have a much working life and to

for these units is to control water

important waterfowl food plants.
are herbaceous annual plants that must be
of their seeds. To induce seed germination
l:J.lttul..:::~, water levels must be drawn down to near the level of
Once germination is achieved
desirable to reflood the unit
plant maturity is
to insme the
The draw-down is initiated in the
:scl!le(JUI.eu for
 "0
m
(I) :u
m
..... z
0
,..
"U
D
,..,..z
(f)
0
Q
):0
::::J m
0.. :1>
-<
 and

when occurs in
and
maintained

and
u. ................... ,. water to enter
this

annuals
between 0 and 3
c;p.u::;;uJ.01l the
high salinity

reversible the
not so and
much more

the draw-down
soil moisture
foods
Walter's millet
panicum
the annuals
ducks
Teal
of
such as American
to
 4-37

v\..-lHl.l\.:{Uv has
foods on the nv~,.;r...~::.L

at the
structures based on
transect by refuge
and has
several these years,
substantial stands herbaceous annuals with
In almost 60
herbaceous annual L of the years
area was greater than 60 percent. Mean water levels and
4-1 the trend dewatering the summer and a
u.t"' ... "'F. between 2 - 5

Unit 3 encompasses the site a severe marsh as a result saltwater intrusion

in the 1950s Because of this, the marsh in some areas of
this unit may be it more to dewater with
than some of the other impoundments. This and a higher
have resulted in many years of of and sea
two that
tolerate brackish water and are

the lack of rainfall permitted drvine- of Unit 3 and seed

conditions and plant survival was poor
occurred in 1973, and 197 4 when rains made
with It is
of annuals poor but

the concrete was

 100
AQUATIC PLANTS

EMERGENT ANNUALS

80 EMERGENT PERENNIALS

0
UJ
1-
<
1-60
LLJ
C)
UJ
>
t-
z
UJ 40
0
ex:
UJ
c.
~
20 I
w
00

0 74
1958 60 65 70
I YEAR
l 1955 - LEVEES CONSTRUCTED FLAP-GATE CULVERTS LEAKING
MANAGEMENT II METAL FLAP-GATE CULVERTS
INSTALLED
WOODEN BOX FLAP-GATES
EVENTS l INSTALLED
I
I FLAPGATE STRUCTURES
I
I
I
t
ALL FLAp-GATE CULVERTS
LEVEE REPAIRS- EASTSIDE
l SOME FLAP-GATE REMOVED, WOODEN BOX
I . CULVERTS PLUGGED FLAP-GATES PLUGGED

Figure 4-17. Vegetative transect data and management events for Unit 3, 1958-1974.

~-~-r!OJ
iJ~.,.~~
 5

...
1:1.
1:1.
,: 3
1-
z
:::i
2

c 1
0

1.0

--
II)

,.;
0.5
w
>
w
..1
a: 0.0
w
....
01(
~

-0.5~--~--~--r-~~~--~---r---r--~--~--~~

J F A M J J A S 0 N D
MONTH

4-18. Mean water levels and salinities for

Unit 3, 1969-1974 ..
 west the

walls.
in

to pump water out

the box and
Then the pump
lHLtt.!\.~ and
this is not
. . . '"'"'""""'',., level an

installed in
had started

installed in several of the

the

the same those

and
 4-41

MANAGED
AREA Marsh

I
Marsh I CONCRETE PLATFORM
PutnP out
, CONCRETE SUPPORT
/ WALLS
/
I

J STOP-LOG aAYS
\....
OUTFALL CANAL
TO PUMP OUT- REMOVE STOP-LOGS FROM A & A'
TO PUMP IN - REMOVE STOP-LOGS FROM B & B'

TOP VIEW

Figure 4-19. Schematic top view of a double divergent pumping unit.

pa MOlTS S! :pun
 ,_,_ __.. ~.J

100 AQUATIC PLANTS

EMERGENT ANNUALS

EMERGENT PERENNIALS

80

Q
w
1-
~
1-60
w
CJ
w
>
1-
z
w4o
u
a:
w
a.

20 ~
I
~
c...?

0
1958 60 65 70 74
I YEAR
I
I
I
METAL FLAP-GATE CULVERTS I DROUGHT
MANAGEMENT I MAINTAINED AS FLOODED IN
EVENTS 1 PERMANENTLY FLOODED SUMMER FOR
I FRESHWATER MOTTLED DUCK
l IMPOUNDMENT BEGAN SPRING AND SUMMER DRAW-DOWN
NESTING

I
I DOUBLE DIVERGENT PUMPING )
I
I UNIT
I
I

Figure 4-20. Vegetative transect data and management events for Unit 8, 1958-1974.
 in

of average

has resulted in
been one of
has the unit and
 4-45

..
c.
c.
>
1-
z
:i
< dry
m
0-L--~--~--~--r-~r--.---,--~---r---r--~~

.0

- 0.5

-
_;
w
i:i....1 0
a:
....w
<
~ -0.5

-1.0-L--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~~

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
MONTH

Figure 4-21. Mean water levels and salinities for

Unit 8, 1969-1974.
the Chenier Plain has ,...._...... ,...,.. rates of marsh
erosion over the 50 years because of man-made and natural
areal measurements made
and 9 show a rate marsh
1930 and 1974. rate shoreline erosion the
entire n~~--~ year. Nat ural

and burns r~ ..... ;.,..,..... r~ ... ,... .. ,.,.h+ ... process

the of
LU1U.h'vUJ ent.
1930s with construction of the
such the .nnnc:<1rv>11'n1h

the nrlrr"iT>N' of .rlnni.-.nno.n and

wetland areas .... and
the natural water. In some areas, water levels drowned
and the
other means such as eat-outs or Canals that
marshes with saltwater and the
natural +".. ..,.... h ........ head that historicallv had in the marshes the
environments. Brackish-to-saline marsh have been slow to \;VJ.uwz.~:::

the bare oeat exoosed in these fresh-to-intermediate zones. In

summary, zones that had become established with ree:ard to
natural edaphic conditions and regrmes were
changes in the ree:ime. The result has been a net loss in
coverage.

Active management was initiated on the nu\.':l\.t::.L in the mid-1950s at a

time when: 1) from oil and gas the
'~"'"' .. .,., ... a~,....,... t; more money more extensive
from saltwater
while
on the best were, and still e
''"n u ~ 'G.J. were
 5-2

and water control co,. . . , ..... ,., to enhance

marsh should be Jllc:;LHU.f:;'-''"' to the
were the

have not been sometimes

is necessary overcome the degradational, natural and

processes are as well as inside, the refuge. Many of
consulted also that management was necessary, even if
in order to enhance the value carrying capacity)
One cited in favor of this
supports over 400,000 wintering
about waterfowl wintered on
these winter in the

a UC\.G..I..l'CU UJ.;:)\,;U;:)\:).I.Vll the four major management programs (i.e.,

controlled drainage, and forced drainage)
as the results of these programs in
selected units 6, and in particular . The
and water levels can be achieved in the forced drainage
1, 8, because pumps can be utilized for
low-water out excess water accumulated
this the most exoensive H1a.11a.M program because of
and monitoring the
results. The management is used
units that are removed the threat of saltwater
obiecti ve is to increase the
is too much rain and it
 desirable waterfowl food

programs.

those units

the vt::.>Go.a. .. Lva Units

areas and
lower areas where marsh occurred in the Water-level control
draw-down in the and summer to
in the L on the annuals When
draw-down is not because of summer !.J.vvuu

vu~...n.;;~u in these ..... ,. .. ..,rim ents.

transect data for the 3- indicates that the

has
proper maintenance the ,_, structures and climatic
conditions are to the achievement

The controlled and estuarine units are nearer

contain brackish-to-saline marsh zones as
marsh zones more common to the forced
The V"'-.1'\C"'C'I.,_,F.t""l.
leveed as
unleveed as in the
All of under controlled
leveed. The between the estuarine
programs that under no is
 Mu-P,

Ve-A

Ve-A Mu-P,

Ve-A Mu-P,

Ve-A

Du-G, Mu-P, Ve:-A

De-F

Ve:-A Mu-P,

Ve-A

SPECIAL NOTES

salinities as follows:
Fresh
Intermediate

Saline

proper burning.

4AU forced drainage Intermediate

salinities
 '"""'"''"'""' and canals
controlled estuarine various
lllO.ll.l.IJl.u.at.~u on a seasonal
of the units ~auJ...:nu.:> and

and data that

estuarine usage has
.........,.,.,..,.,..... wildlife habitat. It is the
levels that are too
bodies
IJU.'"''"''"""' annuals and
under estuarine but
U."::UU.'-.1. de:-eomrrass appears to be V'l:JIJ'GHUvu on draw-down every
third year to harden the bottoms and reduce on -
of low conditions in Unit another controlled
management has enhanced the value
and Mottled Duck The these is
in that habitat on the
the in n>nnal'>o it allows the
in many years, to both herbaceous annuals and U.'-IUU.._~ ...... as
The annuals seeds that are a
.......................... and
while the by other
Gadwalls, In this way, the refuge is of
the various a number _.c ~-~~-e---.c- 9 . .,
the
season.

conclusions derived this are that there are a

ent programs on the
"""'"
0
"'.; .... ...,. the value or the
programs have evolved over the with the
and the less ,:,u...:;...:;c.:>.:>l.

vuu.J.cu where necessary. The uu.uu. 5 ......... ...., ..... programs are
man-made alterations thelandscaoe. and the
 programs~ It

evaluation onnrt'nment

the year.
oil and
and too much
and success of any

an
but also in as an
solutions or ~

areas to overcome these common

and

was reau1red to write a reoort to be

each ........ -t-.. ,...,.,..

and research
and the
to access and

the
 on South Atlantic and Gulf coastal
the marsh and
of

Annual ., ....n ... ,,.=~'"'

New Orleans.

11 PP

impoundments. Annual progress

New Orleans. 10 pp

impoundments. Annual progress

and Fisheries Com mission. New Orleans. 1

pp.
dd 01

0
 Annual
Orleans.

Annual progress
w1.,.,1vu. New Orlean.;;.

ents. Annual progress

Commission, New Orleans. 2 pp.

impoundments. Annual p1o~ress

Commission, New Orleans. 12 pp.

and
of the 6th
_ _ 1954-55. Louisiana New
Orleans. pp. 115-121.

of the Division of R. K. Yancey,

1960-61. Louisiana and Fisheries Com mission, New
Orleans. pp.

lOth
1962-63. 1U.1ui:HVllo New
pp. 175-181.

Division B. Chief. 11th

238-244. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries
with U .R. Fish

ln Louisiana

maps ot South
coastal Louisiana.
Wetland
 DU.I..i.l;;l..lU7 .LI\JUJ.<.~,Lu:uu

17 pp.

O'Neil,
1949 The Muskrat uvuol,:)laua. Wild and
159 pp.

Russell Howe
southwestern Louisiana. The

plan.
Fish and Game Wild
100-101.

, Inc.
1930 Black and white
, 3S-59E-2
4S-60E-2821H. San

1956

J. B.
1964 and conservation. D. C. Heath and Boston.
120 pp.

New Orleans
the Mississippi River and New Orleans.

Denver.
 UOHBJ;:>OSSV
u .Ial sa Ml[lnos
UOlB8.
 ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE
f
I j MAP DRAWN FROM 1:24,000 U.S.G.S. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS;
1974 PHOTO-REVISED 1979

0 1 2 ml
HHHHH

t 0
AHHAH
1 2 km
I
---J~~
_)~~~;
--- --,---; ---\t- ...... -- -- ---
...,:-""<: \. "
--- '-, -~~

-~-----J-~~
\ '
,__ 0

t
~"
tJ
e ~

WATER MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL STRUCTURES

WATER MANAGEMENT UNITS WATER CONTROL STRUCTURES

15 UNIT NUMBER e WAKEFIELD WEIR

@ CONCRETE VARIABLE CREST REVERSIBLE

* FORCED DRAINAGE

GRAVITY DRAINAGE @
FLAP-GATE

CONCRETE RADIAL LIFT GATE

G"/'
CONTROLLED ESTUARINE

PASSIVE ESTUARINE
4!>
@
DOUBLE DIVERGENT PUMPING UNIT

STANDARD PUMPING UNIT

o,
UNCONTROLLED
4) ALUMINUM FLAP-GATE CULVERT
(to be installed)

""'"'"-"' ARTIFICIAL LEVEES

llfe~ico

PLATE 1
1_

'
[~~
r~

ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE

~
!
I -------------------~-~-~--~ . --..-. -. ~. ~~..~~ MAP DRAWN FROM 1:24,000 U.S.G.S. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS;
1974 PHOTO-REVISED 1979

0 1 2 ml
HHHHHI

0 1 2km
HHHHHE~

rl
'"":z~~;ik'.'Ci,;'.:
~"'-:..:~
----------------------------------------.

VEGETATION- 1949
!-
l VEGETATION ZONES
fiJ)bro .
Jr,lt)flte "'-~
! CHENIER RIDGE
I 81Jo,.el
'I'Je
SAWGRASS MARSH

LEAFY THREE-CORNERED OR COCO MARSH Q"/'

EXCESSIVELY DRAINED SALT MARSH
o,
SEA RIM

Ale~ leo
!O'N.eil, 19491

PLATE 2
l~
L
r
ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE
~
! ............ ______ ... _________ ....

j ~~~::;=~ ............................... !.':..'::!.:: -----.... MAP DRAWN FROM 1:24,000 U.S.G.S. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS;
4 .............. 1974 PHOTO-REVISED 1979

-~:~:~==~:======-==-......,
0 1 2 ml
HHHHH
0 1 2 km

~iM
HHHAR E "0 ,.::
............
........
I ..... .........
l ............
....
...........
..... .....
................
r
t
.................... 1'"" ......

' ----------------------....................

VEGETATION- 1959
VEGETATION ZONES VEGETATION STANDS

DEEP MARSH 0 Scirpus robustus

INTERMEDIATE MARSH @ Sclrpus callfornlcus

0 G~/,
MARSH HAY CORDGRASS Cladium jamaicense

l- 0 Phragmites australis
SEASHORE SAL TGRASS
r
L_ GULFSHORE AND LEVEE
0 June us roemerianus o,
G) Spartina alternlflora

fj Batls maritima
IJ,fe~ico
!Nichols, 1959bl

PLATE 3

L
t
[~

r~
ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE
r
I
~
(

!
f j --------------- -----------------------!.".::~"---------- MAP DRAWN FROM 1:24,000 U.S.G.S. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS;
1974 PHOTO-REVISED 1979

r 0 1 2 mi

L 0
88888
1 2 km

-----------------------------------.

VEGETATION- 1978.

VEGETATION ZONES

Iu ----[ 'J INTERMEDIATE

BRACKISH G"/'

SALINE
o,
llfeJrico
!Chabreck & Linscombe, 19781

PLATE 4
[~'

ROCKEFELLER STATE WILDLIFE REFUGE AND GAME PRESERVE

~
! ----.........
f j ~--:---~~-~.......... ~.. ---------!.'!..":::..:.:'---------~.. MAP DRAWN FROM 1:24,000 U.S.G.S. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS;
' ====,~ . .
~~~~---- ~~ 1974 PHOTO-REVISED 1979
r- - )'(' ~ """iii ~-- ...... _
0 1 2 ml ~-~ ~~~ll-- . -----<! --~-~..
HHHHH ~ v:5v -0-n ; s ~~ .,.,.,.,
t 0
A A AHA
1 2 km ~--,~~-;:;-~-D
, _ '- s;
-~ .. ~......
..............................

..........
-.Yf------,-------.,...-------------r.:.":":':'77""'1'- ......
I ~ t '
........
...........
t \ -~
\,
...........
......
\- ......
..........
......................
.........
...................

,_____________________________________________ ,

-~
___________________
'---'----,"-

---~ 0
~-\~,
-----. I
SALTWATER INTRUSION AND DIE-OFF, 194 7-1952 "'----~--- {-
~ ........ ~_"'.....-

------- APPROXIMATE SEAWARD LIMIT OF FRESH

AND SLIGHTLY BRACKISH MARSHES

(CUTGRASS-SA WGRASS-BULLRUSH)

u
G"/' I
,. i....--- -""""~..~-

AREAS AFFECTED BY SALT-KILL

(FRESH MARSH VEGETATION PARTLY

o,
llle~ico
OR ENTIRELY DESTROYED)

(Lynch, 1982)

PLATE 5

L
~:=~

INTERMEDI

LAND

WATER

REFUGE
BOUNDARY

MARSH
 [
r:
l;
n
0
0
0
0
'.
0
u
u
c
[
D
t
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I