Switching System

Bsnl Junior Engineer Switching & Telecom Support Infrastructure
(Mod 3)
CHAPTER-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
To overcome the limitations of manual switching; automatic exchanges, having

Electro-mechanical components, were developed. Strowger exchange, the first automatic
exchange having direct control feature, appeared in 1892 in La Porte (Indiana). Though it
improved upon the performance of a manual exchange it still had a number of
disadvantages, viz., a large number of mechanical parts, limited availability, inflexibility,
bulky in size etc. As a result of further research and development, Crossbar exchanges,
having an indirect control system, appeared in 1926 in Sundsvall, Sweden. The Crossbar
exchange improved upon many short- comings of the Strowger system. However, much
more improvement was expected and the revolutionary change in field of electronics
provided it. A large number of moving parts in Register, marker, Translator, etc., were
replaced en-block by a single computer. This made the exchange smaller in size, volume
and weight, faster and reliable, highly flexible, noise-free, easily manageable with no
preventive maintenance etc.
The first electronic exchange employing Space-Division switching (Analog

switching) was commissioned in 1965 at Succasunna, New Jersey. This exchange used
one physical path for one call and, hence, full availability could still not be achieved.
Further research resulted in development of Time-Division switching (Digital Switching)
which enabled sharing a single path by several calls, thus providing full availability. The
first digital exchange was commissioned in 1970 in Brittany, France.
This handout reviews the evolution of the electronic exchanges, lists the
chronological developments in this field and briefly describes the facilities provided to
subscribers, administration and maintenance personnel.
Table 1 Chronological Development of Electronic Exchanges.

ANALOG
1965 No.1 ESS Local Bell Labs, USA
1972 D 10 Local and Transit NEC. Japan.
1973 Metaconta Local LMT. France
1974 No. 1 ESS Centrex Local and Transit Bell Labs. USA
1975 Proteo Local & Transit Proteo, Italy
1976 AXE Local PTT & LM Ericsson, Sweden
1976 No.4 ESS Transit Bell Labs, USA
1978 AXE Local LM Eiricsson, Sweden.
Fundamentals Of Electronic Exchanges Page 1 of 104
For restricted Circulation

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Table 2: Development of Electronic Exchanges
MODEL Capacity (in thousands) Traffic
Analog lines Trunks Erlangs Call
Attempts
per
second
No. 1 ESS 10-65 - 6,000 30
No. 1 ESS 20-128 32 10,000 65
NO. 4 A XB ETS - 22.4 6,200 35
No. 4 ESS - 107 47,500 150
D 10 98 14.3 4,400 30
XE 1 - 13 2,500 3.6
EWSD 30 - 2,000 11-16
EWSP - 13 5,000 -
TXE-4 40 - 5,000 50
Proteo 30 15 - -
AXE 64 - 6,000 35
PRX-205 10 - 1,000 10-15
Digital - - - -
Exchange
E-10B 30 4 2,400 25
Mentaconta 10-60 - 10,000 28-60
MT 20 - 64 20,000 83-110
E 12 - 65 15,000 86
System X 100 60 25,000 800000
AXE -10 64 - 26,000 800000
FETEX-150L 290 60 24,000 1800000
OCB-283 200 60 25,000 800000
EWSD 250 60 25,200 1000000
No.5ESS - - - -
NEAX-61E 100 60 27,000 1000000

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TABLE 3- Advantages Of Electronic Exchange Over Electromechanical Exchanges
Category, Analysis, Routing, translation, Translation, speech path Subs Facilities,
etc;, done by relays. etc., managed by MAP and other DATA.
Any changes in facilities require addition Changes can be carried out by simple
of hardware and/or large amount of wiring commands. A few changes can be made by
change. Flexibility limited Subs himself. Hence, highly flexible.
Testing is done manually externally and is Testing carried out periodically

time consuming. No logic analysis carried automatically and analysis printed out.
out.
Partial full-availability, hence blocking. Full availability, hence no blocking. A large

limited facilities to the subscribers number of different types of services
possible very easily.
Slow in speed. Dialing speed is max. 11 Ips Very fast. Dialing speed up to 11 digits /sec
and switching speed is in l milliseconds. possible. Switching is achieved in a few
microseconds.
Switch room occupies large volume. Much lesser volume required floor space of
switch room reduced to about one-sixth.
Lot of switching noise Almost noiseless

Long installation and testing time Short installation and testing period.
Large maintenance effort and preventive Remedial maintenance is very easy due to
maintenance necessary plug-in type circuit boards. Preventive
maintenance not required.
1.2 INFLUENCE OF ELECTRONICS IN EXCHANGE DESIGN.
When electronic devices were introduced in the switching systems, a new concept
of switching evolved as a consequence of their extremely high operating speed compared
to their former counter-parts, i.e., the Electro-mechanical systems, Relays, the logic
elements in the electromechanical systems, have operate and release times which are
roughly equal to the duration of telephone signals to maintain required accuracy.
However, to achieve the requisite simultaneous call processing capacity, it became
essential for such system to have number of such electrical control units (Called registers
in a Cross-bar Exchange), in parallel, each handling one call at a time. In other words, it
was necessary to have an individual control system to process each call.
Electronic logic components on the other hand, can operate a thousand or ten
thousand times during a telephone signal. This led to a concept of using a single
electronic control device to simultaneously process a number of calls on time-sharing
basis. Though such centralization of control is definitely more economical it has the

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disadvantage of making the switching system more vulnerable to total system failure.
This can, however be overcome by having a stand by control device.
Another major consequence of using electronics in control subsystems of a

telephone exchange was to make it technically and economically feasible to realize
powerful processing units employing complex sequence of instructions. Part of the
control equipment capacity could then be employed for functions other than call
processing, viz., exchange operation and maintenance. It resulted in greatly improved
system reliability without excessively increasing system cost. This development led to a
form of centralized control in which the same processor handled all the functions, i.e., call
processing, operation and maintenance functions of the entire exchange.
In the earlier versions of electronic control equipment, the control system was of a
very large size, fixed cost unit. It lacked modularity. It was economically competitive for
very large capacity exchanges. Initially, small capacity processors were costlier due to
high cost per bit of memory and logic gates. Therefore, for small exchanges, processor
cost per line was too high. However, with the progressive development of the small size
low cost processor using microprocessor, it became possible to employ electronic controls
for all capacities. In addition control equipment could also be made modular aiding the
future expansion.
The impact of electronics on exchanges is not static and it is still changing as a

function of advances in electronic technology.
1.3 STORED PROGRAMME CONTROLLED EXCHANGE:
In an SPC exchange, a processor similar to a general purpose computer, is

used to control the functions of the exchange. All the control functions, represented by a
series of various instructions, are stored in the memory. Therefore the processor memories
hold all exchange-dependent data. such as subscriber date, translation tables, routing and
charging information and call records. For each call processing step. e.g. for taking a
decision according to class of service, the stored data is referred to, Hence, this concept of
switching. The memories are modifiable and the control program can always be rewritten
if the behavior or the use of system is to be modified. This imparts and enormous
flexibility in overall working of the exchange.
1.3.1 Block Schematic of SPC Exchange
Despite the many difference between the electronic switching systems, and all over the
world there is a general similarity between most of the systems in terms of their
functional subdivisions. In its simplest from. an SPC exchange consists of five main sub-
systems, as shown in fig.
i. Terminal equipment, provides on individual basis for each subscriber line and for
interexchange trunk.
ii. Switching network, may be space- division or time-division, uni-directional or bi-

directional.
iii. Switching processor, consisting mainly of processors and memories.

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iv. Switching peripherals ( Scanner, Distributor and Marker ), are Interface Circuits
between control system terminal equipment and switching network.
v. Signaling interfaces depending on type of signaling used, and
vi. Data Processing Peripherals ( Tele - typewriters, Printers, etc. ) for man- machine
dialogue for operation and maintenance of the exchange.
Terminal Equipment
Line & Trunks
(2)
Switching
network
(1)
Common Common Channel

channel channel associated
signaling (4) (4) (4)
signaling terminal Distributor Scanner Marker
Signaling terminal (5)
links (5)
(3)
Central control
CC
Memories S
P
(6)
Man
Machine
dialogue
peripherals

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Figure 1. Functional subdivisions of an spc exchange
a) Terminal Equipment.
In this equipment, line, trunk, and service circuits are terminated, for detection,
signaling, speech transmission, and supervision of calls. The Line Circuits carry out the
traditional functions of supervising and providing battery feed to each subscriber line.
The Trunk Circuits are used on outgoing, incoming and transit calls for battery feed and
supervision. Service Circuits perform specific functions, like, transmission and reception
of decadic dial pulses or MF signals, which may be economically handled by a
specialised common pool of circuits. In contrast to electromechanical circuits, the Trunk
and Service circuits in SPC exchanges, are considerably simpler because functions, like
counting, pulsing, timing charging, etc. are delegated to stored programme.
b) Switching Network.
In an electronic exchange, the switching network is one of the largest sub-system in

terms of size of the equipment. Its main functions are ,
i. Switching, i.e., setting up temporary connection between two or more exchange
terminations, and
ii. Transmission of speech and signals between these terminations, with reliable
accuracy.
There are two types of electronic switching system. viz. Space division and Time
Division.
c) Switching Processor
The switching processor is a special purpose real time computer, designed and
optimised for dedicated applications of processing telephone calls. It has to perform
certain real time functions (which have to be performed at the time of occurrence and
cannot be deferred), such as, reception of dialed digits, and sending of digits in case of
transit exchange. The block schematic of a switching processor, consisting of central
control programme store is shown in fig.2.
To Switching Network
Central control Processor
Programme Translation Data Store

Store Store
Figure.2 Switching Processor
Central Control (CC) is a high speed data processing unit, which controls the operation of
the switching network. In Programme store, sets of instructions. called programmes, are

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stored. The programmes are interpreted and executed by the central control. Data Store
provides for the temporary storage of transient data, required in processing telephone
calls, such as digits dialed by the subscriber, busy / idle states of lines and trunks etc.
Translation Store contains information regarding lines. e.g. category of calling and called
line. routing code, charging information, etc. Data Stores is temporary memory, whereas
Translation and Programme Stores are of semi-permanent type. The information in the
Semi-permanent memories does not change during the processing of the call, but the
information in Data Store changes continuously with origination and termination of each
call.
d) Switching Peripheral Equipment
The time intervals, in which the processor operates, is in the order of

microseconds, while the components in the telephone switching section operate in
milliseconds ( if the switching network is of the analog type). The equipment, known as
the switching peripheral, is the interface between these two equipments working at
different speeds. The interface equipment acts as speed buffer, as well as, enables
conversion of digital logic signals from the processor to the appropriate electrical signals
to operate relays and cross-points, etc. Scanners, Signal distributors and Marker fall under
this category of devices.
e) Scanner
Its purpose is to detect and inform CC of all significant events / signals on subscriber
lines and trunks. connected to the exchange. These signals may either be continuous or
discrete. The equipments at which the events / signals must be detected are equally
diverse.
f) Marker
Marker performs physical setup and release of paths through the switching
network, under the control of CC. A path is physically operated only when it has been
reserved in the central control memory. Similarly, paths are physically released before
being cleared in memory, to keep the memory information updated vis-a-vis switching
network, Depending upon whether is switching is Time division or Space division,
marker either writes information in the control memory of time and space stages. (Time
Division Switching), or physical operates the cross - points (Space Division Switching)
g) Distributor
It is a buffer between high - speed - low - power CC and relatively slow-speed-
high-power signaling terminal circuits. A signal distributor operates or releases
electrically latching relays in trunks and service circuits, under the direction of central
control.
h) Bus System
Various switching peripherals are connected to the central processor by means of a
common system. A bus is a group of wires on which data and commands pulses are
transmitted between the various sub- units of a switching processor or between switching
processor and switching peripherals. The device to be activated is addressed by sending
its address on the address bus. The common bus system avoids the costly mesh type of
interconnection among various devices

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i) Line Interface Circuits

To enable an electronic exchange to function with the existing outdoor telephone
network, certain interfaces are required between the network and the electronic exchange.
Analogue Subscriber Line Interface

The functions of a Subscriber Line Interface, for each two wire line, are often
known by the acronym : BORSHT
B : Battery feed
O : Overload protection
R : Ringing
S : Supervision of loop status
H : Hybrid
T : Connection to test equipment
All these functions cannot be performed directly by the electronic circuits and,
therefore, suitable interfaces are required.
k) Data Processing Peripherals.

Following basic categories of Data Processing Peripherals are used in operation and
maintenance of exchange.
i. Man - machine dialogue terminals, like Tele-typewriter (TTY) and
Visual Display Units (VDU), are used to enter operator commands and to
give out low-volume date concerning the operation of the switching
system. These terminals may be local i.e. within a few tense of meters of
the exchange, or remotely located. These peripherals have been adopted in
the switching Systems for their ease and flexibility of operation.
ii. Special purpose peripheral equipment is, sometimes employed for

carrying out repeated functions, such as, subscriber line testing, where
speed is more important than flexibility.
iii. High speed large capacity data storage peripherals (Magnetic Tape
Drives, magnetic Disc Unit) are used for loading software in the processor
memory.
iv. Maintenance peripherals, such as, Alarm Annunciators and Special

Consoles, are used primarily to indicate that automatic maintenance
procedure have failed and manual attention is necessary.
1.4 FACILITIES PROVIDED BY ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES.
Facilities offered by electronic exchanges can be categorized in three arts.

(I) Facilities to the Subscribers.
(ii) Facilities to the Administration.
(iii) Facilities to the Maintenance Personnel.
1.4.1. Facilities to the Subscribers.

a) MFC Push-button Dialing.

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All subscribers in an electronic exchange can use push-button telephones, which use Dual
Tone Multi- frequency, for sending the dialed digits. Sending of eleven digits per second
is possible, thus increasing the dialing speed.
b) Priority Subscriber Lines

Priority Subscribers lines may be provided in electronic exchanges. These subscribers are
attended to, according to their priority level, by the central processor, even during heavy
congestion or emergency.
c) Toll (Outgoing Call) Restriction

The facility of toll restriction or blocking of subscriber line for specific types of outgoing
traffic, viz., long distance STD calls, can be availed of by all subscribers. This can be
easily achieved by keying-in certain service codes.
d) Service Interception
Incoming calls to a subscriber can be automatically forwarded during his absence, to a
customer service position or a recorded announcement. The customer service position
answers the calls and forwards any message meant for the subscriber.
e) Abbreviated Dialing
Most subscribers very often call only limited group of telephone numbers. By dialing
only prefix digit followed by two selection digits, subscribers can call up to 100
predetermined subscribers connected to any automatic exchange. This shortens the
process of dialing all the digits.
f) Call Forwarding
The subscriber having the call forwarding facility can keep his telephone in the transfer
condition in case he wishes his incoming calls to be transferred to another telephone
number during his absence.
g) Do Not Disturb
This service enables the subscriber to free himself from attending to his incoming calls. In
such a case, the incoming calls are routed to an operator position or a talking machine.
This position or machine informs the caller that called subscriber is temporarily
inaccessible.
h) Conference Calls
Subscribers can set up connections to more than one subscriber and conduct telephone
conferences under the provision of this facility.
i) Camp On Busy
Incoming call to a busy subscriber can be Camped on until the called subscriber gets
free. This avoids wastage of time in redialing a busy telephone number.
j) Call Waiting
The Call Waiting service notifies the already busy subscriber of a third party calling
him. He is fed with a special tone during his conversation. It is purely his choice either to

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ignore the third party or to interrupt the existing connection and have a conversation with
the third party while holding the first party on the line.
k) Call Repetition
Instead of camp on busy a call can automatically be repeated. The calling party can
replace his hand set after receiving the busy tone. A Periodic check is carried out on the
called partys status. When idle status is ascertained, the connection is set up and ringing
current fed to both the parties.
l) Third party Inquiry

This system permits consultation and the transfer of call to other subscribers.
Consultation can be initiated by means of a special signal from the subscriber telephone
and by dialing the directory number of the desired subscriber without disconnecting the
previous connection.
m) Priority of calls to Emergency Positions

Emergency calls such as ambulance, fire, etc., are processed in priority to other
calls.
n) Subscriber charge Indicator

By placing a charge indicator at the subscribers premises the charges of each
call made can be ascertained by him.
o) Call Charge printout or immediate Billing

The subscriber can request automatic post call charge notification in the printout form for
individual calls or for all calls. The information containing called number, date and time,
and the charges can be had on a Tele-type-write.
p) Malicious Call Identification

Malicious Call Identification is done immediately and the information is
Obtained in the printout from either automatically or by dialing an identification code.
q) Interception or Announcement.
In the following conditions, an announcement is automatically conveyed to calling
subscribers.
Change of a particular number of transferred subscriber.
Dialing of an unallocated cods.
Dialing of an unobtainable number.
Route congested or out of order
Subscribers line temporarily out of order.
Suspension of service due to non-payment.
r) Connection Without Dialing.

This allows the subscribers to have a specific connection set up, after lifting the handset,
Without dialing. If the subscriber wishes to dial another number, then he has to start
dialing within a specified time period, say 10 seconds, after lifting the handset.
s) Automatic Wake Up.

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Automatic wake up service or morning alarm is possible, without any human
intervention.
t) Hot Line or Private Wire.

Hot line service enables the subscriber to talk to a specific subscriber by only lifting the
handset. This service cannot be used. along with normal dialing facility. The switching
starts as soon as the receiver is lifted.
u) Denied Incoming Call
A Subscriber may desire that no incoming call should come on a particular line. He can
ask for such a facility so that he can use the line for making only outgoing calls.
v) Instrument Locking
A few subscribers may like to have their telephone sets locked up against any misuse.
Dialing of a secret code will extend such a facility to them.
w) Free of charge Calls

Calls free of charge are possible on certain special services such as booking of
complaints , booking of telegrams, etc.
x) Collect call
If so desired, the incoming subscriber is billed for all the calls made to him, instead of the
calling subscriber.
1.4.2 Facilities to the Administration
a) Reduced Switch Room Accommodation

Reduction in switch room accommodation to about 1/6th to 1/4th as compared to Cross-
bar system is possible.
b) Faster installation and Easy Extension

The reduced volume of equipment, plug-in assemblies for interconnecting cables, printed
cards and automatic testing of exchange equipment result in faster installation (about six
months for a 10,000 line exchange) Due to modular structure, the expansion is also easier
and quicker.
c) Economic Consideration
The switching speed being much faster as compared to Cross-bar system, the use of
principle of full availability of trunk circuits and other equipment makes the system
economically superior to electromechanical systems.
d) Automatic test of Subscriber line

Routine testing of subscriber lines for Insulation, capacitance, foreign potential, etc., are
automatically carried out during night. The results of the testing can be obtained in the
printout form, the next day.
1.4.3 Maintenance Facilities


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a) Fault Processing
Automatic fault processing facility is available for checking all hardware components and
complete internal working of the exchange. Changeover from a faulty sub-system to
stand-by sub-system is automatically affected without any human intervention. Only
information is given out so that the maintenance staff is able to attend to the faulty sub-
system.
b) Diagnostics
Once a fault is reported by the system, on demand programs are available which help
the maintenance staff to localize the fault, who can replace the defective printed card and
restore the faulty sub-system. The faulty card is attended at a centralized maintenance
centre specifically equipped for this purpose.
c) Statistical programs
Statistical programs are available to gather information about the traffic conditions and
trunks occupancy rate to assess and plan the solutions in cases of anticipated problems.
This facility helps the maintenance and administration personnel to maintain a specified
level of grade of service.
d) Blocking
In case of congestion or breakdown of a specific route, facility of blocking such routes is
available in modes, such as
(I) Blocking of a specified percentage of calls in such a route either automatically or
manually.
(ii) Blocking a specific category of subscribers.
e) Overloading Security
Overloading of central processor in an electronic exchange can lead to disastrous results.
To prevent this, central processor occupancy is measured automatically periodically,
when it exceeds a specified percentage, audio-visual alarms are activated, in addition to
printing out the message. Maintenance personnel have the following options.
(i) Block some of the facilities temporarily, or
(ii) Reduce the load by blocking some of the congested routes.
1.5 CONSTRAINTS OF ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES

Though there are a number of definite advantages of Electronic exchanges,over
the electromechanical exchanges, there are certain constraints, which should be
considered, at the planning stage for deciding between the two systems.
1.5.1 Traffic Handling Capacity
Apparently, the traffic handling capacity of an exchange is limited by the number
of subscriber lines and trunks connected to the switching network, and the number of
simultaneous paths available through the switching network. However, in electronic
exchanges, the prime limitation is the number of simultaneous calls, which can be
handled by the control equipment, as it has to execute a number of instructions
depending on the type of the call. Therefore the extent of loading of the exchange will be
guided solely by the amount of processor loading. Moreover, the facilities to the
subscribers will also have to be limited accordingly.

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1.5.2 Power Supply
The power supply should be highly stable for trouble free operation as the
components are sensitive to variations beyond +10%. It is almost essential to have a
stand-by power supply arrangement.
1.5.3 Total Protection from Dust

All possible precautions should be observed for ensuring dust-free environment.
1.5.4 Temperature and Humidity Control

Due to the presence of quiescent current in the components and because of their
compactness., heat generated per unit volume is highest in electronic exchanges.
Moreover, as the component characteristics drift substantially with the temperature and
humidity, the air-conditioning load is higher. Obviously, the air-conditioning system
should be highly reliable and preferably there should be a stand-by arrangement. The
installation is also carried out in air-conditioned environment.
1.5.5 Static Electricity and Electromagnetic interference.

Due to the presence of static electricity on the body of persons handling the
equipment, the stored data may get vitiated. Handling of PCBs therefore, should be done
with utmost care and should be minimized care should also be taken to protect the cards
from exposure to stray electromagnetic fields.
1.5.6 PCB Repair

The repair of PCBs is extremely complicated and sophisticated equipments are
required for diagnosing the faults. This results in having costly inventory and a costly
repair centre. With the frequent improvement and changes in the cards, proper
documentation of cards becomes essential.
1.5.7 Faster Obsolescence

The changes in the field of electronics are almost revolutionary with the very fast
improvements. Hence, the current technology becomes obsolete at a very fast rate. The
equipment becomes obsolete before it can possibly complete one third of its life and it
might be impossible to get spare parts for the entire currency of the life of the system.
1.6 CONCLUSION
After 1950, the development in the field of electronic device induced the
telephone system designers to make use of innumerable advantages offered by their
inventions. Therefore, telephone switching system with both electronic and
electromechanical components was evolved.

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Later on, Stored Program Control concept was evolved and adapted to the
electromechanical exchanges. This developmental step opened a new era of innumerable
additional facilities to the subscribers, administration and maintenance personnel.

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CHAPTER-2
DIGITAL SWITCHING CONCEPT, TIME & SPACE
SWITCHING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A Digital switching system, in general, is one in which signals are switched in

digital form. These signals may represent speech or data. The digital signals of several
speech samples are time multiplexed on a common media before being switched through
the system.
To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the time-slots of

the two speech samples which may be on same or different PCM highways. The
digitalised speech samples are switched in two modes, viz., Time Switching and Space
Switching. This Time Division Multiplex Digital Switching System is popularly known as
Digital Switching System.
In this handout, general principles of time and space switching are discussed. A
practical digital switch, comprising of both time and space stages, is also explained.
2.1 Time and Space Switching
Generally, a digital switching system several time division multiplexed (PCM)

samples. These PCM samples are conveyed on PCM highways (the common path over
which many channels can pass with separation achieved by time division.). Switching of
calls in this environment , requires placing digital samples from one time-slot of a PCM
multiplex in the same or different time-slot of another PAM multiplex.
For example, PCM samples appearing in TS6 of I/C PCM HWY1 are transferred
to TS18 of O/G PCM HWY2, via the digital switch, as shown in Fig1.
Digital Switching,Concept Of
Time & Space Switching Page 15 of
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Figure 1 Digital Switch
The interconnection of time-slots, i.e., switching of digital signals can be achieved using
two different modes of operation. These modes are: -
I. Space Switching
ii. Time switching
Usually, a combination of both the modes is used.
2.1.1 In the space-switching mode, corresponding time-slots of I/C and O/G PCM
highways are interconnected. A sample, in a given time-slot, TSi of an I/C HWY, say
HWY1, is switched to same time-slot, TSi of an O/G HWY, SAY HWY2. Obviously there
is no delay in switching of the sample from one highway to another highway since the
sample transfer takes place in the same time-slot of the PCM frame.
2.1.2 Time Switching, on the other hand, involves the interconnection of different time-
slots on the incoming and outgoing highways by re-assigning the channel sequence. For
example, a time-slot TSx of an I/C Highway can be connected to a different time-slot.,
TSy, of the outgoing highway. In other words, a time switch is, basically, a time-slot
changer.
2.2 DIGITAL SPACE SWITCHING
2.2.1 Principle
The Digital Space Switch consists of several input highways, X1, X2,...Xn and
several output highways, Y1, Y2,.............Ym, inter connected by a cross point matrix of
n rows and m columns. The individual cross point consists of electronic AND gates. The
operation of an appropriate cross point connects any channel, a , of I/C PCM highway to
the same channel, a, of O/G PCM highway, during each appropriate time-slot which
occurs once per frame as shown in Fig 2. During other time-slots, the same cross point
may be used to connect other channels. This cross point matrix works as a normal space
divided matrix with full availability between incoming and outgoing highways during
each time-slot.
Each cross point column, associated with one O/G highway, is assigned a column
of control memory. The control memory has as many words as there are time-slot per
frame in the PCM signal. In practice, this number could range from 32 to 1024. Each
cross point in the column is assigned a binary address, so that only one cross point per
column is closed during each time-slot. The binary addresses are stored in the control
memory, in the order of time-slots. The word size of the control memory is x bits, so that
2x = n, where n is the number of cross points in each column.
A new word is read from the control memory during each time-slot, in a Cyclic
order. Each word is read during its corresponding time-slot, i.e.,Word 0 (corresponding to
TSO), followed by word 1 (corresponding to TS1) and so on. The word contents are
contained on the vertical address lines for the duration of the time-slot. Thus, the cross
104

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point corresponding to the address, is operated during a particular time-slot. This cross
point operates every time the particular time-slot appears at the inlet. in successive
frames. normally, a call may last for around a million frames.
As the next time-slot follows, the control memory is also advanced by one step, so
that during each new time-slot new corresponding words are read from the various
control memory columns. This results in operation of a completely different set of cross
points being activated in different columns. Depending upon the number of time-slots in
one frame, this time division action increases the utilisation of cross point 32 to 1024
times compared with that of conventional space-divided switch matrix.
2.2.2 Illustration
Consider the transfer of a sample arriving in TS7 of I/C HWY X1 to O/G HWY
Y3. Since this is a space switch, there will be no reordering of time i.e., the sample will
be transferred without any time delay, via the appropriate cross point. In other words, the
objective is to connect TS7 of HWY X1 and TS7 of HWY Y3.
The central control (CC) selects the control memory column corresponding output
highway Y3. In this column, the memory location corresponding to the TS7 is chosen.
The address of the cross point is written in this location, i.e., 1, in binary, is written in
location 7, as shown in fig 2.This cross point remains operated for the duration of the
time-slot TS7, in each successive frame till the call lasts.
For disconnection of call, the CC erases the contents of the control memory
locations, corresponding to the concerned time-slots. The AND gates, therefore, are
disabled and transfer of samples is halted.
2.2.3 Practical Space Switch
In a practical switch, the digital bits are transmitted in parallel rather than
serially, through the switching matrix.
In a serial 32 time-slot PCM multiplex, 2048 Kb/s are carried on a single wire
sequentially, i.e., all the bits of the various time-slots follow one another. This single wire
stream of bits, when fed to Serial to Parallel Converter is converted into 8-wire parallel
output. For example, all 8 bits corresponding to TS3 serial input are available
simultaneously on eight output wires (one bit on each output wire), during just one bit
period, as shown in fig.3. This parallel output on the eight wires is fed to the switching
matrix. It can be seen that during one full time-slot period, only one bit is carried on the
each output line, whereas 8 bits are carried on the input line during this period. Therefore,
bit rate on individual output wires, is reduced to 1/8th of input bit rate=2048/8=256Kb/s
104

(Mod 3)
Figure 2 Space Switch
Due to reduced bit rate in parallel mode, the cross point is required to be operated
only for 1/8th of the time required for serial working. It can, thus, be shared by eight
times more channels, i.e.,32 x 8 = 256 channels, in the same frame.
However, since the eight bits of one TS are carried on eight wires, each cross
point have eight switches to interconnect eight input wires to eight output wires. Each
cross point (all the eight switches ) will remain operated now for the duration of one bit
only, i.e., only for 488 ns (1/8th of the TS period of 3.9 s)
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(Mod 3)
Figure 3 Serial parallel converter
For example, to connect 40 PCM I/C highways, a matrix of 40x 40 = 1600 cross
points each having a single switch, is required in serial mode working. Whereas in
parallel mode working, a matrix of (40/8 x 40/8) = 25 cross point is sufficient. As eight
switches are required at each cross point 25 x 8 = 200 switches only are required. Thus,
there is a reduction of the matrix by 1/8th in parallel mode working, hence reduction in
size and cost of the switching matrix.
2.3 DIGITAL TIME SWITCH
2.3.1 Principle
A Digital Time Switch consists of two memories, viz., a speech or buffer memory
to store the samples till destination time-slots arrive, and a control or connection or
address memory to control the writing and reading of the samples in the buffer memory
and directing them on to the appropriate time-slots.
Speech memory has as many storage locations as the number of time-slots in input
PCM, e.g., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system.
The writing/reading operation in the speech memory is controlled by the Control

Memory. It has same number of memory locations as for speech memory, i.e., 32
locations for 32 channel PCM system. Each location contains the address of one of the
speech memory locations where the channel sample is either written or read during a
time-slot. These addresses are written in the control memory of the CC of the exchange,
depending upon the connection objective.
104

(Mod 3)
A Time-Slot Counter which usually is a synchronous binary counter, is

used to count the time-slots from 0 to 31, as they occur. At the end of each frame, It gets
reset and the counting starts again. It is used to control the timing for writing/reading of
the samples in the speech memory.
2.3.2 Illustration
Consider the objective that TS4 of incoming PCM is to be connected to TS6 of

outgoing PCM. In other words, the sample arriving in TS4 on the I/C PCM has to be
delayed by 6 - 4 = 2 time-slots, till the destination time-slot, viz., TS6 appears in the O/G
PCM. The required delay is given to the samples by storing it in the speech memory.
The I/C PCM samples are written cyclically i.e. sequentially time-slot wise , in the speech
memory locations. Thus, the sample in TS4 will be written in location 4, as shown in
fig.4.
The reading of the sample is controlled by the Control Memory. The Control
Memory location corresponding to output time-slot TS6, is 6. In this location, the CC
writes the input time-slot number, viz.,4, in binary. These contents give the read address
for the speech memory, i.e., it indicates the speech memory locations from which the
sample is to be read out, during read cycle.
When the time-slot TS6 arrives, the control memory location 6 is read. Its content
addresses the location 4 of the speech memory in the read mode and sample is read on to
the O/G PCM.In every frame, whenever time-slot 4 comes a new sample will be written
in location 4. This will be read when TS6 occurs. This process is repeated till the call
lasts.
For disconnection of the call, the CC erases the contents of the control
memory location to halt further transfer of samples.
2.3.3 modes of operation
Time switch can operate in two modes, viz.,

I. Output associated control
ii. Input associated control
a) Output associated control

In this mode of working, 2 samples of I/C PCM are written cyclically in the speech
memory locations in the order of time-slots of I/C PCM, i.e., TS1 is written in location 1,
TS2 is written in location 2, and so on, as discussed in the example of Sec.4.2.
The contents of speech memory are read on output PCM in the order specified by
control memory. Each location of control memory is rigidly associated with the
corresponding time-slot of the O/G PCM and contains the address of the TS of incoming
PCM to be connected to. The control memory is always read cyclically, in synchronism
with the occurrence of the time-slot. The entire process of writing and reading is repeated
in every frame, till the call is disconnected.
104

(Mod 3)
FIG 4 OUTPUT ASSOCIATED CONTROL SWITCH
It may be noticed that the writing in the speech memory is sequential and independent of
the control memory, while reading is controlled by the control memory, i.e., there is a
sequential writing but controlled reading.
b) Input associated control

Here, the samples of I/C PCM are written in a controlled way, i.e., in the order
specified by control memory, and read sequentially.Each location of control memory is
rigidly associated with the corresponding TS of I/C PCM and contains the address of TS
of O/G PCM to be connected to.
The previous example with the same connection objective of connecting TS4 of I/C
PCM to TS6 of O/G PCM may be considered for its restoration. The location 4 of the
control memory is associated with incoming PCM TS4. Hence, it should contain the
address of the location where the contents of TS4 of I/C PCM are to be written in speech
memory. A CC writes the number of the destination TS, viz., 6 in this case, in location 4
of the control memory. The contents of TS4 are therefore, written in location of speech
memory, as shown in fig5.
The contents of speech memory are read in the O/G PCM in a sequential way, i.e.,
location 1 is read during TS1, location 2 is read during TS2, and so on. In this case, the
contents of location 6 will appear in the output PCM at TS6. Thus the input PCM TS4 is
switched to output PCM TS6. In this switch, there is sequential reading but controlled
writing.
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(Mod 3)
FIG 5 INPUT ASSOCIATED CONTROLLED TIME SWITCH
2.3.4 Time Delay Switching
The writing and reading, of all time-slots in a frame, has to be completed within
one frame time period (before the start of the next frame). A TS of incoming PCM may,
therefore, get delayed by a time period ranging from 1 TS to 31 TS periods, before being
transmitted on outgoing PCM. For example, consider a case when TS6 of incoming
PCM is to be switched to TS5 in outgoing PCM. In this case switching can be completed
in two consecutive frames only, i.e., 121 microseconds for a 32 channel PCM system.
However, this delay is imperceptible to human beings.
2.3.5 Non-Blocking feature of a Time Switch
In a Time Switch, there are as many memory locations in the control and speech
memories as there are time-slots in the incoming and outgoing PCM highways, i.e.,
corresponding to each time-slot in incoming highway, there is a definite memory location
available in the speech and control memories. Similarly, corresponding to each time-slot
in the outgoing highway there is a definite memory location available in the control and
speech memories. This way, corresponding to free incoming and outgoing time-slots,
there is always a free path available to interconnect them. In other words, there is no
blocking in a time switch.
2.4 TWO DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING
Though the electronic cross points are not so expensive, the cost of
accessing and selecting them from external pins in a Space Switch, becomes prohibitive
104

(Mod 3)
as the switch size increases. Similarly, the memory location requirements rapidly go up as
a Time Switch is expanded, making it uneconomical. Hence, it becomes necessary to
employ a number of stages, using small switches as building blocks to build a large
network. This would result in necessity of changing both the time-slot and highway in
such a network. Hence, the network, usually, employs both types of switches viz., space
switch and time switch, and. therefore, is known as two dimensional network. These
networks can have various combinations of the two types of switches and are denoted as
TS, STS, TSST, etc.
Though to ensure full availability, it may be desirable to use only T stages.

However, the networks having the architecture of TT, TTT, TTTT, etc., are uneconomical,
considering the acceptability of tolerable limits of blocking, in a practical network.
Similarly, a two-stage two-dimensional network, TS or ST, is basically suitable for very
low capacity networks only. The most commonly used architecture has three stages, viz.,
STS or TST. However, in certain cases, their derivatives, viz., TSST, TSSST, etc., may
also be used.
An STS network has relatively simpler control requirements and hence, is still
being favored for low capacity networks, viz., PBX exchanges. As the blocking depends
mainly on the outer stages, which are space stages, it becomes unsuitable for high
capacity systems.
A TST network has lesser blocking constraints as the outer stages are time stages
which are essentially non-blocking and the space stage is relatively smaller. It is,
therefore, most cost-effective for networks handling high traffic, However, for still higher
traffic handling capacity networks, e.g., tandem exchanges, it may be desirable to use
TSST or TSSST architecture.
2.4.1 TST Network
As the name suggests, in a TST network, there are two time stages separated
by a space stage. The former carry out the function of time-slot changing, whereas the
latter performs highway jumping. Let us consider a network having n input and n output
PCM highways. Each of the input and output time stages will have n time switches and
the space stage will consist of an n x n cross point matrix. The speech memory as well as
the control memory of each time switch and each column of a control memory of the
space switch will have m locations, corresponding to m time-slots in each PCM. Thus, it
is possible to connect any TS in I/C PCM to any TS in O/G PCM.
In the case of a local exchange, the network will be of folded type, i.e., the O/G
PCM highways, via a suitable hybrid. Whereas, for a transit exchange, the network will
be non-folded, having complete isolation of I/C and O/G PCM highways. However, a
practical local exchange will have a combination of both types of networks.
For the sake of explanation, let us assume that there are only four I/C and O/G
PCM highways in the network. Hence, there will be only four time switches in each of the
T-stages and the space switch will consist of 4x4 matrix. let us consider an objective of
104

(Mod 3)
connecting two subscribers through this switching network of local exchange, assuming
that the CC assigns TS4 on HWY0 to the calling party and TS6 on HWY3 to the called
party
The speech samples of the calling party have to be carried from TS4 of I/C HWY
0 and to TS6 of O/G HWY3 and those of the called party from TS6 of I/C HWY 3 to TS4
of O/G HWY 0 , with the help of the network. The cc establishes the path, through the
network in three steps. To introduce greater flexibility, it uses an intermediate time-slot,
Tsx, which is also known as internal time-slot. The three switching steps for transfer of
speech sample of the calling party to the called party are as under:
Step 1 Input Time Stage (IT) TS4 HWY0 to TSx HWY0
Step 2 Space stage (S) Tsx HWY0 to Tsx HWY3
Step 3 Output Time Stage (OT) Tsx HWY3 to TS6 HWY3
As the message can be conveyed only in one direction through this path, another
independent path, to carry the massage in the other direction is also established by the
CC, to complete the connection. Assuming the internal time-slots to be TS10 and TS11,
the connection may be established as shown in fig 6.
Figure 6 T S T Switch
Let us now consider the detailed switching procedure making some more
assumptions for the sake of simplicity. Though practical time switches can handle 256
time-slots in parallel mode, let us assume serial working and that there are only 32 time-
slots in each PCM. Accordingly, the speech and control memories in time switches and
control memory columns in space switch, will contain 32 locations each.
To establish the connection, the CC searches for free internal time-slots. Let us
assume that the first available time-slots are TS10 and TS11, as before. To reduce the
complexity of control, the first time stage is designed as output-controlled switch,
whereas the second time stage is input-controlled.
For transfer of speech samples from the calling party to the called party of
previous example, CC orders writing of various addresses in location 10 of control
memories of IT-10, OT-3 and column 3 of CM-S of corresponding to O/G highway,
HWY3. Thus, 4 corresponding to I/C TS4 is written in CM-IT-0, 6 corresponding to O/G
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(Mod 3)
TS6 is written in CM-OT-3 and 0 corresponding to I/C HWY 0 is written in column 3 of

CM-S, as shown in fig. 7.
As the first time switch is output-controlled, the writing is done sequentially.

Hence, a sample, arriving in TS4 of I/C HWY 0, is stored in location 4 of SM-IT-0. It is
readout on internal HWY 0 during TS10 as per the control address sent by CM-IT-0. In
the space switch, during this internal TS10, the cross point 0 in column 3 is enabled, as
per the control address sent by column 3 of CM-S, thus, transferring the sample to
HWY3. The second time stage is input controlled and hence, the sample, arriving in
TS10, is stored in location 6 of SM-OT-3, as per the address sent by the CM-OT-3. This
sample is finally, readout during TS6 of the next frame, thus, achieving the connection
objective.
Figure 7 T S T Switch Structure
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(Mod 3)
Similarly, the speech samples in the other direction, i.e., from the called party to
the calling party, are transferred using internal TS11. As soon as the call is over, the CC
erases the contents in memory locations 10 and 11 of all the concerned switches, to stop
further transfer of message. These locations and time-slots are, then, available to
handlenext call.
2.5 SWITCHING NETWORK CONFIGURATION OF SOME

MODERN SWITCHES
1. E10B - T-S-T
2. EWSD - T-S-S-S-T
3. AXE10 - T-S-T
4. CDOT(MBM) - T-S-T
5. 5ESS - T-S-T
6. OCB 283 -T
2.6 CONCLUSION
The choice of a particular architecture is dependent on factors viz.,
implementation complexity, modularity, testability, expandability, etc. As a large number
of factors favor TST structure, it is most widely used.
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(Mod 3)
CHAPTER-3
CONCEPTS OF SIGNALLING & CCS#7 SIGNALLING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A telecommunication network establishes and realizes temporary connections, in
accordance with the instructions and information received from subscriber lines and inter
exchange trunks, in form of various signals. Therefore, it is necessary to interchange
information between an exchange and it external environment i.e. between subscriber
lines and exchange, and between different exchanges. Though these signals may differ
widely in their implementation they are collectively known as telephone signals.
A signaling system uses a language which enables two switching equipments to

converse for the purpose of setting up calls. Like any other language. it possesses a
vocabulary of varying size and varying precision, ie. a list of signals which may also vary
in size and a syntax in the form of a complex set of rules. governing the assembly of these
signals.
This handout discusses the growth of signalling and various type of signalling
codes used in Indian Telecommunication.
3.2 TYPES OF SIGNALLING INFORMATION
The signaling information can be categorized under four main heads.
3.2.1 Call request and Release information

Call request information i.e. calling subscriber off hook or seizure signal or an
incoming trunk, indicates a new call. On its receipt. the exchange connects an
appropriate equipment for receiving address information ( called number).
Release information i.e. on hook or release signal on a trunk indicates that the call
is over. The exchange releases all the equipment held out for the call, and clears
up any other information used for setting up at including the call.
3.2.2 Selection ( Address) information.
When the exchange is ready to receive the address information. It sends back a
request which is known as proceed to send (PTS) signal in trunk signaling and dial
tone in subscriber signalling.
Address information essentially comprises of full or part of the called subscribers
number and possibly additional service data.
3.2.3 End of selection information
This information indicates the status of the called line, or the reason for non
completion of the call attempt, essentially indicating called line free or busy.
Concepts Of Signaling & CCS7 Page 27 of 104

(Mod 3)
3.2.4 Supervisory information

It specifies the on/off hook condition of a called subscriber after the connection
has been setup
i. Called subscriber off hook called subscriber has answered and
charging may commence.
ii. Called subscriber on hook :-
Called subscriber has hung up to terminate the call, and the call is disconnected after a
time delay if the calling subscriber does not hang up.
The on/off-hook conditions of the calling subscriber are covered by call request and
release information.
Call connection
The interchange of signaling information can be illustrated with the help of
a typical call connection sequence. The circled number in Fig. 1 correspond to the
steps listed below
i. A request for originating a call is initiated when the calling subscriber
lifts the handset.
ii. The exchange sends dial-tone to the calling subscriber to indicate to him to
start dialing.
iii. The called number is transmitted to the exchange, when the calling
subscriber dials the number.
iv. if the number is free, the exchange sends ringing current to him.
v. Feed-back is provided to the calling subscriber by the exchange by
sending.
a. Ring-back tone, if the called subscriber is free(shown in fig.1)
b. Busy tone if the called subscriber is busy ( not shown in figure),
or
c. Recorded message, if provision exists, for non completion of
call due to some other constraint ( not shown in figure).
vi. The called subscriber indicates acceptance of the incoming call by lifting
the handset
vii. The exchange recognizing the acceptance terminates the ringing current
and the ring-back tone, and establishes a connection between the calling
and called subscribers.
viii. The connection is released when either subscriber replaces the

handset.
When the called subscriber is in a different exchange, the following
inter-exchange trunk. signal functions are also involved, before the
call can be set up.
ix The originating exchange seizes an idle inter exchange trunk, connected
to a digit register at the terminating exchange.
x. The originating exchange sends the digit. The steps iv to viii are then
performed to set up the call.

(Mod 3)
CALLING SUBSCRIBER ORIGINATING TERMINATING CALLED SUBSCRIBER

EXCHANGE EXCHANGE
LINE TRUNK LINE
ON HOOK ON HOOK ON HOOK

1 OFF-HOOK TIME
DIAL TONE
(ADDRESS)
2 CONNECT
3
3
10 ADDRESS
AUDIBLE RINGING
TONE
5 4 RINGING (20
MHz) 6
OFF-HOOK(ANSWER) OFF-HOOK
AUDIBLE RINGING
TERMINATED
7
(ANSWER RINGING TERMINATED
SUBSCRIBERS CONNECTED
ON HOOK
8 ON HOOK OCONVERSATION ENSURES 8
DISCONNECT
Figure 1. Signalling On A Typical Completed Call
3.3. SIGNALLING
Telephony started with the invention of magneto telephone which used a magneto
to generate the ringing current, the only signal, sent via a dedicated line between two
subscribers. The need for more signals was felt with the advent of manual switching. Two
additional signals were, therefore, introduced to indicate call request and call release. The
range of signals increased further with the invention of electro-mechanical automatic
exchanges and is still growing further at a very fast pace, after the advent of SPC
electronic exchanges.
3.3.1 Subscriber Line signalling
3.3.1.1 Calling Subscriber Line Signaling

(Mod 3)
In automatic exchanges the power is fed over the subscribers loop by the
centralized battery at the exchange. Normally, it is 48 V. The power is fed
irrespective of the state of the subscriber, viz., idle, busy or talking.
a) Call report
When the subscriber is idle, the line impedance is high. The line impedance falls,
as soon as, the subscriber lifts the hand-set, resulting in increase of line current.
This is detected as a new call signal and the exchange after connecting an
appropriate equipment to receive the address information sends back dial-tone
signal to the subscriber.
b) Address signal
After the receipt of the dial tone signal, the subscriber proceeds to send the
address digits. The digits may be transmitted either by decade dialing or by
multifrequency pushbutton dialling.
1. Decadic Dialling
The address digits may be transmitted as a sequence of interruption of the DC
loop by a rotary dial or a decadic push-button key pad. The number of interruption
(breaks) indicate the digit, exept0, for which there are 10 interruptions. The rate of
such interruptions is 10 per second and the make/break ration is 1:2. There has to
be a inter-digital pause of a few hundred milliseconds to enable the exchange to
distinguish between consecutive digits. This method is, therefore, relatively slow
and signals cannot be transmitted during the speech phase.
2. Multi frequency Push-button Dialling

This method overcomes the constraints of the decadic dialling. It uses two sets of
four voice frequencies. Pressing a button (key), generates a signal comprising of
two frequencies. one from each group. Hence, it is also called Dual-Tone Multi-
frequency (DTMF) dialling. The signal is transmitted as long as the key is kept
pressed. This provides 16 different combinations. As there are only 10 digits, at
present the highest frequency, viz., 1633 Hz, is not used and only 7 frequencies
are used, as shown in Fig.2.
By this method, the dialling time is reduced and almost 10 digits can be
transmitted per second. As frequencies used lie in the speech band, information
may be transmitted during the speech phase also, and hence, DTMF telephones
can be used as access terminals to a variety of systems, such as computers with
voice output. The tones have been so selected as to minimize harmonic
interference and probability of simulation by human voice.

(Mod 3)
HIGH FREQUENCY GROUP

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477Hz
097 Hz ABC DEF

1 2 3
170 Hz
GHI JKL MNO
4 5 6
662 Hz
PRS TUV WXY

641 Hz 7 8 9
OPER
0 #
*
Figure 2. Tone-Dialling Frequency Groups.
c) End of selection signal

The address receiver is disconnected after the receipt of complete address. After
the connection is established or if the attempt has failed the exchange sends any
one of the following signals.
1. Ring-back tone to the calling subscriber and ringing current to
the called subscriber, if the called line is free.
2. Busy-tone to the calling subscriber, if the called line is busy or
otherwise inaccessible.
3. Recorded announcement to the calling subscriber, if the
provision exists, to indicate reasons for call failure, other than
called line busy.
Ring back, tone and ringing current are always transmitted from the called
subscriber local exchange and busy tone and recorded announcements, if any, by

(Mod 3)
the equipment as close to the calling subscriber as possible to avoid unnecessary

busying of equipment and trunks.
d) Answer Back Signal

As soon as the called subscriber lifts the handset, after ringing, a battery reversal
signal is transmitted on the line of the calling subscriber. This may be used to
operate special equipment attached to the calling subscriber, e.g., short-circuiting
the transmitter of a CCB, till a proper coin is inserted in the coin-slot.
e) Release signal
When the calling subscriber releases i.e., goes on hook, the line impedance goes
high. The exchange recognizing this signal, releases all equipment involved in the
call. This signal is normally of more than 500 milliseconds duration.
f) Permanent Line (PG) Signal

Permanent line or permanent glow (PG) signal is sent to the calling subscriber if
he fails to release the call even after the called subscriber has gone on-hook and
the call is released after a time delay. The PG signal may also be sent, in case the
subscriber takes too long to dial. It is normally busy tone.
3.3.1.2 Called subscriber line signals.
a) Ring Signal
On receipt of a call to the subscriber whose line is free, the terminating exchange
sends the ringing current to the called telephone. This is typically 25 or 50Hz with
suitable interruptions. Ring-back tone is also fed back to the calling subscriber by
the terminating exchange.
b) Answer Signal
When the called subscriber, lifts the hand-set on receipt of ring, the line
impedance goes low. This is detected by the exchange which cuts off the ringing
current and ring-back tone.
c) Release Signal
If after the speech phase, the called subscriber goes on hook before the calling
subscriber, the state of line impedance going high from a low value, is detected.
The exchange sends a permanent line signal to the calling subscriber and releases
the call after a time delay, if the calling subscriber fails to clear in the meantime.
3.3.1.3 Register Recall Signal

With the use of DTMF telephones, it is possible to enhance the services, e.g., by
dialing another number while holding on to the call in progress, to set up a call to
a third subscriber. The signal to recall the dialling phase during the talking phase,
is called Register Recall Signal. It consists of interruption of the calling
subscribers loop for duration less than the release signal. it may be of 200 to 320
milliseconds duration.
3.3.2 Inter-exchange Signaling


(Mod 3)
3.3.2.1 Inter-exchange signaling can be transmitted over each individual inter exchange
trunk. The signals may be transmitted using the same frequency band as for speech
signals (in band signaling), or using the frequencies outside this band (out-of-band
signaling). The signaling may be
i. Pulsed
The signal is transmitted in pulses. Change from idle condition to one of active
states for a particular duration characterizes the signal, e.g., address information
ii. Continuous
The signal consists of transition from one condition to another, a steady state
condition does not characterizes any signal.
iii. Compelled
It is similar to the pulsed mode but the transmission is not of fixed duration but
condones till acknowledgement of the receiving unit is received back at the
sending unit. It is a highly reliable mode of signal transmission of complex
signals.
3.3.2.2 Line signals
a) The simplest cheapest, and most reliable system of signaling on trunks, was
DC signaling, also known as metallic loop signaling, exactly the same as used
between the subscriber and exchange, i.e.,
i. Circuit seizure/release corresponding to off/on-hook signal of

the subscriber.
ii. Address information in the from of decade pulses.
b) In-Band and Out-of-Band Signals

Exchanges separated by long distance cannot use any form of DC line signaling.
Suitable interfaces have to be interposed between them, for conversion of the signals into
certain frequencies, to enable them to be carried over long distance. A signal frequency
(SF) may be used to carry the on/off hook information. The dialing pulses can also be
transmitted by pulsing of the states. The number of signals is small and they can be
transmitted in-band or out-of band. The states involved are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Single Frequency Signaling States Tone Signal Condition
State Forward Backward

Idle (On hook) On On
FORWARD
Seizure(off hook) off on
Release (on hook) on off/on
BACKWARD
Answer(off hook) off off
Clear Back (on hook) off on
Blocking (off hook) on off

(Mod 3)
For in band signaling the tone frequency is chosen to be 2600Hz. or 2400 Hz. As
the frequency lies within the speech band, simulation of tone-on condition
indicating end-of call signal by the speech, has to be guarded against, for pre-
mature disconnection.
Out-of- Band signaling overcomes the problem of tone on condition imitation by

the speech by selecting a tone frequency of 3825 Hz which is beyond the speech
band. However, this adds up to the hard-ware costs.
c) E & M Signals
E & M lead signaling may be used for signaling on per-trunk basis. An additional
pair of circuit, reserved for signaling is employed. One wire is dedicated to the forward
signals ((M-Wire for transmit or mouth) which corresponds to receive or R-lead of the
destination exchange, and the other wire dedicated to the backward signals (E-wire for
receive or ear) which corresponds transmit or send wire or S-Lead of the destination
exchange. The signaling states are shown in table2.
TABLE 2. E & M Signaling States
State Outgoing Exchange Incoming Exchange
M-lead E-lead M- lead E-lead
Idle(On hook) Earth Open Earth Open
FORWARD Battery Open Earth Earth
seizure(off hook)
Release Earth Earth/open Battery/Earth Open
(On hook)BACKWARD
Answer(off hook) battery Earth Battery Earth
Clear Back(On hook) battery Open Earth earth
Blocking Earth Earth Battery Open
This type of signaling is normally used in conjunction with an interface to change the E &
M signals into frequency signal to be carried along with the speech.
3.3.2.3 Register Signals

a) It was, however felt that the trunk service could not be managed properly
without the trunk register which basically is an address digit receiver, with such
development, the inter-exchange signaling was sub- divided into two categories.
1. Line signaling in which the signals operate throughout the duration of call, and
2. Register signaling during the relatively short phase of setting up the call,
essentially for transmitting the address information.

(Mod 3)
forward outgoing register

signal incomming register 2-and-2only
signal recognition
time
time
acknowledgement
signal cessation
backward
signal cessation
recognition
signal and request for
recognition
next signal
compelled signal
sequence
next forward
signal Sending
Figure.3. Compelled signalling procedure acknowledgement

In other words, register signals are interchanged between registers during backward
a phase signal
between receipt of trunk seizure signal and the exchange switching to the speech phase.
These signals are proceed-to-send (PTS) signals, address, signals, and signals indicating
the result of the call attempt.
The register signals may be transmitted in band or out of band. however, inreceiving
the
latter case, the signaling is relatively slow and only limited range of signals may be used.
For example, a single out-of-band frequency may be selected and information sent as
pulses.
In-band transmission can be used easily as there can be no possible interference

with the speech signals. To reduce transmission time and to increase reliability, a number
of frequencies are used in groups. Normally 2 out of 6 frequencies are used. To make the
system more reliable compelled sequence is used. Hence, this system is normally called
compelled sequence Multi-frequency (CSMF) signaling as shown in Fig.3. In CCITT
terminology it is termed as R2 system. As the frequencies need be transmitted only for a
short duration to convey the entire information, the post dialling delay is reduced.
b) When more than two exchanges are involved in setting up the connections the
signaling may be done in either of the two modes
1. End-to-end signaling
The signaling is always between the ends of the connection, as the call progresses.
Considering a three exchanges, A-B-C, connection, initially the signaling is
between A-B, then between A-C after the B-C connection is established.
2. Link-By-Link signaling

(Mod 3)
The signaling is always confined to individual links. Hence, initially the signaling
is between A-B, then between B-C after the B-C connection is established.
Generally supervisory (or line) and subscriber signaling is necessarily on link-by-

link basis. Address component may be signalled either by end-to-end or link-by-link
depending upon the network configuration.
c) R2 Signalling
CCITT standardized the R2 signaling system to be used on national and
international routes. However, the Indian environment requires lesser number of signals
and hence, a slightly modified version is being used.
There is a provision for having 15 combinations using two out of six frequencies
viz., 1380, 1500, 1620, 1740, 1860 and 1980 Hz, for forward signals and another 15
combination using two out of six frequencies viz., 1140,1020, 900, 780, 660 and 540 Hz,
for backward signals. In India, the higher frequency in the forward group i.e., 1980 Hz,
and the lower frequency in the backward group, i.e., 540 hz, are not used. Thus, there are
10 possible combinations in both the directions. The weight codes for the combinations
used are indicated in Table 3 and the significance of each signal is indicated in Table 4
and 5.
Table 3- Signal Frequency Index And Weight Code
Signal Frequency (Hz)

Forward 1380 1500 1620 1740 1860
Backward 1140 1020 900 780 660
Index f0 f1 f2 f3 f4
Weight Code 0 1 2 4 7
Table 4-Forward Signals

Signal Weight Group I Group II
1 0+1 Digit 1 Ordinary subscriber
2 0+2 Digit2 Subscriber with priority Test / Mtce, equipment
3 1+2 Digit3 Spare
4 0+4 Digit4 STD Barred
5 1+4 Digit5 Spare
6 2+4 Digit6 CCB
7 0+7 Digit7 Changed Number to Operator
8 1+7 Digit8 Closed Number
9 2+7 Digit9 Closed Number
10 4+7 Digit0 Spare

(Mod 3)
Table 5 -Backward Signals

Signal Weight Group A Group B
No. Code
1 0+1 Send next digit Called line free with
out metering
2 0+2 Restart Changed number
3 1+2 Address complete, Changeover to reception of Called line busy
group B signals
4 0+4 Calling line identification for malicious calls Local congestion
5 1+4 send calling subscribers category Number unobtainable
6 2+4 Set up speech connection called line fee, with
metering
7 0+7 Send last but 1 digit Route congestion
8 1+7 Snd last but 2 digit Spare
9 2+7 Snd last but 3 digit Route Breakdown
10 4+7 Spare Malicious call
blocking
Note : Signals A2, and A7 to A9 are used in Tandem working only.

It can be seen from the tables that
1. Forward signals are used for sending the address information of the called
subscriber, and category and address, information of the calling subscriber.
2. Backward signals are used for demanding address information and callers
category and for sending condition and category of called line.
R2 signaling is fully compelled and the backward signal is transmitted as an

acknowledgement to the forward signal. This speeds up the interchange of information,
reducing the call set up time. However, the satellite circuits are an exception and semi-
compelled scheme may only be used due to long propagation time.
Register signals may be transmitted on end-to-end basis. It is a self checking system.

Each signal is acknowledgement appropriately at the other end after the receiver checks
the presence of only 2 and only 2 out of 5 proper frequencies.
d) An example of CSMF signaling between two exchanges may be illustrated by

considering a typical case. The various signals interchanged after seizure of the
circuit using DC signaling are
1. originating exchange sends first digit
2. Receipt of the digit is acknowledged by the terminating exchanges by sending
A5 (demanding the callers category).
3. A5 is acknowledgement by sending any 11-1 to 11-5 by the originating exchange
4. Terminating exchange acknowledges this by A1, demanding for next digit.
5. Originating exchange, acknowledges A1 by sending any of 1-1 to 1-10 sending
the digit.
6. The digits are sent in succession by interchange of steps v and vi.

(Mod 3)
7. On receipt of last digit, the terminating exchange carries out group and line
selection and then sends A3, indicating switching over to group B signals.
8. This is acknowledgement by the originating exchange by sending the callers
category again.
9. The terminating exchange acknowledgements by sending the called line
condition by sending any of B2 to B6.
10. In response to B6, the originating exchanges switches through the speech
path and the registers are released. Alternatively, in response to B2 to B5, the
registers are released and appropriate tone is fed to the calling subscriber
by the originating exchange.
3.3.3 Digital Signalling
All, the systems discussed so far, basically, are on per line or per trunk basis, as
the signals are carried on the same line or trunk. With the emergence of PCM systems, it
was possible to segregate the signaling from the speech channel.
Inter exchange signalling can be transmitted over a channel directly associated

with the speech channel, channel-associated signalling (CAS) , or over a dedicated link
common to a number of channels, common channel signalling (CCS). The information
transmitted for setting up and release of calls is same in both the cases. Channel
associated signalling requires the exchanges, to have access to each trunk via the
equipment which may be decentralised, whereas, in common channel signalling, the
exchange is connected to only a limited number of signalling links through a special
terminal.
3.3.3.1 Channel- Associated signalling

In the PCM systems the signalling information is conveyed on a separate channel
which is rigidly associated with the speech channel. Hence, this method is known as
channel associated signalling (CAS). Though the speech sampling rate is 8 Khz, the
signals do not change as rapidly as speech and hence, a lower sampling rate of 500 Hz,
for digitisation of signals can suffice. Based on this concept, TS 16 of each frame of 125
microseconds is used to carry signals of 2 speech channels, each using 4 bits.
Hence, for a 30 channel PCM system, 15 frames are required to carry all the
signals. To constitute a 2 millisecond multiframe of 16 frames. F 0 to F 15 TS 16 of the
frame F 0 is used for multiframe synchronisation. TS 16 of F1 contains signal for
speech channels 1 and 16 being carried in TS 1 and TS 17, repectively, TS16 of F2
contains signals of speech channels 2 and 17 being carried in TS2 and TS 18, respectively
and so on, Both line signals and address information can be conveyed by this method.
Although four bits per channel are available for signalling only two bits are used.
As the transmission is separate in the forward and backward direction, the bits in the
forward link are called af and bf, and those in the backward link are called ab and bb.
Values for these bits are assigned as shown in Table 6.

(Mod 3)
As the dialling pulses are also conveyed by these conditions, the line state
recognition time is therefore, above a threshold value. The bit bf is normally kept at 0,
and the value 1 indicates a fault.
However, the utilisation of such a dedicated channel for signalling for each speech
channel is highly inefficient as it remains idle during the speech phase. Hence, another
form of signalling known as common-channel signalling evolved.
Table 6:
State Bit Value
Forward Backward
af bf bb
ab
Idle 1 0 1 0
Seizure 0 0 1 0
Seizure 0 0 1 1
acknowledge
Answer 0 0 0 1
Clear Forward 1 0 0/1 1
Clear Back 0 0 1 1
3.3.3.2 Common channel signaling
Common channel signalling (CCS) overcomes the efficiency of the CAS. In this method,
the signalling channel for a circuit is allotted only for the duration of signalling. A
separate data-link dedicated to signalling only, is used for the purpose, as shown in Fig.4.
SIG TRUNKS SIG
OFFICE A SIG SIG OFFICE B
SIG SIG
(a) Per - trunk signalling

(Mod 3)
OFFICE C OFFICE D
PROCESSOR PROCESSOR
CCIS CCIS
SIG SIG
(b) Common - channel inter - exchange signalling
Figure 4 Interexchange Signalling
CCS SIG Common-Channel Inter-exchange Signalling Equipment SIG per trunk

Signalling Equipment In other words, CCS has a pool of signalling channels which are
allocated to a speech circuit, only when the later has any requirements of signalling.
Hence, the speech circuits may have to queue up for a spare signalling circuit. Therefore,
the dimensioning of the pool capacity will depend on the acceptable level of service, and
expected signalling content and frequency per speech circuit.
By using this technique, the signalling equipment can be centralized and made more
compact resulting in advantages of space saving and economy. However, this technique
can be used only by the SPC exchanges for inter processor signalling.
a) Inter-Processor signalling
In the inter processor signalling, there is a total departure from the conventional
signalling. Instead of exchanging DC signals, tones, frequencies or bit patterns for
hundreds of milliseconds, a single data message of 40 to 50 millisecond is sufficient for
conveying the entire information.
The signalling word, also called, signalling unit (SU), is divided into sub words or
fields containing bits to represent.
1. Actual signal message, i.e., speech circuit number, service indicator (telephone,
data etc.,) and signal information(directory number, etc.)
2. Transfer control, i.e., information for synchronisation, message numbering and
acknowledgement of receipt.
3. Error protection , i.e., redundant bits for detection of transmission error.
b) Message Transfer Procedure
The contents of the transfer control section depend upon the procedure or protocol
adopted for message transfer which essentially concerns synchronisation and error
correction.

(Mod 3)
c) Synchronisation
Synchronisation is required at several levels at
1. data link level to recover bit timing.
2. message level to detect the start and end of messages and
3. message sequence level to identify each message in a series of messages
received so that retransmission can be requested if necessary.
d) Error protection
To detect and correct transmission errors, redundancy must be provided in the
transmitted information, if there is no provision of requesting retransmission of the
information. However, if a return channel is available only error detection, redundancy is
necessary and retransmission of the signal can be requested if the signal is mutilated.
3.3.4 Practical CCS systems

Currently a signalling system termed as CCITT no.6, recommended by CCITT is
in use . another system termed as CCITT No.7 is being experimented for compatibility
with ISDN. The signalling data is interchanged in digital streams between the two
processors via a special dedicated signalling interface.
3.3.4.1 CCITT No.6 System
It is designed for use with all types of international circuits, including satellite
circuits. Signalling can be carried over 2400 bits/second over analog links, or at 4 K
bits/second over digital links . The information is transmitted in the form of 28 bit signal
units, as shown in.
3.3.4.2 CCITT No. 7 System
In view of the introduction of an unprecedented range of new services and
facilities for subscriber, operating companies and telecommunications networks, a new
system has been evolved which will be suitable for the international network (terrestrial
and satellite links) and national network with optional performance in digital network.
The signal unit is shown in Fig. 5 (b). The functional breakdown of the system is as
under :-
i. Level 1 is the signalling data link, comprising of an analog or digital

transmission medium with a bit rate from 2400 bit/s to 64 K bit/s.
ii. Level 2 is the signalling link function which includes transferring the
signalling message over the data link in a signal unit, signal unit
delimitation transmission error detection and correction, and
signalling link failure detection and recovery.
iii. Level 3 distributes messages between users and the signalling link.
iv. Level 4 groups the various user parts. In addition to call processing
the function of the users may include network administration and
maintenance.

(Mod 3)
Fig5 (a) organized as block of 12 signal units. Error protection is through an

error detecting code and repeat transmission of mutilated message
Fig.5 Typical message formats. The shaded area represent spare bit fields.
3.3.5 Advantages of CCS

The other advantages of CCS, in addition to space saving are :-
i. Faster call set up by cutting down the post dialler delay. In SPC environment
setting up a call via two transit centers takes just 0.8 second with CCS, compared
to 3.5 seconds with MF signalling.
ii. New services can be made available with a better quality. For example, setting up
a call with abbreviated dialling facility and routed via two transit centers, takes
just 3 seconds with CCS, as compared to 12 seconds required by the network
using CAS, moreover it is also possible to use additional services, as it is possible
to transmit signals during speech phase also.
iii. More call completion is possibly by re routing the call without increasing the call
set up time to an unacceptable level.
iv. In MF signalling system it is possible for a clever subscriber to access the system
by generating of generally used signalling tones. By generating tones. of the
correct frequency and at the correct time, such a phone- phreak can make long
distance calls without being charged thus resulting in loss of revenue, However,

(Mod 3)
phone phreak free calls are not possible in CCS, as the signalling link is totally
separate from the speech link.
v. Unified signalling system is possible to provide all existing and envisage services
as required under the integrated services Digital Network (ISDN).
vi. Modem network management will be possible by provision of an efficient means
of collecting information and transmitting orders for technical operation and
maintenance of the network.
vii. Traffic engineering becomes more efficient. The speech circuits requirements will
go down because of substantial reduction of ineffective traffic. This advantage
itself is sufficient to make additional cost of signalling link cost effective.
Moreover, as large amount of data is available in shorter time span, the real time
load on the processor will come down resulting in increase in its efficiency by
almost 20%
3.3.6 Constraints of CCS
As in CCS more processing of the signalling is required, the cost of hardware and
software for the signalling interface will be more. In addition to this, there would be
following constraints of the network.
As a single data link carries signalling information of a large number of speech
circuits, its failure would result in immobilization of all these speech circuits.
3.4 CONCLUSION
Looking back over the years, it can be seen that there has been substantial increase
in the services, provided by the telecommunication network. The signalling system had
to grow along with to ensure efficient provision of these services. With the introduction
of computers in the field of telecommunications, new vistas of services have opened up.
The signalling system is also coming abreast to make these services a reality.

(Mod 3)
CHAPTER-4
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF VRLA BATTERIES
& SMPS POWERPLANT
4.1 INTRODUCTION: VRLA BATTERIES

Maintenance free, valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries ensure a reliable,
effective and user friendly source of power. It is spill proof, leak proof and explosion
resistant and there is no need to add water or to clean terminals. It has low self-discharge
rate which eliminates the need for equalizing charges. The container is made of
polypropylene. Each plate is individually wrapped by a highly absorbent, micro porous
glass separate developed specially for VRLA batteries. The chemically inert glass ensures
life long service. The absorbed electrolyte ensures that there is no spillage even in the
unlikely event of puncture of the cell. Gas evolution under float conditions is negligible.
The water loss throughout life due to gassing is roughly 0.1% of the total electrolyte
present in the cell. This will in no way affect performance and also eliminate the need for
specially ventilated battery room and acid resisting flooring. As the batteries can be
installed in stacks, there will be considerable space saving also.
Various capacities of Batteries are 120 AH, 200 AH, 400 AH, 600 AH, 1000 AH,
1500 AH, 2000 AH, 2500 AH, 3000 AH, 4000 AH and 5000 AH.
4.2 VRLA TECHNOLOGY A BRIEF REVIEW OF CHEMICAL REACTION

The electrode reactions in all lead acid batteries including VRLA battery are
basically identical. As the battery is discharged, the lead dioxide positive active material
and the spongy lead negative active material react with the sulphuric acid electrolyte to
form lead sulphate and water. During charge, this process is reversed. The Columbic
efficiency of the charging process is less than 100% on reaching final stage of charging or
under over charge conditions, the charging energy is consumed for electrolytic
decomposition of water and the positive plates generate oxygen gas and the negative
plates generate hydrogen gas.
Under typical charging conditions, oxygen at the positive plate occurs before
hydrogen evolution at the negative. This feature is utilized in the design of VRLA
batteries. In flooded cells, the oxygen gas evolved at the positive plate bubbles upwards
through the electrolyte and is released through the vents. In MF-VRLA batteries the
oxygen gas evolved, at the positive plate, instead of bubbling upwards is transported in
the gas phase through the separator medium to the negative plate. The separator is a
highly absorbent glass matrix type with very high porosity, designed to have pore volume
in excess of the electrolyte volume (starved electrolyte design), due to which the oxygen
gas finds an unimpeded path to the negative plate. Reaction reduces the oxygen gas with
Operation Of VRLA Batteries& Page 44 of 104
SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
the spongy lead at the negative plate, turning a part of it into a partially discharged
condition, thereby effectively suppressing the hydrogen gas evolution at the negative
plate. This is what is known as the oxygen recombination principle. The part of negative
plate, which was partially discharged, is then reverted to the original spongy lead by
subsequent charging. Thus, a negative plate keeps equilibrium between the amount,
which turns into spongy lead by charging and the amount of spongy lead, which turns into
lead sulphate by absorbing the oxygen gas generated at the positive plate. The oxygen
recombination principle can be shown by the following reaction:
1. Reaction at positive plate:

H2O = O2 + 2e (1)
2. Reaction at negative plate :

Pb + 1/2O2 = PbO (2)
PbO+H2SO4 = PbSO4 + H2O (3)
To reaction (1)
PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e = Pb + H2SO4 (4)
To reaction (3)
To reaction (2)
3. The total reaction at negative plate
O2 +2H+ = H2O
Thus, the recombination technology makes the battery virtually Maintenance Fee.
4.3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF 1000 AH BATTERY

1. Capacity of the Battery @ 10 : 1000 AH
Hr. rate discharge to 1.75 ECV
2. Nominal Voltage per cell of : 2.0 V
fully charged battery at 27oC
3. Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) of : 2.15 V
fully charged battery at 27oC
4. Recommended Float Voltage
Condition
(i) Terminal Voltage of Charger : 2.25 V/Cell
(ii) Float charging current at : Maximum current to be limited to 20% of the rated
2.25 V/cell AH
5. Recommended Boost charging : 2.30 V/Cell
condition for quick charging at
27oC
6. Internal resistance of the cell : 0.257 milli ohms
7. Life Expectancy of the Battery : 4000 Cycles at 20% Depth of Discharge or 20 years
under Float condition

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
8. Containers:
(i) Material : Polypropylene (Spl. Grade)
(ii) Thickness of wall : 2.3 mm (Approx.)
Container and cover Polypropylene Co-polymer housed in a steel tray

Separator Spun glass micro porous matrix

Safety valve Explosion proof, pressure-regulating and self-
resealing type
Positive plate Patented MFX alloy

Negative plate Lead Calcium allow

Terminal Integral lead terminal with solid copper core

Self discharge Less than 0.5% per week

Charging Current limited, constant potential

Float charge 2.25 VPC at 27oC with a max. current limit of 20%
of rated capacity in amperes
Boost charge 2.30 VPC at 27oC with a max. current limit of 20%
of rated capacity in amperes
Connectors Heavy-duty, lead plated copper connectors

Life expectancy Float service at 27oC upto 20 years

Cycle duty at 27oC 80% DOD 1200 Cycles
Cycle duty at 27oC 20% DOD 4000 Cycles

SMPS Powerplant
Fig.1 Power Stack Cell Cut Section
(Mod 3)
4.4 FRESHENING CHARGE
4.4.1 General
Batteries lose some charge during as well as during the period prior to installation. A
battery should be installed and given a freshening charge after receipt as soon as possible.
Battery positive (+) terminal should be connected to charge positive (+) terminal and
battery negative (-) terminal to charger negative (-) terminal.
4.4.2 Constant Voltage Method

Constant voltage is the only charging method recommended. Most modern
chargers are of the constant voltage type.
Determine the maximum voltage that may be applied to the system equipment.
This voltage, divided by the number of cells connected in series, will establish the
maximum volts per cell (VPC) that may be used.
Table B lists recommended voltages and charge times for the freshening charge.
Select the highest voltage the system allows but not exceeding 2.37 volts per cell to
perform the freshening charge in the shortest time period. The charging current should be
limited to a maximum of 20% of the rated capacity in Amps.
Table 1 Voltage & Duration
Cell Volts Time
2.25 30 hrs
2.30 12 hrs
Note : Time periods listed in Table B are for temperatures from 15 oC to 40oC. For
temperatures below 15oC double the number of hours.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Raise the voltage to the maximum value not exceeding 2.37 volts per cell
permitted by the system equipment. When charging current has tapered and stabilized (no
further reduction for three hours), charge for the hours shown in the above table or until
the lowest cell voltage ceases to rise. Correct charge time for the temperature at the time
of stabilization. To determine lowest cell, monitoring should be performed during the
final 10% of the charge time.
4.4.3 Operation:
General
All POWER STACK batteries are rated to an end cell voltage of 1.75 VPC at all
rates of discharge.
Floating Charge Method

In this type of operation, the battery is connected in parallel with a constant
voltage charger and the critical load circuits. The charger should be capable of
maintaining the required constant voltage at battery terminals and also supply normal
connected load where applicable. This sustains the battery in a fully charged condition
and also makes it available to resume the emergency power requirements in the event of
an AC power interruption or charger failure.
Float and Boost Voltages

Given below are the float and boost voltage recommended for the POWER
STACK battery system. The average Volts per cell (VPC) value of the series string
should be set to the recommended voltage under Float and Boost conditions.
RECOMMENDED FLOAT VOLTAGE 2.25 VPC AT 27oC

RECOMMENDED BOOST VOLTAGE 2.30 VPC AT 27oC
Modern constant voltage output charging equipment is recommended for the

floating charger method of operation of batteries. This type of charger, properly adjusted
to the recommended floats voltage and following recommended surveillance procedures,
will assist in obtaining consistent serviceability and optimum life. The charging current
for the battery should be limited to 20% of its nominal AH capacity. After the battery has
been given its freshening charge (refer to section 4), the charger should be adjusted to
provide the recommended float voltage at the battery terminals. Do not use float voltage
lower or higher than those recommended. This will result in reduced capacity and/or
reduced battery life. Check and record battery terminal voltage monthly. See Section 8,
RECORDS Item B. If normal battery float voltage is above or below the recommended
value adjust charger to provide proper voltage as measured at the battery terminals.
Voltmeter Calibration
Panel and portable voltmeters used to indicate battery voltage should be accurate
at the operating voltage value. The same holds true for portable meters used to read

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
individual cell voltages. These meters should be checked against a standard every six
months and calibrated when necessary.
Recharge
All batteries should be recharged as soon as possible following a discharge with
constant voltage chargers.
Determining State-of-Charge
The approximate state of charge of the battery, to some extent can be determined
by the amount of charging current going to the battery. While charging the current shown
by the charger ammeter will start to decrease and will finally stabilize when the battery
becomes fully charged, if the normal connected load is constant (no emergency load
connected). The state when the current level remains constant, after it has started
decreasing, for three consecutive hours would indicate full state of charge condition and
the battery will be ready for normal use.
If the normal connected load is variable (e.g. Telecom application) the state when
the voltage across the battery terminals is stable for six consecutive hours would indicate
full state of charge condition and the battery is ready for normal use.
Temperature of the Cell

The temperature of the POWER STACK cells cannot be measured during
operation. However, cell temperatures are normally within +5 oC of the ambient. All
performance characteristics are measured at ambient temperature and corrected to 27oC.
4.5 EQUALIZING CHARGE
4.5.1 General
Under normal operating conditions an equalizing charge is not required. An equalizing
charge is a special charge given to a battery when non-uniformity in voltage has
developed between cells. It is given to restore all cells to a fully charged condition. Use a
charging voltage higher than the normal float voltage and for a specified number of hours,
as determined by the voltage used.
Non-uniformity of cells may result from low float voltage due to improper
adjustment of the charger or a panel voltmeter, which reads an incorrect (higher) output
voltage. Also, variations in cell temperatures greater than 3 oC in the string at a given time
due to environmental conditions or module arrangement can cause low cells.
4.5.2 Equalizing Frequency

An equalizing charge should be given when the following conditions exist.
(A) The float voltage of the pilot cell (as per section 7) is atleast 0.05V blow
the average float voltage per cell in the blank.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
(B) A recharge of battery is required in a minimum time period following an

emergency discharge.
(C) Accurate periodic records (see section 8) of individual cell voltages show
an increase in spread since the previous readings.
4.5.3 Equalizing Charge Method

Constant Voltage charging is the method for giving an equalizing charge. Determine the
maximum voltage that may be applied to the system. This voltage, divided by the number
of cells connected in series, will establish the maximum volts per cell that may be used to
perform the equalizing charge in the shortest period of time. Refer to Table-C for voltage
and recommended time periods.
Table-2 Voltage & Recommended Periods
Cell Volts Time
2.25 30 hrs
2.30 12 hrs
Note : Time periods listed in Table C are for ambient temperatures from 15 oC to 40oC. For
temperatures less than 15oC double the number of hours.
Raise the voltage to the maximum value permitted by the system equipment or
recommended equalizing charge voltage whichever is lower. When charging current has
tapered and stabilized (no further reduction for three hours). Continue charging for the
hours shown in Table C until the lowest cell voltage ceases to rise. Monitoring of cell
voltages should be started during the final 10% of the applicable time period to determine
lowest cell voltage in the battery system.
4.6 PILOT CELL

A pilot cell is selected in the series string to reflect the general condition of all
cells in the battery. The cell selected should be the lowest cell voltage in the series string
following the initial charge. See section 4 FRESHENING CHARGE. Reading and
recording pilot cell voltage monthly serves as an indicator of battery condition between
scheduled overall individual cell readings.
4.7 RECORDS
A complete recorded history of the battery operation is most desirable and helpful
in obtaining satisfactory performance. Good records will also show when corrective
action may be required to eliminate possible charging, maintenance or environmental
problems.
The following surveillance data must be read and permanently recorded for review by
supervisory personnel so that any necessary remedial action is taken.
(A) Upon completion of the freshening charge and with the battery on float charge at
the proper voltage for one week, read and record the following :

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Individual cell voltage

Battery terminal voltage
Ambient temperature
(B) Every 3 months, a complete set of readings as specified in paragraph A above

must be recorded.
(C) Whenever the battery is given an equalizing charge, an additional set of readings
should be taken and recorded as specified in paragraph A above.
The suggested frequency of record taking is the absolute minimum to protect warranty.
For system protection and to suit local conditions or requirements, more frequent readings
may be desirable.
4.8 TEMPORARY NON-USE

As installed battery that is expected to stand idle for over 6 months should be
treated as follows. Give the battery an equalizing charge as per section 6. Following the
equalizing charge, open connections at the battery terminals to remove charge and load
from the battery .Every six months, temporarily connect battery to charger and give it an
equalizing charge. To return the battery to normal service, re-connect the battery to the
charger and load, give an equalizing charge and return the battery to float operation.
4.9 UNIT CLEANING

Periodically clean cell covers with a dry 55 mm paintbrush to remove
accumulated dust. If any cell parts appear to be damp with electrolyte or show signs of
corrosion, contact your local representative of the manufacturer.
CAUTION
Do not clean plastic parts with solvents, detergents, oils, mineral spirits or spray-type cleaners as
these may cause crazing or cracking of the plastic materials.
4.10 CHECKING CONNECTIONS

Battery terminals and inter cell connections should be corrosion free and tight for
trouble free operation. Periodically these connections should be inspected.
If corrosion is present, disconnect the connector from the terminal.Gently clean

the affected area using a brush or scouring pad. Apply a thin coating of petroleum jelly to
the cleaned contact surfaces, reinstall connectors and retorque connections.
ALL TERMINALS AND INTERCELL CONNECTIONS SHOULD BE

RETORQUED ATLEAST ONCE EVERY YEAR.
4.11 INTRODUCTION : SMPS

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
What is SMPS?
SMPS means Switch Mode Power Supply. This is used for D.C-to-D.C
conversion. This works on the principle of switching regulation. The SMPS system is
highly reliable, efficient, noiseless and compact because the switching is done at very
high rate in the order of several KHz to MHz.
Necessity
The SMPS regulators are used in B.S.N.L at various locations like CDOT,
10BTransmission systems etc.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
4.12 PRINCIPLE OF SWITCHING REGULATOR:
]
Figure 2 Pulse Generator
A pulse train drives the base of switching or pass transistor. When the voltage to
theBase is high, the transistor saturates, when the voltage is low, the transistor turns off.
Here theTransistor functions as a switch. When the transistor is ON, load current is drawn
through theTransistor and choke L. When the transistor is OFF the load current is
maintained by the Energy stored in the choke L. The current flows through earth, Diode
D, choke, load and Earth. Hence this diode is called Retrieval Diode.
Duty cycle of the Transistor = On Time = D

On Time + Off Time
(One cycle time)
The output voltage = Input voltage x D
For example
If I/P voltage is 200 volts and D=0.25
O/P voltage = 200 x 0.25 = 50V.
Regulation is achieved by modifying the Duty cycle. Duty cycle depends on

onetime of transistor, which in turn depends on the width of the pulse applied to the base
of the Transistor, which is controlled by Pulse width modulation by regulator circuit.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
4.12.1 Principle of Regulation:
Figure 3 Principle of regulation
The relaxation oscillator produces a square wave. The square wave is integrated to
get a triangular wave, which drives the non-inverting input of a triangular to pulse
converter. The
Pulse train out of this circuit then drives the Pass Transistor. The output is sampled by a
Voltage divider and fed to a comparator. The feed back voltage is compared with a
reference Voltage. The output of the comparator then drives the input of the triangular to
pulse converter. If the output voltage tries to increase the comparator produces a higher
output voltage, which raises the reference voltage of the triangular- to pulse converter.
This makes the pulse that drives the base of the switching transistor narrower. That means
duty cycle is reduced. Since the duty cycle is lower the output becomes less, which tries
to cancel almost all the original increase in output voltage. Conversely, if the regulated
output voltage tries to decrease, the output of the comparator decreases the reference
voltage of the triangular -to pulse converter. This makes the pulse wider and the transistor
conducts for larger time and more voltage comes out of the L.C.filter. This cancels out the
original decrease in output voltage.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Figure 4 waveform
For maximum efficiency the duty cycle should be less than 0.5. As long as the
triangular voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the output is high. Since Vref is
adjustable ,we can vary the width of the output pulse and hence the duty cycle. Switching
regulators are more efficient than conventional regulators as the power loss in the
switching element is reduced to minimum as it conducts only for a fraction of a cycle.
Now a days SMPS technology is extended to power plants also. Power plants upto 2000A
capacity have been developed using SMPS principle.
4.13 SPECIFICATION OF SMPS POWER PLANT:
1) Input Voltage 320 V to 480 V

Frequency 45 Hz TO 65 Hz
2) Output Voltage
in Float Mode -54.0 0.5 V. adj range -48 V to -56V
in charge mode : -55.2 V 0.5V
3) Input power factor >0.95 Lag with 25% to 100% load at nominal input.
4.14 50V2000A POWER PLANT (MULTI RACK TYPE): SUITABLE

FOR VRLA BATTERIES WITH 100A SMPS RECTIFIER MODULES
4.14.1 Introduction:
The power system is intended primarily to provide uninterrupted DC power
Telecom equipments and current for charging the batteries in the presence of AC Mains.
The system works from commercial AC mains which is rectified and regulated to 50V
DC and is fed to the equipment (exchange). The system has provision to connect three
sets of VRLA batteries and facility to charge them simultaneously to ensure that
uninterrupted DC power supply is always available to the exchange.
The power system 50V, 2000A has the following features:
(a) Multi-rack configuration.
(b) Facility to parallel a maximum of 21 nos. (or 22 nos.) of 100A (5600W)
Rectifier modules operation from three phases, 400V, 50Hz AC input.
(c) Termination for three sets of VRLA batteries and exchange.
(d) System input : Three phase, 4-wire, 50 Hz supply.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
The power system as a single DC bus called auto float/charge bus. Depending
upon the status of the batteries, the output DC voltage is maintained at 54.0 + 0.5 V under
auto Float condition. During auto charge the maximum DC voltage reached across the bus
is 55.2 Volts. The exchange battery and rectifier modules are connected in parallel.
The system employ natural convection cooling and has AC input distribution, DC
Output distribution, protection and alarm circuitry for rectifiers, battery and equipment.
4.14.2 Technical Specification For Module

(1) Input Voltage:
(a) 320V to 480V r m s three phase (Nominal Voltage 400V).
(b) Frequency: 45 Hz. 65 Hz.
(2) Output Voltage:
Float mode:
Nominal voltage: -54.0 + 0.5V,
Adjustment range: -48.0 to 56.0 V
Charge mode Voltage: -55.2 + 0.5 V
(3) Rated current: 100 Amps.
(4) Psophometric noise :
Less than 4 mV without battery floated.
Less than 2 mV with battery floated.
(5) Input power factor:
Greater than 0.95 lag with 25% to 100% load at nominal input.
(6) Efficiency :
Greater than 90% at full Load and nominal input.
(7) Protection:
(a) Short circuit protection.
(b) Input over/under voltage protection.
(c) Output over voltage protection.
(d) Constant current features settable from 80 Amps. To 110 Amps. In auto
float/charge mode.
(8) Alarms and indicating lamps :
(a) FR/BC on Auto Float/Charge: Green LED
(b) Rectifier module over voltage: Red LED
(c) DC output fail/Under voltage: Red LED
(d) FR/BC Over Load (Voltage Drop): Amber/Yellow LED
(e) Mains Available: Green LED
For System
(1) Input Voltage :
(a) 3 Phase, 4 Wire, 50 Hz (Range 320V to 480V RMS)
(b) Frequency: 45 Hz. 65 Hz.
(2) Output Voltage:
Float mode Voltage: -54.0 + 0.5V
Charge mode Voltage: -55.2 + 0.5V
(3) Rated Current:
Equipment: 1100 Amps.
Batteries: 300 Amps. Each
(4) Protection
(a) Short circuit/Over load protection.
(b) Input over/under voltage protection.
SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
(c) Battery/Equipment over voltage protection.

(5) Alarms and indicating lamps:
(a) Load Voltage High - Red LED
(b) Load Voltage Low - Red LED
(c) Fuse Fail - Red LED
(d) FR/BC Fail - Red LED
(FR/BC No Output MCB Trip)
(e) Mains available - Green LED
(f) Mains out of range - Red LED
(g) Mains Fail - Red LED
(h) System (Exchange) Overload - Red LED
(i) FR/BC Float/Charge Mode - Green LED
(j) Mains ON/Battery Discharge - Red LED
4.14.3 Functional description of power system:

This Power System is of multi rack type and consists of the following:
(a) Eight racks One main, one auxiliary and six extension racks.
(b) AC Distribution module in each rack.
(c) Rectifier modules (A maximum of three modules in extension rack and two
each in main rack and auxiliary rack).
(d) DC distribution module in each rack.
(e) Metering in each rack.
(f) Power system controller in main rack.
(a) Rack:
The rack is made of mild steel profiles with hinged front door. The door
accommodates display and alarm enunciator. The rack is convection cooled and has
Ventilator slots in the front and sides. The rear panel is screw type and can be dismantled.
The cabinet accommodates 19 subsystems. Air baffles are provided for better heat
transfer. Depending upon the load requirement (Equipment and Batteries), additional
modules can be added. The bottom and top also have ventilator features. The DC power
termination and distribution is done at the top. The AC power termination and distribution
is done at the bottom.
(b) AC Distribution Panel:
The AC input to the rack is terminated at the bottom of the rack on screw type
Terminals. Individual AC circuit breakers are provided for each module. The line, neutral
and Earthing cabinet are terminated on moulded plug which is fixed to the respective
sockets on The rectifier module. To monitor AC input current, 3 nos. of single phase AC
current Transformers are mounted on the panel of main rack. A small signal transformer is
mounted On the PSC panel to provide AC input to power system controller card.
(c) Rectifier module:

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
The SMPS rectifier module 50V, 5600 watts works on 400V AC input and
provides 50V DC for system. The input is through 9-pin AC socket and the DC output
is through terminals. The module has front panel to indicate status and faults in the
module. The control signal is taken through 8-pin telephone jack and is terminated on to
the power system controller card. The rectifier modules are convection cooled and can be
jacked in and out of the cabinet easily. The DC output from each module is terminated on
the respective DC bus bar mounted on the DC distribution panel.
(d) DC Distribution Panel :
This panel is mounted at the top of the cabinet. The panel incorporates the following :
(1) Input from individual rectifier modules terminated on cabinet.
(2) DC shunts to monitor current in various paths.
(3) Termination of battery 1, 2 and 3.
(4) Termination of equipment positive and negative.
(5) Fuses for battery 1, 2 and 3.
(e) Metering:
The front panel of main rack consists of two AC meters to monitor individual line
to Line voltage and current. The selector switch selects the relevant phases. The DC
meters Monitor both voltage and current of batteries and exchange.
(f) Power system controller:
The Power system controller card consists of an electronic circuit which monitors
the State of each rectifier module and display their status. It also controls the operation of
the Module so as to make it work in auto float or auto charge mode. The current signals
are Monitored continuously to ensure equal sharing of current. In case of faults, the same
is Displayed and for faults like input voltage beyond limits, DC output over voltage, over
load Etc. it shuts off the module. The various alarms as per following details are displayed
on the Front panel with audible alarm.
(1) Mains out of range: Red
(2) Load voltage high (above 57V) : Red
(3) Load Voltage low (below 42V) : Red
(4) Mains fail: Red
(5) System overload: Red
(6) Mains available: Green
(7) System over load: Red
(8) Mains on battery discharge: Red
(9) FR/BC in Float-charge mode: Green
(10) FR/BC Fail: Red
4.14.4 Functional Description of Rectifier:
The SMPS 50V-5600W rectifier is a state-of-the-art switch-mode power

conversion equipment. The unit consists of two cascaded power converters performing
power factor correction and DC/DC conversion. The power stages are synchronized and
SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
working with constant switching frequency of 100 kHz. The rectified AC mains voltage is
processed first in the power factor corrector circuit, which is based on a boost topology.
The boost converter has the inherent advantage of continuous input current waveform,
which relaxes the input filter requirements. The performance of the basic boost cell is
improved by a proprietary snubber circuit, which reduces the switching losses of the
power semiconductors due to non-zero switching times. Furthermore, the snubber circuit
also decreases the electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated primarily during the
turn-off process of the boost diode. The output of the boost converter is a stabilized 400V
DC voltage. Further conversion of the stabilized high voltage output of the power factor
corrector circuit is necessary to generate the isolated low voltage output and to provide
the required protection functions for telecommunication application. These tasks are
achieved in the DC/DC converter circuit, which is based on a full-bridge topology. The
full-bridge circuit is operated by phase-shift pulse with modulation with current mode
control. This control method provides zero voltage switching condition for all primary
side power semiconductors effectively reducing switching losses and electromagnetic
interference. An advanced solution reduces the stresses of the output rectifier diodes.
Proper operation of the power converters is managed by individual controller circuits and
supervised by the housekeeping electronics. Remote commanding and monitoring of the
modules are possible through a power system controller housed in the system.
4.14.5 Functional Description of Power System Controller:
Power system controller is designed to control the modes of operation of

rectifiers, Acknowledge and displays the status of rectifiers and system and controls
parameters of Rectifiers. The controller accepts signal from individual rectifiers through
8-pin telephone jack And controls the operation of each individual rectifiers. The mode of
operation of rectifier modules depends on the coded signal M1 and M2 from the
controller. Depending on the state of batteries, the ATM circuit either gives a signal for
floats or charge. An encoder to obtain suitable coded signals encodes these signals M1
and M2.
Depending upon the mode of operation of Rectifier modules, they acknowledge

coded Signals S1 and S2. These signals are decoded to display whether the modules are
in auto Float /charge or fail condition. The total battery current can be suitably
programmed to limit the current supplied from the modules through current programming
pin in modules.
4.15 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The power system controller can set the rectifier into the 3 modes of operation, i.e.
auto float, auto charge and manual boost. The output characteristic is different for
these 3 modes as shown below :
Auto Float

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Auto Charge Mode
Manual Boost Mode
4.16 INSTALLATION & MAINTENANCE OF SMPS:
The power system installation is simple please do the following step by step.
Unpack all the boxes. Check for physical damages. Compare the contents with the
packing list.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
put the main rack at the desired place then, the auxiliary rack in the left side of the main
rack. And then grow the extension racks in the extreme left.
Connect the joining bus bars to link the main and the Auxiliary racks.
put the 5600W rectifiers in their respective slots in each rack. Any rectifier modules can
be put in any slot.
Connect each ac input cable (White cable with nine pin male connector) to the
respective female socket provided in the right side in each module.
Connect each pair of DC output cable (Red & blue cable) in the respective terminal
block Provided in the left side in each module. PLEASE ENSURE THAT THE RED
CABLE IS CONNECTED TO THE TERMINAL MARKED AS + (RED TERMINAL
BLOCK) AND BLUE CABLE TO THE TERMINAL AS - (BLUE TERMINAL
BLOCK).
02 nos. of eight pin flat cable connectors are provided for each rectifier module (except
the last Module, where only one connector is provided). Connect these on the sockets
provided on each module so that control bus is connected in daisy chain. Finally check
that the common system bus is extended to the connector JP3 of the PSC card. Ensure
that there is no break in the daisy Chaining of control bus.
Connect three-phase four wire input to each rack at TB1. Input points are marked as R,
Y, B, N Just below the terminal block TB1. Also the terminal blocks are provided with
red, yellow and Blue markers. PLEASE ENSURE THAT THE NEUTRAL IS
CONNECTED TO THE TERMINAL MARKED AS N (HAVING NO MARKER).
Ensure that all the AC side MCBs (mounted on AC distribution panel) as well DC side
MCBs, (Mounted on DC distribution panel) are in OFF condition.
Switch on the AC input. Check the availability of AC voltage on the front panel of the
power plant for each phase. If the AC I / P is within the range (320-480 volt) switch on
the MCCBs in the sequence given in the Table-1 and do the NO load test for each modul
4.16.1 No Load Test:
No Load test: First ensure that all AC side MCBs (mounted on AC distribution
panel), as well as DC side MCCBs are in OFF condition. Switch ON the AC input. Check
the availability of AC voltage on the front panel of the power plant for each phase. If the
AC I/P is with in the range(320-480) switch on the MCBs in the following sequence.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Table 3 No Load Test

MCB MCB Module DC VM/AM DC output In all Remarks
AC DC SIDE energize SEL POSN. the 6
SIDE d Position of DC
VM/AM
SEL
CB1 CBM1 M1 Posn.1 Eqpt 54.0 0.5 v If every thing is OK

Posn. 2 BTY1 isolate the module
Posn. 3 BTY2 M1 by switching off the
Posn. 4 BTY3 breakers CB1 & CBM1.
Posn. 5 BTY4
Posn. 6-System
CB2 CBM2 M2 -do- -do If every thing is OK
Isolate the module M2 by
switching off
The breakers CB2 &
CBM2.
CB3 CBM3 M3 -do- - do- If every thing is OK
Isolate the module
M3 by switching off The
breakers CB3 &
After each module has been energized separately at no load, switch ON all the
MCBs and check that DC out put remains within 54.00.5V in all the five positions of
DC VM SEL.
4.17.2 Load Test:-

Load Test of the unit has to be done with suitably rated resistive loads as per Table-.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
Table-4 Load Test
MCB MCB DC Module DC DC output Resistive load in Remarks

AC SIDE Energy VM/AM In all paths different
SIDE the 6 SEL
SEL Posin of
VM
POSN.
CB1 CBM1 M1 Posn. 1 Eqpt Eqpt. Path-increase If every thing
Posn. 2 BTY1 Auto float the is OK
Posn. 3 BTY2 Voltage current slowly from Isolate the
Posn. 4 BTY3 54.0 0.5 v 0 to module M1
Posn. 5 BTY4 105 A. The voltage by
Posn.- 6 System droop Switching off
Phenomena will start the
at the Breakers
Factory set current CB1 &
Limit (somewhere CBM1.
between
100 to 105 A)
BTY1- No load
BTY2- No load
BTY3- No load
BTY4- No load
Auto charge BTY3 increase the

Voltage BTY3path current
55.2 0.5 v slowly from 0 to 100
A. The unit will go
to Auto charge mode
when current
exceeds factory at
Limit ( 1% of total
AH capacity of both
the batteries) for ex.
In case of 4x2500
AH battery banks
These limit shall be
1000 A. Check that
Auto float voltage
and auto charge
Voltage are within
the limits.
4.17.3 REPEAT THE SAME FOR CB2 & CB3:

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
After each module has been checked on full load of 100 Ampere, switch ON all
MCBs, and load 300 Ampere in equipment path, 100 Amp. In each battery path, and see
that the rack voltage remains at 55.2 0.5 volt for 600 A system.
4.17.4 Battery Path Current Limit Programming:
Pot R86 in the PSC card is used to set the current limit in the battery path. For the
2200Amp power system there is a provision of 4x2500AH batteries and for these
batteries, the factory set values of the current limit is 10000A (i.e., 10% of the total AH
capacity of the batteries). However if the user wants to change this value then the POT
R86 needs to be varied carefully to set the current limit at the desired value. For example,
suppose initially the installed capacity is 3x2500 AH and accordingly the battery path
current limit may be set at 750 A. For these when the battery path draws more then 750 A,
vary the pot slowly in one direction and stop when the bus voltage droops and battery
path current becomes 750 A. In these case, overload lamp (yellow LED ) shall be lighted
on all the modules. If the voltage does not droop even when the pot has reached its
extreme end, then vary the pot in other direction and stop as soon as the bus voltage
droops and battery path current becomes 750 A. In these case, overload lamp ( yellow
LED ) shall be lighted on all the modules.
4.17.5 Surge Arrester Assembly:
Four numbers of surge arrestors has been installed directly across A.C. input
terminals in the main rack of the system to protect the rectifier modules (contained in all
the racks) in the system from high energy content surges caused by lightning or sudden
switching OFF, off heavy inductive loads. The surge arrestors contains two parts- plug
and socket. In case of surge arrestors going faulty, there shall be an indication on the front
of the plug. In such case the plug need to be replace
4.17.6 Dimensioning of the bus-bars/cables for load & battery path with respect to
the ultimate capacity of SMPS power plants:
(As per the specifications of TEC, the following calculations may be followed)
The basis for calculation;
1, The Ultimate Load: x
2. Redundancy: 10% of Ultimate load (0.1 *x).
3. Battery-back-up: 6 hours
4. Battery capacity: 6 hour back-up up to 80% DOD (near available capacity)
5. Safety factor: 25% of the load.
6. Power plant Ultimate capacity: C
Calculations:
Load; x
Redundancy: O.l x
Battery capacity: 6x/0.8 = 7.5x
Battery Charging Current @ Cio = 7.5x /10 = 0.75x
Power plant Ultimate Capacity: C= (x + 0.1x + 0.75x) = 1.85x
Therefore x = C/1.85
Safety factor for bus-bar/cable : 1.25
The bus-bar/cable shall be rated = 1.25*x = 1.25* (C / 1.85) = 0.68*C
SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
So the bus bar / cable chosen for load path shall be capable to handle the 70%of
the ultimate capacity of the power plant. As there may be an eventuality when only one
battery is connected to the load, the size of bus-bar in each battery path shall also be the
same. The size of the bus-bar/cable for load & each battery path shall be higher than 70%
of the power plant ultimate capacity. However the common bus-bar/cable used for
connecting the FR/FCs to the input of the distribution unit shall be the rating for the
ultimate system capacity.
4.17.7 Safety Notice:

Before applying power to the system, please ensure that the body of the cabinet is
properly earthed if the earthing is not proper, the surge protection set installed in the
system /at the site may not work & the consequential damage to the SMPS modules
because of this shall not be governed by the warranty clause. Before taking the insulation
test of the rack, isolate the SMPS modules & remove the surge arrestor plug from its
base.
4.17.8 Warning
Hazardous voltages of 415 V rms will be present when a AC input power
is energized.Qualified personnel must use extreme caution when operating
& maintaining the system.
Initial battery connection & exchange connection shall be done without energizing
the System. When the system is under operation adequate precaution has to be
taken whileInstalling & removing SMPS modules since high voltages (400V AC)
are available on the Front panel.
Please ensure that there is no ceiling fan over the power system racks, as this
disturbs the Natural convention cooling of the racks.
4.18 CONCLUSION
The SMPS Powerplant alongwith Maintenance free, valve-regulated lead-acid

(VRLA) batteries ensure a reliable, effective and user friendly source of power.

SMPS Powerplant
(Mod 3)
CHAPTER-5
VARIOUS EARTHING SYSTEMS, ENGINE ALTERNATOR,
INVERTOR & UPS
5.1 INTRODUCTION: EARTHING
Earthing is a effective measure of protection from hazardous electric currents

which may result either due to power induction, lightning or short circuits. The charges
of electricity could be dissipated by connecting the charged body to the general mass of
earth through an electrode. Earthing for sake of protection is used at practically every
point of the supply network from generators to the electrical apparatus used by the
consumer.
Apart from protection from hazardous stray currents in electrical equipment in
Telecommunication circuits and equipments, it is provided for the following purposes.
5.2 PURPOSE OF EARTHING:
Apart from protection from hazardous stray currents in electrical equipment in

Telecommunication circuits and equipments, earthing is provided for the following
purposes:
a) Reduction of Crosstalk and Noise:One pole of the battery (+ve pole) is earthed in
the telephone exchange so that cross talk between the various circuits due tot he speech
currents of one circuit finding path through the other via common battery feed points of
the transmission bridge and reduced NSN via earthed terminal of the battery.
(b) Earth is used to afford convenience & reliability, in the operate path of the circuits
involved in the switching apparatus of telecom circuits.
(c) Used as return path for the conductors in some telegraph and voice circuits.
(d) Protection of costly apparatus and persons against foreign voltages and leakage
currents from power wirings to the metallic frame of the equipment.
(e) Protection of buildings and equipments from lightning strikes.
(f) Earthing in power supply systems is used to effect reliability of power as it helps
to provide stability of voltage conditions preventing excess fluctuations and providing a
measure of protection against lightning.
5.3 CLASSES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS:

Earthing systems are provided to serve many different purposes. They may be
divided into two major categories, viz.
a) Service Earthing Systems e.g.
i) Switching equipment earth
ii) Transmission equipment earth
iii) Measuring equipment earth
iv) A.C. Power supply earth
v) Corrosion mitigation earth
Various Earthing Systems, Page 66 of 104

Engine Alternator,Invertor, UPS
(Mod 3)
vi) Miscellaneous equipment earth (e.g. telegraphs).

b) Protective Earthing Systems e.g.
i) Power system earth to provide protection against excessive

current;
ii) Lightning protective earth to provide protection against
excessive voltage.
5.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR SERVICE EARTHING /SYSTEMS:

In general, service-earthing systems should have a low D.C. resistance to the
general body of the earth, in order to ensure that the potential drop across the earth
connection is low. If any current flows through the service earthing system, a potential
difference will be developed across the earth connection. This can introduce interference
in the form of electrical noise into any telecommunication circuit connected to that
earthing system.
The value of resistance which must be met by a service earthing will depend on
the purpose for which the earth likely to be carried by the earthing system, and the
tolerable voltage drop across the earth connection. The value chosen by most
administrations is usually not more than ten ohms, although in some isolated cases higher
values are acceptable.
5.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTECTIVE EARTHING /SYSTEMS:
The requirements to be satisfied by a protective earthing system are

governed by the purpose for which the earth is being provided. Earths, which protect
against excessive current (e.g. power supply protective earth) must have a low resistance
in order to:
(a) Carry the anticipated value of over current without overheating and burning out.
(b) Enable sufficient current to flow to ground to ensure that any over current
protective devices (e.g. fuses, circuit breakers, etc.) will operate to disconnect the
current after a very short time.
(c) Prevent hazardous potential differences to develop across the earth connection.
(Excessive potential differences can cause breakdown of insulation, and danger to
life and limb). The foregoing requirements can satisfied by heavy guage
conductors of very low resistance connected to earthing system of very low
resistance (typically less than one ohm).
(d) Able to withstand indefinitely the corrosive action of soil.
(e) Inert in relation to the system to be protected (i.e. must not be a source of galvanic
corrosion currents).
(f) The resistance of the earth connection must remain reasonably constant
throughout the various seasons of the year.
(g) Earths which protect against excessive voltage (e.g. earths connected to lightning
protection systems) must possess a low surge impedance in order to enable the
lightning surge currents to be easily conveyed to the earth and thus diverted away
from the equipment which is to be protected from the lightning.

(Mod 3)
5.6 SEPARATE EARTHS VS. COMMON EARTH:
Attempts to provide separate earthing system for different purposes at a common

location have generally proved to be unsatisfactory for the following reasons:
(a) In practice it is usually not possible to ensure that there is no electrical coupling
between separate earthing systems in close proximity. This is because of casual
and uncontrolled interconnections within the installation and also because of
galvanic coupling in the ground.
(b) There is a risk of fire and a risk of danger to human life, because a difference in
potential between various earths might cause excessive current and/or excessive
voltage;
(c) Currents may flow through the structure or between various earthing systems and
cause corrosion.
On the other hand separate earths have in the past been thought desirable for
certain categories of service earth. This has usually been done in an attempt to eliminate
noise from the telecommunication circuits. Most authorities now consider that it is for
better not to try to provide separate earthing systems, but to provide a common earthing
system at an installation and to design and install it in such a way that it satisfies the
requirements of the various earthing systems, which are required at that installation. If the
ground resistivity near an installation is high, it may be necessary to provide part of the
earth electrode installation at some distance away where the ground resistivity is better. In
such cases an earth electrode system close to the building should be provided for lighting
protection and this should be interconnected with the remote electrode system.
5.7 THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF A COMMON EARTHING

SYSTEM ARE;
(a) By carefully bonding the various earthing systems together the potential
difference between one earth connection and another is negligible. Thus no
excessive currents or voltages will be developed within the earthing system.
(b) If, due to excessive voltage or current, the potential of the protective earth rises,
then so will all other earths rise in potential, thus once againt preventing the
development of potential differences within the earth environment of the
installation. (This is the so-called Faraday Caged effect)
5.7 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS:
Earthing systems should be designed to achieve the following:
(a) Adequate current carrying capability (DC or AC as appropriate).

(b) Adequate mechanical strength to withstand the rigours of service without
fracturing.
(c) In the case of lightning protective earths adequate surge-current carrying ability.

(Mod 3)
5.7.1 Earthing System Designs:
It is not appropriate to specify or to recommend the designs or dimensions of

earthing systems, which are to be provided for various purposes. It is appropriate,
however, to draw attention to the principle embodied in good design and this has been
done. There are many excellent test s and references available, which give sound designs
for earthing systems for various purposes. The references quoted at the beginning of this
section are found to be of considerable value.
5.7.2 Lightning Protection Earths:
It is to be noted that some further research should be undertaken into the designed
of lightning protection earths. In the past many authors have recommended that the D.C.
resistance of such an earth be of not more than some specified (low) value. The need for
achieving a low D.C. resistance is now being questioned particularly in view of the
difficulty and experience of achieving a low value in areas where the need for an effective
lightning earth is greatest, viz. exposed area of high soil resistivity. It is the authors
opinion that the achievement of a low value for the resistance of a lightning protection
earth is of less importance than the achievement of a low value of surge impedance. Thus
it is important that a lightning earth electrode system by:
(a) As close as practicable to the plant or equipment to be protected;
(b) Connected to that via lightning protectors of adequate current carrying capacity
and an appropriate value of breakdown voltage;
(c) Connected to the protectors via conductors having minimum surge impedance (i.e.
no sharp bends or coils in the conductor);
(d) Of such a configuration in the ground as will achieve minimum surge impedance
(In this regard it is to be noted that, for trench electrodes, a system with four
electrodes radiating in four directions at right angles from the connection point to
the earthing conductor has a much lower surge impedance than a single trench
earth of the same total length).
5.7.3 Service Earths:
Service earths which carry current (e.g. teleprinter earths which may carry 20-25
mA) must be capable of surviving the discharge of such current to ground for their
designed working life. It is of interest to note that a direct current of 1 ampere flowing
through a steel earth electrode will consume approximately 10 kg of steel per annum.
Thus, if an earth electrode is to carry 25 mA for 20 years it must contain in excess of 5 Kg
of steel. In order to ensure that the electrode is still in working order after this period, a
factor of safety of two would mean that the earth electrode must contain at least 10 kg of
steel.
5.7.4 Earths Electrode Materials:

Since copper is a good electrical conductor, there is a great temptation to use
copper as the material for earth electrodes, e.g. bare copper wire, copper plates; copper-
clad steel rods, etc. However, due to the position of copper in the electro chemical series
it rapidly causes corrosion of steel, zinc, lead, aluminum etc. Thus the use of copper as an
(Mod 3)
earthing material requires very careful attention to the prevention of corrosion and it is
usually better to choose some other metal e.g. galvanised steel, plain steel, stainless steel
etc.
5.7.5 Telephone Exchanges:

The main requirements of the earthing system at a telephone exchange are :
(a) To provide a low resistance path to ground.

(b) To be able to discharge the maximum anticipated current, which the earth
system is expected to carry, both under working conditions and under fault conditions.
5.8 STANDARDS FOR RESISTANCE OF EARTHS ELECTRODE

SYSTEMS:
The resistance of earth electrode system should be a slow as possible and in any
case should not exceed 2 ohms at any time of the year. In cases where due to local
conditions, the resistance of earth electrode system exceeds 2 ohms two or more similar
earth electrode system should be installed and spaced as far away as possible from each
other but not less than 375 cm from the first electrode system..The resistance of earth
electrode system for electronic exchanges should be less than 0.5 .
5.9 EARTH ELECTRODES:

Three types of earth electrodes are commonly used for earthing system.
1) Rod electrodes.
2) Plate electrodes.
3) Strip electrodes.
4) Ring electrodes.
5.9.1 Spike earths:
The present arrangement of earth electrode system consists of twenty numbers of
25.0 mm or 38.0 mm dia. G1 pipes, each of 275 cm or 375 cm length. Each pipe is used a
earth spike and is so driven into the ground that its top remains at some depth below the
ground surface. The spacing between any two spikes should not be less than 375 cm or
ordinarily. In no case, it should be less than 250 cm. A typical layout is shown in
Figure.4.
The positions of the spikes should be marked out on the site and a trench no wider
than necessary should be excavated. The trench should be 70 to 100 cms deep. The spike
should b driven vertically into the trench until the top of the driving head is 50 cms above
the bottom of the excavation. Spikes can be driven in quite easily with a sledgehammer
for round electrodes. A new arrangement has been developed consisting of a sliding
hammer placed on the electrode so that the work may be carried out a t a level convenient
to the workman without a ladder or auxiliary platform. The blows are delivered to the rod
at a point near to the ground. The driving head or a suitable bolt is supplied with each
earth spike and this must be used to prevent the top of the spike being damaged during the
driving operation, when the spike has been driven fully into the ground. It will probably
be found that the driving head will be tight fit on the spike and in these circumstances it
may be felt in position.

(Mod 3)
375 375 375 375

CM CM CM CM
375
CM
375
CM
20 EARTH
375 SPIKES
CM (375CM X
375CM)
TO EARTH
COLLECTI
OR
Figure 1 Spike Earth System
Ingress of moisture at the joint, while laying the G1 strips for ring earth, it should
not be bent sharply at right angles, but should be laid in smooth curve of not less than
one-meter radius.In case of new building ring earth should act as the equipotent bonding
and all earthing equipments are to be extended from the ring earth. Where it is difficult to
lay ring earth such as private/rented building due to space constraints, the plate/spike
earth may be used. The construction practice of plate/spoke earth is a follows

(Mod 3)
50mm
20mm
50mm
50mm
50mm
1M 1M 1M 1M
= 13mm HOLE
= 10mm HOLE
(A) GI STRIP (50X3mm)
GI NUTS AND BOLTS
A B
LEAD STRIP (90mm X 50mm X 1mm thick))
A,B- GI STRIPS
NOTE: JOINT SHOULD BE MADE WATER PROOF.
(B) RING EARTH JOINT (NOT TO SCALE)
FIGURE =2
Figure 2 GI Strips& Ring Earth Joint

(Mod 3)
5.9.2 Plate Earth:

The arrangement of construction of plate earthing is shown in figure 3.
RTH
E A
ER
W
TO
TO
2M
PIPE FOR WATERING

m m)
THE EARTH
0 X3 mm)
2M ( 5 3
RIP
( 50X
ST P
GI T RI GI STRIP (50X3mm)
S
GI
TO POWER ROOM EARTH

DISTRIBUTION PLATS
b
d
3M
c
GI . PLATES (4NOS)
DISTRIBUTION 600 X 600 X 6.5mm
(1,2,3 &4)
GI INTERCONNECTION STRIPS (4NOS)

DIMENSION, (50X 3mm
(a,b,c & d)
Figure 3 Plate Earth (Layout And Interconnections)

5.9.3 Lead strip electrode system
This consists of lead strip 51 mm wide and 6 gms/sq cm buried at a depth of 60 to

90 cms. The strip should preferably laid in one continuous lengths of 2450 cms otherwise
(Mod 3)
two lengths of 1225 cms should be laid at least 250 cm apart and overlapped by at least
152 mm, the two electrodes being paralleled at the MDF earth bar. The earth lead
protected by a lead pipe should be connected to the lead strip for at least 152 mm by a
plumber wiped joint.
2450 cm length 51 cm width Lead Strip
Soldered
Joint
Lead Strip Electrode System Stranded Soft Copper Wire in Lead P

To MDF
.3.5 9 ction Of AC Generatoreratore00W Rectifier
All exposed portion of the tinned copper wire and adjacent lead surfaces should be
liberally coated with black paint suitable for ironwork.
5. 10 INSTALLATION:
In all transmission and switching systems a combined ring earth should be
provided. The installation procedure is described below:
Laying of Ring Earth around New Telecom Departmental Building :
(1) The ring earth around the Telecom building and tower is shown in Figure 5.
TOWE
R
BUILDIN
G
NOTE:-IN ROCK
GI STRIP SOIL,
TRENCH MIN. DEPTH IS
FOREARTH 600mm

(Mod 3)
Figure 5 Ring Earth
A trench, 30 cms wide and normally 150 cms. Deep is dug. The depth should not
be less than 60 cms, in any case. A.G. 1 (Galvanized iron) strip of 50 x 3 mm is laid in the
trench. The trench should be minimum one meter away from the building in the case of
black cotton soil; the trench should be sufficiently deep to avoid cracking of soil in
summer. In case or rocky or hard murram soil, the depth may be 6o to 90 cms. In case of
rocky, hard murram and black cotton soil, the trench should not be filled by the excavated
material and instead foreign good earth, i.e. yellow soil or ask, which are line and
cohesive in nature should be used. While filling the trench the earth may be rammed in
layers, so as to give cohesiveness and compactness to the soil.
(2) The G.I. strips are to be connected with each other as shown in Figure 5. The
joints are to be properly wrapped and sealed by waterproof taps to avoid any :
5.11 CONDITIONS DETERMINING THE TYPE OF EARTH

ELECTRODES SYSTEM TO BE USED.:
Spike earth electrode system is generally used for all new auto exchange
installations where adequate space is available and on sub soil suitable for driving the
pipes to the prescribe depth.
a) The lead strip electrode system is used when adequate is available but rock is
encountered at a depth less than 375 cm below ground level.
b) Earth plate electrode system is used when layout of exchange site is such that
adequate space is not available.
5.12 LOCATION OF EARTH ELECTRODE:

The following points require careful attention before choosing the site for the earth
electrodes:-
a) The electrodes must be located in undisturbed soil i.e. not in made up so or loose
soil.
b) If new buildings or extensions to existing building are to be erected on the site, the
area to be covered by these must be avoided.
c) The electrodes should not be buried in a position where damage is likely to result
from heavy vehicle traffic nearby.
d) The electrodes should be placed at least 185 cm. from the probable position of
under ground metal pipes.
e) The position of electrodes should be such as to give the shortest direct run to the
cable chamber of MDF where cable chamber does not exist.
f) Exchange earth electrode system should be far away from similar earth in the area
like A.C. earth etc. in no case, separation between their should be less than 375
cm.
5.13 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE AND ITS LIMIT:

(Mod 3)
For the purpose of measurement of earth resistance small interconnecting strip

should be provided in the ring earth in a small manhole chamber, so that ring earth can be
broken from loop. In case of ring earth, earth resistance is not a major significant item
where all equipment is earthed to a common ring. For testing of earth resistance value of
command earth (by commoning of no. of individual earth) the testing of individual earth
is to be done by disconnecting it from Equipment bonding. The earth resistance should be
less than or equal to 0.5 ohm for individual earth connected to Equipment bonding. In
only exceptional cases earth resistance is allowed up to 1.0 ohm. For measurement of
earth resistance please refer to Ei N0. G 0002, issue 1, date 15.09.1966.
5.14 MATERIAL USED IN EARTHING:
(i) G.I. strips of size 50 x 3 mm are laid in a ring trench and connected to lower legs
earth bar in power room and engine room etc. All joints inside the earth should be of 1 to
3 mm thick in between for ensuring proper surface contact. That is: -
(a) GI strip to.... GI strip By GI nuts and bolts with lead strip
1 to 3 mm thick in between
(b) GI strip to.... Copper strip or Connected by brass nuts and bolts
lug, and covered to make it moisture proof.
(c) Copper to ........... Copper strip With insulation tape & should be
of lugs water tight outside the building.
(d) Connections ......... inside the 19 x 6 copper strip is used.
building
5.15 IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION IN EARTHING:
a) Chemical treatment of earth using salts etc. are not recommended as the chemical
treatment does not last long and needs to be checked periodically.
b) A separate GI strip 50-x3 mm is used to connect the lightning spike to ring earth
to ensure proper connectivity of lightning spike with the ring earth.
c) Earth conductor should not be encircled with metal clamps while taking it along
the wall. This is essential to eliminate the high inductive reactance that will
impede the flow of surge current along the conductor in case of lightening.
d) Earthing conductors should not pass through any metallic conduit or pipe, as this
will increase surge impedance.
e) There should be no sharp bends along the entire length of earth conductors.
Bending should be done with a radius of one meter.
f) In digital systems, equipments contain active devices such as FET, MOS and
CMOS which are static-sensitive components and can be permanently damaged
if . If comes in contact with human body possessing electrostatic potential. As
such antistatic floor tiles or mats should be installed and connected to earth. If
antistatic flooring is not provided a antistatic wrist-strap which is properly earthed
should be used while working on such equipments.
g) All the joint of the similar metals should be waterproof
(Mod 3)
5.16 ALTERNATORS
A/C Generators are also called 'ALTERNATORS'. Here the mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy. Basically a generator produces electricity by the rotation
of a group of conductors in a magnetic field. Hence the input of the generator is the
mechanical energy to rotate the conductors. The output of a generator is the e.m.f.
induced in the conductors as they move through the magnetic field. The principle used
here is Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
5.16.1 Basic A/C Generator

A basic A/C generator has four principal parts.
1) A magnetic field.
2) A single conductor or loop.
3) Slip rings.
4) Brushes.
When a single conductor loop called armature rotates in a magnetic field, A/C
voltage is generated between its two ends. This voltage can be connected to the external
circuit by means of brushes connected permanently to the metallic rings (slip rings)
connected to the end of the rotating loop. As the loop rotates, the slip rings slide along the
brushes always maintaining electrical contact with them.
Figure 6 Slip Ring in AC Generator

5.16.2 Generating of a Sine wave output
This is self explanatory in the given figure 7, which generates only one cycle in
one rotation.
5.16.3 Increasing the number of poles

From the Fig 8, you can see that the output of the simple generator is maximum
when the sides of the loop passes the centres of the pole. The reason for this is that at
these points the sides of the loop are cutting the maximum number of flux lines.

(Mod 3)
Figure 7 Generating a sine wave output
Figure 8 Four Pole AC generator
If four poles were used instead of two, the voltage reaches maximum value four
times during each full rotation of the loop instead of two times as it is for a two pole
generator. If the poles are spaced equally apart, the frequency becomes twice the speed of
rotation of the loop.
Hence the formula for frequency of AC output is given below.
Frequency = Speed of rotation x No of pairs of poles.
For example, A 4 pole generator rotating at a speed of 1500 RPM, the frequency of the
output is 25 rotations per second x 2 pairs of poles, which is equal to 50 Hz.
5.16.4 Producing the magnetic field

The magnets used in generators are electromagnets. The magnetic field is
produced by Field winding, which is exceeded by DC Self excitation (exciting the field
winding from the o/p of the same generator) can not be used for a/c generators since the
(Mod 3)
o/p of the generator is A/C, which cannot be directly used for excitation. On many A/C
generators, the DC voltage source for the field winding is a small DC generator contained
in the same housing with the A/C generator.
5.16.5 Stationary Armature A/C generators
So far we have studied about the "Moving Armature A/C generators". When an a/c
generator delivers a relatively small amount of power, slip rings operate satisfactorily.
When large power is involved, it becomes very difficult to insulate slip rings sufficiently
and therefore becomes a frequent source of trouble. Hence most of the A/C generators
have Stationary Armature and Rotating Magnetic field. In such generators, the armature
coils are permanently mounted around the inner circumference of the generator housing,
while the field coils and their pole pieces are mounted on a shaft and rotate within the
stationary armature. Relative motion between the magnetic field and the armature coils is
all that is required for the generation of e.m.f.
Figure 9 Stationary Armature Generators
Advantages of Stationary armature

1) The generator output can be directly connected to the external circuit without the
need of slip rings and brushes. These are called "Brushless alternators"
2) This eliminates the insulation difficulties of slip rings carrying high output power
of course, since field winding rotates, slip rings must be used to connect the
winding to its external DC exciting source. However the voltages and currents
involved in exciting are very small, there is no difficulty in insulating these slip
rings.
3) Speed of rotation can be high, hence higher voltage can be obtained. In rotating
armature type, high speeds cause, large centrifugal force that result makes it
difficult to properly insulate the armature winding.
5.16.6 Single Phase- A/C Generators
In discussion, the armature has been represented by a single loop. But in single
loop, the induced voltage will be very small, hence the armature actually contains a
(Mod 3)
number of coils, each usually having more than one loop. The coils are wound so that the
voltages induced in the loops of any one coil add to produce the total coil voltage.
Figure 10 Single Phase AC Generator

If the armature coils are all connected in series aiding, the generator has a single
output. The output is sinusoidal and the amplitude is equal to the sum of amplitudes
induced in each coil. The generator having the armature wound in this wave is called
'Single phase generator'.
5.16.7 Three Phase A-C Generators

In 3 phase a/c generator, there are three equally spaced windings, and three output
voltages all 120 degrees out of phase with each other. The end of the loop are connected
in such a way that voltage 1 leads voltage 2 by 120 degrees and voltage 2 in turn leads
voltage 3 by 120 degrees.
Figure 11 Three Phase AC Generator

(Mod 3)
5.16.8 Regulating the Generator

When the load on an a-c generator changes, the output voltage also tends to
change. The main reason for this is the change in the voltage drop across the armature
winding caused by the change in load current. In an a-c generator the voltage drop across
the armature winding is the sum of IR drop and IXL drop where R is the resistance and
XL is the inductive reactance of the armature coil. IR drop depends only on the amount of
the load change, but IXL drop depends also on the circuit Power factor. Thus the o/p
voltage of an a-c generator varies with both changes in load current and changes in power
factor. As a result, an a-c generator that has satisfactory regulation at one power factor
may have poor regulation at another power factor.
Figure 12 Regulation in AC Generator
Because of their inherent poor regulation, a-c generators are generally provided
with same auxiliary means of regulation. The auxiliary regulators used, whether they are
manually operated or work automatically, accomplish their function in basically the same
way. They sense the generator output voltage, as when it changes, they cause a
corresponding change in the field current of the exciter that supplies field current to the
generator. Thus if the generator output voltage drops, the regulator causes an increase in
the exciter field current. The exciter output voltage therefore, increases, causing the
current in the generator field winding too also increase. As a result, the magnetic field of
the generator increases in strength and raises the generator voltage to its original
amplitude. A similar, but opposite, sequence of events takes place when the regulator
senses a decrease in the generator output voltage.
5.16.9 Rating A-C Generators

The power rating indicates the maximum power that can constantly be supplied by
a generator. The power of a-c generators can not be rated in KW because the power
consumed in an a-c circuit depends on the circuit power factor . If power factor is low,
even though the true power is less, the apparent power actually delivered by the generator
will be large and that situation results in the generator burning out.
For this reason, a-c generators are rated on the basis of the maximum apparent
power they can deliver. Thus the capacity of a-c generator is generally expressed in terms

(Mod 3)
of volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt-amperes (KVA). For example if an a-c generator with a

rating of 100 KVA has an output of 50 kilovolts, the maximum current that it can safely
deliver is 2 amps only.

(Mod 3)
5.16.10 Construction of A-C Generators
Figure 13 Construction Of AC Generator

A typical a-c generator with a self contained exciter is shown above. A-C
generators have stationary armature, and rotating fields. The armature windings are
positioned around the inner circumference of the generator housing, and are usually
embedded in a laminated iron core. The core and the windings make up the stator.
The field windings and field poles, which make up the rotor, are mounted on a
shaft and turn within the stator on the rotor shaft, Slip rings are also mounted for the field
windings when the generator contains its own d-c exciter, the exciter armature and
commutator are also mounted on the motor shaft. The brush holders for the generator slip
rings and the exciter commutator are mounted on the generator housing.
5.17.UPS SYSTEM 1 KVA / 3 KVA INVERTER
5.17 .1 UPS System

UPS System means Uninterrupted Power Supply. As the name indicates, this
system supplies uninterrupted A.C. supply.
Necessity:- Un-interrupted power supply is very much necessary in BSNL for the
operation of computers, peripherals in O.M.C and for the other telecom
equipments.
Capacity: The Capacity of an UPS is the output power it can deliver and is
expressed in terms of kilo volt-amperes (KVA). Different capacities of UPS
systems are available readily in the market right from 1 KVA onwards.

(Mod 3)
5.17.2 Principle of UPS System
Rectifier /
/
charger Inverter
AC mains DC DC AC Output
Battery
Figure.14 Block diagram of UPS System
The Block diagram of UPS is given above single phase A.c. supply is first
rectified to 120V D.C. supply. Across this 2 sets of 40 AH, 120 volts battery sets are
floated. The combined D.C is then fed to the inverter, which converts into A.C of 220
volts.
During the available period of input AC mains, the battery sets will be trickle
charged and the load will be taken by rectifier only. During the absence of input A.C.
mains, the battery set will be taking the load.
Another type of UPS system used in D.O.T is designed to work on -48 V D.C
supply fed from the exchange power plant.
5.17.3 Specifications of UPS systems
a) Input 230V, 1 , A.C. supply

b) Input BTY 120V, 40 AH, two sets of Batteries.
c) Output 220 volts, A.C
d) Output current For 5 KVA it is 21.5 Amps.
5.17.4 Alarms in UPS system

1) Low Battery - If the battery voltage falls below a specific voltage.
2) Over load - If the load on UPS is more than its capacity UPS will be tripped
and overload alarm comes
3) Output High - When output voltage becomes high UPS will be tripped and
this alarm comes.
4) Output low :- When output voltage becomes low UPS will be tripped and
this alarm comes.
5) Trip - This LED glows once if the inverter trips.
5.18 INVERTERS OF 1KVA/3KVA CAPACITIES

Inverter is an alternating current (A.C) generating equipment using D.C voltage
source of -48v as its input.
(Mod 3)
Necessity
Inverters are very widely used in BSNL network for the operation of peripherals in
CDOT and E-10B exchanges.
5.18.1 Technical Specifictions
1) Input
a) Voltge = 44 to57 volts D.C
b) Current = 32A, 96A, 192Amps for 1 KVA, 3KVA, 6KVA
inverters respectively.
c) Power drawn = 1.5KVA/4.5KVA/9KVA for 1 KVA,
3KVA,6KVA inverters respectively.
d) Source = Battery /Float rectifier
e) Source Ripple = Less than 2 %
2) Output
a) Voltage = 220 2% V.A.C
b) Rated KVA = 1, 3, 6 KVAs
c) Rated Current = 4.3A, 12.9A. 25.8 A for 1 KVA
3KVA, 6KVA inverters respectively.
d) Wave form = Sinusoidal
e) Total Harmonic distortion = 5% Max
f) Frequency = 50 0.1 Hertz
g) Voltage adjustment = 220 to 250 volts
h) Over current trip = 120%
i) Efficiency = 70 % minimum
5.18.2 Inverters (Capacity wise) used in DOT are listed below:

Exchange Make and Capacity Capacity and No. of Inverters used
CDOT up to 1400 lines 1 KVA x 2 Nos
CDOT above 1400 lines 1 KVA x 3 Nos
E10B 6 KVA x 3 Nos
5.18.3 Principle of Operation
Low capacity inverters are designed using integrated circuits, transistors, etc
whereas higher capacity inverters are designed using thyristors.

(Mod 3)
Figure 15 Diagram of 1 KVA

Inverter
The diagram of 1 KVA Inverter is given above. In this Q1 to Q4 are four power
transistors arranged in full bridge configuration. This combination acts as a push-pull
amplifier and given AC O/P.
Main transformer T1 provides input output isolation. Radio frequencies are
filtered at the output with the help of RF I suppresser. Regulation and frequency
stabilisation is done by the control circuit.
5.18.4 Method of Connection of Inverters in CDOT Exchanges
In C-DOT exchanges all the peripherals are divided into two or three groups and
connected across the output of individual inverters separately. But in case of failure of
any inverter there is a provision for the connection of the group of peripherals connected
to the faulty inverter to another inverter.
5.18.5 Method of Connection of Inverters in E10B exchanges
In E10B exchanges, the main computer works on the output supply of the inverter.
The inverter system comprises of two 6KVA inverter units and a control cubicle.
Normally the total load is shared equally by both the inverters (each operating at half the
full load capacity). In case of failure of any inverter unit, the total load will be supplied by
the other unit.
This inverter system is most unique in nature because of the following.
a) sharing the system load equally.
b) having ability to be in phase synchronization even in the event of failure of master
oscillator, which normally synchronises them.
c) able to lower overall distortion.
d) well protected against different fault conditions.
e) with minimum inter cubicle circulary currents over a wide range of input voltage.

(Mod 3)
5.19 CONCLUSION
Apart from protection from hazardous stray currents in telecommunication circuits
and equipments, earthing is provided for Reduction of Crosstalk and Noise, Protection of
costly apparatus and persons against foreign voltages. Protection of buildings and
equipments from lightning strikes, reliability of power as it helps to provide stability of
voltage conditions preventing excess fluctuations.
Un-interrupted power supply is very much necessary in BSNL for the operation
of computers, peripherals in O.M.C and for the other telecom equipments and Inverters
are very widely used in BSNL network for the operation of peripherals in CDOT and E-
10B exchanges.

Bsnl Junior Engineer CDOT (Mod 3)
CHAPTER-6
IN ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES
6.1 OVERVIEW OF INTELLIGENT NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Over the last thirty years, one of the major changes in the implementation of
Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTNs) has been the migration from analogue to
digital switches. Coupled with this change has been the growth of intelligence in the
switching nodes. From a customer's and network provider's point of view this has meant
that new features could be offered and used.
Since the feature handling functionality was resident in the switches, the way in
which new features were introduced into the network was by introducing changes in all
the switches. This was time consuming and fraught with risk of malfunction because of
proprietary feature handling in the individual switches.
To overcome these constraints the Intelligent Network architecture was evolved
both as a network and service architecture.
In the IN architecture, the service logic and service control functions are taken out
of the individual switches and centralized in a special purpose computer. The interface
between the switches and the central computer is standardised. The switches utilize the
services of the specialized computer whenever a call involving a service feature is to be
handled. The call is switched according to the advice received by the requesting switch
from the computer. For normal call handling, the switches do not have to communicate
with the central computer.
6.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE INTELLIGENT NETWORK
The main objectives of the IN are the introduction and modification of new
services in a manner which leads to substantial reduction in lead times and hence
development costs, and to introduce more complex network functions.
An objective of IN is also to allow the inclusion of the additional capabilities and
flexibility to facilitate the provisioning of services independent of the underlying
network's details. Service independence allows the service providers to define their own
services independent of the basic call handling implementation of the network owner.
The key needs that are driving the implementation of IN are :
6.2.1 Rapid Service Deployment
Most business today require faster response from their suppliers, including
telecommunication operators. By separating the service logic from the underlying switch
call processing software, IN enables operator to provide new services much more rapidly.
IN Architecture & Services Page 88 of 104

6.2.2 Reduced Deployment Risk

Prior to IN, the risk associated with the deployment of new services was
substantial. Major investments had to be made in developing the software for the services
and then deploying them in all of the switches. With the service creation environment
available, the IN services can be prototyped, tested and accessed by multiple switches
simultaneously. The validated services can then be rolled out to other networks as well.
6.2.3 Cost Reduction
Because the IN services are designed from the beginning to be reusable, many
new services can be implemented by building on or modifying an existing service.
Reusability reduces the overall cost of developing services. Also, IN is an architecture
independent concept, i.e. it allows a network operator to choose suitable development
hardware without having to redevelop a service in the event that the network
configuration changes.
6.2.4 Customization
Prior to IN, due to complexity of switch based feature handling software, the
considerable time frame required for service development prevented the provider from
easily going back to redefine the service after the customer started to use it. With IN, the
process of modifying the service or customization of service for a specific customer is
much less expensive and time consuming.
The customization of services is further facilitated by the integration of advanced
peripherals in the IN through standard interfaces. Facilities such as voice response
system, customized announcements and text to speech converters lead to better call
completion rate and user-friendliness of the services.
6.3 IN ARCHITECTURE
Building upon the discussion in the previous section, one can envisage that an IN
would consist of the following nodes :
Specialized computer system for holding service logic, feature control, service
creation, customer data, and service management.
Switching nodes for basic call handling.
Specialized resources node.
The physical realization of the various nodes and the functions inherent in them is
flexible. This accrues form the "open" nature of IN interfaces.
Let us now look at the nodes that are actually to be found in an IN implementation.
The service logic is concentrated in a central node called the Service Control Point
(SCP).
The switch with basic call handling capability and modified call processing model
for querying the SCP is referred to as the Service Switching Point (SSP).

Intelligent Peripheral (IP) is also a central node and contains specialized resources
required for IN service call handling. It connects the requested resource towards a SSP
upon the advice of the SCP.
Service Management Point (SMP) is the management node which manages

services logic, customers data and traffic and billing data. The concept of SMP was
introduced in order to prevent possible SCP malfunction due to on-the-fly service logic or
customer data modification. These are first validated at the SMP and then updated at the
SCP during lean traffic hours. The user interface to the SCP is thus via the SMP.
All the nodes communicate via standard interfaces at which protocols have been
defined by international standardization bodies. The distributed functional architecture,
which is evident from the above discussion, and the underlying physical entities are best
described in terms of layers or planes. The following sections are dedicated to the
discussion of the physical and functional planes.
6.3.1 Physical Plane

6.3.1.1 Service Switching Point (SSP)
The SSP serves as an access point for IN services. All IN services calls must first
be routed through the PSTN to the "nearest" SSP. The SSP identifies the incoming call as
an IN service call by analysing the initial digits (comprising the "Service Key") dialled by
the calling subscriber and launches a Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)
query to the SCP after suspending further call processing. When a TCAP response is
obtained from the SCP containing advice for further call processing, SSP resumes call
processing.
The interface between the SCP and the SSP is G.703 digital trunk. The MTR,
SCCP, TCAP and INAP protocols of the CCS7 protocol stack are defined in this interface.
6.3.1.2 Service Control Point (SCP)
The SCP is a fault-tolerant online computer system. It communicates with the
SSPs and the IP for providing guidelines on handling IN service calls. The physical
interface to the SSPs is G.703 digital trunk. It communicates with the IP via the
requesting SSP for connecting specialized resources.
SCP stores large amounts of data concerning the network, service logic, and the
IN customers. For this, secondary storage and I/O devices are supported. For more details
refer to the chapter on the "SCP Architecture".
As has been commented before, the service programs and the data at the SCP are
updated from the SMP.
6.3.1.3 Service Management Point (SMP)
The SMP, which is a computer system, is the front-end to the SCP and provides
the user interface. It is sometimes referred to as the Service Management System (SMS).
It updates the SCP with new data and programs (service logic) and collects statistics from

it. The SMP also enables the service subscriber to control his own service parameters via
a remote terminal connected through dial-up connection or X.25 PSPDN. This
modification is filtered or validated by the network operator before replicating it on the
SCP.
The SMP may contain the service creation environment as well. In that case the
new services are created and validated first on the SMP before downloading to the SCP.
One SMP may be used to manage more than one SCPs.
6.3.1.4 Intelligent Peripheral (IP)
The IP provides enhanced services to all the SSPs in an IN under the control of the
SCP. It is centralized since it is more economical for several users to share the specialized
resources available in the IP which may be too expensive to replicate in all the SSPs. The
following are examples of resources that may be provided by an IP:
Voice response system
Announcements
Voice mail boxes
Speech recognition system
Text-to-speech converters
The IP is switch based or is a specialized computer. It interfaces to the SSPs via

ISDN Primary Rate Interface or G.703 interface at which ISUP, INAP, TCAP, SCCP and
MTP protocols of the CCS7 protocol stack are defined.
The IN architecture is depicted in Fig.1
Figure 1 IN Architecture

6.3.2 Distributed Functional Plane

Functional model of IN contains nine functional entities (FE's) which are
distributed over various physical entities (PE's) described in the previous section. A
functional entity is a set of unique functions. Brief description of the FE's is given below :
6.3.2.1 CCAF
Call Control Agent Function, gives users access to the network.
6.3.2.2 CCF
Call Control Function provides the basic facility for connecting the transport (e.g.
speech). It involves the basic switching function and trigger function for handling the
criteria relating to the use of IN.
6.3.2.3 SSF
Service Switching Function is used to switch calls based on the advice of the SCF at the
SCP. This function provides a service independent interface.
6.3.2.4 SCF
It contains the service logic components and advises the SSF at SSP on further call
handling.
6.3.2.5 SDF
Service Data Function contains the user related data and data internal to the network.
6.3.2.6 SRF
Specialized Resources Function covers all types of specialized resources other than the
connection resources that are in the exchange (e.g. recorded announcements, tones,
conference bridges, etc.).
6.3.2.7 SCEF
Service Creation Environment Function specifies, develops, tests and deploys the services
on the network.
6.3.2.8 SMAF
Service Management Access Function provides an interface between service management
function and the service manager who may be an operator.
6.3.2.9 SMF
Service Management Function enables a service to be deployed and used on IN. Fig. 2
depicts the distribution and interconnection of the various functional entities.

Figure. 2 Distributed Functional Entities
The distribution of functional entities over the physical entities and their inter-
connection is summarized in Table 1 and 2 below. It may be noted that all the physical
entities may not be present in all IN Syatems as the choice of functional entities to be
provisioned is entirely up to the service provider.
Table 1
Distribution of FE's over PE's
Physical Entity Possible Functional Entities
SSP CCF, SSF, CCAF
SCP SCF, SDF
SMP SCEF, SMF, SMAF
IP SRF
Table 2
FE-FE Relationship to PE-PE Relationship
FE-FE PE-PE Protocol
SSF-SCF SSP-SCP INAP, TCAP, SCCP and MTP
SCF-SDF SCP-SDP X.25 or Proprietary
SCF-SRF SCP-IP INAP, TCAP, SCCP and MTP
SCP-SSP-IP ISUP, INAP, TCAP, SCCP and MTP
SRF-SSF SSP-IP ISUP and MTP

6.4 IN SERVICES
The IN services proposed to be introduced in Indian network have been derived from
ITU-T recommendations. Q.1211 (April 92). This document briefly gives the description of 25
services mentioned in Capability set no. 1 (CS1) of above mentioned ITU-T recommendations.
CS1 basically deals with single ended services (which ITU-T calls as Type-A services). Single
needed services apply to only one party in the call.
6..4.1 ABD Abbreviated dialing
The subscriber can register a short dialing code and use the same for access to any PSTN Number.
6.4.2 ACC Account Card Calling

A special telephone instrument is required.
User dials an access code and gets acceptance tone.
Then he dials a PIN (personal identification no.) code and dials the called no. The
Exchange reads the account number from card.
The Billing is debited to an account number (Telephone no.) as defined by the card.
In another variation of the service, the account number can be given through DTMF
telephone instrument.
The follow-on feature facilitates the subscriber to dial another number without
disconnecting the call and without need to dial PIN and account number again.
6.4.3 AAB Automatic Alternative Billing

Call can be initiated by any user and any instrument.
The call charges are billed in users account and that account need not be a calling or a
called party.
The user first dials access code.
Receives an announcement to dial account code and PIN (which is given by
management).
The account code and PIN are validated to check its correctness and expired credit limit.
On getting acceptance tone the user dials the called number.
In another variation of the service, the called party may be billed based on his
concurrence.
6.4.4 CD Call Distribution

This service allows subscribers to have I/C calls routed to different destinations according
to allocation law specified by management (The Subscriber has multiple installations).
Three types of laws exist :
Uniform load distribution
% Load distribution
Priority list distribution
In case of congestion or fault the alternative over flow is specified.

6.4.5 CFU Call Forwarding Unconditional

The subscriber can forward all incoming calls to a specified destination number. Optionally an
alerting ring/reminder ring can be given to the forwarding subscriber whenever there is an
incoming call.
6.4.6 CRD Call Rerouting Distribution
Calls are rerouted as per conditions encountered, e.g. busy or no reply (time specified) or
overload or call limiter.
Then as per selected condition the call is rerouted to predefined choice, e.g. paper, vocal
box, announcement or queue.
6.4.7 Completion of calls to busy subscriber
The service cannot be fully implemented with CSI capability since the status of called party need
to be known.
The calls are completed when subscriber who is busy becomes free.
On getting busy tone user dials a code.
The user disconnects.
On called party becoming free, call is made by the exchange first to originating then to
terminating subscriber (without any call attempt by the user).
6.4.8 CON Conference Calling
The service cannot be fully implemented with CSI capability. In adding or dropping the parties
concerned it is not possible to check the authenticity of the parties. This service requires a special
transmission bridge to allow conversation among multiple subscribers.
CON-Add-ON-Conference Calling
User reserves the CON resources in advance indicating date, time of conference and
duration.
Controlled by user.
In active phase of conference parties can be added, deleted, isolated again reattached or
split the group of parties.
CON-Meet-ME Conference calling meet me
User reserve the resource same as 8A.
Each participant dials a special number at specific time (specified at the time of booking of
conference) and reach the conference bridge.
6.4.9 CCC Credit Card Calling

The Credit Card Calling service allows subscribers to place calls from any normal access
interface to any destination number and have the cost of these calls charged to account specified
by the CCC number.
A special instrument is not required. The caller has to dial card number and PIN using
DTMF instrument.
Follow-on feature may be provided optionally.

6.4.10 DCR Destination Call Routing

The call is routed to destination pertaining to following conditions :
Time of day, day of week
Area of call originating
Calling identity of customer
Services attributes (non payment charges against subscriber)
Priority
Charge rates applicable for destination
Proportional routing of traffic
Optionally the subscribers can be provided with traffic details
6.4.11 FMD Follow me Diversion

A subscriber can remotely control the call forwarding capabilities.
It can be done from any point in the network using a password.
It is required if subscriber moves from place to place in a day.
The service subscriber will pay for diverted portion of the call.
6.4.11 FPH Free Phone

The called subscriber is charged for active phase of a call.
For the calling user, no charging is done.
The called subscriber can have multiple destinations and have DCR facility.
6.4.12 MCI Malicious Call Indication

The subscriber requests the Administration to register his number for MCI.
Administration registers the subscriber for MCI.
The called subscriber (who has registered this service) invokes the service during the
active phase of the call if he feels that the call is malicious.
The call is logged in the network with calling and called party number and Date and time
of invoking the service.
Optionally, the network can log unanswered calls also.
Optionally, the facility to HOLD the connection may be provided.
6.4.13 MAS Mass Calling

It involves high volume of traffic.
Calls can be routed to one or multiple destinations depending on geographical location or
time of day.
Mainly used in Televoting.
The network operator allots a service number.
The user dials this number to register his vote.

The user is played an announcement and asked to give his choice.

At the end of the service, the network operator provides the call details and the count on
various preferences.
After the service the same number can be reallocated to another subscriber.
Calls made to this MAS number may be charged differently.
6.4.14 OCS Originating Call Screening

This helps subscriber to screen outgoing call as per day and time.
The screening list may be managed by subscriber.
The restriction of screening list may be override by PIN or password. Three call cases are
possible :
Call screened and allowed
Call screened and rejected
Call passed by using override option
6.4.15 SEC Security Screening

This capability allows security screening to be performed in the network before an end
user gains access to subscribers network, systems or application.
It detects the invalid access attempts : how many, over what time period, by whom and
from where.
It provides an added layer of security.
6.4.16 SCF Selected Call Forwarding (Busy/Dont answer)

This facility is used for a group of 5 to 10 subscribers.
A list of SCF is prepared by a subscriber.
The list contains the choices as per conditions and calling subscribers of the group.
A call from outside the group is forwarded to default telephone number.
The variation in SCF list can be done as per time of the day.
6.4.17 SPL Split Charging

It allows service subscriber to share the call charges with calling party on per call basis.
6.4.18 SOT - Televoting

It is used to survey the public opinion by different agencies.
The network operator allocates a single telephone number to surveyor.
Each time user makes a call he can get access to televoting.
An announcement asks him to input further choice digits as per preference.
As the user presses the digits the choice counter is incremented.

After voting is ceased the service subscriber is supplied the results.

6.4.19 TCS Terminating Call Screening

The incoming calls are screened as per screening list.
Calls are allowed as per list and time of the day.
6.4.20 UAN Universal Access Number

National number is published by the subscriber.
The subscriber may specify the incoming calls to be routed to number of different
destinations based on geographical locations of caller.
6.4.21 UPT Universal Personal Telecommunications

A universal number is defined.
Whenever subscriber changes the destination, he inputs that number from telephone.
When a call comes, UPT number is translated to actual number.
This number can be accessed across various multiple networks, e.g. mobile and fixed.
It can be accessed from any user network access.
6.4.22 UDR User Defined Routing

The user is allowed to define the routing of outgoing calls through different network such
as private, public, virtual or mixed network.
As per time of the day, for example the call is routed to either public or private network
whichever is cheaper.
For example, outstation calls can have different routes at different times of the day.
6.4.23 VPN Virtual Private Network

A private network is built using public network resources.
A virtual PABX is created using different switches.
A PNP (private numbering plan) can be incorporated on those numbers.
Facilities such as CT, CH, dialed restrictions and other supplementary services can be
provided within the network.
Each line or user is assigned a class of service and specific rights in the network.
To access the VPN from outside by one of VPN user, he is required to dial a password.
Screening feature can be used to put restriction on outgoing and incoming calls.
Call charges are assigned to VPN service subscriber.
Additional Account Codes are assigned to service subscriber to analyse the cost line wise.
6.4.24 PRM Premium Rate

The local call is charged at a higher (premium) rate.

This service is used by service providers for value added information services, e.g. jobs,
fortune, forecast, etc.
The revenue is shared between network operator and service provider.
The network operator allots a specific number to service provider, which can be reached
from any point in the network.
The provision exists for multiple site provider, in order to achieve minimum expenditure
on actual call.
6.5. CHARGING
The IN services can be broadly divided into three categories for charging purposes:
No charging for calling user.
Charging of calling user as per local call
Charging of calling user at higher rates
The access code of various IN services is as follows:

Sl Charging At Local
IN Service New SAC
No Exchange
Free Phone (FPH)
1 1800 XYZ No Charge
Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Virtual Calling Card (VCC)

Account Calling Card (ACC)

a) Universal Access Number (UAN)

(Local & Long Distance) 1860 XYZ
5 On Specified Charge-band
b) Universal Access Number
(UAN(Long Distance on Revenue 1869 424
Sharing Basis)
UAN Management
Televoting 1861 424 Unit Charge/Specified CHB
-Local Charge
1862 424 Pulse Charge Rate Initially,
-Two Pulse Incremental charge zero
7
-Charge band from SCP 1863 424 On specified CHB initially,
Incremental Charge Zero
-No Charge 1803 424 No Charge

Universal Personal Number (UPN)
8 1868 XYZ On Specified Charge-band
Terminating Access
UPN Management 1808 XYZ
9 No Charge
except 424
VPN Call Forwarding
Premium Rate Service (PRM) 1867 XYZ
11 On Specified Charge-band
except 424
Table 3 IN Services And Service Code

6.6 CDOT IN SYSTEM

First system(SCP) was deployed at Kolkata in December 1998 and subsequently at
Bangalore, Ahemedabad and Lucknow. The capacity of CDOT-IN system is 1 Lakh
BHCA and 10 Lakh VCC data. Number of CDoT SSP (MBM or SBM) is 200 nos. The
services supported are
Virtual Card Calling VCC(ITC).
Account Card Calling ACC.
Free Phone Service FPH.
Premium Rate Number PRM.
Virtual Private Network VPN.
Televoting VOT.
6.6.1 CDOT IN Architecture
Figure 3 CDOT IN Architecture
Table 4 Present traffic status in CDoT IN systems
SCP(C-DOT) BHCA IT card data
Kolkata 1.25 lakh 0.89 Million
Bangalore 1.2 Lakh 0.95 Million
Lucknow 1.15 Lakh 0.76 Million
Ahmedabad 0.85 Lakh 0.83 Million
8.6.2 Limitations of CDoT IN System

Following are the limitations of CDOT-IN systems:
Low and fixed SCP and SSP BHCA capacity.

Non-upgradable and scalable.

Low VCC Data capacity.

Limited resources for Announcement, DTMF, etc.
SSP functionality of switches not utilised.
Network based charging.
Additional services not available.
Limited Charging categories.
6.7 ALCATEL IN SYSTEM

The salient features of Alcatel IN systems are:
SCP capacity of 4 Lakhs BHCA which can grow upto 12 Lakhs BHCA.
50 Lakhs VCC Data storage capacity.
Integrated solution utilising the SSP capabilities of large capacity digital
More features on IN services and management options.
SCP based charging.
Can be upgraded in terms of capacity and additional IN services.
Separate IP for independent resource management.
Types of IN Platform procured by BSNL from M/s. Alcatel

General Purpose IN Platform (GPIN).
SCP located at Kolkata, Lucknow, Ahmedabad and Bangalore catering to East, North,
West and South zone Circles respectively.
Mass Calling IN Platform (MCIN).
SCP located at Hyderabad catering to Whole of India.
6.7.1 Alcatel IN Architecture
Figure 4 Alcatel IN Architecture (1)

Figure 4 Alcatel IN Architecture (2)
6.7.2 IN Services provided by Alcatel IN Platform

The services provided by Alcatel IN Platform are:
Account Card Calling (ACC).
Free Phone (FPH).
Universal Access Number (UAN).
Virtual Private Number (VPN).
Televoting (VOT).
Premium Rate (PRM).
Virtual Card Calling (VCC).
Universal Personal Number (UPN). - NEW
Number Portability (NP). NEW
6.7.2.1 Virtual Card Calling (VCC)

This service is similar to the ACC. Here subscriber has to dial 16-digit card number
to place a valid call.
Cards of fixed amount will be sold. The card number will be invalid after expiry of
the amount or validation period. This account cannot be renewed.
No detailed bill will be provided to the subscriber.

Figure 5 VCC system

a) Call Placement using VCC card
Dial 1802 345.
You will be prompted to dial your card number.
You will be prompted the balance amount in the account followed by
request to dial the destination number.
A VCC Call: 1802 345<A><16 digit card No.> <A><Destination No.>
b) VCC Features
The features of VCC are as follows:
Multiple Language Choices- New
Profile Concept
Credit Limit- New
o Minimum Credit to use the service
o Minimum credit to make a call
o Real Time Credit Supervision
o Warning Tone- New
Follow On Calls
o Called Party On Hook
o Called Party No Reply
o Called Party Busy
Black List- New
Predefined Promotional Number- New
National/International Call Restriction
Call log
Payphone restrictions- New
16 digit secret number will be used

6.7.2.2 Free Phone (FPH) Service

Here the concept of reverse charging is applied with additional features.
The service subscriber will have one logical number against more than one PSTN
no. distributed all over the network.
He can have his own routing plan using Time Dependent Routing, Origin
Dependent Routing facilities.
Figure 6 FPH System
a) FPH Access
In other words, this service allows users to make calls to a free phone number for
which the called party has agreed to pay for the complete cost of the call.
Access code: 1800 345
Free phone number: XXXX (4 digits)
Access can be from any Telephone and it will not be charged.
Dial 1600 345 XXXX
6.8 CONCLUSION
An objective of IN is also to allow the inclusion of the additional capabilities and
flexibility to facilitate the provisioning of services independent of the underlying
network's details. The key needs that are driving the implementation of IN are Rapid
Service Deployment, Reduced Deployment Risk, Cost Reduction & Customization

JOB-AID P1
VRLA battery, SMPS Power plant, Engine Alternator, Inverter,
UPS
1.1 Title: Identification of different telecom components

1.2 Objective:
On completion of this visit/ practical exercise, the trainees will be able to:
a) Identify different telecom components
b) Explain their role in telecom
1.3 Reports to be taken/ referred:

Capacity of the, SMPS Power Plant, VRLA- Battery sets, Engine-
Alternator,Inverter,UPS .
1.4 Exercise:
1.4.1 Demonstration of the components by the faculty
1.4.2 Identify the following components.
i. SMPS Power Plant

ii. VRLA battery set
iii. Stand by arrangements like Engine alternator
iv. Inverter and UPS
1.4.3
i. Record the system readings through system panel for SMPS Power Plant and
Alarms.
ii. Measurement of Individual cell voltage and terminal voltage.
iii. Identifying different components of Engine Alternator
iv .Record the input and output voltages and Alarms for Inverter and UPS
JOB-AID P1 Page 106 of 104

JOB-AID P2
Measurement of Earth Resistance
& Type and Distribution of earth
1.1 Title: Measurement of Earth Resistance.

On completion of this visit/ practical exercise, the trainees will be able to:
a)Measure the Earth Resistance.
b) Type and distribution of Earthing system
1.2 Reports to be taken/ referred:

a) Value of Earthing Resistance
1.3 Exercise:
1.3.1 Demonstration of the measurement of earthing resistance by the faculty
1.3.2 Identify the following components.

i. Earthing arrangements
JOB-AID P2 Page 107 of 104

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Bsnl Junior Engineer Switching & Telecom Support Infrastructure

To overcome the limitations of manual switching; automatic exchanges, having

The first electronic exchange employing Space-Division switching (Analog

Table 1 Chronological Development of Electronic Exchanges.

1976 No.4 ESS Transit Bell Labs, USA

1978 AXE Local LM Eiricsson, Sweden.

Fundamentals Of Electronic Exchanges Page 1 of 104

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Testing is done manually externally and is Testing carried out periodically

Partial full-availability, hence blocking. Full availability, hence no blocking. A large

Lot of switching noise Almost noiseless

1.2 INFLUENCE OF ELECTRONICS IN EXCHANGE DESIGN.

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Another major consequence of using electronics in control subsystems of a

The impact of electronics on exchanges is not static and it is still changing as a

1.3 STORED PROGRAMME CONTROLLED EXCHANGE:

In an SPC exchange, a processor similar to a general purpose computer, is

ii. Switching network, may be space- division or time-division, uni-directional or bi-

iii. Switching processor, consisting mainly of processors and memories.

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v. Signaling interfaces depending on type of signaling used, and

Common Common Channel

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In an electronic exchange, the switching network is one of the largest sub-system in

Central control Processor

Programme Translation Data Store

Figure.2 Switching Processor

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d) Switching Peripheral Equipment

The time intervals, in which the processor operates, is in the order of

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i) Line Interface Circuits

Analogue Subscriber Line Interface

k) Data Processing Peripherals.

ii. Special purpose peripheral equipment is, sometimes employed for

iv. Maintenance peripherals, such as, Alarm Annunciators and Special

1.4 FACILITIES PROVIDED BY ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES.

Facilities offered by electronic exchanges can be categorized in three arts.

1.4.1. Facilities to the Subscribers.

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b) Priority Subscriber Lines

c) Toll (Outgoing Call) Restriction

For restricted Circulation

l) Third party Inquiry

m) Priority of calls to Emergency Positions

n) Subscriber charge Indicator

o) Call Charge printout or immediate Billing

p) Malicious Call Identification

r) Connection Without Dialing.

s) Automatic Wake Up.

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t) Hot Line or Private Wire.

w) Free of charge Calls

1.4.2 Facilities to the Administration

a) Reduced Switch Room Accommodation