I History of Astronomy

A. Ancient astronomers of cultures around the world

The Great Pyramid a true masterpiece and has rightly earned the title of a
Wonder. It was built with such precision that our current technology
cannot replicate it. Historical analysis shows that the Pyramids were built
between 2589 and 2504 BC. There are so many interesting facts about this
Pyramid that it baffles archeologists, scientists, astronomers, and tourists.
Here are the facts:
Here are the facts:

1. The pyramid is estimated to have around 2,300,000 stone blocks that

weigh from 2 to 30 tons each and there are even some blocks that
weigh over 50 tons.
2. The Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great
Pyramid of Khufu are precisely aligned with the Constellation of Orion.
3. The base of the pyramid covers 55,000 m2 (592,000 ft 2) with each
side greater than 20,000 m2 (218,000 ft2) in area.
4. The interior temperature is constant and equals the average
temperature of the earth, 20 Degrees Celsius (68 Degrees
Fahrenheit).
5. The outer mantle was composed of 144,000 casing stones, all of them
highly polished and flat to an accuracy of 1/100th of an inch, about
100 inches thick and weighing approx. 15 tons each.
6. The cornerstone foundations of the pyramid have ball and socket
construction capable of dealing with heat expansion and earthquakes.
7. The mortar used is of an unknown origin (Yes, no explanation was
given). It has been analyzed, and its chemical composition is known,
but it cant be reproduced. It is stronger than the stone and still
holding up today.
8. It was originally covered with casing stones (made of highly polished
limestone). These casing stones reflected the suns light and made the
pyramid shine like a jewel. They are no longer present being used by
Arabs to build mosques after an earthquake in the 14th century
loosened many of them. It has been calculated that the original
pyramid with its casing stones would act like gigantic mirrors and
reflect light so powerful that it would be visible from the moon as a
shining star on earth. Appropriately, the ancient Egyptians called the
Great Pyramid Ikhet, meaning the Glorious Light. How these
blocks were transported and assembled into the pyramid is still a
mystery. http://www.gizapyramid.com/general.htm
9. Aligned True North: The Great Pyramid is the most accurately aligned
structure in existence and faces true north with only 3/60th of a
degree of error. The position of the North Pole moves over time and
the pyramid was exactly aligned at one time.
10. Center of Land Mass: The Great Pyramid is located at
the center of the land mass of the earth. The east/west parallel that
crosses the most land and the north/south meridian that crosses the
most land intersect in two places on the earth, one in the ocean and
the other at the Great Pyramid.
11. The four faces of the pyramid are slightly concave, the only
pyramid to have been built this way.

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 12. The centers of the four sides are indented with an extraordinary
degree of precision forming the only 8 sided pyramid; this effect is not
visible from the ground or from a distance but only from the air, and
then only under the proper lighting conditions. This phenomenon is
only detectable from the air at dawn and sunset on the spring and
autumn equinoxes, when the sun casts shadows on the pyramid.
13. The granite coffer in the Kings Chamber is too big to fit through
the passages and so it must have been put in place during
construction.
14. The coffer was made out of a block of solid granite. This would
have required bronze saws 8-9 ft. long set with teeth of sapphires.
Hollowing out of the interior would require tubular drills of the same
material applied with a tremendous vertical force.
15. Microscopic analysis of the coffer reveals that it was made with a
fixed point drill that used hard jewel bits and a drilling force of 2 tons.
16. The Great Pyramid had a swivel door entrance at one time.
Swivel doors were found in only two other pyramids: Khufus father
and grandfather, Sneferu and Huni, respectively.
17. It is reported that when the pyramid was first broken into that
the swivel door, weighing some 20 tons, was so well balanced that it
could be opened by pushing out from the inside with only minimal
force, but when closed, was so perfect a fit that it could scarcely be
detected and there was not enough crack or crevice around the edges
to gain a grasp from the outside.
18. With the mantle in place, the Great Pyramid could be seen from
the mountains in Israel and probably the moon as well.
19. The weight of the pyramid is estimated at 5,955,000 tons.
Multiplied by 10^8 gives a reasonable estimate of the earths mass.
20. The Descending Passage pointed to the pole star Alpha Draconis,
circa 2170-2144 BCE. This was the North Star at that point in time. No
other star has aligned with the passage since then.
21. The southern shaft in the Kings Chamber pointed to the star Al
Nitak (Zeta Orionis) in the constellation Orion, circa 2450 BCE The
Orion constellation was associated with the Egyptian god Osiris. No
other star aligned with this shaft during that time in history.
22. Suns Radius: Twice the perimeter of the bottom of the granite
coffer times 10^8 is the suns mean radius. [270.45378502 Pyramid
Inches* 10^8 = 427,316 miles]

23. The curvature designed into the faces of the pyramid exactly
matches the radius of the earth.
24. Khufus pyramid, known as the great pyramid of Giza, is the
oldest and largest, rising at 481 feet (146 meters). Archeologists say it
was the tallest structure in the world for about 3, 800 years.

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 25. The relationship between Pi (p) and Phi (F) is expressed in the
fundamental proportions of the Great Pyramid.

Stonehenge

1) Built in several stages, Stonehenge began about 5,000 years ago as a

simple earthwork enclosure where prehistoric people buried their cremated
dead. The stone circle was erected in the centre of the monument in the
late Neolithic period, around 2500 BC.
2) Two types of stone are used at Stonehenge: the larger sarsens, and the
smaller bluestones. There are 83 stones in total.
3) There were originally only two entrances to the enclosure, English
Heritage explains a wide one to the north east, and a smaller one on the
southern side. Today there are many more gaps this is mainly the result
of later tracks that once crossed the monument.
4) A circle of 56 pits, known as the Aubrey Holes (named after John Aubrey,
who identified them in 1666), sits inside the enclosure. Its purpose remains
unknown, but some believe the pits once held stones or posts.
5) The stone settings at Stonehenge were built at a time of great change
in prehistory, says English Heritage, just as new styles of Beaker pottery
and the knowledge of metalworking, together with a transition to the burial
of individuals with grave goods, were arriving from Europe. From about
2400 BC, well furnished Beaker graves such as that of the Amesbury Arche
are found nearby.
6) Roman pottery, stone, metal items and coins have been found during
various excavations at Stonehenge. An English Heritage report in 2010 said
that considerably fewer medieval artefacts have been discovered, which
suggests the site was used more sporadically during the period.
7) Stonehenge has a long relationship with astronomers, the report
explains. In 1720, Dr Halley used magnetic deviation and the position of the
rising sun to estimate the age of Stonehenge. He concluded the date was
460 BC. And, in 1771, John Smith mused that the estimated total of 30
sarsen stones multiplied by 12 astrological signs equalled 360 days of the
year, while the inner circle represented the lunar month.
8) The first mention of Stonehenge or Stanenges appears in the
archaeological study of Henry of Huntingdon in about AD 1130, and that of
Geoffrey of Monmouth six years later. In 1200 and 1250 it appeared as
Stanhenge and Stonhenge; as Stonheng in 1297, and the stone
hengles in 1470. It became known as Stonehenge in 1610, says English
Heritage.
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9) In the 1880s, after carrying out some of the first scientifically recorded
excavations at the site, Charles Darwin concluded that earthworms were
largely to blame for the Stonehenge stones sinking through the soil.
10) By the beginning of the 20th century there had been more than 10
recorded excavations, and the site was considered to be in a sorry state,
says English Heritage several sarsens were leaning. Consequently the
Society of Antiquaries lobbied the sites owner, Sir Edmond Antrobus, and
offered to assist with conservation.

Medicine Wheel

On top of the Bighorn Range in Wyoming, a desolate 9,642 feet high and
only reachable during the warm summer months, lies an ancient Native
American construction -- an 80' diameter wheel-like pattern made of
stones. At the center of the circle is a doughnut-shaped pile of stones, a
cairn, connected to the rim by 28 spoke-like lines of stones. Six more stone
cairns are arranged around the circle, most large enough to hold a sitting
human. The central cairn is about 12 feet in diameter and 2' high.

The wheel has 28 spokes, the same number used in the roofs of ceremonial
buildings such as the Lakota Sundance lodge. These always includes an
entrance to the east, facing the rising Sun, and include 28 rafters for the 28
days in the lunar cycle. The number 28 is sacred to some of the Indian
tribes because of its significance as the lunar month. In Bighorn's case,
could the special number 28 also refer to the helicial or dawn rising of Rigel
28 days past the Solstice, and Sirius another 28 past that?

In 1974, an archaeoastronomer named Jack Eddy visited this Medicine

Wheel and studied its alignments, that is, its arrangements of rocks, cairns,
and spokes. He found the arrangements point to the rising and setting
places of the Sun at summer solstice, as well as the rising places of
Aldebaran in Taurus, Rigel in Orion, and Sirius in Canis Major -- all bright,
important stars associated with the Solstice. Later another astronomer, Jack
Robinson, found a cairn pair that marked the bright star Fomalhaut's rising
point with the Sun 28 days before solstice.

Meanings of the Four Directions

Different tribes interpret the Medicine Wheel differently. Each of the Four
Directions (East, South, West, and North) is typically represented by a
distinctive color, such as black, red, yellow, and white, which for some
stands for the human races. The Directions can also represent:

Stages of life: birth, youth, adult (or elder), death

Seasons of the year: spring, summer, winter, fall
Aspects of life: spiritual, emotional, intellectual, physical
Elements of nature: fire (or sun), air, water, and earth
Animals: Eagle, Bear, Wolf, Buffalo and many others
Ceremonial plants: tobacco, sweet grass, sage, cedar
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10 Ancient Cultures and Their Contributions to Astronomy

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences in the world dating back to ancient
times. This goes to show that mankind has always had a deep fascination
with the stars in our sky and a drive to understand how they impact our
lives. This understanding has been a joint effort, one that is still going after
millennia. During all that time, many civilizations studied ancient astronomy
and have contributed towards our collective knowledge.

1. Babylonian Astronomy

The movements of the stars and planets were noted in star catalogues and
were actually quite detailed for that time they contained daily, monthly
and yearly positions of the celestial objects around us.

the Babylonians developed the first almanacs based on the movements of

the Sun and the Moon. More curious, though, is the fact that they probably
made the first recorded observations of the later-famous Halleys
Comet during both its 164 BC and 87 BC apparitions.

2. Greek Astronomy

One of the greatest scholars that ancient Greece has ever produced was
Eratosthenes. Like many other Greek men of learning, he didnt stick to just
one field of expertise, instead contributing to mathematics, geography,
poetry, music and, of course, astronomy. His most impressive achievement
was calculating the circumference of the Earth.He used an old measurement
unit called a stadia and we have conflicting sources regarding its length. He
also calculated the tilt of Earths axis (again, very accurately) and also came
up with the idea of a leap day.

Another noteworthy Greek astronomer was Aristarchus of Samos who, most

likely, devised the first heliocentric model of our Solar System. This was
back in a time when the geocentric model was still the version accepted by
almost all Greek scholars. Unfortunately, we cannot be sure exactly what
Aristarchus model was like because his work did not survive. We only know
of his idea from later works and references by other scholars.

3. Egyptian Astronomy

Watching, charting and predicting the movements of the heavens had a

huge role in many Egyptian religious rituals. In fact, the pyramids were
aligned with stars in the sky as they appeared roughly 5,000 years ago. The
Great Pyramid of Giza, for example, was aligned with the North Star (as
were many other pyramids) which, back then, wasnt Polaris, but Thuban.

One of the most interesting locations in Egypt is Nabta Playa. It is home to

multiple archaeological sites including a circular stone structure similar to
Stonehenge, only 1,000 years older. ]

There was also a practical side to the Egyptians interest in astronomy

predicting the flooding of the Nile. The Egyptian civilization was completely
dependent on the river and it needed to know with accuracy when it was
going to flood. By tracking the stars, the Egyptians developed a calendar
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which is very similar to the one we use today: 365 days, 12 months with 30
days each; every month divided into three weeks of 10 days each.

4. Indian Astronomy

Indian astronomy had a powerful spiritual component. In fact, astronomy

was a branch of Jyotisha, traditional Hindu astrology. Even so, India had a
long line of influential mathematicians and astronomers who contributed
greatly to our understanding of the world around us, starting with
Aryabhata.

Only one of his works had survived, the Aryabhatiya, although this has long
been considered to be one of the most influential Indian texts on astronomy
and mathematics. Considering that Indian astronomy was based on sidereal
calculations, Aryabhata managed to deduce not only that the Earth was
rotating on its axis, but also calculated the rotation time for the sidereal day
and year with extreme accuracy. He also explained Solar and Lunar
eclipses, accurately measured the circumference of Earth and deduced that
the Moon reflects light from other sources.

Aryabhatas legacy sparked a deep interest in astronomy, one which began

to move away from religion and adopt a more scientific approach. He was
soon followed by other prominent astronomers such as Bhaskara I who
helped disseminate Aryabhatas work and Brahmagupta who would go on to
have a heavy influence on Islamic astronomy.

5. Chinese Astronomy

Chinese astronomy has a very long history with detailed recorded

astronomical observations going as far back as the 4th century BC. One of
the most reputable astronomers of this time was Gan De. He made
numerous observations, especially pertaining to Jupiter. In fact, he wrote
an entire book on the planet titled Treatise on Jupiter, although no copies
have survived. In it he makes reference to a small reddish star located in
Jupiters vicinity which modern astronomers believe is the first observation
of Ganymede.

Another great Chinese astronomer and a contemporary of Gan De was Shi

Shen. He is credited with creating the Star Catalogue of Shi, one of the
oldest star catalogues in history and, in fact, the oldest one whose creator
is identified by name. He also makes the first recorded mentions of
sunspots, although he incorrectly labels them as eclipses.

Because the Chinese recorded detailed observations of the sky for so very
long, they likely recorded many other firsts without even realizing it. They
always made note of unexpected stars that appeared suddenly among the
fixed stars and, in one such case in 185 AD, it is believed they made the
first observation of a supernova.

6. Mayan Astronomy

Many Mesoamerican cultures showed a deep interest in astronomy. Many of

them developed calendars and almanacs that would act as guides, allowing
them to plan for important events such as planting and harvesting crops
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and even going to war. Nowadays we are all familiar with the infamous
Mayan calendar which some claimed predicted the apocalypse back in 2012
(it didnt, by the way) but the truth is that, even in its day, the Mayan
calendar was one of the most advanced and sophisticated astronomical
calendars.

The Mayans didnt create the first Mesoamerican calendar. Instead it

used aspects from older civilizations such as the Olmec and contemporary
ones such as the Aztec in order to refine their calendar as much as possible.
In order to develop this calendar, the Mayans made very
detailed observations regarding the motion of the Sun, the Moon, the stars
and the other planets.

They took a particular interest in the planet Venus which they considered of
great importance. Complex notes on the planet have been found in one of
the few surviving ancient Mayan texts, the Dresden Codex. The rising and
setting of Venus was even used in order to plan for coronations and wars.

7. Incan Astronomy

Like the Maya, the Inca also had their own calendars which were developed
from careful observations of the sky. The Pleiades star cluster held a special
significance to them, like it did for many other cultures. For the Incas, the
brightness of the Pleiades stars indicated whether they would experience
ample rainfall or a drought in the coming year.

Unfortunately, most of the information regarding their knowledge and

culture was lost when the Inca Empire was destroyed at the hands of the
invading Spanish, but we still know of an Incan lunar calendar that was
used to determine the solstices and equinoxes.

The Incas had a very practical interest in astronomy, particularly as it

related to agriculture. They used the calendars they developed in order to
determine when the most appropriate time would be to plant and harvest
crops. Of course, there was also a spiritual component. The Incas
worshipped the Sun and built many places for this purpose, most notable
the Temple of the Sun in Machu Picchu. Here is also where the only
surviving Inti Watana is located, a ritual stone that served as an
astronomical clock that predicted the solstices through the movements of
the Sun.

8. Arab Astronomy

The rise of Islam brought an increased interest in science for many Arab
and Persian cultures. Astronomy was of particular interest, inspired by the
previous contributions of other civilizations, primarily the Indians and
Egyptians. In fact, one of the greatest contributions to astronomy
performed by Muslim cultures was to take earlier beliefs and concepts and
improve upon them. One such notable example is the Ptolemaic model, the
geocentric version of the Solar System which was greatly refined and
corrected until, eventually, it was rejected in favor of a new model where
the Earth was not the center of the Universe.

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This was all part of an effort to rely much more on empirical evidence
gained through observation and experiments instead of philosophy. One
man who pioneered such thinking was Ibn al-Shatir who came up with a
new model that was a genuine improvement over the Ptolemaic version
and wrote extensively on the motion of the planets.

This interest in astronomy lasted for hundreds of years and throughout the
medieval ages, some of the most advanced astronomical observatories
were found here. First was the Maragheh observatory which was built in the
13th century and inspired other constructions such as Ulugh Beg
Observatory in Samarkand and the Taqi al-Din Observatory in Istanbul.

9. Persian Astronomy

Post-Islam Persia showed a great interest in astronomy and produced some

of the most gifted astronomers of that time. Arguably, the greatest of all
was Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, known simply as Azophi to westerners. His
earlier work was also based on that of Ptolemy. In fact, al-Sufis most
famous text was the Book of Fixed Stars, a compendium describing the
known constellations of that time which was based on Ptolemys Almagest.

In his book, al-Sufi makes numerous corrections and additions and also
gives the very first descriptions for several new celestial objects such as the
Large Magellanic Cloud and the Andromeda Galaxy.

Another noteworthy astronomer was Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn Khidr al-
Khujandi. He oversaw the construction of a large observatory in near
modern-day Tehran, Iran, where he constructed a giant mural sextant in
order to calculate Earths axial tilt. The size of the sextant allowed it to be a
lot more accurate than anything ever made before and it even indicated
seconds. His measurement was just two minutes off.

10. Native American Astronomy

Numerous indigenous tribes have inhabited America before the European

colonists arrived and they each had their own way of interpreting what they
saw in the sky. Traditionally, they learned to pass on their knowledge of the
stars and how they moved above us through stories and legends.

Even so, certain cultures that developed into agrarian societies learn to be
more practical and use the stars for guidance. The Pawnee Indians, for
example, used a group of stars called The Council of Chiefs (the Corona
Borealis) not only for spiritual purposes, but also in order to set agricultural
patterns.

Sometimes Native American tribes would preserve their observations in the

form of petroglyphs and pictographs. These are a common sight around
America. They have been used to depict routine objects such as animals
and humans, but also important rituals and sometimes even astronomical
events such as eclipses. In fact, one pictograph belonging to the mysterious
Anasazi people has long been thought to depict a supernova, specifically the
creation of the Crab Nebula.

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