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Editorial

Facing the Consequences


“Buy a man a fish and you will feed him for a day…teach a man to fish directly or indirectly dependent on the fisheries and aquaculture
and you will feed him for a lifetime” (Chinese Proverb). sector for employment, that’s nearly eight percent of the world
population (see Back Cover, this Issue). Approximately 86 percent of
Whoever first coined this old adage would have second thoughts these people live in Asia.
about the wisdom of such a message today. The philosophy
probably made perfect sense in a world where men were few and This issue of Tropical Coasts is a joint effort of PEMSEA and the ASEAN
the oceans were abundant with fish; where you were free to hunt Centre for Biodiversity. In this issue, we take a look at the linkages
and plant your crops. But times are changing and this philosophy between biodiversity and food security, and some of the issues and
of self dependence and freedom to fish and harvest may not work activities that are being pursued in the region and elsewhere.
anymore. It has always been wise for men to exploit the land and
seas and be independent, but something has happened to change Michael Kendall (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) explores areas of
all that. research that require greater international cooperation to overcome
the threats posed to the ocean and its resources in a high carbon
The security of access to food of communities, nations and the world dioxide world. While Jin Hwan Hwang (Dongguk University) calls
is jeopardized by the unmitigated and unprecedented degradation attention to the changing perspectives regarding climate change
of the environment. And the culprits are us — our numbers are adaptation measures for food security, and the need to improve the
increasing beyond the capacity of our planet’s ability to match our balance between food productivity (direct impact) and food supply
consumption patterns, we overexploit our vast resources, foul our (virtual impact).
air, and contaminate our water and sources of food. Adding to these
problems is the impact of climate change, oil prices and growing G. Robin South (International Ocean Institute - OceanLearn
demands for alternative sources of energy, and the global economic Programme) shares the experience in the Pacific Islands Region
crisis, which are being felt today. Complex, interconnected and where IOI has been conducting modular training courses on the
cumulative, these issues have resulted in soaring prices in basic management of fisheries, using the FAO Code of Conduct for
commodities, which further worsen the already existing problem Responsible Fisheries as a vehicle to review existing arrangements
of insufficient food access to poor populations in the world. There and options for the management of oceanic and coastal fisheries.
are more than 840 million people in the world who are suffering
from chronic hunger. In the East Asian Seas (EAS) region alone, the Donald J. Macintosh (Mangroves for the Future (MFF) Secretariat)
share of hungry population is at 28 percent — people who do not and Minna M. Epps (IUCN Asia Regional Office) relate the efforts of
have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for an active and MFF to build knowledge, strengthen empowerment and enhance
healthy life. Most of these poor and hungry people are located in governance to address the current and future threats of natural
the coastal areas of the region. disasters, and to conserve and restore ecosystems. Natasja Sheriff
(WorldFish Center), David C. Little (University of Stirling), and
Rodrigo U. Fuentes, Executive Director of the ASEAN Center for Kwanta Tantikamton (Rajamangala Institute of Technology) outline
Biodiversity (ACB) expresses the concern emphatically (page 30, this policy considerations regarding aquaculture and viable livelihood
Issue) when he states, “Ultimately, the loss of biodiversity is one of alternatives for the poor, based on a research project conducted in
the greatest threats that we face. It is in the area of food security, Southern Thailand.
perhaps more than any other, that biodiversity’s value is most clear.
When we destroy biodiversity, we destroy our source of food.” Three on-the-ground examples of improved governance of coastal
and marine resources are also included in this issue. Darren Raeburn
Public attention on the pressing problem of global food security and Katie Chalk (World Vision) relate the changes that have occurred
has, in the past, mostly focused on the role of agricultural food in Tabogan, Philippines, as a consequence of the development a
production. It is often forgotten that the world’s oceans are one of Coastal Resources Management Plan (CRMP), and the implementation
the largest food reserves on the planet. The EAS region is home to of a marine sanctuary. In Cavite, Philippines, Anabelle L. Cayabyab
30 percent of the world’s coral reefs and mangroves and considered and Evelyn M. Reyes (Provincial Government of Cavite) demonstrate
as the world’s center for tropical marine biodiversity. These serve as how ICM has strengthened the governance of marine and coastal
the major resource for more than 1.5 billion people in the region of resources and resulted in benefits to low-income, less privileged
whom live within 100 km from the coastline. The region accounts for fisherfolks and fish farmers. Vitaya Khunplome (Provincial
about 40 percent of the world fish catch and 84 percent of the world Administrative Organization of Chonburi, Thailand) and Nisakorn
aquaculture production. Wiwekwin (Sriracha Municipality, Chonburi Province) similarly explain
scaling up of ICM as a sustainable development strategy in Chonburi,
But these natural coastal and marine resources are under threat. which is beginning to show results in terms of increased harvest of
In the ASEAN region, for example, 80 percent of the coral reefs are crabs and other marine species, enhanced mangrove coverage and
at risk and if losses and destruction are not abated, the remaining restoration of seagrass beds.
could disappear in the next 20 to 40 years. Similarly, 40 percent of
the mangroves in the world can be found in Asia, but there are high In sum, this issue of Tropical Coasts emphasizes that the “teaching
losses, about 60 percent, in diversity (D.J. Macintosh and M.M. Epps, a man to fish” proverb is still relevant. What has changed over time
page 6). Losses in these habitats not only affect ecological diversity is the context of the philosophy, where the emphasis has shifted
and food security (R. A. Inciong, page 4), but greatly endangers the from fishing to teaching, learning and living with the indisputable
livelihood of fishers in the region. About 520 million people are connection between biodiversity and food security.
Contents
ICM at Work:
17 Harnessing
local initiative
to achieve food
security

Fisheries

06 governance and
training in the
Mangroves in a
changing climate
06 Pacific Islands
Region 43
4

Tropical coastal ecosystems in

24
Utilizing ICM to address food
security and improve livelihood of
49 a high carbon dioxide world; can
we predict the future?
communities in Chonburi

Biodiversity and Half the water,


04 Food Security:
Understanding the
30 Special feature:
Biodiversity Loss — 38 double the fish;
the sanctuary that
The forgotten
threat crisis brought security

Vol. 15
tropical coasts
Aquaculture and

12 the poor: Culturing


high-value fish
34 Agreement on the
Establishment of 52 From Production to
Supply: Changing
perspectives in the
the ASEAN Centre
can be a viable for Biodiversity adaptation system
No. 2
livelihood option for food security
December 2008

Raphael P.M. Lotilla Jonel Dulay Jin Hwan Hwang G. Robin South
Executive Editor Ray Nonnato Leyesa Rolando A. Inciong Kwanta Tantikamton
Design/Illustration/DTP Michael A. Kendall Nisakorn Wiwekwin
S. Adrian Ross Vitaya Khunplome
Editor Contributors David C. Little
Anabelle L. Cayabyab Donald J. Macintosh Cover photo by:
Anna Rita Cano Katie Chalk Darren Raeburn Raniel Jose Castañeda
Philippines
Assistant Editor Minna Epps Evelyn M. Reyes
w w w. p e m s e a . o r g

Photo Location: Noveleta,


Rodrigo U. Fuentes Natasja Sheriff Cavite

The Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect
Asia (PEMSEA), Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations the views or policies of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United
Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Office for Project Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Office for
Services (UNOPS), publish Tropical Coasts Magazine biannually. Project Services (UNOPS), Partnerships in Environmental Management
This issue on Food Security is co-published by the ASEAN Centre for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, and
for Biodiversity. This publication is geared towards stimulating an other participating organizations, or the editors, nor are they an official
exchange of information and sharing of experiences and ideas record. The designation employed and the presentation do not imply
with respect to environmental protection and the management of the expression of opinion whatsoever on the part of GEF, UNDP, UNOPS,
coastal and marine areas. Readers are strongly encouraged to send PEMSEA, and ACB concerning the legal status of any country, territory
their contributions to: or city or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its territory or
boundaries.
Executive Editor
P.O. Box 2502, ISSN 0117-9756
Quezon City 1165,
Metro Manila, Philippines
4 December 2008

By Rolando A. Inciong, Head Public Affairs, ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity

Biodiversity and food security:


understanding the threat

There is a growing evidence of the are at risk of extinction, 45 of which are among the most diverse in the world.
narrowing biological diversity base for in Asia. But 80 percent of the region’s coral reefs
food production from land and marine are at risk. Sedimentation and pollution
sources in Southeast Asia and in other Deforestation, habitat destruction, from upland and coastal developments
parts of the world. overfishing and destructive fishing threaten coral reefs. Destructive fishing
practices, coral reefs degradation, methods destroy marine ecosystems
The Food and Agriculture Organization large-scale mining, poverty traps, resulting in diminishing breeding
(FAO) reported that the pressure to inappropriate agricultural policies, grounds for fish and other aquatic life.
produce food to meet the world’s industrialization, and pollution are the
increasing demand has intensified culprits that cause massive biodiversity The proliferation of marine protected
over the past 100 years. As a result, the loss. Biodiversity loss is also caused areas (MPAs) in the region shows a
natural functions of ecosystems and by emerging influences, including growing consciousness on the need to
the variability of genes, species, and liberalization and globalization of deal with the increasing threats leading
populations is now severely affected. production, urbanization, invasive to the degradation of the coastal and
Over the millennium, humans have alien species, climate change, and marine resources of Southeast Asia and
relied on over 10,000 various plants shifting consumption patterns. All these to food security. A marine protected
species for food. Now, there are barely contribute to the reduction of food area is any area of inter-tidal or sub-tidal
150 species
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Photo by Leslie Jose


Tropical Coasts 5

In 2002, UP-MSI, et al., conducted a marine protected areas and to ensure our little ways, we can do a lot to curb
review of the marine protected areas of that they are designed and located in biodiversity and food insecurity.
Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, the best places to conserve biodiversity There is a need to develop and expand
Myanmar, Singapore, the Philippines, and ensure food security. the knowledge base from the scientific
Thailand, and Vietnam focusing on the arena, and all practical means of using
sub-tidal areas and inter-tidal areas ACB is an intergovernmental regional biodiversity resources. We also have to
essential for marine species, such as centre of excellence that facilitates recognize the importance of building
coral reefs and turtle nesting beaches. cooperation among the members of alliances to address the issue of food
Results indicated that environmental ASEAN, and with relevant national security.
degradation is causing the most governments, regional and international
impacts on the marine environment organizations on the conservation and Understanding the threat is good, but
and MPAs in almost all countries. The sustainable use of biological diversity, not good enough. If we acknowledge
array and intensity of threats vary and the fair and equitable sharing of that biodiversity loss in both land and
from site to site. For example, sites benefits arising from the use of such marine resources has implications
in Peninsular Malaysia suffer much biodiversity. on food security, and recognize that
more from development than those in everyone is entitled to access to food, as
Sabah where coral mining is a bigger On 4-7 November 2008, ACB convened philosopher Onora O’Neill has said, let
problem. The amount, completeness in Bali, Indonesia, an experts meeting us start to define who will do what, for
and accuracy of the data on MPAs vary on marine gap analysis for the whom and when.
among countries, depending on the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and
amount of research and government Vietnam. The meeting served as initial References
interest in the subject. Protected area step for ASEAN Member States to
data held by different Southeast Asian enhance understanding and agree Fuentes, R. U. 2009. Seminar on “Biodiversity
and Food Security: Are we really
government agencies are not always on the process of marine protected
understanding the threat?”, held in Los
consistent. Some of the MPAs lack area gap analysis. Experts identified Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Southeast
information on their exact location and representation, ecological and Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study
most do not have a defined boundary management gaps of marine protected and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) -
or size, making quantitative coverage areas, and established regional and Agriculture and Development Seminar
Series (ADSS) and ASEAN Center for
comparisons impossible. national action points for marine
Biodiversity. www.aseanbiodiversity.org
protected area gap analyses. These are
During the 2nd ASEAN Heritage Parks very important in conserving coastal Fuentes, R. U. 2008. “Experts Meeting on
Conference in Sabah, Malaysia, Dr. Chou and marine biodiversity which could Marine Gap Analysis for the Philippines,
Loke Ming of the National University contribute to food security (Fuentes, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Viet Nam”,
held on 4-7 November 2008, Bali,
of Singapore reported that out of the 2008).
Indonesia. ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
total number of MPAs in the region, only (ACB), Indonesia’s Ministry of Forestry,
10 percent are effectively managed; Today’s challenge is how to increase Conservation International, and Haribon
88 percent of the coral reefs are under agricultural and fisheries yield while Foundation. www.aseanbiodiversity.org.
threat, the region’s MPAs cover only conserving biodiversity ecosystems.
International Union for Conservation of
eight percent of its reefs; and only one We have a menu of available options
Nature (IUCN). 1988. 1988 IUCN Red List
percent within MPAs are effectively for sustainable food production which of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland,
managed. The identified gaps include involves mixed farming systems, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.: 154 pp.
management effectiveness including integrated pest management, crop
transboundary management; effective rotation, organic agriculture, recycling UP-MSI, ABC, ARCBC, DENR and ASEAN. 2002.
Marine Protected Areas in Southeast
management network; prioritization of crop and animal wastes, regulated
Asia. University of the Philippines-Marine
and identification of sites of global/ fishing, and other mechanisms. Science Institute (UP-MSI), Asian Bureau
regional significance to preserve for Conservation (ABC), ASEAN Regional
biodiversity; and coordination, However, it should be pointed out that Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
including information resources sharing, there is a very limited adoption rate of (ARCBC), Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR),
and capacity building. these options. The international regime
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
is unable to touch the heart of the (ASEAN). ASEAN Regional Centre for
The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) issues. The heart of the issues is within Biodiversity Conservation, Department of
is working to address these gaps, and us. We have to examine our way of Environment and Natural Resources, Los
in particular to increase the number of consuming resources, and know that in Baños, Philippines, 142 pp., 10 maps.
6 December 2008

By Donald J. Macintosh, Coordinator, Mangroves for the Future (MFF) Secretariat


Minna M. Epps, Regional Communications Officer, IUCN Asia Regional Office

Mangroves in a changing
climate

Mangroves at Ranong, Thailand. Mangroves protect against erosion, storms and sea level rise.

INTRODUCTION natural disasters, thereby reducing the resources and the vital ecosystem
vulnerability of coastal communities processes that sustain them.
Coastal areas have been centers of and investments. The important role
human settlement and economic of healthy mangrove forests gained Mangroves are one of the most
activities for thousands of years recognition after the December 2004 productive ecosystems worldwide,
due to their easy accessibility from Tsunami where areas with extensive which millions of people in the Indian
the sea, their remarkable biological mangrove coverage suffered less Ocean still depend upon. In addition
productivity, and the wide array of damage compared to areas which had to timber, mangroves provide a wide
goods and services that they provide. been cleared for other forms of land range of goods and services, and
Today, many of the world’s largest use. Despite the global awakening to even cultural attributes. These include
cities occupy coastal locations; ports, the importance of mangroves and their valuable fishery and aquaculture
shipping and other major industries interdependence with other coastal resources, wildlife, medicines, gums,
are also concentrated here; while ecosystems such as coral reefs and tannins, honey and fruits (Saenger,
beaches, coral reefs and islands have seagrasses, many coastal areas and 2002). Mangroves also protect
become a magnet for tourism. Coastal resources remain under severe pressure. shorelines from erosion and flooding,
ecosystems are also our best allies in High population growth, compounded and provide storm protection; they are
the face of climate change. by migration into coastal areas, also efficient in carbon sequestration
Coastal ecosystems, especially overfishing, habitat conversion and and nutrient retention. Thus, mangroves
mangrove forests, act as buffers against poor development planning, have led are often seen as the backbone of
extreme weather conditions and to increasing pressure on the remaining tropical ocean coastlines, yet many
Tropical Coasts 7

mangrove ecosystems are under magnitude of tropical storms


severe threat because of climate and other extreme events will
and human-induced changes, the have negative impacts on both
latter being mainly attributable ecosystems (coral bleaching,
to increasing population, coastal saltwater intrusion, flooding,
infrastructure development erosion) and human well-being
and rising demand for fishery (loss and/or reduced productivity
products. of goods and services provided by
ecosystems). Reduced protective
There are more than 70 mangrove and regulatory services of coastal
and associate species in the ecosystems will leave coastal
world. Approximately 40 percent communities more vulnerable
of all mangroves occur in Asia to climate-related disasters.
(and Australia) (Spalding, et. al, Further loss, or degradation, of
1997). Thousands of hectares mangroves will further jeopardize
of mangrove forests have been the livelihoods and food
cleared for shrimp farming security of marginalized coastal
and other forms of coastal communities with already limited
development across the region. resilience or adaptive capacity.
In several Asian countries Low-lying coastal areas, such
mangrove loss has exceeded 60 as the Mekong Delta region of
percent, on average, in recent Vietnam, have already suffered
decades (Macintosh and Ashton, from more frequent and severe
2002), while the total area has climatic extremes between
decreased to less than 15 million flood and drought conditions,
ha worldwide from an estimated with serious consequences for
32 million ha originally. Globally, agriculture, aquaculture and
mangroves provide more than 10 even salt production. Climate
percent of the essential dissolved change impacts are already being
organic carbon that is supplied witnessed across the region.
to the ocean from land (Dittmar,
et. al., 2006), yet less than one The Role of Mangroves in
percent of the world’s mangroves Climate Change Adaptation and
Top to Bottom: Mudskipper caught in the mangroves of the Mekong Delta; white
are adequately protected. shrimp harvested by cast net from mangrove channels in Java; mud crab seed are Mitigation
Seagrasses, which provide caught in mangroves throughout Asia for rearing in aquaculture ponds.

indispensable nursery grounds Mangroves are nature’s first


for many fish species and feeding Monitoring Network, 19 percent of the line of defence against climate
habitats for turtles and dugongs, have world’s coral reefs have already been change along the land-sea margin of
also declined at an alarming rate and lost and the remaining may disappear many of the world’s most populated
even disappeared in some parts of the within 20-40 years if current trends in countries, where people now exist at
Indian Ocean. A Reefs at Risk study in carbon dioxide emissions continue very high densities within low-lying
2002 found that 88 percent of coral (Obura, et al., 2008). However, coastal and vulnerable coastal zones (e.g.,
reefs in Southeast Asia faced medium ecosystems would have a better chance Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and
to high threats from human impacts of survival if other stress factors related Vietnam). Mangroves produce a vast
(Wilkinson, 2002). Climate change is to human activity were minimized. array of goods and services, which
a factor that further threatens these millions of already marginalized
fragile ecosystems and is exacerbating Climate Change Effects on Coastal communities depend. These goods
the existing environmental problems Communities and services provide not only economic
caused by human impacts. Rising sea benefits, but also food security and
temperature is considered to be the The effects of climate change, as other environmental support. More
largest threat to coral reefs today. manifested by sea level and sea specifically in relation to climate
According to the CORDIO 2008 Status temperature rise, greater climatic change, mangroves: (a) eliminate or
Report released by the Global Coral Reef variability, increased frequency and reduce coastal soil erosion by trapping
8 December 2008

sediments, thereby promoting land mangroves adjacent to coastal fishing hectare, with annual productivity in
conservation as a vital contribution grounds and the yield of shrimp caught the range 9-12 t C/ha (Ong, 1993). The
against sea level rise; and (b) hold back by fishers (Martosubroto and Naamin, belowground accumulation of carbon
the sea and reduce wave forces with 1977). by the root systems of mangroves is
their extensive and dense above ground harder to estimate, but could approach
roots by an estimated 70-90 percent Even today, shrimp and other 700 t C/m depth of soil/peat per
on average, or by 20 percent per 100 mangrove-dependent species, such hectare, with an estimated rate of
m in the case of mangrove green belts as mudskippers (Pseudapocryptes) carbon sequestration of 1.5 t C/ha/year
in Vietnam, which were planted for and mud crabs (Scylla) support the (Ong, 1993).
coastal protection purposes (Mazda et subsistence needs of millions of poor
al., 1997). Mangrove forests moderate aquatic collectors, who include some Mangrove foliage production results
climate extremes by providing shade of the most vulnerable people in Asia. in an annual rate of leaf litter fall in
and increased air-humidity, while also Moreover, many of these mangrove the order of one to several tonnes per
reducing wind velocity and soil water products are sold to pond owners, who hectare, much of which leaches into
evaporation. Mangrove ecosystems rear them commercially as part of the coastal seas, or becomes converted
nurture coastal fish and shellfish stocks very important coastal aquaculture into particulate detritus as a key food
by providing rich feeding and nursery industry flourishing throughout the source for fish, shrimp and other aquatic
grounds, thereby contributing to the region. Thus, mangroves are not only consumers that make up mangrove-
livelihood and food security of millions a vital first line of defence against sea dependent coastal food webs. However,
of coastal dwellers around the region. level rise and storms, they are also leaf-burying (by crabs), other forms of
An early fishery-coastal habitat study fundamental to food security and to litter build up, and soil surface carbon
in Indonesia, for example, revealed a sustaining livelihoods. accumulation can be significant under
direct correlation between the area of certain local conditions, especially
Mangroves and the global carbon where tidal water flows are impeded.
cycle Moreover, as mangrove forests
have declined in extent, or become
Mangroves are proving to play a increasingly isolated from the sea by
vital role in the global carbon cycle. dyke and canal-building, ever smaller
Despite covering less than 0.1 quantities of mangrove-derived detritus
percent of the global land surface, have become available for the formation
they nonetheless account for 10 and export of organic matter offshore.
percent of the dissolved organic Researchers speculate that the rapid
carbon (DOC) that flows from land decline in mangrove cover threatens the
to the ocean (Dittmar, et al., 2006). delicate ecological balance in coastal
Researchers at the Florida State waters and may eventually shut off
University have noted that the the important link between land and
organic matter that is dissolved ocean along previously mangrove-
in the world oceans contains a dominated coastlines, with potentially
similar amount of carbon as that adverse consequences on atmospheric
stored in the skies as atmospheric composition and climate stability.
carbon dioxide (Dittmar, et al.,
2006). Dissolved organic matter One area of particular concern is that
is an important player in the climate change may lead to more
global carbon cycle that regulates frequent and severe storm events,
atmospheric carbon dioxide and especially in cyclone (= typhoon/
climate. hurricane) prone areas of the tropics.
Severe storms have the potential to
There is also growing awareness, cause significant mangrove damage and
backed by scientific studies, even mass tree mortality which, coupled
showing the value of mangroves with sediment removal and related
for carbon sequestration. Their hydrological changes, could threaten
aboveground biomass can the ability of mangroves to recover
A subsistence fisher in the Mekong Delta .
contribute 100-200 tonnes C per (Gilman, et al., 2008). In Honduras,
Tropical Coasts 9

for example, mass mortality of


mangroves caused by Hurricane
Mitch also led to the collapse of
the peat soil layer, which in turn
reduced the mangroves’ rate of
recovery (Cahoon, et al., 2003).

Coping with Climate


Change

Mangrove Clearance and Sea


level rise — The case of Demak,
Central Java, Indonesia

The Demak District of Central


Java illustrates the damaging
consequences of mangrove
clearance in relation to sea level
rise. The north coast of central
Java used to feature extensive
mangrove forests until rapid
land use changes resulted in the
mangroves being cleared for
shrimp farming (tambak) in the Tambak (shrimp farms) submerged in seawater in Demak District, Central Java.

1970s. With little or no mangroves


to sustain the topography and to be an adaptation response welcomed further increasing pressure on coastal
productivity of this coastline, a by the local communities, as they resources.
combination of land subsidence and are able to continue their traditional
sea level rise has resulted in an average tambak and fishery livelihoods. Climate change mitigation –
increase of 50 cm in mean sea level over The case of Vietnam
the past 12 years. Villages that used to The tambak owners also need financial
be several kilometers from the sea are and technical assistance to enable them Vietnam is a low-lying country and
now flooded at high tide and many of to raise the height of the pond dykes one of the countries most at risk from
the tambak can no longer be operated and to introduce new technologies climate change, especially sea level
because the pond dykes are too low to farm alternative and higher value rise. Following a massive typhoon
to prevent tidal inundation (see aerial species. The communities are well in November 1997 (Typhoon Linda),
photograph). aware of the need to replant mangroves, families living in the mangrove areas
but feel that they lack the technical in the lower Mekong Delta were
The local government has responded skills to select the most suitable evacuated and with Government and
to this rapid environmental change by species and locations for mangrove international support, a 500-km long
relocating more than 200 households. rehabilitation. The tambak operators protection belt of mangroves was
However, most families in the area have noticed that different species of re-established. People were resettled
did not want to relocate since their fish and shrimp now enter the canals in better houses behind the safety of
main livelihoods are based on tambak and the tambak, such as white shrimp a sea dyke along the back of the new
fish and shrimp farming, or fishing. A (Penaeus indicus), which they attribute mangrove protection zone. They were
relocation programme would have to to the rising sea level. There is an given small plots of land and helped to
be coupled with training and other overall consensus that their livelihoods learn how to develop their livelihoods
support to help generate alternative from fishing and aquaculture are much based on farming and aquaculture.
income-generating opportunities. Stilt poorer and less secure than before. The The mangroves also helped to enrich
houses have also been built as part of drastic decline in tambak production the coastal fisheries where shrimp,
a government initiative in the worst- has resulted in a shift from farming to crab and fish culture are thriving today.
affected areas as a means of adapting to capture fisheries due to the lack of other Still there are many risks from climate
a changing environment. This appears employment opportunities, which is change due to the extremely low
10 December 2008

land level in the delta and the huge project level. Incorporating climate Mangrove Ecosystem Management
population it supports. The climate is change adaptation considerations and was held in Ranong, Thailand ,
becoming more extreme with several enhancing adaptive capacity of coastal which brought together close to 200
severe droughts in recent years, communities is crucial to ensure the mangrove experts/scientists and local
creating water shortages and extreme long-term sustainability of coastal community representatives engaged in
salinities that threaten agricultural development projects. mangrove management. The aim was
and aquacultural production. In not only to illustrate the value of local
response, the Government of Vietnam In recognition of the importance and traditional knowledge and how it
is carrying out large-scale mangrove of mangroves and other coastal can help shape sustainable mangrove
rehabilitation, sea-dyke upgrading and ecosystems, MFF is encouraging the forests, but also to share experiences
other investments for climate change countries around the Indian Ocean and lessons learned in post-tsunami
mitigation. Mangroves for the Future region to increase their investment mangrove reconstruction efforts across
(MFF) is helping to promote positive in these vital coastal ecosystems and the region, as well as approaches
examples like Vietnam — to show the to share knowledge and experiences for understanding and embedding
world why investing in mangroves about the best ways to cope with stakeholder interests more effectively
and other coastal ecosystems is so climate change along their vast in future mangrove rehabilitation
important and cost-effective, and how coastlines. A recent Scientific and initiatives.
community groups and governments Technical Symposium on Sustainable
can take action to prevent further
losses.
Mangroves for the Future Initiative (MFF)
Mangroves for the Future (MFF)
MFF builds on a history of coastal management interventions before and after the 2004
MFF is a regional multi-partner initiative tsunami, especially the call to continue the momentum and partnerships generated by
to promote investment in coastal the immediate post-tsunami response. It focuses on the countries worst-affected by the
ecosystems. MFF is partnership-based, tsunami with projects in India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
people-focused and policy-relevant, MFF also includes other countries of the region that face similar issues, with an overall
and climate change is of direct aim to promote an integrated ocean wide approach to coastal zone management.
relevance. The MFF programmes of
work reflect this through its adoption Its long-term management strategy is based on identified needs and priorities that
of climate change considerations as emerged from extensive consultations with over 200 individuals and 160 institutions
a cross-cutting programme of work. involved in coastal management in the region.
MFF is also adopting a new approach
by moving from a reactive response to The initiative uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem in recognition of the important
a more proactive one. The aim is to role mangroves played in reducing the damage caused by the tsunami, and the
address long-term sustainable coastal implications on livelihoods because of mangrove forest destruction. But MFF is inclusive
management needs and develop of all coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches,
community resilience, including seagrasses and wetlands.
building awareness and capacity for
improved food and livelihood security, MFF is based on a vision of a healthier, more prosperous and secure future for all
and to ensure that environmental sections of coastal populations in Indian Ocean countries. It is a unique partnership-
considerations are included in disaster led initiative working in four key areas of influence: regional cooperation, national
preparedness and climate change programme support, private sector engagement and community action.
adaptation responses.
MFF undertakes collective actions to build knowledge, strengthen empowerment, and
Methods for integrating climate enhance governance through 15 broad programmes of work to address the current and
change considerations into all MFF future threats, and to conserve and restore coastal ecosystems. These are implemented
activities have been developed based through a series of on-the-ground projects, through small and large grant modalities.
on existing climate proofing tools.
MFF also conducts regional and in- MFF seeks more effective and inclusive institutions, policies and mechanisms
country training courses on the use for cooperation at national and regional levels by prioritizing coastal ecosystem
of practical climate proofing tools management across national development agendas, policies and budgets.
and methods applicable to the field/
Tropical Coasts 11

Mangroves in the future to meet the long-term development Brighouse, J. Bungitak, E. Dus, M. Henry,
needs of coastal communities, while I. Sauni Jr., M. Kilman, E. Matthews, N.
Teariki-Ruatu, S. Tukia, K. Yuknavage.
MFF and its partners are seeking to securing their livelihoods against
2006. “Pacific Island Mangroves in a
develop and test climate proofing tools climate change impacts and helping Changing Climate and Rising Sea.” UNEP
at project sites in the region. It will coastal communities prepare for Regional Seas Reports and Studies
further identify mechanisms for REDD potential climate-related disasters. No. 179. United Nations Environment
(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation Programme, Regional Seas Programme,
Nairobi, Kenya.
and Ecosystem Degradation), based on
an ecosystem approach that enhances Macintosh, D.J. and E.C. Ashton. 2002.
natural sequestration and storage of References: A Review of Mangrove Biodiversity
carbon in existing mangrove forests and Conservation and Management. Centre
Cahoon, D.R., P.R. Hensel, K.L. Rybczyk, E.E. for Tropical Ecosystems Research,
restored degraded mangroves areas.
McKee Proffitt and B.C. Perez. 2003. University of Aarhus, Denmark. 134pp.
The effectiveness of REDD activities will “Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove
ultimately depend on the success of its peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras Martosubroto, P. and N. Naamin. 1997.
contribution to the development needs after Hurricane Mitch.” Journal of “Relationship between tidal forests
of communities that rely on mangrove Ecology, 1:1093-1105. (mangroves) and commercial shrimp
products. Considering the large number production in Indonesia.” Marine
Dittmar, T., N. Hertkorn, G. Kattner, and Research in Indonesia, No 18: 81-86.
of people in coastal areas that climate R. J. Lara. 2006. “Mangroves, a major
change impacts could displace, MFF source of dissolved organic carbon Mazda, Y., M. Magi, M. Kogo, and P.N.
would seek to conduct activities to the oceans.” Global Biogeochem. Hong. 1997. “Mangroves as a coastal
to: mobilize local communities and Cycles, Vol. 20, No. 1, GB101210, doi: protection from waves in the Tong King
10.1029/2005GB002570, 2006. Delta, Vietnam.” Mangroves and Salt
governments to undertake joint actions
Marshes, 1:127-135.
for sustainable coastal management; Gilman, E.L., J. Ellison, N. Duke and C.
ensure food security through sound Field. 2008. “Threats to mangroves Obura, D.O., J. Tamelander, and O. Linden
ecosystem management; build from climate change and adaptation (eds.). 2008. “Ten years after bleaching-
knowledge to better understand the options.” Aquatic Botany. facing the consequences of climate
links between livelihoods and climate change in the Indian Ocean.” CORDIO
Gilman, E., H. Van Lavieren, J. Ellison, Status Report 2008. CORDIO (Coastal
systems; and increase adaptive capacity V. Jungblut, L. Wilson, F. Areki, G. Oceans Research and Development
in the Indian Ocean)/ Sida-SAREC.
Mombasa. www.cordioea.org. 489pp.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.

Ong, J. E. 1993. “Mangroves – a carbon


source or sink.” Chemosphere 27: 1097-
1107.

Saenger, P. 2002. Mangrove Ecology,


Silviculture and Conservation. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands. 360pp.

Souter, D. and O. Linden (eds.). 2005.


Coral Reef Degradation in the
Indian Ocean: Status Report 2005.
CORDIO, Department of Biology and
Environmental Science, University of
Kalmar, Sweden. 285pp.

Spalding, M. D., F. Blasco and C.D. Field


(eds). 1997. World Mangrove Atlas.
ISME, Okinawa, Japan. 178pp.

Wilkinson C. (ed.). 2002. Status of Coral


Reefs of the World: 2002. Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Townsville,
Australia. 378pp.
A mangrove protection zone, or “green belt” now extends around the
Lower Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
12 December 2008

By Natasja Sheriff, WorldFish Center, Malaysia


David C. Little, Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Scotland, UK
Kwanta Tantikamton, Faculty of Science and Fisheries Technology, Rajamangala Institute of Technology, Thailand

Aquaculture and the poor:


Culturing high-value fish
can be a viable
livelihood option
Introduction conditions, culturing high-value regarding impacts on reef fisheries
fish has the potential to generate and the broader coastal environment.
When the role of aquaculture in substantial benefits for poor Of particular concern are destructive
food production is considered in households. fishing practices, including the use of
combination with the importance cyanide and explosives. In response
of fish in the diets of many of the Background to these concerns, culturing grouper
world’s poorest nations, it is clearly has been promoted as an alternative
central to meeting the Millennium Thailand’s maritime provinces have livelihood option for coastal fishers
Development Goal of halving poverty cultured grouper and other high- (Haylor, et al., 2003; and Pomeroy, et
and hunger by 2015. In addition value marine finfish for three decades, al., 2006). However, little is known
to providing food, the benefits of driven by the live reef fish trade (LRFT). about the socioeconomic context of
aquaculture in terms of employment Keeping fish alive until minutes before aquaculture in coastal communities
and income are widely cited. However, cooking them has been popular for or the potential of grouper culture as
the ability of the poorest to engage in centuries in Chinese communities, an alternative livelihood option. This
aquaculture or derive benefits from it with live fish locally supplied until
may be questioned. The poor are often recently. A preferred species was
excluded from aquaculture by the lack red grouper (Epinephalus akaara)
of land or access to financing, water or until overfishing of adults and later
seed fish. fingerlings for culture in Hong Kong
waters severely depleted local stocks.
Extensive fish culture systems are The international LRFT began in the
generally credited with poverty 1960s to supply fish markets in Hong
mitigation. As extensive systems Kong, and it has expanded rapidly
require few inputs and produce since the early 1990s. Thailand has
cheap fish for the household to become an important contributor to
consume or sell in local markets, the LRFT, with most green grouper
they are considered suitable for (E. coioides) sourced from Thai
poor households. In contrast, rearing mariculture. In 1997, over half of
high-value marine fish in cages is an Hong Kong’s imports of E. bleekeri
intensive form of aquaculture that and E. aerolatus were also from Thai
produces fish for export and is seen mariculture (Lau and Parry-Jones,
as an unlikely option for the poor. 1999).
However, data from a case study of
grouper aquaculture in southern The development and expansion
Thailand show that, under certain of the LRFT has raised concerns
Tropical Coasts 13

paper presents the findings of a study


that addressed these questions.

Grouper aquaculture

Cultured grouper are fish of the family


Serranidae, subfamily Epinephilae,
variously called grouper, coral trout,
rock cod and gag. Widely distributed
as 159 species in the tropics and
subtropics (Heemstra and Randall,
1993), grouper is economically
valuable in sport and artisanal fisheries
throughout their distribution (Seng,
1998). Grouper culture is largely
confined to Asia. In Thailand, production
is dominated by small-scale producers,
Fish cages
but there is interest in developing
larger, offshore systems (Kongkeo and in southern Thailand over 15 months did not necessarily define the poorest
Phillips, 2002). Culture is predominantly between March 2000 and October households, but the types of fishing
in cages and, to a lesser extent, in ponds 2001 had as its principal objective: in which a household was engaged
and net pens. As hatchery production of understanding grouper culture in the and the gear used were indicative of
grouper fry is sporadic, with survival of livelihood strategies of coastal fishers household wealth. Small-scale fishing
grouper juveniles to 2.2 cm at less than and its potential as an alternative was generally an activity undertaken
five percent (Marte, 2003), most grouper option for coastal fishers engaged in by middle-to-lower wealth groups.
farmers depend on seed fish from the destructive practices. An initial survey
wild, either caught by the farmer or was carried out in six provinces of Results
purchased from a fisher or fish trader. southern Thailand, from which two
provinces, Trang and Satun, were Grouper culture — An activity for a
Study methodology selected for more detailed analysis, wealthy minority?
followed by case studies in three
A study carried out in three phases communities. Initial surveys indicated that
grouper culture was primarily in
The findings presented here focus on the hands of wealthier members of
the extent to which poor households rural communities. The high initial
are able to benefit from culturing investment cost, estimated at 20,000
high-value fish like grouper and the Thai baht (US$460) for two cages,
necessary conditions for success. was reported as a principal constraint
Wealth ranking within communities to uptake. Once grouper farms are
generated an understanding of how established, maintaining production
members defined wealth and allowed depended on the availability of
individual households to be assigned seed fish. Although purchasing seed
to a wealth category. Key informants was beyond the means of most
in each of the three case study villages households, the second phase of the
defined household wealth similarly, study found that poor households
with a key criterion being types of need not be excluded from grouper
income-generating activities, as these culture (Sheriff, 2004 and Sheriff, et al.,
determined households’ ability to save 2008). Research carried out in Trang
money or build up assets. Households and Satun provinces revealed that
engaged in fish trade or who owned a the uptake of grouper culture varied
rubber plantation, for example, were greatly among communities. The
considered wealthy, as these activities number of households practicing cage
Little grouper (E. coioides). required large investments. Fishing culture of grouper or other high-value
14 December 2008

species such as seabass or red snapper with a debt they might be unable included the activities’: (1) importance
averaged 12.5 percent in the 27 villages to repay. Successful farmers repaid as a source of income; (2) contribution
surveyed. The adoption of fish culture into a village fund 50 percent of the to household ability to save money;
— and specifically of grouper culture value of the materials and seed they (3) degree of financial or personal
— was not confined to any wealth received, with payments spread over risk; (4) level of investment required;
category but occurred in the livelihood two years. If a farmer experienced (5) importance in relation to other
portfolios of all wealth groups and was problems, repayment was rescheduled activities; (6) required physical capital
equally prevalent among the wealthiest without penalty. The funds were used and its lifespan; and (7) length of time
and poorest households (Figure 1). How to finance other villagers’ entry into before the investment was recouped.
was it possible for poorer households to aquaculture. The scheme has clearly
establish and maintain grouper culture? been successful, as the number of The matrices constructed in showed
households in the village involved in that fish culture and fishing were
Institutional dimensions and access grouper culture rose from an initial 40 closely related. Villagers reported being
to finance households in 1996 to 60 in 2000. willing to undertake a relatively risky
method of fishing because it provided
Lack of financing was among trash fish with which to
Figure 1. Relationship between wealth status
the most frequently reported and fish culture. a feed cultured fish, reducing
constraints to the uptake or eliminating the need
of grouper aquaculture to buy feed. The extent to
throughout southern Thailand. which households were
Yet the residents of one village prepared to take risks to
in Satun Province, where a supply feed for grouper
remarkable 69 percent of culture clearly indicated the
households cultured grouper, importance they attached
were able to overcome this to it. Similarly, fishers’
constraint regardless of wealth ability to source seed fish
group. This can be largely from their own catch was
attributed to the involvement important to maintaining
of external organizations, grouper culture. In 2000–
particularly the Department of 2001, the cost of a seed fish
Fisheries (DOF), which helped measuring 10–14 cm was
fishers in coastal villages to 20 baht ($0.50). Stocking
adopt fish culture or other 500 fish per cage was thus a
a
Shown as the percentage of households in each wealth group whose livelihood
alternative activities, principally portfolios include fish culture (no significant association P = 0.065). considerable investment in
to curtail the use of destructive a region where the average
fishing gears. Selected villages annual household income
were given materials sufficient to allow Livelihood synergy and capital in 2000 was $3,062. However, fishers
20 to 30 families to construct two substitution were able to offset this investment by
cages. Extension officers from DOF then replacing financial capital with natural
showed the new farmers how to build Important links were found to exist capital.
cages, nurse seed fish, grade fish and between activities in the livelihood
recognize disease. portfolios of fishers that enabled poor Strategies to cope with risk and
households to maintain and develop uncertainty
By providing all the materials necessary their culture systems. This synergy
for cage construction, the project was particularly pronounced between Fish disease was found to be the
allowed poor households to overcome fishing and aquaculture. Ranking biggest risk to grouper culture
this biggest hurdle to entry. DOF and preference matrices completed throughout southern Thailand. Many
provided seabass fingerlings, but many by focus groups in the case study risk-averse grouper farmers offset risk
farmers subsequently stocked grouper communities revealed that different by stocking an additional species, most
fingerlings from their own fish catch. livelihood activities contributed in commonly seabass. Seabass enabled
a variety of ways. Villagers ranked producers to minimize risk, as they
It is significant that DOF did not activities by importance according are less vulnerable than grouper to
provide money or burden households to participant-defined criteria, which salinity fluctuations and disease, and
Tropical Coasts 15

can be sold on the relatively stable The preferred total length of juvenile and building up assets. Other activities,
local market, which is indifferent to the grouper for stocking was 20–23 cm for such as fishing, trading and wage labor,
more expensive grouper. Seabass seed short grow-out and 10–14 cm for long are generally accorded more time and
is easily obtained from government or partial grow-out. provide income to meet daily needs. This
or private hatcheries and grows more suggests that efforts to encourage fishers
quickly that grouper. The downside is Grouper culture is vulnerable to to leave fishing for fish culture are likely
that seabass requires more feed than the international market. However, to fail or make fishing households more
grouper and, whereas grouper can predominantly small-scale production vulnerable unless alternative options for
be fed every 2–3 days without any holds down supply and supports daily income are provided (Sheriff, 2004).
detriment to fish health or growth (an prices. At the time of the study,
important advantage to fishers who grouper had a farm-gate value of 300 Conclusions and policy
may be away from home for some baht per fish weighing 1.2 kg, enabling implications
time), seabass must be fed daily. farmers to generate income, or at least
The study found that culturing
Grouper farmers also Figure 2. Significance of grouper culture in grouper can generate
managed risk by varying household livelihood strategies substantial financial benefits
the culture cycle. They did aggregated for all three case study for poor households. However,
not generally adhere to a
communities. this depends on a number of
strict regime of stocking conditions:
and harvesting, primarily
because of the variable 1. Support from external
availability of grouper seed. agencies allows poor
Instead, they stocked and households to overcome
harvested continuously as investment constraints.
long as juvenile fish were Providing materials for
available. As one farmer cage construction and
reported, the culture cycle establishing a village fund
cannot be planned, as allows poor households to
fingerlings of different sizes take up grouper culture.
reach a market size of 1.2 2. Natural capital substitutes
kg at different times. This for financial capital. The
prevents their managing availability of wild-caught
the culture cycle so that seed and feed allows poor
harvesting coincides with Chinese New breakeven, despite high mortality of fishing households to stock
Year, when grouper prices spike. Many up to 80 percent (Sheriff, 2004 and and feed grouper.
wealthier farmers expressed the wish Sheriff, et al., 2008). Sensitivity analysis 3. Grouper culture is compatible with
for hatchery-produced fingerlings of indicated that grouper culture could other livelihood activities. Fishers
standard size that would allow precise remain viable in the face of significant are able to integrate grouper
scheduling of stocking and harvesting, increases in feed and seed fish prices aquaculture into their livelihood
but the cost would be more than what and a fall in marketprice to 100 baht. strategy without narrowing
most grouper farmers could afford. Grouper culture would therefore livelihood diversity. Modest time
Instead, farmers with limited finances appear to pose little risk to households demands and the ability of grouper
distributed the costs and benefits of and is unlikely to increase vulnerability to withstand infrequent feeding
grouper culture over time. when carried out as part of a diverse leaves farmers free to pursue
set of livelihood activities. additional occupations.
The strategies of farmers rearing 4. Farmers can manipulate the culture
grouper in floating cages in the case The role of grouper aquaculture in cycle to suit their risk profile. This
study communities can be divided household livelihood strategies was facilitated by the existence of a
into two broad categories: (1) a short market for juvenile fish for further
grow-out period of 3–6 months to Grouper culture is considered a main growing out.
minimize risk; and (2) a long grow-out occupation by few villagers in any of 5. Grouper is highly valued on the
period of 6–13 months to obtain the the communities studied (Figure 2). international market. The high price
maximum price for fish of market size. Rather, it is primarily for saving money farmers get for their fish ensures
16 December 2008

that grouper culture is economically activity will cause interventions 2003. Improving coastal livelihoods through
viable even if market prices decline. to fail and may worsen household sustainable aquaculture practices: A report
The current lack of hatchery- vulnerability. to the collaborative APEC grouper research
produced seed keeps production and development network (FWG/01/2001).
STREAM Initiative, Network of Aquaculture
low and prices high. 3. Hatchery-produced seed. The
Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok,
development of grouper broodstock
Thailand.
The following policy considerations and hatchery production technology
affect the success of grouper is currently a major area of research Heemstra, P.C. and J. E. Randall. 1993. FAO species
aquaculture: in the Asia-Pacific region, reflecting catalogue.“Groupers of the world (family
the hope that grouper cultured Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae).”An
1. Affordable and accessible credit. from hatchery-produced seed will annotated and illustrated catalogue of the
DOF support in the form of training lift pressure on wild fish stocks. grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and
and extension, together with the However, requiring a closed culture lyretail species known to date. Vol. 16. Food
provision of funds for getting started, cycle may be inappropriate in and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome.
were crucial to making the benefits the case of grouper. Commercial
Kongkeo, H. and M. Phillips. 2002.“Regional
of grouper culture accessible to all hatchery seed production is likely
overview of marine finfish farming, with
wealth groups in the community. to stimulate grouper production
an emphasis on groupers and regional
Without external support or credit, and encourage its emergence cooperation.”In: APEC/NACA/BOBP/GOI
grouper culture is dominated by on an industrial scale, boosting (eds). Report of the Regional Workshop on
wealthier households. supply, undermining market prices Management Strategies for Sustainable
and making grouper culture less Seafarming and Grouper Aquaculture, Medan,
2. Livelihood synergy. Synergy in attractive as a livelihood option for Indonesia, 17–20 April 2000. Collaborative
livelihood activities is essential to poor fishers. The future of the sector, APEC grouper research and development
the ability of poor households to and its role in reducing pressure on network (FWG01/99). Network of Aquaculture
maintain grouper culture despite reef fisheries, is more likely to be Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok,
lack of capital. Yet synergy is a sustained by keeping production in Thailand.
livelihoods aspect of the poor that is the hands of small-scale farmers.
Lau, P. and R. Parry-Jones. 1999. The Hong Kong
often overlooked, as recent studies
trade in live reef fish for food. Hong Kong:
suggest that aquaculture may TRAFFIC East Asia and World Wide Fund for
provide an alternative livelihood References Nature Hong Kong.
for fishers, replacing rather than
supplementing fishing. The study Haylor, G., M. R. P. Briggs, L. Pet-Soede, H. Tung, Marte, C. L. 2003. Larviculture of marine species in
made clear that livelihood activities N. T. H. Yen, B. Adrien, B. O’Callaghan, C. Gow, Southeast Asia: Current research and industry
perform a variety of roles. Failure to L. DeVantier, C. Cheung, R. Santos, E. Pador, prospects. Aquaculture 227:293-304.
understand the functions of each M. de la Torre, P. Bulcock and W. Savage.
Pomeroy, R. S., J. E. Parks, and C. M. Balboa. 2006.
“Farming the reef: Is aquaculture a solution
for reducing fishing pressure on coral reefs?”
Marine Policy 30(2):111–130.

Seng, L. T. 1998.“Grouper culture.”In: de Silva,


S. S. (ed). Tropical mariculture, pp 423–448.
Academic Press, New York.

Sheriff, N. 2004.“Fisher livelihoods in southern


Thailand: Sustainability and the role of grouper
culture.”PhD dissertation, University of Stirling.
Available online at https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/
dspace/handle/1893/72.

Sheriff, N., Little, D.C., and Tantikamton, K. 2008.


“Aquaculture and the Poor - Is the culture of
high-value fish a viable livelihood option for the
Poor?”Marine POlicy 32:1094-1102.
Fry fisher in Koh Khiam
Tropical Coasts 17

By Anabelle L. Cayabyab, Supervising Environmental Management Specialist and Head ICM Division PG-ENRO
Evelyn M. Reyes, Community Affairs Officer II PICAD

ICM at Work:
Harnessing Local Initiative
to Achieve Food
Security
Historic Cavite, home of modern
revolutionary Caviteños braving the
challenges of protecting the coastal areas
and securing the needs of the people.
At the end of implementing and adopting
management strategies and approaches
to attain sustainable coastal
development, integration, coordination
and sectoral participation remain key to
the success or failure of management
programs.
Figure 1. Map of Cavite Province

Aside from its rich historical legacy Moving towards industrialization pollution from land- and sea-based
and culture, the Province of Cavite, sources, habitat degradation and
which is one of the provinces bordering In the 1990s, Cavite transformed itself overexploitation of resources, illegal
the Manila Bay in the Philippines, is from an agricultural province into a highly fishing and intensive land development
blessed with natural resources that have commercialized province that serves for industrial and human settlements.
provided food and sources of livelihood as haven for a number of world-class As migration from neighboring
for the people. It has 71,202.76 ha of industrial estates situated both in the provinces and the metropolis sets in,
agricultural land favorable for growing coastal and non-coastal municipalities. more and more people are settling in
major crops such as rice, corn, coffee These estates house companies mostly the coastal area. Coupled with rapid
and others. Its forest area of 8,624 ha engaged in manufacturing of electronics, industrialization, this has caused
supports diverse flora and fauna. Cavite clothing, food and beverage, plastics and environmental problems particularly
has eight coastal municipalities and one pharmaceuticals. Cavite’s industrialization the deterioration of water quality
city with a total coastline of about 85 and its proximity to Manila enabled a and destruction of coastal habitats.
km stretching from the municipalities large segment of the population to be Operators of illegal structures for fish
of Maragondon to Bacoor. It has an employed in the industries. production and other marine products
estimated coastal water of about 93,679 likewise sprouted up in the coastal
ha that supports coastal habitats and In recent years, the province is waters of Cavite. Such illegal structures
diverse marine resources (Figure 1). facing various challenges, including hampered navigation of small boats,
18 December 2008

obstructed the circulation of water and coastal towns. Each Council consists
affected the mussel and oyster farms of representatives from government
in the area. Legitimate fish cage and agencies, private sector and the civil
mussel culture operators were affected society (Figure 2 and 3). The two levels
due to competition for space with these of Council serve as policy making
illegal structures. bodies of the program at the provincial
and municipal levels, respectively. The
The total population of the province Project Management Office (PMO),
was estimated to be almost 2.9 million which coordinates the day-to-day
in the recent 2008 census, representing activities of the ICM program was
an average growth rate of 4.59%. created and likewise institutionalized
There are about 17,400 fishers whose under the Provincial Environment and
livelihoods mainly depend on fishing in Natural Resources Office (PG-ENRO)
three major bays, namely: Manila Bay, on November 2004 through Executive
Bacoor Bay and Cañacao Bay. Cavite Order No. 48. The Governor, who serves
is also known for the production of as Chair of PICMC, mandated the
mussels, oysters, milkfish, prawns and nine coastal Mayors to designate one
tilapia. Mussel and oyster culture methods in Cavite. permanent coordinator either from the
Municipal Planning and Development
Provincial Government Cavite embraced the integrated
Office, Municipal Environmental and
Taking the Lead management approach when it became
Natural Resources Office, or Municipal
Agriculture Office. The coordinators
an integrated coastal management
In 2001, the Provincial Government automatically served as Vice-Chairs of
(ICM) parallel site in March 2004, when
took concrete steps to address the the Municipal/City Council.
it signed a Memorandum of Agreement
environmental issues and threats
with PEMSEA and the Philippines
in the coastal areas of Cavite. While The ICM program is financed by the
Department of Natural Resources and
the national government defines the provincial and municipal governments.
Environment (DENR).
policy framework for development Replicating the Province of Bataan’s
and proper management of Manila experience, which serves as a shining
Establishing mechanisms to sustain
Bay, the provincial government of example on how the private sector
the ICM program
Cavite took the lead role in establishing support can be tapped, Cavite also
and operating a province-wide managed to entice the participation
The ICM Program was institutionalized
management system to address the of a number of private sector
from provincial to barangay or
multiple and conflicting uses of the enterprises, which recently evolved into
community levels through the creation
coastal waters and to ensure that a council, the Cavite Corporate Social
of the Provincial ICM Council (PICMC)
the livelihoods of the people were Responsibility Council (CCSRC). Among
and Municipal/City ICM Councils in 9
sustained. the activities supported by the private

Figure 2. Cavite Provincial ICM Council.

CHAIR PRIVATE SECTOR


PEMSEA Governor FOUNDATION (CCSRC)

MAYOR’S LEAGUE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE PROJECT MANAGEMENT


ICM Council OFFICE (Secretariat)

Committee on Committee on Committee on Committee Operations, Committee on


Public Information Training Research Ways and Means Monitoring and Legal
and Development Evaluation

Media and Communication Resource Administration Livelihood


Networking and Advocacy Mobilization and Finance Program
Tropical Coasts 19

Figure 3. Cavite Municipal/City ICM Council.

Chair
(Mayor)

Vice-Chair
(ICM Coordinator)

Project Manager

Committee on Committee on Training Committee Operations, Committee on Committee on


Public Information Research and Development Monitoring and Evaluation Ways and Means Legal

Media and Communication Resource Administration Livelihood


Networking and Advocacy Mobilization and Finance Program

CLUSTER A CLUSTER B CLUSTER C


(Barangay level) (Barangay level) (Barangay level)

sector included providing assistance conducted for various groups such Contributing to bay-wide
for alternative livelihood projects as barangay (community) leaders, management of Manila Bay
for coastal communities, especially religious groups, nongovernmental
the fisher folks, adopting a highway organizations, local government units, Being part of Manila Bay, where a
program, participating in conservation the academe, fisherfolks, the youth bay-wide environmental management
programs, and participating in regular sector and the private sector to explain program is in place, Cavite participated
coastal clean-ups and other relevant the ICM program, discuss issues and in the development of the Manila Bay
projects coordinated by the Province. solicit their respective views and Coastal Strategy. The Manila Bay Coastal
commitments to attaining sustainable Strategy was developed through
Staff from the local governments, development of the coastal areas of consultations with various stakeholders
private sector, academe, non- Cavite. For the creation of the councils from the three regions surrounding the
government organizations and people’s at the various municipalities, extensive bay, the National Capital Region and
organizations of the 9 coastal towns stakeholders’ consultations were Regions 3 and 4, which included Cavite.
of Cavite have attended trainings on undertaken to ensure transparency The strategy provided a comprehensive
ICM and specialized training courses and awareness of the ICM program. environmental framework, targeted
including resource valuation, integrated This process has resulted in high public outcomes and a series of action
information management system, acceptability and participation in ICM programs involving the participation
advocacy and communication. The implementation. of relevant stakeholders of Manila Bay
Province is also a member of the
PEMSEA Network of Local Governments
for Sustainable Coastal Development,
which serves as a platform for the local
governments to share knowledge and
good practices in ICM implementation.

Recognizing the importance of broad-


based stakeholders support

ICM requires the involvement and


mobilization of stakeholders to
develop their sense of ownership of the
program. Stakeholders who derived
benefits from the coastal resources
were encouraged to participate in the
program through various means. A
series of consultation seminars were Aerial photo of illegal fish pens and fish cages along coastal water of Cavite
20 December 2008

Cavite, with several factors, including the number


the Philippine of operators, extent of the area and the
Fisheries situation and quality of the water (see
Commission, Table 1).
now Bureau
of Fisheries Likewise, with regards to milkfish, prawn
and Aquatic and tilapia production, there is evidence
Resources increased production from 2006 to
(BFAR). Earlier, 2007 of about 872 percent for tilapia,
mussels 18 percent for prawn and 26 percent
had been for milkfish. The drastic increase in the
considered production of the species was mainly
Fish pens and fish cages in Bacoor Bay by oyster because of the increasing number of
growers as a illegal fish pens and fish cages in the
including local governments. With
fouling organism and were neglected coastal area as shown in Tables 2 and 3.
the passing of a landmark decision by
most by shellfishers. The movement and
the Supreme Court of the Philippines
spreading of mussel culture in Manila Dismantling of illegal fish pens and
in December 2008, requiring 12
Bay came when oyster growers, who fish cages
government agencies and LGUs
attempted to collect oyster spats in
surrounding Manila Bay to clean and
less silty offshore waters, accidentally One of the threats to sustainable
rehabilitate the bay, the Cavite ICM
obtained heavy and pure mussel aquaculture identified by the
Program is playing a key role towards
seedlings. Mussel culture gained further ICM Division of PG-ENRO was the
facilitating the implementation of the
recognition due to the fact that it does mushrooming of illegal fish pens and
Operational Plan for the Manila Bay
not require sophisticated techniques other structures along the coastal
Coastal Strategy at the provincial and
or methods compared to other waters which are owned by local
municipal levels.
aquaculture technologies. Caviteños and commercial trespassers.
Based on the survey conducted, there
Achieving a Sustainable In 2007, the province registered the were 98 units of baklad (fish corral)
Fishery Industry highest annual oyster production of mostly situated in Cavite City, 44 total
1,578 mT and mussel production of fish pens and fish cages with the biggest
Fisheries is one of the major
4,580 mT proving its viability as a source fish pen area of about 130,000 m2, and
components of the agriculture sector in
of livelihood and its marketability 679 saprahan (stationary lift net) in
Cavite. It is also one of the main sources
within and outside the province. In a Bacoor Bay.
of livelihood and food production. In
survey conducted by the Office of the
Rosario, Tanza, Noveleta and Cavite
Provincial Agriculturalist from 2005 Under the stewardship of Governor
City, fish drying, smoking, fermentation
to 2007, oyster production for three Ayong S. Maliksi, in partnership with
and salting of various fish species
consecutive years increased, while the DENR, the first phase of dismantling
known locally as tinapa, tuyo, daing and
mussel industry production fluctuated. was enforced in July 2008 in Bacoor Bay,
binanlian are recognized alternative
The production level was affected by comprising of three municipalities and
livelihoods of fisher families, as is
production of patis (fish sauce) and
bagoong (fish paste). Among the fish
products produced in the province, the
tinapa is gaining markets both locally
and internationally.

Mussel industry in Cavite

Mussel culturing is widespread in the


province. It is reported that the mussel
industry in the Philippines began in
1962 at the Binakayan Demonstration
Oyster Farm, in Binakayan, Kawit, Governor Maliksi (3rd from left) and DENR Secretary Jose Atienza (2nd from left) during the actual dismantling of fish pens and fish
cages.
Coaast
stss
Tropical Coasts 21

one city (Noveleta, Kawit, Bacoor and Table 1. Production of Oysters and Mussels based on the number of operators and area.
Cavite City). To support this initiative,
the Provincial Government issued No. of Operators Area (ha) Production (mT)
Executive Order 69 that prohibits the Year
Oyster Mussel Oyster Mussel Oyster Mussel
proliferation of the illegal structures.
EO 69 also required the adoption of a 2005 395 306 15.18 120 674.50 3,630.08

holistic and integrated management 2006 395 191 15.28 145.87 708.76 4,707.84
approach for managing the coastal 2007 426 117 31.93 155.52 1,578.48 4,580.40
areas of Cavite and more importantly
the development of the Coastal Use Table 2. Annual Production of Milkfish, Tilapia and Prawn in 2006.
Zoning Plan for Cavite. This action is
expected to address the multiple use No. of Operators Area (ha) Annual Production (mT)
conflicts and result to better water Municipality
quality in the area. Brackish Freshwater Brackish Freshwater Milkfish Tilapia Prawn
Bacoor 28 40 14.1 11.1
Table 4 summarizes the dismantled Cavite City 0.09
structures in Cañacao Bay and Bacoor Kawit 107 257 105 69.2
Bay. It is expected that the potential Noveleta 21 1 71.50 1 2.5 13
long-term socioeconomic benefits of Tanza 50 11.55 21.27
the activity conducted will ultimately Imus 7 0.21 0.19
translate to fisheries productivity Maragondon 2 30 2 1.2 0.94
capable of providing sufficient marine
Naic 17 47 3.6 4.16 11.18
harvest for Caviteño families, increased
Ternate 45 8 47 1 9.8
tourism revenues, sustained coastal
resources, and reduced water pollution.
Table 3. Annual Production of Milkfish, Tilapia and Prawn in 2007.

Maliksing Isda, Masaganang


No. of Operators Area (ha) Annual Production (mT)
Pangisdaan (Agile Fish, Healthy
Municipality
Fishery) Brackish Freshwater Brackish Freshwater Milkfish Tilapia Prawn
Bacoor 67 93.75 56.75 56.25 18.75
Geared towards sustainable production Cavite City 4 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.03
in support of the Department of
Kawit 107 257 105 60
Agriculture’s Productivity Enhancement
Noveleta 21 1 71.50 257.40 42.90
Program, the Provincial Government
Tanza 64 10.80 23.76
through its implementing arm, the Local
Imus 7 0.21 0.25
Development and Livelihood Office and
the Office of the Provincial Agriculturalist Maragondon 2 30 2 1.2 0.92 0.87

is vigorously pursuing a pro-poor program Naic 17 47 3.6 4.16 6.20 11.40


called Maliksing Isda, Masaganang Ternate 45 8 72 1 23.50 0.95
22 December 2008

2. Fish/Fingerlings Dispersal. This is


an ongoing activity of the province
since 2008 that involves the
purchase of 300,000 fingerlings
for distribution to fish farmers and
other groups.

3. Promotion of Get Excel Tilapia.


Tilapia fingerlings will be purchased
for distribution to interested fish
farmers and other groups. A total of
18 fishpond operators are expected
to benefit from this project.

4. Establishment of Fish Hatcheries.


This is a proposed project where
propagation of fingerlings will be
Aerial view of coastal water after the dismantling of illegal fish cages. undertaken in the upland areas
of Cavite. Six hatcheries are being
Table 4. Summary of dismantled structures in Cañacao and Bacoor Bay
planned to serve as sources of
Illegal Illegal Fish Pens/ Fish Corral Stationary Guardhouse/ fingerlings that can be purchased
Structures Cages (Baklad) Lift Net Shanties
(Sapra) at very reasonable costs. The
income that will be generated will
No. of Units 85 98 46 --
be used for production inputs and
No. of Dismantled units 81 93 42 25
maintenance of the hatcheries.
Remaining units 4 5 4 --

5. Establishment of Marine-based
Pangisdaan (Agile Fish, Healthy Fishery). Major activities have been implemented Enterprises. This includes fish
The program, which is being spearheaded that are expected to benefit the low- processing, seaweed farming,
by the Governor focuses on ehancing income, less privileged fisherfolks and purchase of gillnets and boats, and
fish production through utilization of fish farmers. The following are some of backyard fish farming. It is expected
fish hatchery technologies and providing the major projects: that 20 agri-enterprises will be
aquaculture technical extension services. established, contributing to the job
Furthermore, the program is in support 1. Establishment of Tropical Fish Ponds. generation efforts of the provincial
of the President of the Philippines’ Six fishponds were established in government.
Ginintuang Masaganang Ani (Golden 2007-2008 to propagate tropical
Harvest) Program and the Department fishes that are known for their Establishment and maintenance of fish
of Agriculture’s thrust of developing rural ornamental value. sanctuaries
areas through aquaculture.
Cavite is also promoting the
Box 1. Objectives towards achieving sustainable fishery industry. establishment of marine protected areas
as another approach towards achieving
Six major objectives towards achieving sustainable fishery industry: (1) Conserve, sustainable fisheries in the province.
protect and rehabilitate the earth’s finite resources for sustainable environment; (2) There are three existing fish sanctuaries
Integrate, coordinate and strengthen the work of environmental group by catalyzing in Cavite, namely, the 56-hectare Carabao
the active sharing of information, knowledge, expertise and other resources; (3) Island Fish Sanctuary in Maragondon,
Promote ecological consciousness and action on issues relevant to the protection of the 15-hectare Bulaklakin Reef Marine
people’s health and environment; (4) Promote corporate social responsibility through Sanctuary in Ternate, and the 5-hectare
the implementation of environmental programs and activities; (5) Build partnership Fish Sanctuary in Tanza. The sanctuaries
and promote sense of ownership; and (6) Strengthen the mass based multi-stakeholder are expected to promote the conservation
participation, the dismantling of illegal structures along the coastal waters was of the marine resources in the area. The
successfully enforced and now on its stage of harmonizing the mussel and oyster respective local governments have
farmers to form a cooperative. passed the necessary ordinances that
Tropical Coasts 23

Box 2. Coastal use zoning in Cavite Province. human activities and uses; 6. protect
human welfare; and 7. improve overall
A step-by-step process in developing the coastal use zoning plan include: the analysis management of the coastal areas and the
of existing institutional framework on spatial planning and zoning scheme to identify environment.
gaps and overlaps; analysis of existing uses, plans and activities in the area; evaluation
of land and water attribute and use suitability; development of matrices of multiple The Way Forward
use conflicts and suggested utilization; collection and completion of project data and
maps, determining the classifications of coastal use zones; development of coastal ICM has provided Cavite with the
use regulatory, determining the appropriate institutional framework or arrangement; management framework and systematic
packaging draft coastal use plan and corresponding institutional framework; finalization process to address the challenges to
of the plan; and stakeholder consultation. sustainable development of the coastal
areas in the province. It also serves as a
The primary use zones identified are: aquaculture, mudflat protection, buildup, mechanism for the province to contribute
municipal fishing, tourism (beach, heritage site, historical and cultural), eco-tourism to the implementation of the Operational
(mangrove and migratory birds), reclamation/commercial, pollution prevention and Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy.
control/regulatory, habitat enhancement and management, port development, The ICM program will continue to
industrial, shipping and navigational, military reserve, protected area (coral reef and promote a broad-based multi-stakeholder
sanctuary), fish port, fish pond, boat landing, agricultural, urban and special zone. involvement and cooperation as the
province gains more experience and
capacity as well as financial resources
serve as legal basis for the protection of policies and ordinances on anti-illegal to address these challenges including
and management of the protected areas. fishing and encroachment of illegal establishing a sustainable fishery industry
Direct assistance is also provided by the structures, in support of enhanced for its people.
LGUs through technical and financial fisheries and aquaculture production. The
support. development of the zoning plan also aims
to facilitate the delineation of municipal References:
Addressing Multiple Use waters and provide designated use zones,
FAO Corporate Document Repository .
Conflicts including a 10 percent allocation for “Mussel Culture,” by Aypa, Simeona
aquaculture area along Cañacao Bay and M. Available at www.fao.org/docrep/
Cavite has also embarked on developing a Bacoor Bay. field/003/AB737E/AB737E04.html
coastal use zoning plan as a key measure
to address multiple use conflicts and More specifically, the development of MBEMP. 2005. Operational Plan for the
Manila Bay Coastal Strategy. Manila Bay
regulate the activities in its coastal areas. the coastal use zoning plan aims to: Environmental Management Project.
This initiative is spearheaded by the 1. delineate/validate suitable areas for
Provincial Government and part of the particular human use, while minimizing Office of the Provincial Agriculturist (OPA) -
bay-wide project of the DENR to develop the impacts to ecosystems and public Cavite. Various reports and survey from
a coastal use zoning plan for Manila Bay. health; 3. protect critical or representative 2005 to 2007.
The coastal use zoning plan is expected to habitats ecosystems and ecological PEMSEA and MBEMP-MBIN. 2007. Manila
encourage forging of partnerships among processes; 4. protect natural and cultural Bay Area Environmental Atlas. PEMSEA
stakeholders and promote enforcement sites; 5. resolve/minimize conflicting Technical report 20, 182 p.

Tinapa making is a small-scale industry in Cavite.


24 December 2008

By Vitaya Khunplome, Chief Executive of the Provincial Administrative Organization of Chonburi (Thailand)
and ICM Project Director
Nisakorn Wiwekwin, ICM Secretariat, Sriracha Municipality, Chonburi Province, Thailand

Utilizing ICM
to address food
security and improve
livelihood
of communities
in Chonburi

Members of the Garbage Banks earn reward points that can be exchanged for cash or goods.

Chonburi is a coastal province However, as a


situated in eastern Thailand. Its consequence
long coastline of 160 kilometers is of Chonburi’s
well-known for its tourism activities simultaneous marine environment and coastal
both locally and internationally. It roles, the natural resources and resources. Even with decades of
also serves as a gateway for import environment of the province are advocacy, political commitments
and export, an industrial center and under increasing pressure and and conservation efforts at the
a new energy hub for the country threats. national and regional levels,
as a result of the Eastern Seaboard reversing the decline of coastal and
Project of Thailand. The project is Growing populations and their marine environmental quality is
aimed to develop the region as the migration to coastal areas, dynamic still an urgent task that requires a
new economic zone, based on major economic growth, and rising global new approach, a new management
manufacturing industries, seafood demands for fishery and aquaculture paradigm. That paradigm is a
resource and agricultural business products, and rapidly increasing strategic partnership of governments,
in order to distribute economic and shipping traffic collectively exert international organizations, donors
industrial growth at the local levels. tremendous pressure on the and stakeholders working together
Tropical Coasts 25

various municipalities, serve as the


operational arm of the ICM project.
An ICM Project Director is elected
within the Local Government
Consultative Board every two years.
Supported by local administrative
orders, this functional multi-sectoral
coordinating arrangement has
been able to mobilize necessary
support from relevant agencies and
institutions, and is recognized to
have improved the decision-making
process of the local governments in
Chonburi.

Aerial view of Sriracha City. The Chonburi Coastal Strategy serves


as an integrated plan for activities
to achieve a shared vision of a process of sharing good practices in contributing towards sustainable
sustainable resource system at the ICM implementation to adjoining and development of the province. Guided
regional, national and local levels. other coastal provinces in Thailand by a common vision crafted by
through the Coastal Resources stakeholders themselves, it provides
The Chonburi ICM Network Management Alliance of Thailand a platform for addressing common
(CORMAT), which was co-founded by concerns, including natural- and
Under the concept, “sustainable the province together with other ICM- man-made hazard prevention and
development of Chonburi”, which related projects, agencies and sectors. management; pollution reduction
puts emphasis on the improvement and waste management; habitat
of the quality of life together with The local governments forming protection, restoration and
the conservation of natural resources the Chonburi ICM Network make it management; water use and supply
and protection of the environment, their responsibility to enhance the management, and food security
the Chonburi Integrated Coastal quality of life of the public. They
Management (ICM) Project, a are also responsible for natural
partnership between the Provincial resources and environment
Government of Chonburi and the management, including
Regional Programme on Partnerships preservation of valuable local
in Environmental Management for traditions in collaboration with
the Seas of East Asia or PEMSEA, various sectors, particularly the
(under the Global Environment general public. A high level multi-
Facility, United Nations Development sectoral Provincial Coordinating
Programme and the International Committee (PCC), headed by
Maritime Organization) commenced the Vice Governor, provides
in 2001. There were initially five guidance to ICM implementation
participating municipalities, which and facilitates interagency and
were joined later on by other cross-sectoral collaboration,
municipalities as the benefits of ICM with a Technical Working Group
implementation were demonstrated. (TWG) as its scientific arm. A
By late 2008, a total of 26 local Project Management Office
government units were part of the (PMO) consisting of a Local
Chonburi ICM Network, covering the Government Consultative
entire 160-km coastline of Chonburi. Board made up of local
It is expected that the ICM network government mayors and chief
would eventually cover the entire executives, an ICM Secretariat
province and other coastal areas in at Sriracha Municipality, and Schools and communities are active in mangrove
Thailand. Chonburi has initiated the several committees led by rehabilitation activities in the province.
26 December 2008

Municipality and the Underwater addition to being severely exploited,


World of Pattaya for sea turtle the stock has suffered from habitat
protection and conservation. degradation and non-selectivity of
fishing gears, which tend to remove
By working with the communities, most of the size classes from the
the Chonburi ICM Network provides population. Ten percent of the
technical support, facilitates hooked crabs are spawning, with
coordination with various concerned 700,000-1.4 million fertilized eggs
government offices and other each.
stakeholders, and makes available
some initial or catalytic budget Chonburi province plays a key role
so that communities are able to in tourism, and among its attractions
initiate and carry on various coastal are its fresh seafood, including blue
management activities, applying swimming crabs and various seafood
scientific methods together with local products. Som-Tam, a papaya salad
knowledge, as appropriate. Activities prepared using young crabs is a
are geared to address specific popular delicacy. The crabs are also
aspects or concerns, including supplied to local and international
food security through local fishery markets.
development, as well as provide
Resting cage of Crab Condo.
stakeholders information leading to Significant decrease in crab
and livelihood management. The improved knowledge, behavior and population will affect the supply of
action plan for the Chonburi Coastal sense of responsibility concerning crabs to local and foreign markets,
Strategy identifies marine and coastal environmental and resource and increase the price considerably.
management programs and activities management. Currently, one kilogram of crabs
that the local government members at the local fresh market costs
can jointly as well as individually Within the framework of the approximately 200-300 Baht
address, and provides a basis for the ICM project and the Chonburi depending on size. Continuing
development of annual municipal Coastal Strategy, various activities decline in crab population would also
development plans and allocation contributing to local fishery and significantly affect local livelihood
of local budgets. It also identifies livelihood development, which and lead to losses in income of
the roles and responsibilities of apply multi-sectoral engagement, fishers.
various stakeholders, including the innovative approaches, and technical
communities, in the implementation support, have been undertaken in the Concerned stakeholders are taking
of the planned activities. Local Chonburi ICM Site, including the action to ensure sustainable
governments are also working closely following: utilization of Chonburi’s fishery
with universities in the area (Burapha t $SBC$POEPNJOJVNTGPSDSBC resources by applying innovative
University, Fisheries Research Station conservation; technology together with local
of Kasetsart University and the t 'MPBUJOHNVTTFMGBSNT knowledge. This project aims to
Aquatic Resources Research Institute t 7BSJPVTIBCJUBUSFIBCJMJUBUJPO promote sustainable fishery, in
of Chulalongkorn University) to activities; and particular by protecting spawning
address various technical information t 1SPNPUJPOPGTVTUBJOBCMFUPVSJTN crabs from exploitation. Specifically,
needs to enhance decision-making development spawning females caught from fishing
(e.g., technical study on the impacts grounds are contained in submerged
of sea-based transfer of cassava flour “Crab Condominium” resting cages (crab condominium or
and other dusty commodities in for conservation of blue “crab condo”) until the offsprings are
Sriracha Bay; researches to address swimming crabs released, after which they will either
sea turtle diseases in the conservation be sold to consumers or released to
ponds; seagrass transplantation; The blue swimming crab (Portunus the wild.
etc.). Partnerships have also been pelagicus) is a commercially important
established with the private sector species in Thailand. However, the Crab condos were successfully
to support ICM activities, such as yield from this species has drastically established by the Rimtalae and
the agreement between Sriracha decreased due to over harvesting. In Srirachanakorn communities in
Tropical Coasts 27

Sriracha Municipality in 2006 as community committees, to cage undertaken to evaluate the impact
part of the initial implementation and feed the spawning crabs, and of the project on the blue swimming
of the Chonburi Coastal Strategy, to return them to the owners or crab population. There are no
with some support from the Office market after the crabs release scientific surveys in the project
of the Prime Minister, through the their larvae. The teams are also area that can serve as baseline for
SML Project (a village/community tasked to educate and provide assessment. However, fishers in the
development fund), the Wastewater advice to others supported by two municipalities have observed
Management Authority, the Duang technical experts, and a municipal an increase in crab catch in 2007
Manee private school, and PEMSEA. officer; compared to 2006 (the crab condo
Building on this initiative, a two-year t &WBMVBUJPOPGQSPKFDUSFTVMUT in Sriracha was established in April
project to set up new crab condos in terms of increase in blue 2006). In Bangphra for example,
to be operated by the Wat Luang swimming crab population, in one of the big fishery ports in
community in Bangphra Municipality, through yield stock assessment or Chonburi Province that supplies the
and to support the maintenance of abundance in Sriracha Bay; crab market, crab catch was around
the existing crab condos in Sriracha t 3FHVMBSFOWJSPONFOUBM 40 kg/boat/day in April 2006. Catch
Municipality, was initiated in 2007, monitoring by a relevant research in April 2007 was around 100 kg/
with funding support from the GEF/ institute in collaboration with boat/day (the same as the catch in
UNDP Small Grants Programme (SGP), the communities and local the “peak” month of November 2006).
and with guidance from PEMSEA. government. Considering the high cost of scientific
This project is currently being study/assessment, evaluation of the
implemented through collaboration The Chonburi Fishery Association, crab condos are being done through
among communities, government, local academe and ICM project questionnaire surveys of changes in
private sector and academe. technical advisers support the crab crab catch in the project area.
condos in terms of technology and/ Additional outcomes of the project
Procedures for this innovative project or knowledge sharing. Information include:
include: dissemination and capacity building
t 5IFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGGTIPSFPG for project members are being t 1SPNPUJPOPGBXBSFOFTTBOE
suitable floating containers with undertaken through training, study recognition of responsible fishing;
submerged resting cages; tours to existing crab condos, and t &DPUPVSJTNBU,PI-PZ1VCMJD
t 5IFDPMMFDUJPOPGTQBXOJOHDSBCT exchange forums. In collaboration Park by including crab-release
from fishers by donation and/or with the Sriracha Fisheries Research activities among its attractions;
purchase; Station of Kasetsart University, sea t &GGFDUJWFUSBOTGFSPGLOPXMFEHF
t 1VUUJOHFBDITQBXOJOHDSBC water quality monitoring is being to communities and youths
into separate baskets which undertaken to assess and to evaluate by experiential learning and
are vertically stacked like a potential impacts on water quality. information dissemination; and
condominium; t (PPEQSBDUJDFPGHFOFSPTJUZ 
t "TTJHOJOHSFTQPOTJCMFUFBNT Assessment of sea crab yield goodwill and cooperation among
consisting of fishers, or stock/abundance are also being the community teams.

Crab condos have also been


established in Chanthaburi Province,
one of the members of CORMAT.

Floating mussel farm

In the past, green mussel was


cultured in Sriracha Bay primarily
through the use of bamboo poles that
were driven into the muddy bottom.
This method, however, had many
problems, such as inability to culture
in hard or rocky surface, bamboos
The crab condo project helps conserve the blue swimming crab, a commercially important species in Thailand. being damaged by waves and winds
28 December 2008

cannot use the pole culture t %FWFMPQNFOUPGBOBMUFSOBUJWF


method. Moreover, the habitat for other marine species in
materials used, which the area of the rafts.
include polypropylene or t *ODSFBTFJOUIFOVNCFSPGGJTI
polyethylene for its main in the areas close to the floating
parts are durable and last mussel farms.
for several years. The plastic t &BTFPGNPWJOHUIFNVTTFMGBSN
containers and mussel lines, for protection in the event of oil
as well as the old trawl nets spills.
used in making the ropes,
are mostly handed down Habitat protection and
from the fishing industry. restoration
These make mussel raft
culture more profitable and In the past two decades of rapid
achievable than its mussel transformation of Chonburi Province
pole culture counterparts. from an agriculture-based to an
industrial economy, capture fisheries
The green mussel in in Chonburi showed significant decline
the floating rafts can be as a result of overexploitation and
harvested using boats, and habitat degradation. The mangrove
the set up makes it easier cover in the province also decreased
for fishers to collect the by more than 97 percent as a result of
appropriate sizes of mussels reclamation and conversion to other
for selling. After eight months uses, with potentially staggering
of operation, marketable size impact on fisheries. Increased waste
was an average shell length generation has also become a priority
of 6.55 cm, shell width of 3.18 concern, affecting water quality and
cm, total weight of 20.57 g, contributing to degradation of coastal
Fishers select the appropriate size of mussels to harvest from the floating and shell weight of 7.06 g. habitats.
mussel farm.
The density of green mussel
leading to decrease in production, was 240 pieces per meter of On-the-ground solutions related to
and unsightly fragments of bamboo rope. The average rate of increase in habitat conservation implemented
scattered on the beaches, etc. The shell length is 0.74 cm/month. The in partnership with various sectors
Sriracha Fisheries Research Station total production using the raft culture include local activities such as:
(SFRS) then promoted new culture method was 57,800 kg (Sriracha
methods such as green mussel raft Fisheries Research Station, Faculty of t .BOHSPWFSFGPSFTUBUJPO
culture, involving use of recycled and Fisheries, Kasetsart University, 2002), t 4FBHSBTTUSBOTQMBOUBUJPO
more durable materials, and allowing with raft culture being useful for t 6OEFSXBUFSBOECFBDIDMFBOVQ
easier harvesting. The floating raft about six to eight years. t "SUJöDJBMSFFGFTUBCMJTINFOU
consists of an assembly of 1 or 1.5 m t 4IPSFMJOFQSPUFDUJPO
long recycled ropes from damaged In Sriracha Bay area, there is a total t $PNNVOJUZCBTFEPJMTQJMMXBSOJOH
or old fishing nets, with rocks as of 235 rafts or 140 Rai (22.4 ha), with system
weights, which are tied to recycled at least a production of about 30,000
plastic containers that serve as the kg/0.16 ha. Crab cultivation, for instance, is being
float. The young mussels attach and sponsored by a private sector partner,
grow on the hanging ropes. The raft Additional outcomes of the floating the Vinythai Company, in collaboration
culture floats up and down with the mussel farms include: with various agencies and areas in the
tide, enabling the mussels to feed subdistrict of Samaresan, also within
even in the low tide period. t %FMJOFBUJPOPGPWFSLN2 at the Chonburi ICM site.
the northern part of Sriracha
The green mussel raft culture is Bay as an area specifically for Various efforts with regard to waste
suitable for areas with some wave mussel farming, which cannot be reduction and management are also
action and hard sea bottom which infringed by large fishing boats. contributing to habitat protection and
Tropical Coasts 29

restoration. A community-based solid already installed grease traps while and other traditional festivals, and
waste management project, which installation in hotel restaurants has ancient royal mansions and vacation
encourages students and communities been initiated. In the latest meeting homes of previous kings, high-
to collect and remit reusable and of the ICM Provincial Coordinating ranked royalties and elites, making
recyclable wastes to “Garbage Banks” Committee in February 2009, the use of tourism one of the main generators
located in schools and communities, grease traps was promoted to all local of employment and income in the
also contributes in minimizing governments in Chonburi. province.
degradation of habitats resulting
from nonbiodegradable wastes that The ICM PCC’s habitat protection and The sustainable and stable
eventually end up as marine litter. restoration successes to date give hope development of tourism is recognized
Members of the Garbage Banks earn that, through the cooperative efforts as being contingent upon the
reward points that are recorded in their of many public and private partners, efforts being taken to protect
bank books, which can be redeemed adequate coastal habitats for fish and Chonburi’s natural, cultural and
later in cash or in kind. wildlife will exist for future generations. historical attractions. The Chonburi
The key is to find solutions that ensure ICM Project has been promoting
Promotion, and legislation in Sriracha self-sustaining natural systems despite tourism development that satisfies
and other municipalities, of the use conflicting demands on the natural social, economic and aesthetic
of grease traps in restaurants in order resources. needs while respecting cultural
to reduce oil in wastewater, is also and ecological integrity. In addition
contributing to stress reduction in Sustainable tourism to coastal protection, restoration
the marine environment from oily development and beautification efforts, marine
wastes. With the active support of the conservation activities have been used
Restaurants Association of Chonburi, Owing to its strategic location along to draw local and foreign visitors to
200 restaurants in Sriracha have the Gulf of Thailand, its proximity to Chonburi. In Sriracha Municipality,
Bangkok, for example, a sea turtle conservation
its various pond at the Koh Loy (Loy Island) park in
natural, Sriracha holds numerous and varying
cultural and sizes of sea turtles, which visitors can
historical view and feed. At least one hundred
values, and of these sea turtles are released
the availability annually to the sea with stakeholder
of supporting participation.
facilities and
convenient Visitors at Koh Loy are also
transport encouraged to contribute to
services, marine conservation by buying
tourism has and releasing fishes and crabs. In
been one addition to serving as venues for
of the main marine conservation education for
economic young and adult visitors alike, these
activities in activities also generate income for
Chonburi. In local folks who provide the turtle
addition to feeds, crabs and fishes, and for local
the appealing entrepreneurs who operate food
seaside, white stalls and sell various ornaments
sand beaches and souvenir items.
and coastal
resources, To further promote eco-tourism
other tourist and at the same time develop a
attractions sense of responsibility among the
of Chonburi youth for marine conservation and
Top: Chonburi is involved in coral rehabilitation activities. include
Bottom: Underwater and beach cleanup activities in the province involve various sectors including the
youth. buffalo racing continue to page 58...
30 December 2008

By Rodrigo U. Fuentes, Executive Director, ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity

Biodiversity loss
T he For gotten Crisis

News about the global financial crisis is always in the front page of newspapers. Bomb attacks in Iraq and
Afghanistan are often television news breakers. World attention is focused on the humanitarian implications of
conflicts in the Middle East. Effects of climate change are favorite topics of video documentaries. Buried under
these global issues and other problems such as terrorism, high crimes, and corruption is a lesser known crisis
with far greater implications than anyone can imagine — biodiversity loss.

We are losing our biodiversity at unprecedented rates due to deforestation, large-scale mining, wildlife hunting,
illegal wildlife trading, and other irresponsible human activities. Biodiversity loss poses a significant threat to
our food security, health, livelihood, and the earth’s overall capacity to provide for our and future generations’
needs.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment published in 2005 reported that humans have increased extinction
levels dramatically over the past decades at 100 to 1,000 times the normal background rate.1 In Southeast Asia
alone, 1,312 out of 64,800 species are endangered.

1
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human
Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C.
Tropical Coasts 31

Ultimately, the loss of biodiversity is one of the greatest And with every species lost, the natural ecosystems we call
threats that we face. It is in the area of food security, home become biologically poorer.
perhaps more than any other, that biodiversity’s value is
most clear. Nature provides the plant and animal resources The consensus to save Southeast Asia’s thinning
for food production and agricultural productivity. When biodiversity moved the ASEAN, with funding support from
we destroy biodiversity, we destroy our source of food. the European Union (EU), to establish the ASEAN Regional
Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Project. From
The Food and Agriculture Organization reported that out 1999 to 2004, the project facilitated collaboration among
of more than 10,000 different plant species used for food
by humans over the millennia, barely 150 species remain
under cultivation. Of these, only 12 species provide 80
percent of the world’s food needs and only four – rice,
wheat, maize and potatoes – provide more than half of
human’s energy requirements.2 What happened to the
9,850 other species? If they have not been lost already,
they are vulnerable.

Health is another arena where the natural benefits of


biodiversity are most obvious. The natural world holds
the key to many medicinal resources and pharmaceutical
drugs. If the world continues to lose around 13 million
hectares of its forest cover every year 3, it would be
difficult to develop better kinds of medicine to cure both
existing and emerging illnesses. We have to remember
that about 80 percent of the world’s known biodiversity,
many of which have medicinal value, could be found in
forests.

Apart from providing people with food and medicine,


nature also offers a wide range of ecosystem services
such as contribution to climate stability, maintenance
of ecosystems, soil formation and protection, and
pollution breakdown and absorption. Biodiversity is also
a source of livelihood to millions as the economy of many
communities is driven by the use of species in industries
such as biotechnology, forestry, agriculture and fisheries.
Moreover, biodiversity provides social benefits including
recreation and tourism, as well as cultural and aesthetic
values.

Forgetting the biodiversity crisis is therefore akin to


cutting our lifeline to the world’s natural treasures. We at
ACB wish to remind everyone that extinction is forever.

2
Food and Agriculture Organization. Agricultural Biodiversity in
Over 500 million people in Southeast Asia could be affected by massive biodiversity loss.
FAO. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/i0112e/i0112e.
pdf.

3
Food and Agriculture Organization. Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/unfao/bodies/cofo/
cofo15/X9835e.pdf.
32 December 2008

Southeast Asia occupies 3 percent of the earth's total surface yet serves as home to 20 percent of all the world's known species.

ASEAN Member States for biodiversity-related initiatives. programme development and policy coordination, human
A year later in 2005, the ASEAN and EU agreed to establish and institutional capacity development, biodiversity
ACB to carry on the work of the completed ARCBC project. information management, public and leadership
ACB, an intergovernmental regional center of excellence awareness of biodiversity values, and sustainable
that facilitates coordination among the members of financing mechanism.
ASEAN and with relevant national governments, regional
and international organizations on the conservation and To leverage resources, ACB also forms alliances with key
sustainable use of biological diversity, is at the forefront of stakeholders in the regional and global levels, including
conserving biodiversity in Southeast Asia. the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the
Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA). Both ACB and PEMSEA have
It is the first regional initiative to save the ASEAN’s rich but a common objective of promoting the preservation
highly threatened biodiversity. of marine and coastal species and sustainable use of
biodiversity in Southeast Asia.
With its slogan “Conserving Biodiversity, Saving Humanity,”
ACB performs its mandate through five components: The two institutions have plans to collaborate in

The author addressing the scientific community in Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines and Director Mundita Lim of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau of the Department of
explaining the impact of biodiversity loss on food security. Environment and Natural Resources, and representatives of Embassies of European Union
and ASEAN countries, test ACB's newly designed website.
Tropical Coasts 33

establishing and maintaining information exchange


and public awareness efforts that would promote their
respective mandates and activities of PEMSEA and
ACB; participate in joint or complementary capacity
development initiatives and other events related to the
sustainable development and conservation of marine
and coastal biodiversity resources and areas; explore
opportunities to strengthen regional cooperation in
implementing an integrated approach to biodiversity
conservation; and support common advocacy efforts
within the bounds of PEMSEA’s and ACB’s mandates.

There is an urgent need to involve all sectors to save the


Experts gather in Bali, Indonesia for a workshop on Marine Gap Analysis organized by ACB to
strengthen ASEAN Member States efforts to conserve their marine protected areas.
region’s endangered biodiversity. The issue may not be
as hot as politics or the global financial crisis, but massive
biodiversity loss will have a huge impact on the lives of
hundreds of millions if left unsolved. Our biodiversity
faces a bright future if all sectors would work together to
conserve it.

For more information on the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, its advocacy, and
its programs, please contact (+6349) 5362865 and (+6349) 5361044, e-mail
contact.us@aseanbiodiversity.org, or visit www.aseanbiodiversity.org.

ACB Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes and the Governing Board.

Dr. Ahmed Djohglaf, Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, visits
ACB to discuss international cooperation in reducing biodiversity loss.
34 December 2008

Agreement on the Establishment of the


ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity

The Governments of Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of for Biodiversity to further strengthen regional cooperation on
Cambodia, the Republic of Indonesia, the Lao People’s biological diversity;
Democratic Republic, Malaysia, the Union of Myanmar, the
Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the DO HEREBY AGREE AS FOLLOWS:
Kingdom of Thailand and the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam;
Article 1
Being members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Establishment of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
(hereinafter referred to as “ASEAN”):
There shall be established an ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
AWARE of the immense importance of the rich diversity of (ACB), hereinafter referred to as the “Centre”. The Centre shall
biological resources in the ASEAN region and its contribution have its seat in the Republic of the Philippines.
to social development, economic growth, environmental
protection and ecosystem services, at the national, regional Article 2
and global levels; Purpose of the Centre

REITERATING their commitment to conserve and sustainably The purpose of the Centre shall be to facilitate cooperation
use these biological resources, in accordance with national and coordination among the members of ASEAN, and with
priorities, and regional and international imperatives; relevant national governments, regional and international
organizations, on the conservation and sustainable use of
RECOGNISING the valuable achievements of the ASEAN biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of
Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation Project (1999- benefits arising from the use of such biodiversity in the ASEAN
2004) in promoting biodiversity conservation and sustainable region.
use, especially in terms of networking, training, research and
database management; Article 3
Structure of the Centre
RECALLING the support of the ASEAN ministers responsible
for the environment for the continued sustainability of The Centre shall be composed of:
the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
as embodied in the Yangon Resolution on Sustainable (a) a Governing Board;
Development signed on 18 December 2003 in Yangon, (b) an Executive Director and such staff as shall be
Myanmar; necessary to perform the functions of the Centre; and
(c) such committees or subsidiary bodies as may be deemed
THANKING the Government of the Republic of the Philippines necessary by the Governing Board.
for hosting the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity
Conservation; Article 4
Governing Board
WELCOMING with appreciation the offer of the Government
of the Republic of the Philippines to host the ASEAN Centre 1. There shall be established a Governing Board, hereinafter
Tropical Coasts 35

referred to as the Board, assuming overall responsibility, (h) perform any other function as and when considered
and accountable for the operations [of ] the Centre. necessary to achieve the purpose under Article 2 of this
Agreement.
2. The Board shall comprise of the members of the
ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment or their Article 6
representatives and the Secretary General of ASEAN or his Executive Director
representative.
1. The Executive Director shall be responsible and
3. The Board may invite observers as it deems appropriate to accountable for the day-to-day operations of the Centre
attend the Board Meetings. and any other function that may be directed by the Board.

4. The Board shall be chaired by the Chairman of the ASEAN 2. The Executive Director shall be a citizen of an ASEAN
Senior Officials on the Environment. The Executive member country, and have a term of office of three (3)
Director shall act as Secretary to the Board. years, which may be extended at the discretion of the
Board. The Executive Director shall be selected by open
5. The Board shall meet at least once a year. Extra-ordinary recruitment. However, Member Countries that opt for
meetings may be called by the Chairman at the request of nomination will conduct their own selection process and
any member of the Board, provided that such request is nominate suitable candidate(s) for the consideration of
supported by at least one other member. the Governing Board.

6. The Board shall report to the ASEAN ministers responsible 3. The Executive Director shall be assisted by professional
for the environment. and supporting staff to carry out the assigned functions
and responsibilities as approved by the Board.
Article 5
Functions of the Board 4. The Board shall designate an officer to serve as the Acting
Executive Director if the office of the Executive Director
The functions of the Board shall be to: should become vacant, or if he/she is deemed by the
Board as unable to discharge his/her duties. The Acting
(a) provide policy guidance and directions, and undertake Executive Director shall have the capacity to exercise all
overall supervision of the operations of the Centre; the powers of the Executive Director pursuant to this
present Agreement.
(b) approve the organizational structure and staff
requirements for the Centre; 5. The Executive Director shall:

(c) approve the rules and procedures for the conduct of the (a) administer the Centre and its programmes with a view
meetings or proceedings of the Board, its committees or to ensuring that the Centre fulfils its purpose;
subsidiary bodies;
(b) prepare annual work programmes, plans, budgets,
(d) approve the rules, procedures and regulations for the financial statements or any other documents for the
operations of the Centre, including the staff and financial consideration of the Board;
rules;
(c) report on the implementation of the activities of the
(e) approve the business plan, including the annual work Centre to the Board;
programmes and budget of the Centre and monitor their
implementation; (d) appoint, subject to the confirmation of the Board,
manage and supervise key professional staff of the
(f ) appoint an Executive Director for the Centre and Centre;
determine the terms and conditions for the position, and
confirm the appointments of key professional staff; (e) appoint, manage and supervise supporting staff,
consultants and experts to the Centre;
(g) administer the funds entrusted to the Centre, and to
approve the rules and procedures for the management (f ) develop and implement strategies to ensure
of such funds; appropriate funding for programmes and institutional
36 December 2008

activities relevant to the purpose and functions of the Article 10


Centre; and Amendments

(g) perform such other duties as may be required by the Any member country may propose amendments to this
Board. Agreement. Such amendments, when approved by all
Member Countries, shall come into force on such date as
Article 7 may be agreed upon.
Host Government Obligations
Article 11
1. As a commitment to the Centre, the Government of the Review and Termination
Republic of the Philippines, hereinafter referred to as the
Host Government, shall provide at its own cost, adequate 1. This Agreement shall be reviewed at least every five
premises, operational facilities and such other facilities years by the Member Countries to this Agreement.
needed for the operations of the Centre.
2. This Agreement shall be terminated by agreement
2. The Host Government shall also grant to the Centre and of all the ASEAN member countries and shall be
its staff privileges and immunities as may be necessary for conducted in a manner as not to prejudice their
the performance of their duties and functions similar to respective interests in this matter. Upon termination of
those accorded to the ASEAN Secretariat and its staff and this Agreement, the Centre shall stand dissolved.
in accordance with the laws and regulations prevailing in
the country of the Host Government. 3. Upon the dissolution of the Centre, the disposal of the
assets and liabilities of the Centre shall be determined
Article 8 jointly by all ASEAN Member Countries.
Financial Arrangements
Article 12
1. There shall be established an ASEAN Biodiversity Fund, Settlement of Disputes
hereinafter referred to as the Fund.
Any dispute concerning the interpretation or
2. The Fund shall be utilised to meet the expenses necessary implementation of the Agreement shall be settled
to implement the activities required to fulfill the purpose amicably through consultation or negotiation.
of the Centre, as approved by the Board.
Article 13
3. The ASEAN member countries may make voluntary Status of Annexes to the Agreement
contributions to the Fund.
The Annexes attached to this Agreement shall constitute
4. The Fund shall be open to contributions from other an integral part of the Agreement.
governments and organizations, as approved by the
Board. Article 14
Final Provisions
Article 9
Juridical Personality 1. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification by the
ASEAN member countries and shall enter into force on
The Centre shall possess juridical personality and have the the deposit of the sixth instrument of ratification with
capacity to: the Secretary General of ASEAN.

(a) contract; 2. The Agreement shall be deposited with the Secretary


General of ASEAN who shall promptly furnish a
(b) acquire and dispose of movable and immovable certified copy thereof to each ASEAN member country.
property; and
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly
(c) institute legal proceedings. authorized by their respective Governments have signed
this Agreement.
Tropical Coasts 37

Done at the respective capitals of ASEAN member For the Government of the Union of Myanmar,
countries on the dates indicated.

For the Government of Brunei Darussalam,

H.E. U NYAN WIN


Chairman of the National Commission for Environmental
Affairs and
H.E. PEHIN DATO SERI SETIA DR. AWANG HAJI AHMAD BIN Minister for Foreign Affairs
HAJI JUMAT Date: 17.03.2005
Minister of Development
Date: 19.04.2005
For the Government of the Republic of the Philippines,

For the Government of th e Kingdom of Cambodia,

H.E. MR. MICHAEL T. DEFENSOR


H.E. DR. MOK MARETH Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources
Senior Minister, Minister for the Environment Date: 2005
Date: 28-04-2005

For the Government of the Republic of Singapore


For the Government of the Republic of Indonesia,

H.E. DR. YAACOB IBRAHIM


H.E. MR. RACHMAT WITOELAR Minister for the Environment and Water Resources
Minister for the Environment Date: 08.05.2005
Date: 31-08-2005

For the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand


For the Government of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,

H.E. MR. YONGYUT TIYAPAIRAT


Minister of Natural Resources and Environment
H.E. PROF. DR. BOUNTIEM PHISSAMAY Date: 12.08.2005
Minister to Prime Minister’s Office
Chairman of Science, Technology and Environment Agency
Date: 4.04.2005 For the Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam

For the Government of Malaysia,

H.E. MR. MAI AI TRUC


Minister of Natural Resources and Environment
Date: 27.08.2005

H.E. DATO SRI HAJI ADENAN BIN HAJI SATEM


Minister of Natural Resources and Environment
Date: 26.07.2005
38 December 2008

By Darren Raeburn, World Vision Australia


Katie Chalk, World Vision Asia-Pacific

Half the water, double the


fish; the sanctuary that
brought security
Some of these “fruits of the sea” are
2 destined for canneries or export, and
As a country of more than 7,000 islands, and 2.2 million km of
some for faraway city markets, but still
sea – including extensive coral reefs – it is hardly surprising that much of it never leaves its province
the Philippines relies on its coasts for livelihood, lifestyle and of origin. Fish and seafood have
traditionally been plentiful, are usually
sustenance. The Philippines ranks 11th on the list of fish and taken for granted and are central to
seafood producing countries, the vast majority plucked from Filipino diets, culture, livelihoods and the
people’s very identity.
tropical waters close to shore. More than 2.6 million tonnes of
fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants are harvested Exactly when the balance between
dependency and sustainability in
each year. marine food security was tipped in the
Philippines is arguable. But the effects
are not. A fast-growing population
together with ever-growing export
seafood contracts has meant pressure
on this nation’s natural food bank.
In the search for quick profit, illegal
quotas, dynamite or cyanide fishing,
“commercial” or large-scale fishing
(also often illegal), and haphazard
monitoring of activities or policing of
legal provisions have led to widespread
damage in fish breeding areas.

In addition, associated coastal


degradation caused by extraction of
rocks, sand and coral for construction,
pollution from rivers, coastal runoff and
shipping, and clearing of mangrove
forests, has reduced the quality of the
marine environment, further destroying
the fish and seafood numbers and
Photo by Wong Chi Keung
Tropical Coasts 39

The devastation caused by over-


dependency on the Philippines’ unique
“fish-basket” can be measured not just health and emergency grounds. There was no scientific formula
in terms of the environment, but also relief, rather than to measure success, just a common sense
in the deterioration of livelihoods once environmental or marine conclusion that the sanctuary would give
programmes. But for fish a place to hide, breed and recover,
supported in abundance by fishing.
World Vision to tackle then return to stock the licensed fishing
the core issues facing waters. Half the water, but double the fish.
in many cases, making what food the communities —
stocks remained harmful for human livelihood, food security and nutrition In the face of hunger and economic
consumption. — it was time to learn how to respond despair, an environmental protection
to the most pressing cause of these policy was likely to fall on deliberately
The devastation caused by over- communities’ poverty, their depleted deaf ears. The key to success was in
dependency on the Philippines’ unique ocean. leadership, shared jointly between the
“fish-basket” can be measured not just community and the government. Local
in terms of the environment, but also The Lamon Bay Plan covered an area community members were asked to
in the deterioration of livelihoods once greater than 200 km2 while the Tabogon become volunteer “fish wardens” who
supported in abundance by fishing. Plan covered an area less than 15 km2. would take responsibility for the safety
Both have shown measurable and of the breeding stock by patrolling the
In years not too distant, Filipino fishing remarkable progress, but for the sake waters 24 hours a day. Therefore, while
workers in areas, such as Cebu and of brevity, this article will detail the less the local government acted to prohibit
Lamon Bay off the east coast of Luzon complex of the two: the Tabogon Plan. all fishing, boating, tourism activities
traditionally would catch more than 50 and even swimming in the sanctuary,
kg per day. Twice this was common. But Sea runs dry in Tabogon the community actively policed these
by the mid 1990s, fisherfolk in the same prohibitions.
areas reported they were lucky to be In the past, the extensive coral reef and
able to catch a kilogram a day — not marine environments off Tabogon had This was no soft approach. The local
even enough to feed their own families, been noted as areas of high ecological government partnered with World
let alone sell the excess. Many fisherfolk diversity, with local communities assured Vision to provide motor boats to increase
could return to shore for many days in of food and livelihood from the bounty of the fish wardens’ response time and
succession without catching a single the sea. effectiveness. Fines for non-compliance
edible fish. were substantial; in addition, fisherfolk
However, by 2002, rampant illegal fishing found to be flouting the ordinances could
The pressure for struggling fishers to and destructive practices had drastically have their boats or any other fishing
feed their families and garner an income reduced the ability of fishing communities resources impounded and sold.
led to a surge in illegal fishing and ever to support themselves or feed their
increasing destructive activities, further families. Large-scale commercial fishing, Less controversial but equally as
exacerbating the situation and the although banned by law from nearshore important, the coastal resource
geographical spread of the damage. areas, had been common, further management plan also includes
depleting fish stocks and damaging
World Vision has been working to the environment. Monitoring of fishing
strengthen coastal communities in the activities by relevant authorities was
Philippines for over 50 years. In 2002, minimal, and most fisherfolk either did
they began integrated marine resource not know or ignored local environmental
programmes in two areas that had laws.
reported some of the largest drop in
fish catches: Lamon Bay in Luzon and For a community in such a crisis, a radical
Tabogon in Cebu. Both communities change was called for: the all-important
depended on their relationship with fish breeding grounds were to be
the sea for survival; without it there protected in a ‘marine sanctuary’, policed
would be no chance for community by the local community and legitimized
development. by the local authority. Around 50 percent
of traditional fishing territory was to be
Prior to these programmes, World declared off-limits and marked out by
Vision’s expertise had lain in education, research to identify the richest breeding
40 December 2008

mangrove rehabilitation, training of local was proposed. Initially, many in the It has taken four years but Maloloy
communities in fishing rights and laws, community were extremely skeptical. says he is finally a champion of the
coastal zone management and watershed Psychologically, the sea had always sanctuary, after members of the
management. belonged to them, in addition, the best sanctuary committee asked him to
breeding spots, of course, were also the become a fish warden himself. The
With the majority of locals dependent best fishing spots. Enforced protection sense of responsibility finally hit home.
on the fishing industry, the project also met with deep resentment by some in
provided opportunities for people to the community. “Now I understand the whole
move into other forms of livelihood, process of the CRM (coastal resource
including sustainable farming of oysters During the early years after the management) program,” he says. “I am
and seaweed, technical training such sanctuary was introduced, community a member of the marine sanctuary
as information technology (IT) training, fish wardens, despite the backing of management committee and I
construction, garment making and even local authorities, reported finding safeguard and sustain the programme.”
ecotourism. up to 80 fishing boats in the marine
sanctuary in a single night. Harsh According to Lota Montejo, the
While World Vision provided technical fines and confiscation of equipment chairwoman of Tabogon’s main
expertise to draw up the goals and were no match for the backlash from a sanctuary, there were many like Maloloy
community that felt their in the early years of the programme.
rights were threatened.
Sabotage for ideological “Some fishers intentionally fished in the
as well as economic sanctuary because of the abundance of
reasons was a real fish in comparison. Before it had not even
possibility. been a fishing ground, now suddenly it
was the main source of fishing activity.
One fisher, Romie Then suddenly there were 60 to 80 boats
Maloloy, can still clearly sighted there every day.”
state the reasons why he
was reluctant to join the The occupants of these boats made little
environmental battle. effort to disguise their identities and
were well known to the government
“Honestly, I was and community. Rather than continuing
involved in illegal to criminalize them, there began a slow
fishing activities… process of changing their minds, not
and I was against the just through penalties but also through
establishment of the persuasion and proof.
sanctuary. My reason was
directions, and support to community that I couldn’t make a living from the “The impact of our marine sanctuary
groups to implement their decisions, most area I was allowed to fish in. In those has changed a lot of perceptions in
of the labor came from the community, days fish were very difficult to catch the community,” says Montejo. “Many
and the government provided the because of overfishing and pollution.” started with negative impressions, but
equipment. As with many of World Vision’s now they are positive because of the
most successful community-driven “A year later, I still didn’t believe the increase in the legal fish catch. The most
projects, the economic investment was sanctuary worked – they showed us a recent assessment in November this year
minimal, the driving force coming from video but there was no sign of fish and [2008] shows us clearly that the marine
local committees and individuals who the coral had deteriorated.” resources have improved.”
believed in the benefits that these drastic
measures would one day bring. Maloloy continued his illegal activities
in the face of increasing penalties Tabogon’s benefits emerge
Community climbs aboard and community disapproval. “I was from the ocean
apprehended many times and paid
World Vision had already been working what I had to for my penalty. But I The ability to provide proof was integral
in Tabogon for many years when never felt guilty, and I earned more in to the success of the sanctuary plan.
the ‘ambitious’ plan for a sanctuary fishing than I paid in penalties!” It came early; within a couple of years,
Tropical Coasts 41

despite the halving of fishing waters, The impact of land-based livelihoods on found that self-reported fish catches
the yield had indeed doubled from its marine livelihoods, and the importance in Lamon Bay had already increased to
2002 low point. By 2006, the catch in of coastal zone management and around 10-15 kg/day (again up from
the same area had increased to 10 kg watershed management, has led to 0-1 kg in 2002). Anecdotal evidence
per fisher. an understanding that no community from fisherfolk in 2008 suggests
is isolated from the actions of others. that, like in Tabogon, fish catches
This was a turning point for the Additionally, the training in non- are approaching 25 kg/day and that
community. Since then, public support fishing industries has meant that the illegal fishing practices have decreased
for policing has increased substantially community is now not as dependent considerably.
in line with strong community on fishing for either food or income.
adherence to the principles of local Nowadays, oyster production, seaweed Taking the model forward
environmental management. production, welding, land agriculture
and other livelihoods are seeing a Lightheartedly, the chairman of
Lately, fisherfolk have been reporting significant increase in participation and Tabogon’s third marine sanctuary, Mr.
catches of 25 kg/day. With the success thus in community value. Dagino Montemor, recently listed his
of the original marine sanctuary, the main concern with the project “that
community and the local government A nascent tourism industry has been someday fishers’ boats will not be able
have entered into an agreement to another promising outcome
increase the number of sanctuaries for the people of Tabogon.
around Tabogon from one to three. The marine sanctuary has
allowed extensive coral reefs,
In addition, other neighboring now with abundant fish and
communities, previously unassociated other sea creatures, to thrive.
with World Vision, are seeking advice Previously there was no
on how to introduce similar coastal tourism activity connected
management plans. Not only will to this reef. Now, the fees
these initiatives increase protection charged to tourists to view
of the Philippines’ most vital resource, the marine sanctuary areas
but they will further relieve pressure are helping with the financial
on Tabogon waters where these sustainability of the CRM
communities have been fishing. activities.

The changed fortunes of the The Lamon Bay project


communities of Tabogon are spilling is even more extensive,
over into all aspects of World Vision’s including a stronger
development work there. Increased fish mangrove reforestation
catches and better availability of food component, a large land reforestation to pass through the sanctuary even
and other essentials to families have programme and significant training and with passage provided, due to the
restored a sense of optimism and pride, resource provision to relevant fishing enormous growth of corals…”
as well as badly-needed self-worth and authorities to enforce more national- His attitude is welcome, because so
confidence to many members of the based laws such as effective licensing much of the ongoing sustainability
community. (of fishing operations). Critically, of these achievements now lies in the
because the Lamon Bay area had hands of the community. Despite the
One partnership of particular note is experienced even more widespread success of these integrated CRMPs
between fishing communities and their destruction caused by dynamite and both in human and environmental
local government. Prior to the coastal cyanide fishing, the rehabilitation terms, certain challenges remain to be
management resource plan (CRMP), this plan included the laying of substantial addressed.
relationship was ad hoc. But now there artificial reefs to assist in the breeding
is a strong working relationship based cycle of many fish species in the area. Assessments reveal that neither
on respect and consultation towards the Lamon Bay nor the Tabogon
common goals. Both view each other The efforts have paid off. An communities view environmental
as proactive and responsive on issues independent European Union-funded protection as a priority outcome of the
concerning the area’s well-being. assessment of fishing yields in 2006 CRMP. For both communities, the desire
42 December 2008

for food security and the restoration of climate change), they are also very sustainability as a key factor in
livelihoods and lifestyles are the driving vulnerable to slight changes in ocean addressing poverty. One of the
factors behind the success of the temperatures, ocean acidity and water biggest challenges to child health and
activities. Commitment to the value height. protection occurs when contemporary
of the environment in its own right, populations lose their balance with the
although growing, remains weak in Assessment by marine experts on the environment, and take from it without
both communities. current environmental effects of this protection and restoration.
project has not yet occurred, while
Should fish numbers decline again, research to predict the impact of For World Vision, the success of coastal
which could feasibly happen through climate change is desperately needed. resource management in what for
disease, pollution drift or algal blooms, Even then, it may be impossible to us developmentally speaking are
such as red tide reported in other areas accurately link findings to specific local “unchartered waters” shows not just
of northern Cebu recently, support environments, or to convince local what is possible, but also what is
for the marine sanctuary could drop communities of any changes to plan. necessary — a blurring of the lines
significantly. of development to acknowledge
Anecdotally, though, the proof is there, sustainability as a key responsibility.
Even now, a challenge to the reflected not only in stronger food
sanctuaries lies in the increasingly security but also in the life of the sea.
lucrative nature of the fishing industry. More than 60 fish species together
As a result of overfishing globally, rising with the region’s dolphins, rays and The Tabogan Marine Sanctuary Plan was a
prices and falling stocks of seafood turtles are returning in numbers to joint initiative between:
mean that illegal fishing activities the waters off Tabogon — an unusual
have become even more profitable. and rewarding side effect for a project t Local Government Unit of Tabogon
Increased pools of cash for illegal designed to protect and nurture the t SOGOD Incorporated (community-
and commercial fishing may increase community’s children! based organization in partnership
opportunities for corruption where with World Vision)
communities and individuals are poor. World Vision plans to continue and t Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
expand its marine food security Resources - Province of Cebu
Groups involved in illegal and projects in the Philippines. Alongside t Japan International Cooperation
commercial fishing may have the this, the importance of the Philippine Agency
economic power to purchase advanced archipelago in marine resource t Environmental Legal Assistance
sonar equipment to better detect management needs greater research Center, Philippines
schools of fish and faster boats than and championing internationally, and t Department of Environment and
those used by the community fish messages of protection need to be Natural Resources, Philippines
wardens. To keep up, the wardens need spread nationwide.
to upgrade boats, use night vision Many communities, not only around
equipment, obtain sophisticated IT Cebu but also in the many islands of References
equipment, even build lighthouses the Philippines, still find themselves
and other anti-poaching infrastructure, in very similar situations to that of BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources). Various reports and
none of which the coastal communities Lamon Bay and Tabogon before a
articles from the BFAR website. Bureau
of the Philippines can afford. CRM approach was initiated. The of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,
destruction of world-class coral reefs Department of Agriculture, Philippines.
In terms of true sustainability, and other marine environments still http://www.bfar.da.gov.ph
one other significant challenge continue through illegal activities
FAO Statistics Division. 2006. FAO Statistical
merits acknowledgement: the as such as dynamite and cyanide fishing,
Yearbook. Available online at: http://
yet unanswered question of the as does overfishing by large illegal www.fao.org/ES/ess/index_en.asp;
effect of climate change on coral commercial vessels. http://www.fao.org/ES/ess/yearbook/
reefs and marine environments default.asp. Food and Agriculture
in the Philippines. Although coral Addressing this may not seem to be Organization, Rome.
reefs are acknowledged to be of within the realm of a child-focused
World Vision Development Foundation.
great benefit as a “carbon sink” (and development agency like World Annual Reports and Project Evaluations.
therefore protection of coral reefs is Vision. But Millennium Development World Vision Development Foundation.
of benefit to global efforts to combat Goal Seven calls for environmental http://www.worldvision.org.
Tropical Coasts 43

By G. Robin South
Coordinator, International Ocean Institute OceanLearn Programme
Division of Marine Studies
Faculty of Science, Technology & Environment
The University of the South Pacific
PO Box 1168, Suva
Fiji Islands

Fisheries Governance
and Training in the Pacific
Islands Region

Introduction comprises some 23 states covering like Fiji, Tonga and French Polynesia,
more than 30 million km2 of the Pacific are archipelagic states comprised
Great geographic, demographic and Ocean and includes all of the island of numerous large and small highly
developmental diversity exist within the nations or territories of the tropical dispersed islands. Others like Papua
Pacific Islands region. These differences Pacific Ocean, as well as all associated New Guinea consist of parts of very
extend to the climate, geological offshore and ocean areas that are large, high continental islands, plus
resources, topographical features, soil considered part of the “cultural areas” countless offshore large and small
types, mineral and water availability, of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. islands. The total land areas vary from
extent of coral reefs and diversity of Some “groups” or countries, like Easter 12 to 26 km2 for groups of low-lying
terrestrial, freshwater and marine flora Island, Guam, Kosrae, Nauru and Niue, coral-limestone islands like Tokelau
and fauna. The Pacific Islands region consist of one single small island. Some, and Tuvalu to over 400,000 km2 for the
44 December 2008

continental island areas like Papua New waters, this fishery currently catches regional Fisheries Treaty, assistance
Guinea. around one million tonnes/year whole in drawing up the Convention for the
weight of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus Prohibition of Fishing with Long Drift
The Pacific Islands region is the world’s pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus Nets in the South Pacific, and assistance
most important fishery. The tuna fishery albacares), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) to members in drawing up bilateral
alone is worth US$1.7 billion annually, and albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) agreements with distant water fishing
although the returns to the Pacific (Adams, 1996). nations (DWFNs). FFA maintains a
Islands through licensing agreements database on catches and receives,
are small compared with the value. One These migratory fish stocks do not collates and disseminates information
third of the world’s tuna is captured recognize territorial boundaries so on fishing activities in the region (South
in the region, which includes 40-60 they are governed and managed and Veitayaki, 1999).
percent of the supply to tuna canneries through a number of regional and
and 30 percent of Japan’s sashimi international bodies and agreements The SPC’s Oceanic Fisheries Programme
market (Fisheries Task Force, 2002). overseen by the Forum Fisheries Agency plays a critical role in the areas of
The institutional framework for the (FFA) based in Honiara, Solomon catch statistics, stock assessment and
governance of fisheries within the Islands, the Secretariat of the Pacific monitoring of migratory fish stocks,
Pacific Islands region concerns two very Community (SPC) based in Noumea and in research on populations and
different components: the first relates to (Oceanic Fisheries Programme), New the environmental conditions that
the enormous oceanic fishery, and the Caledonia, and the Commission for influence them. The SPC also oversees
second to coastal fishery. the Conservation and Management an observer programme for the fishery.
of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in
Oceanic Fisheries — fishes that know the Western and Central Pacific The Tuna Commission manages and
no boundaries Ocean established in 2004 and based monitors the Pacific region’s tuna stock
in Pohnpei, Federated States of and enforces controls in international
The fishery for tropical tuna is carried Micronesia. waters beyond each country’s 200
out mainly by distant-water fishing nautical mile maritime boundaries. The
vessels of non-Pacific Island nations, The FFA advises members on the legal Commission is founded on the premise
within the Exclusive Economic Zones and technical aspects of delimiting of the United Nations Convention on
(EEZs) of, and high seas adjacent their maritime boundaries, and in the Law of the Sea and the subsequent
to, Pacific Island nations. Within the drafting of appropriate legislation to agreement relating to the Conservation
Secretariat of the Pacific Community protect stocks. Important initiatives of and Management of Straddling Fish
(SPC) Fisheries Statistical Area, the FFA have included the negotiation Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
excluding Philippines and Indonesian of the United States — South Pacific Stocks. This subsequently led to the
Tropical Coasts 45

Convention on the Conservation and The SPC’s Coastal Fisheries Programme


Management of Highly Migratory Fish has been involved in coastal fisheries
Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific matters since 1952. Its assistance to
Ocean. Pacific Islands fisheries development
has evolved in an adaptive manner
Coastal Fisheries — vital to the over the past 50 years. Although the
region’s food security changing priorities of external sources
of development assistance have
The coastal fisheries of the region inevitably had a large influence on
include semi-comme rcial, artisanal and the extent of its work, the activity that
subsistence fishing, stock replenishment has now become the Coastal Fisheries
(such as Trochus and Giant Clams), and Programme fairly closely reflects the
the development of aquaculture. development of Pacific Island fisheries
services themselves, from their very
Coastal fisheries for domestic inception, through decolonization,
consumption is a multispecies fishery, to maturity. Although it has always
mainly reef and lagoon, carried out striven to maintain a regional
primarily by Pacific Island nationals overview and provide a medium for
in the small-scale commercial and sharing experience and information,
artisanal sectors, using hook and line, its major function has been to fill driftnet fishing in the Pacific Islands,
net, spear, traditional trap or weir and gaps and support national fishery the FAO and United Nations placed
hand-collection. This interlinked series development needs where more responsible fisheries prominently
of fisheries takes around 90,000 tonnes/ narrowly-focused programmes, either on its international fisheries agenda.
year, of several hundred species of fish national or regional, fail to reach. The Pacific Islands region responded,
and invertebrates, within the territorial Coastal fisheries at the national level in collaboration with the United
waters of SPC Island member countries are the responsibility of governments Nations Division for Ocean Affairs
and territories (Adams, 1996). (www.spc.inl/coastfish/historical.htm). (DOALOS), and the UN TRAIN-SEA-
COAST Programme to create a
Coastal fisheries for export covers a Training Approaches course on Responsible Fisheries
more limited range of species, generally for the Pacific Islands region. FAO
those which are not consumed locally Oceanic Fisheries (Rome), the Secretariat for the Pacific
and/or which obtain a high price The Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Environment Programme
overseas, and are exported, mainly to (FAO) Conference adopted the Code (SPREP), FFA and the University of
Chinese-speaking areas of the world. of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries the South Pacific teamed up with the
These fisheries are carried out mainly by in 1995. Although not legally binding, International Ocean Institute (IOI) in
Pacific Islanders and are relatively low in the Code of Conduct has become the development of the course.
total volume: probably less than 10,000 the most authoritative reference for
tonnes/year exported weight, within the fisheries managers. The Code urges The Course uses the Code of Conduct
territorial waters of SPC Island member all governments and stakeholders to as a vehicle to review arrangements
countries and territories (Adams, 1996). work towards the implementation of and options for the management of
responsible practices in the fisheries fisheries in the Pacific Islands region.
The governance of aquaculture is not sector as a means of promoting food As such, discussions are not confined
a major issue in the Pacific Islands and economic security and sustainable to the Code. Other international
region at present. Aquaculture is livelihoods. arrangements, such as the UN
of minor importance compared to Law of the Sea, the UN Fish Stocks
capture fisheries, and has not yet led The Code of Conduct resulted from Agreement, Harmonised Minimum
to major contention. However, it is an major international efforts in the Terms and Conditions and the Niue
issue that will need to be increasingly early 1990s to establish effective Treaty on Cooperation in Fisheries
addressed in the future, and the management arrangements for Surveillance and Law Enforcement
region will need to be prepared the sustainable use of fish stocks in the Pacific Islands Region, among
to adapt the best of aquaculture in all oceans. Partly in response others, are discussed to illustrate
governance systems evolved in other to concerns about the impact of particular issues presented in this
regions (Adams, 1996). destructive fishing practices such as Course.
46 December 2008

three times and consists of six modules: of materials for a specific location, and
for their translation to other languages.
t .BOBHFNFOU"EWJDF The Coordination Units of all the UN
t 'JTIFSJFT.BOBHFNFOU1PMJDJFT  programmes offer assurance of quality
Strategies and Plans control, facilitate networking, and
t .BOBHFNFOUPG-FHBM*TTVFT assist in the evaluation of materials.
t 4UBLFIPMEFS3PMFT The training programmes are hosted by
t 3FHVMBUJOHBOE.POJUPSJOH'JTIJOH academic or training institutions, which
Activity benefit from the learned methodology
t "ENJOJTUSBUJWF'VODUJPOT and from the opportunity to adapt the
training courses to their own specific
Coastal Fisheries needs. An example would be the Marine
Studies Programme of the University
Within the Pacific Islands region, the of the South Pacific, where two courses
International Ocean Institute (IOI) and developed by IOI-South Pacific on
its host, the University of the South Integrated Coastal Management,
Pacific’s Marine Studies Programme, and Environmental and Resource
have played a key role in the Economics, have subsequently been
development of training programmes adapted as undergraduate courses.
supportive of the coastal fisheries Furthermore, the TRAIN-X methodology,
sector. The driving force behind the while radically different from the usual
IOI’s training programmes is the need teaching methods at a university, has
to directly impact decisionmakers proved to be a very valuable tool in the
from government, the private sector improvement of teaching by those staff
and nongovernmental organizations members who have undertaken the
(NGOs) with ocean or coastal mandates, TRAIN-X training.
on their nation’s obligations under
The broad focus for this Course is the UNCLOS, and under the various Fisheries Management and
responsible management of oceanic conventions and agreements Marine Protected Areas
fisheries resources. The focus on emanating from UNCED. Thus, there
oceanic issues reflects the continuing are common iterative themes in the Coastal fisheries management in the
dynamic state of fisheries management training programmes that place the IOI Pacific Islands region is a national
arrangements in the Pacific Islands stamp upon them. IOI-Pacific Islands has responsibility overseen by national
region and the significance of oceanic developed and offered the following governments. With the support of
fisheries resources as the region’s courses: governments, it is now strongly
primary renewable resource. It linked to the establishment of Marine
also underlines the importance of t .BOBHFNFOUBOE%FWFMPQNFOUPG Protected Areas (MPAs). Of the more
maintaining an active role for fisheries Coastal Fisheries than 400 MPAs in the Pacific Islands
managers in on-going negotiations to t &OWJSPONFOUBMBOE3FTPVSDF region (Pascal, et al., 2008), the vast
establish effective conservation and Economics majority are predicated on the need to
management arrangements for regional t 4VTUBJOBCMFVTFPG'JTIFSJFT protect declining and overfished coastal
fish stocks. t 4NBMM*TMBOET resources, an important food security
t *OUFHSBUFE$PBTUBM;POF issue for the resource owners. The
While principally targeting oceanic Management majority of these MPAs is community-
fisheries, this Course also draws the t 2VBOUJUBUJWF3FTPVSDF#JPMPHZ driven, and utilizes community-based
attention of fisheries managers to the management strategies, or co-
potential of the Code, the associated Effectiveness of Courses management strategies. Government,
Technical Guidelines and International NGOs (local, regional and international)
Plans of Action to support fisheries The UN and IOI programmes stress the and in a few cases, the private sector
management initiatives across the importance of sharing and networking are among the partners involved in the
broad spectrum of needs encountered courses and modules; this is an excellent management of these MPAs. The locally
in Pacific Islands fisheries — coastal and way of avoiding duplication of effort. managed marine area programme
oceanic. The Course has been offered Mechanisms exist for the adaptation (LMMA) which originated in Fiji, has
Tropical Coasts 47

now spread to other Pacific islands, and sustainable these reserves are in the Region), and OceanLearn also deals with
beyond to Southeast Asia, with a total long term, and how effective they are Marine Protected Area Management,
of 342 sites (2007: www.lmmanetwork. in protecting fish stocks, they represent and is more geared towards the needs
org). An LMMA is defined as “An area of a strong community response on of actual MPA managers. Fisheries
nearshore waters and coastal resources the importance of coastal fisheries management is integral to the course,
that is largely or wholly managed at a management. which is organized as follows:
local level by the coastal communities,
land-owning groups, partner Two courses on MPAs have been t 0WFSWJFXPGUIF1BDJöD*TMBOET
organizations, and/or collaborative promoted by the IOI’s OceanLearn t *OUSPEVDUJPOUP.1"T
government representatives who reside Programme, which was established to t .1"TBOEDPBTUBMNBOBHFNFOU BOE
or are based in the immediate area.” coordinate the IOI’s capacity-building t .1"OFUXPSLT
(Govan, et al., 2008). This is a novel programs (www.oceanlearn.net). One,
approach to conservation in which developed jointly with UN/DOALOS The course is highly participatory, with
communities play the lead role in and using the TRAIN-SEA-COAST input from participants who provide
project implementation and monitoring Methodology, was first offered in the case studies from their respective
instead of scientists or government Solomon Islands in 2007: Development, countries. It was first offered in Fiji in
officials. The project has won several Implementation and Management 2008.
international awards for this innovative of Marine Protected Areas (Figure
approach. The LMMA has developed 1). Inevitably, substantial parts of Samoa’s Village Fisheries
a training programme designed to the course relate to coastal fisheries Management Plan
provide stakeholders with the necessary management. A second course offered
MPA management and monitoring jointly by the United States National Unique among fisheries management
skills. Oceanographic and Atmospheric initiatives in the Pacific is the Village
Administration (NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Management Plan, developed
While the jury is still out on how Sanctuaries Program (Pacific Islands in Samoa (King and Fa’asili, .1999).

t International agreements
t National legislative and
Development institutional framework
t Model legislation for marine
t conservation

t Habitat types, ecology,


impacts
t Scientific and socio
economic assistance
Implementation t Conflicting uses and users
t Local community 2012 MPA Target
t Multiple stakeholders
t Local community

t Goals and objectives for


MPAs
t Management strategies
t Enforcement
Management t Research and monitoring
t Public awareness and
communication
t Management evaluation
t Adaptive management

Figure 1. The UN/DOALOS/OceanLearn MPA course consists of three distinct modules that present in a sequential
manner the process of developing, implementing and managing sustainable and successful MPAs
(source: Training Manual, Development, Implementation and Management of Marine Protected Areas.
UN/DOALOS/OceanLearn, 2007).
48 December 2008

The coastal and marine ecosystems of recognized the need for village rules is available to assist stakeholders in
Samoa have been a mainstay for the to be given legal support to prevent the management of MPAs; funding
people over many generations. Over the such a loophole, and thus village-level limitations are the main hindrance to
last 50 years, rapid development has led Fisheries Bylaws were introduced. The making them more widely available.
to population explosion, and serious By-laws are village specific and they
changes to traditional living. Market often include activities that cannot be It remains to be seen how effective
economies became a dominating force carried out within the village coast. To management of stocks in the high seas
impacting adversely on the traditional date 83 villages are participating with and in the coastal waters of Pacific
social setting and obligations. The 62 agreeing to set up fish reserves as Islands will be, but the signs of decline
Fisheries Act of 1988 and Fisheries part of their Management Plan. This of stocks throughout the region do not
Regulations 1995 were enacted to try network of 62 reserves provides a good portend well for future security.
and manage the fisheries resources. conservation strategy for the marine
resources of Samoa. References
In recognition of the shift in Samoa’s
modus operandi, the Government now Conclusion Adams, T. 1996. “Governance of Fisheries
encourages the participation of the and Aquaculture in the Pacific Islands
Region.” Review paper for the 3rd
fono (council of chiefs) and the role of The management of oceanic fisheries
Dialogue on the ACP-EU Research
other users (i.e., the untitled men and in the Pacific Islands region is a highly Initiative. Belize.
the women’s group) in decisionmaking. structured and regulated process, with
Separate meetings allow for a free flow extensive input from all stakeholders Fa’asili, U. and Kelekolio, I. 1999.
of discussions, and a representative involved. The development of the “The use of village by-laws in
marine conservation and fisheries
from each group is selected to form the UN/DOALOS OceanLearn training
management.” SPC Traditional Marine
Fisheries Management and Advisory course has been designed to address Resource Management and Knowledge
Committee (FMAC). The overall international conventions and Information Bulletin # 11.
objective is to develop a Fisheries agreements supportive of sustainable
Management Plan to enable the village management of highly migratory Fisheries Task Force. 2002. “Fisheries
in the Pacific. Coherence between
to manage its resources. fish stocks that have immense global,
development and commercial
regional and national significance. objectives.” DG DEV/AIDCO. Pacific
The process can take between three Almost 100 fisheries managers have Issues Paper No. 1. Brussels.
months to over a year, from the initial successfully completed the course, but
introduction phase to the formal many more need to complete it: what Govan, H., W. Aalbersberg, A. Tawake and
J.E. Parks. 2008. “Guide to Supporting
adoption of a Fisheries Management is needed are the necessary funds for
Community-based Adaptive
Plan. Villagers decide on what are the this. Regardless of the highly developed Management.” The Locally-Managed
critical issues to be addressed and management systems in place, it Marine Areas Network. 70 pp.
what solutions that they would adopt. is evident that the stocks of some
Fish reserves are declared taboo for important species within the fishery are King, M., and U. Fa’asili. 1999. “A network
of small, community-owned village
a period of time and enforcement is at risk; furthermore, poaching accounts
fish reserves in Samoa.” SPC Traditional
the sole undertaking of the village. for some 40 percent of the catch. Marine Resource Management and
The villagers impose penalties for Knowledge Information Bulletin #11.
lawbreakers equivalent to the old days, The management and regulation
including fines of pigs, chickens or of coastal fisheries is largely the Pascal, N., J.-R. Mercier and N. Conner.
2008. Economics of Marine Managed
money. This initially worked well for the responsibility of national governments,
Areas of the South Pacific. Workshop
villagers, but proved to be a toothless but includes heavy involvement Report, Suva, Fiji. Coral Reef Initiatives
tiger when the offenders are outsiders of NGOs, and the resource owners for the Pacific (CRISP), Secretariat
(non-village people). As clause 104 themselves. Most of the coastal of the Pacific Regional Environment
of the Constitution stipulated that all fisheries in the region are unregulated, Programme (SPREP) and International
Union for Conservation of Nature
lands lying below the high water mark and information on stocks is scarce.
(IUCN).
is public land, this meant that outsiders Overfishing and stock depletion have
can fish within the village coastal zone led to the formation of many MPAs South, G.R. and J. Veitayaki. 1999. “Global
including taboo fish reserves. Villagers in the region, and which are largely initiatives in the South Pacific: A case
found it difficult to impose their focused on fisheries management, and study of the regional approach to
workable arrangements.” Asia Pacific
fines on members of another village. involve both traditional and western
School of Economics and Management
To overcome this, the Government strategies. A variety of training courses STUDIES ON LINE, 99(1): 1-52.
Tropical Coasts 49

By Michael A. Kendall, Plymouth Marine Laboratory

Tropical coastal ecosystems


in a high carbon dioxide
world; can we predict the
future?
In December 2004, a tsunami struck Laboratory (PML) with the Natural anticipate and understand natural
the coasts of Southeast Asia, causing History Museum (NHM) in the United changes in coastal resources. It is now
thousands of deaths in coastal Kingdom and Kasetsart University certain that we are already going
villages and substantial damage to of Thailand as principal partners. through the fastest-ever period of
natural resources. The tsunami hit The principal aims of TILS were to change in the marine climate. The
headlines around the world, and quantify the impact of the tsunami oceans of the world are getting
states, international nongovernmental on marine resources in the Laem Son warmer and are becoming more acid
organizations and millions of Marine National Park in Thailand, as carbon dioxide concentrations in
individuals donated money and document the subsequent recovery both the atmosphere and the ocean
other resources to provide immediate and provide support and information increase, but yet TILS participants
relief and to sponsor the recovery of to coastal stakeholders for whom the were very clear that in Thailand, as
livelihoods and public health. tsunami had raised fears and doubts in other countries of the region, data
about the sustainability of the marine to document change in the physical
The European Union, through its environment. and biological environment were
EcoPro Asia programme provided largely lacking. Without information
funds for projects throughout the The tsunami event is in the past and on the speed at which the ocean
impacted area that focused on while there is always the possibility is warming and the rate at which it
recovery; among these was Tsunami that there might be another, research becomes more acid, states cannot
Impacts in Laem Son (TILS), a project following its passage revealed a real make political and managerial choices
coordinated by the Plymouth Marine lack of local and regional capacity to concerning adaptation or mitigation
50 December 2008

The biological resources The TILS project has been able to


of the Thai coast that reassure stakeholders that, for the
were most severely greater part, the marine ecosystem
damaged by the tsunami in southwest Thailand has largely
were the shallow water recovered from the tsunami but in
sediment environments presenting these results, it has alerted
that underpinned the scientists, stakeholders and the
productivity of rich government that the ecology of the
coastal fisheries; probably Andaman coast is liable to undergo
the least damaged substantial change in the coming
were the coral reefs. years.
On the other hand, the
knowledge-base for corals As mankind continues to burn fossil
in Thailand is vast while fuels, the concentration of carbon
that for soft sediments dioxide in both the atmosphere and
verges on insignificance. the ocean is increasing. Atmospheric
Before the tsunami there carbon dioxide acts as a greenhouse
measures which are needed to was no information on the gas leading to its warming while in
ensure that the livelihoods of the biology of shallow inshore sediments, the ocean it dissolves and in doing
citizens are maintained. In addition with the exception of intertidal data so makes it more acidic. A warmer,
to knowing the speed at which collected by members of the TILS more acid ocean is liable to lead to
change is occurring, states also need consortium over the previous eight substantial changes in the ecology
to understand the biological nature years. This situation would not be of marine ecosystems and the
of the changes that will occur and unusual elsewhere in East Asia and quality and quantity of the goods
the impact that they will have on the highlights a fundamental difficulty and services provided to mankind.
goods and services that the ocean that must be overcome if a predictive The nature of the changes that will
provides to mankind. ability is to be developed; this is the be brought about is uncertain and if
absence of systematically collected regional governments are to plan for
To deliver predictions on the future whole ecosystem information. A the coming decades they urgently
nature of coastal ecosystems, there number of international agencies have need to collect knowledge for the
is a need for predictive modeling recognized this shortcoming and have whole ecosystem.
based on reliable, comprehensive data funded regional and national capacity-
describing physics, chemistry and building programs in which PML In East Asia, the need for this
biology of marine ecosystems but yet has been a key player. Nevertheless information is pressing. In the
there are comparatively few regional nationally funded research on countries of the region there is a high
countries that have such a capability. sediment ecosystems, except dependence on the ocean for food,
Where there is knowledge, it is often mangroves and seagrass, remains yet marine resources are already
local and may not be well focused. uncommon. coming under increasing pressure as

In a recent study PML


Scientists found that as
the Brittle Star (Ophiura
ophiura) is subjected to
decreasing pH, it causes
an acceleration in egg
development, a survival
response to stress.

Photo credit: David Lowe/Plymouth


Marine Laboratory

Brittle Star (starfish).


Photo credit: Dr. Hilmar Hinz/MBA (The Marine
Life Information Network, www.marlin.ac.uk).
Tropical Coasts 51

the population of the coastal zone ecosystems but we don’t know oceans on the goods and services
continues to rise. To make realistic enough to identify the winners and delivered by the marine ecosystems
plans to sustain the development of losers. of East Asia. We know there will be an
coastal states, politicians and planners impact but we cannot predict its scale
need a realistic prediction of the As an increasing volume of carbon or provide details of the species or
resources that the sea will provide. dioxide dissolves in the ocean, it ecosystem functions that will be most
will become more acidic and, as it severely damaged. To do so, we need
Over recent years, there have been does so, its fundamental chemistry to develop our existing partnerships
major international research efforts and that of the species living in it within the region and use the
to understand to consequences will change. There will be changes methods we have develop in Europe
of climate change and ocean in the availability of the nutrients in a new tropical setting. We have
acidification for the provision of in seawater that are needed to already begun collaborations with
marine resources in which the sustain productivity with knock- partners in China and would welcome
Plymouth Marine Laboratory on consequences for ecosystem discussions elsewhere.
has played its full part. PML has productivity. In animals and plants,
undertaken research on the impacts there will be changes in basic PML is highly aware that the threats
of increased sea temperatures, on physiology; acute experiments carried posed to the ocean in a high carbon
ocean acidification as well as on out at PML have indicated impacts dioxide world and has been highly
the interaction between them. The on respiration, reproduction and active in disseminating information to
effects on the biology of the ocean are repair following damage, all of which policymakers and coastal managers
considerable; most species live within will have an impact on the viability worldwide; as an example, PML
well-defined ranges of tolerance and of organisms and the ecosystems recently held a series of workshops in
if the environment changes outside in which they live. Evaluating the China to increase awareness. In this
these limits then a species must either impacts of ocean acidification is a new setting, PML stressed that climate
move or die. If the temperature of the field of research in which PML has change and ocean acidification are
ocean increases, then less tolerant played a leading role but it remains now inevitable and that there is an
species will move their distribution in its infancy; it is vary difficult to urgent need to put in place strategies
towards cooler waters and as a identify the most vulnerable elements of adaptation and mitigation. For such
consequence patterns of fisheries of tropical ecosystems. Finally, little policies to be formulated, the need
will change. This can already be seen attention has been paid to the likely for new, well focused, fit for purpose
happening in high latitudes, but in interactions between increasing research was emphasized. We believe
the tropics comparatively little is temperatures and increasing acidity that this must be carried out on an
known about temperature tolerances which may well be more severe than international scale making use of the
or the likely result of the biological the individual impacts combined. widest possible sets of skills. With its
interactions between displaced long standing background in the East
species which makes it difficult to PML scientists are not yet in a position Asian Region, PML looks forward to
make hard and fast predictions. We to make firm predictions about the collaborating in this process.
know there will be changes in marine impacts of warmer and more acid
52 December 2008

By Dr. Jin Hwan Hwang


Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Dongguk University

From Production to Supply:


Changing Perspectives
in the Adaptation System
for Food Security
What is missing in Also, the United Nations
adaptation negotiations? Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCC)
The Nairobi Work Program extends the definition of
on Impacts, Vulnerability and “adverse impact of climate
Adaptation (2006) is considered change” as being “referred to in
the most important global conjunction with addressing the
achievement within the climate impact of the implementation of
change convention since the Kyoto response measures.” 1 However,
Protocol, promoting awareness in implementing and describing
on early action for climate change adaptation as in the IPCC and
adaptation. It may be time to review UNFCCC definitions, there are
some aspects of adaptation actions, still some missing points which
three years after the Work Program, are critical in preparations for a
and think about what more will be climate change-stricken world.
needed in the future, even with our Two main points are especially
limited experience in implementing important if we are to achieve
adaptation measures. the global realization of climate
change adaptation for food
Adaptation, as defined by the security.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change or IPCC (2007), “is the First, we have put too much
adjustment in natural or human emphasis on food production
systems in response to actual or rather than food supply in
expected climate stimuli or their our efforts to address climate
effects which moderates harm or change adaptation for food
exploits beneficial opportunities.” security. Developing countries
need to develop their own
1 adaptation strategies, focusing
UNFCC, “Implementing adaptation.”
http://unfccc.int/adaptation/ on the food supply chain and
implementing_adaptation/items/2535. distribution systems. Change in Coastal urban flooding simulation. Mok-Po in
php
Korea is very vulnerable to storm surges caused
production is unavoidable and by typhoons.
Tropical Coasts 53

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Subsidiary Bodies meeting in Bonn, Germany.

once climate changes, there will be food supply chain, taking into Since an ecosystem cannot
limited increase in food production. account that climate change will be adapted through human
Industrialized countries like RO directly impact on food production. intervention, it will not be cost-
Korea need to consider food self- effective to plant, adapt and make
sufficiency more than protection of Vulnerability in food tropical species indigenous in a
food production within their own security monsoon region as the global
territories. temperature increases. If humans
Impact, vulnerability and adaptation intervene in the ecosystem’s natural
Second, there is a need for are defined differently depending adaptation to climate change, there
consideration of the impact of on what we want to see in a system. is the risk of causing secondary
mitigation actions on adaptation. Woodroffe (2007) discussed the adverse impacts in addition to
UNFCCC defined adverse effect concepts of vulnerability, resilience, climate change impacts.
as including “the adverse effect etc., from the perspective of
of the measure for reducing GHG various fields such as ecology, In the adaptation system relating to
emissions.” Discussions on the disaster prevention and so forth. food security, controlling production
adverse effect of climate change The definition of vulnerability in is in the regime of controlling
measures has been devoted primarily ecosystems is different from the ecosystems. There are several options
to diversification of economies of meaning used in the study of available such as “double cropping”
countries that produce oil-related human society relating to disasters. or enhancing the production of
goods. However, the mitigation Sometimes, this confusion misleads indigenous species, improving
measures for climate change can to the construction of an adaptation irrigation systems and developing
affect not only the oil-related system designed only for humans. water resources, all of which may
economy, but also food production Knowing that it is almost impossible not create major secondary impact.
and supply, vis-à-vis the conversion to make migratory birds return Nevertheless, such efforts in
of food crops into renewable energy, to certain areas or to control the increasing production may not be
such as biofuel generated from corn. blooming seasons of plants with enough for a community to adapt
human efforts, the only way for the to the changed weather. In addition,
The importance of the issues ecosystem to adapt to a climate- the amount of food generated as
discussed above is not recognized changed world is to mitigate the a consequence of enhanced food
or discussed in depth in the present adverse impacts through reductions production via ecosystem control
adaptation regime. Existing efforts on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. may not be enough for the global
are more focused on localized The only thing that we can do to community to adapt to a climate-
measures and concepts with the view adapt to climate change is to change changed world. It can be inferred
on future impacts. An adaptation and adapt ourselves to the changed that the problem of food scarcity
system needs to consider the global environment. may not be solved solely by the
54 December 2008

Manufacturing
Industrialized country
development and implementation of territories. However,
an adaptation system focused on the these countries’ national
prevention of declining production adaptation plans are Small territory
in a climate-changed world. It is time silent on how they will Usually well
Indirect prepared for
to think of other options, except meet their supply needs adaptation
impact
for ecosystem intervention, to keep if their main sources
production steady. of supply, which are
Large territory Direct
located outside of Lack of
Developed countries are perceived their territories, fail. adaptation impact
system
as less vulnerable to climate change. For example, RO Korea
This supposition enables them to imports over 60 percent
focus more on the vulnerability of its grains, except for
and adaptation of less developed rice, from countries Agriculture/fishery
Developing country
countries. However, this leads to including China, Chile,
more emphasis being given to food the United States, etc. Figure 1. Indirect vs. direct impact of climate change
production, whereas adaptation However, what will depending on industrialization level and
territory size.
for food security is not only happen to RO Korea if
influenced by production but also climate change seriously
supply. History shows that supply affects the countries exporting food, or aquatic food products, indirect
causes more serious problems than or if the global market is shaken impact will be important to a
production. For example, in the late by such impacts? In this sense, country that imports most of its
1800s, the El Niño phenomenon industrialized countries still need food. Generally, countries with small
caused long-term drought in India, to think about how and from where territories such as RO Korea and
China, Brazil, etc., and resulted in they can secure their food supply. Japan may not produce enough food
a large number of deaths of over This is a matter of supply rather than within their own boundaries; but
30 to 60 million around world. This production and in other words, one countries with large territories such
drought was not solely responsible country’s production is also critical to as the United States and Argentina 2
for famine but precipitated the another’s own production capacity. would be able to produce almost
failure in food supply. Also, the major all their food. To those countries
increase in the price of corn in 2007 Such impact, which can occur in with small territories and high
was not solely caused by decrease a country through the trade of dependency on agriculture or
in production, but also by the goods from other places, can be fisheries, direct impact will be more
disruption in the supply market. termed “virtual climate change important than virtual impact. Thus,
impact” or “indirect climate change the relationship between direct
The view on how food will be impact.” Indirect impact mainly and indirect impact as well as the
supplied explains why industrialized occurs through food supply or the size of a country’s territory and its
countries need to take into account distribution system while direct status of industrialization would
the adverse impact of climate change impact occurs during production. be conceptualized in such a way as
in other countries, in particular the While direct impact will be critical in shown in Figure 1.
developing and less developed a country that produces agricultural
countries. The supply chain of
industrialized countries begins
at production in developing and
agricultural countries. Industrialized FAD (Food Availability
countries, for example, RO Korea, El Niño Drought
Declination
Japan and some European Union
countries, which have a short supply
of food internally, build their food
supply system outside of their Adaptation system Famine

2
These countries are still vulnerable to
the competition between food and Figure 2. Schematic of the famine driving mechanism.
energy.
Tropical Coasts 55

China Russia Food supply in RO Korea


(20%) (7%)
In RO Korea, food is supplied by
production within the Korean
territory and by importation. RO
Deep sea Other Korea’s grain self-sufficiency, i.e.,
Fishery countries
the amount of grain produced in
(10%) (18%)
RO Korea, has decreased from 80
percent in 1970 to 28 percent in
2006 (see Table 1). This implies that
even if RO Korea can avoid serious
Vietnam Japan adverse impacts of climate change
(3%) (2%)
on its food production, internal
production is accountable for only
30 percent of required grains.
Figure 3. Aquatic food regional supply distribution. More than 70 percent needs to be
imported.

Food Availability survival in a climate-changed world In the case of fisheries products,


depends not only on production although a large portion of aquatic
Incidences of food scarcity relating but also on supply. Unfortunately, food is produced within RO Korea,
to climate change or variability the 4th Assessment report of the 60 percent of aquatic food is
have been recorded in history. In IPCC (AR4, 2007) does not stress imported. Also, deep sea fisheries,
the late 19th century, the strongest this issue much. Global awareness which are located outside of Korean
El Niño was observed and its on Africa’s problems on food territory, provide over 10 percent of
impact was devastating to Asia production decline may help Africa total aquatic food. Only 40 percent
and southern America. India lost through assistance in improving of what Korea needs is provided
12 to 29 million people during the the supply system as well as efforts within the territory (Figure 3).
periods of 1876-1879 and 1896- for increasing food production.
1902; and China lost approximately DPR Korea’s case also provides Therefore, it can be concluded
19.5 to 30 million people during a perspective on what should that no matter how well a country
the same periods. Worldwide, the be considered in an adaptation constructs an adaptation system, the
number of the deceased was from strategy. Having a similar weather adverse effects of climate change
31 million to 63 million during that system as RO Korea, DPR
time (Davis, 2001). The number of Korea has experienced
Table 1. Self sufficiency for grain and rice (Korean Rural
deaths did not simply result from prolonged famine due Development Administration, 2006)
drought, but more from the failure to flood and drought.
Grain self-sufficiency Rice self-sufficiency
in the adaptation system. El Niño However, RO Korea was Year (Percentage) (Percentage)
caused drought and, consequently, able to supply its food
without increasing food 1970 80.5 96.3
initiated the decrease in food
production within the 1975 73.1 94.6
production. However, fatal cause
lies in the failure of the food country. But what will 1980 56.0 95.1

supply system, which increased happen to RO Korea if the 1985 48.4 103.3

the death toll. In other words, Food extreme events caused 1990 43.1 108.3
Availability Declination (FAD) could by climate change occur 1995 29.1 91.4
be one of the main reasons which in China, its major food 2000 30.8 102.9
caused the famine in Asia (Figure exporting country? The 2001 32.2 102.7
2). FAD is not determined solely adaptation system of
2002 31.0 99.2
by food production; consideration China may be equally
2003 27.7 90.3
on how we can supply if extreme crucial to RO Korea in
2004 26.8 96.5
events happen is also a factor. view of food security, in
2005 29.3 102.0
particular, the food supply
system. 2006 28.0 98.9
In summary, history tells us that
56 December 2008

reduce the supply of


food, e.g., selling corn as
an alternative source of
Reduction of GHG with bio-
ethanol from Corn Mitigation energy is more lucrative
than selling it as food.
If the price of fossil fuel
is high, extra costs for
shipping will be added
Adaptation for to food prices due to
Conventional adaptation increases of price higher shipping and
systems will fail (competition between
energy and food) storage costs.

Countries like RO Korea,


which secure a major
portion of their food
supply by importation,
Production is threatened by
will be more vulnerable
climate change itself and
measures for it
Adaptation to changes in the
supply chain and energy
prices. If energy is to be
supplied by renewables,
Figure 4. Schematic of competition between mitigation and adaptation to determine
the supply for resources. the price of food will be
affected by the types of
still pose threats to a country in and Alaska as well as increases in measures for reducing
indirect ways. In the case of RO oil demand in India and China. The climate change impact and by
Korea, there are no measures other is the alternative use of corn competition between food and
currently for securing food supply for producing bioethanol as an energy use (Figure 4). In Brazil, the
that covers more than 60 percent alternative to fossil fuel. No matter distribution of sugarcane to food
of what Korea needs. If the Russian what the main causes of the corn and energy has been controlled
coastal water warms up to 2 degrees price hike were in 2007 3, the supply by the international market price
higher than the present temperature, of corn was a great concern to for food. In other words, if the
7 percent of Korean aquatic food consumers who use corn as a main utilization of sugarcane for energy
would be in jeopardy. food source. is applied globally, it will cost much
more to purchase sugarcane as food
Competition with To reduce carbon emissions when since the large volume of sugarcane
mitigation measures for the oil price is low, the global will be sold as an energy source at a
food supply society needs to enforce strong higher price.
mitigation measures including
The importance of a food supply carbon tax and market instruments Conclusion
system was raised when the energy such as the Clean Development
issue gained much attention. Mechanism (CDM). For example, In the course of developing a
In 2007, the corn price soared if a country imposes a carbon tax strategy for adaptation to climate
to $3.50 per bushel from $2.20 on shipping (transportation) and change, emphasis has been
in 2005. This increase in corn food storage (e.g., air conditioning), on direct impacts. As already
price can be explained from two food prices will increase. CDM can recognized, the direct impact on
perspectives. One is the rise of oil increase the price for storage, by food production will be serious
price, which was caused by different changing cooling or heating from in some countries. Temperature,
reasons, such as a decrease in oil fossil energy to renewable energy. rainfall and GHG concentration
production in the Gulf of Mexico Aquatic food is likely to have a will alter the rate of grain food
more serious price hike than grains production. The production of
because of the greater demand aquatic food will also be subject
3
In 2008, corn price still kept increasing to climate change impacts due
to over US$5.00 due to increase in oil for cooling. Also, as observed in
price. 2007, the production of biofuel can to ocean warming and increasing
Tropical Coasts 57

concentrations of dissolved CO 2. during shipping and in storage. strengthened climate change


In response to these concerns, measures and policies. Therefore,
the global society, including The indirect impact of climate when an adaptation strategy is
Asian countries, has embarked on change on food supply will be being developed, a country will
building adaptation strategies. more apparent in the future due need to consider the food security
However, we may need to change to competition between food and issue with a long-term perspective
our view on adaptation for food energy. The competition will always for a food production as well as
security from production to supply. be there regardless of oil prices, food supply system (Figure 5).
As recorded in history, famine even with steady production. When
was not solely caused by drought, oil prices are low, strict mitigation
which is considered as a direct measures such as carbon tax,
impact. In the late 1800s, famine carbon labeling, etc., will be applied References
was exacerbated by the failure in to prevent the over-use of fossil
Davis, M. 2001. Late Victorian Holocausts:
the food supply system, which did fuel and reduce GHG emission and
El Niño Famines and the Making of the
not adapt to the food production leads to the extra cost to purchase Third World. Verso, UK.
shortage. Recent experience in the food whereas use of food as biofuel
corn price hike warns us that steady arises and this leads to reduction of IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
production of food sources may food supply when the price is high. Change). 2007. Climate Change 2007:
Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
not prevent us from food shortages
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
because of complications with Food security will be severely Change, Cambridge, UK.
energy issues. affected by climate change
through: 1. direct impact on food Woodroffe, C.D. 2007. The Natural Resilience
The degree of indirect or virtual production; 2. virtual impact on of Coastal System: Primary concepts,
in Managing Coastal Vulnerability.
impact imposed through the the food supply system through
Edited by McFadden, L. Nicholls, R.J.,
supply system varies considerably domestic and global markets; and Penning-Rowsell. Elsevier, The
depending on the characteristics and 3. the impact brought by the Netherlands. 262 pp.
of a country’s development
and territorial size. Maturity of
industrialization and the size of
territorial area are deciding factors
for the food self-sufficiency of the
country. In the case of countries
that are industrialized yet small in
territorial size, such as RO Korea
and Japan, food self-sufficiency
is usually low. Therefore, indirect
impact of climate change,
particularly in a global perspective,
will affect their food supply chain
more seriously than direct climate
change. However, countries with
large territorial areas will be more
vulnerable to direct impact. In
the case of aquatic food, indirect
impact will be more significant
than direct impact on a county’s
territory, since the actual fishery
occurs outside a country’s territory
in many cases. For example, over 10 Consideration for adaptation
percent of RO Korea’s aquatic food
comes from deep sea fishing. Also, Figure 5. Three main impacts of climate change which are necessary for
generally, aquatic food costs more the adaptation of a long-term plan.
as a consequence of cooling costs
58 December 2008

...continued from page 28

environmental protection, selected corresponding local capacity analysis for better assessment and
youths from local schools have development. In parallel, the project reporting of outcomes.
been trained to serve as eco-travel also spearheaded various on-
guides in Koh Loy and other tourist the-ground actions involving the ICM implementation in Chonburi
areas in their spare time. Token local governments, communities has been facilitated by the following
incentives are provided to the and various stakeholders in order factors:
volunteers by the local government. to demonstrate the benefits of
Hundreds of youths have also been integrated and collaborative t A common vision and framework
trained in environmental protection actions. Key outcomes of ICM for actions through the coastal
and marine conservation and implementation in Chonburi strategy and its implementation
are involved in various activities, include improvement in the plan, and consolidation of local
including waste segregation and decision-making process through initiatives;
recycling, mangrove reforestation, the ICM Provincial Coordinating t Appropriate legal and
and water quality monitoring and Committee, improved interaction institutional arrangements for
analysis. and cooperation among the local multisectoral and inter-agency
governments, and enhanced coordination;
Guided by the vision of a healthy stakeholder participation in marine t A dedicated coordinating
and sustainable coastal city, public and coastal management activities. body/secretariat in Sriracha
parks, promenades and facilities Municipality;
that promote exercise and sports, In terms of ecological and t Political commitment and
cultural activities and social socioeconomic outcomes, the dedication of ICM “champions”;
interactions for locals and visitors lack of systematic comparative t Strategic capacity development
alike have also been built in Sriracha studies on these aspects at this of local personnel and
in order to promote not only social point does not yet allow explicit awareness building and
and economic vibrance, but also conclusions to be made. Based on education of stakeholders;
overall wellbeing and improved stakeholder feedback, however, t Participatory and integrated
quality of life. improvements have been observed planning and implementation
with regard to the harvest of approach involving various
Outcomes of ICM crabs and other marine species, stakeholders;
Implementation mangrove cover has increased and t Multistakeholder partnerships,
seagrass beds have been restored including nongovernmental
Over the past decades, rapid in Sriracha Bay, among others. organizations and the private
economic growth, increase in Recyclable materials are also being sector;
population, and increased resource collected every week in various t Use of scientific information to
utilization have exerted a toll on the municipalities. Although, there are support management decisions
marine environment and resources no systematic studies to determine and actions; and
of Chonburi. Substantial efforts additional income resulting from t Integration of ICM activities
have been directed by governments these and other activities, they into the local government
and various stakeholders to address are considered to be directly or development plans and
the resulting ecological, health indirectly contributing toward local programs.
and economic threats. But in order fishery and livelihood development
to be sustainable, these initiatives in Chonburi. ICM implementation The Chonburi ICM project is
needed to be consolidated within in general is considered to be currently focused on further
an integrated framework that will contributing significantly to improving the governance
enhance their effectiveness, reduce building of local capacity to address mechanisms. As such, ICM scaling
duplication of efforts, and promote various challenges to sustainable up, long-term sustainability, and
cooperation and collaboration. coastal development, including the continuing commitment of
enhancing food security and Chonburi’s ICM Network to sharing
The Chonburi ICM project focused livelihood. Hopefully, the ongoing of experiences, demonstrating good
on enhancement of governance development of a State of the practices will be assured.
mechanisms to support integration Coasts (SOC) reporting system will
and collaboration of various coastal facilitate improved data gathering,
management initiatives, including documentation consolidation and

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