Sculpture History
Origins, Evolution: Famous Sculptors.
MAIN A-Z INDEX
History of Sculpture
Contents
Rape of the Sabine Women (1579-82)
By the Mannerist Giambologna. Is it
the finest post-Renaissance statue?
Gothic Sculpture (c.1145)
Column statues from
Chartres cathedral (1194-1250).
Introduction
Prehistoric Sculpture
Sculpture of Classical Antiquity (c.1100-100 BCE)
Celtic Metal Sculpture (400-100 BCE)
Roman Sculpture (c.200 BCE - c.200 CE)
Byzantine Sculpture (330-1450 CE)
Sculpture During The Dark Ages (c.500-800)
Romanesque Sculpture (c.800-1200)
Gothic Sculpture (c.1150-1300)
Italian Renaissance Sculpture (c.1400-1600)
Baroque Sculpture (c.1600-1700)
Rococo Sculpture (c.1700-1789)
Neoclassical Sculpture (Flourished c.1790-1830)
19th Century Sculpture
20th Century Sculpture: The Advent of Modernism
Post-War Sculpture (1945-70)
Postmodernist Contemporary Sculpture
 Introduction

Any chronological account of the origins and evolution of three-dimensional

art should properly occupy several volumes, if not a whole library of books.
Compressing it into a single page means that most of the story is
unavoidably omitted. Even so, it's still a great story! From Prehistory,
through Classical Antiquity, the Gothic era, the Renaissance to the 21st
century, the history of sculpture is filled with extraordinary artists - most
sadly anonymous - whose visual expressiveness remains with us in the form
of wonderful marble statues, stone reliefs, and immortal bronzes.

Even today, visit any cathedral, or any of the great cities, squares or
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647-52) buildings of the world, and you are certain to see great examples of 3-D art.
By Bernini.

Chronology of Fine Art Sculpture

Prehistoric Sculpture

The Burghers of Calais (1885-95)
By Auguste Rodin.
TYPES OF SCULPTURE
For bronzes - statues and reliefs,
see: Bronze Sculpture.
For Pentelic, Parian, Carrara
stone, see: Marble Sculpture.
For other similar forms of
carving, see: Stone Sculpture.
For sculptures in wood,
see: Wood Carving.
For sculpting in clay, see:
Ceramic Sculpture.
WORLD'S BEST SCULPTORS
For a list of the top 100 3-D
artists (500 BCE - present),
see: Greatest Sculptors.
Sculpture begins in the Stone Age. Exactly when, we don't know. The earliest
known examples are the two primitive stone effigies known as The Venus of
Berekhat Ram and The Venus of Tan-Tan. The Venus of Berekhat Ram (dating
from c.230,000 BCE or earlier) is a basaltic figurine made during the
Acheulian Period, which was discovered on the Golan Heights. The Venus of
Tan-Tan (c.200,000 BCE or earlier) is a quartzite figurine from the same
period.
If these objects are pre-sculptural forms, the earliest prehistoric
sculptureproper emerged around 35,000 BCE in the form of carvings of
animals, birds, and therianthropic figures, made during the Lower
Perigordian/Aurignacian Period and discovered in the caves of Vogelherd,
Hohle Fels, and Hohlenstein-Stadel, in the Swabian Jura, Germany. The
earliest figurative sculpture is the ivory carving known as the Lion Man of the
Hohlenstein Stadel (38,000 BCE).

MOVEMENTS, PERIODS, ARTISTS

For more information, see:
History of Art

FINE ART CHRONOLOGY

For details about the development
of Western painting and sculpture
see: History of Art Timeline.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCULPTURE Another early type of Stone Age sculpture are the miniature obese figurines
As well as being the most enduring
form of art, sculpture is certainly called Venuses: such as the Venuses of Willendorf, Kostenky, Monpazier,
the most influential. Historically, Dolni Vestonice, Moravany, Brassempouy, and Gagarino. Made from materials
nearly all Kings, Popes and tyrants
have recognized the propaganda as varied as mammoth bone, ceramic clay and bone ash, as well as various
effect of inspirational sculpture. types of stone like steatite, oolitic limestone, serpentine, and volcanic rock,
Roman Emperors distributed portrait
busts of themselves to every corner
these venus figures have been located in sites across Europe, from Russia to
of their empire; the Roman Church Spain. Anthropologists believe they may have been used in fertility rituals,
decorated their cathedrals, abbeys although why fat women should be so iconic remains a mystery. (Lack of
and churches with tens of thousands
of statues and relief sculptures to food? Ed).
convey the message of the Bible;
Pharaohs, Kings and Emperors
from Ancient Egypt, Persia, Greece
and the modern world, have invested
fortunes in monumental sculpture
to commemorate success in battle.
Modern tyrants, from Stalin to Saddam
Hussein, have errected statues as
monuments to their glorious rule.
Of course nothing compares to the
inspirational message of America's
Statue of Liberty, probably the No 1
propagandist work of sculpture.
As well as having huge narrative
content capable of promoting a
specific message, sculpture is also
an arduous craft whose creators
are highly dependent on both tools,
technology. From the very earliest
tool-cultures of the Paleolithic era,
sculptural progress has been marked
by the discovery of new materials
and equipment. Amazingly, by the
birth of Christ, most of the sculptor's
traditional methods and techniques
had already been discovered,
including bronzework and the
refined goldsmithery practised
by nomadic tribes.
In any event, for all these reasons,
the history of sculpture is closely
linked with the politics, technology
and financial prosperity of society.
Above all, its history is inextricably
related to architecture, the parent
art whose structures form such an
important home for decorative
sculptural works. Every major
architectural movement has been
accompanied by huge demand for
sculptures of all kinds.
WORLD'S GREATEST ART WORKS
For a list of masterpieces of
sculpture, by sculptors across the
ages, see: Greatest Sculptures Ever.
3-D ART APPRECIATION
For two essays on plastic art
appreciation, please see:
How to Appreciate Sculpture
3-D art from Stone Age to 1850.
How to Appreciate Modern Sculpture
19th/20th century sculptors.
MEANING OF ART
For more about the different types,
styles and values of traditional and
contemporary visual art, see:
Definition of Art.
Mesolithic Sculpture (c.10,000-4,000 BCE)
Mesolithic art witnessed more bas-reliefs and free standing sculpture such as
the anthropomorphic figurines unearthed in Nevali Cori and Gobekli Tepenear
Urfa in eastern Turkey, and the statues of Lepenski Vir (eg. The Fish God) in
Serbia. It also witnessed the creation of the Shigir Idol (7,500 BCE) - the
world's oldest surviving wood carving - found near Sverdlovsk in Russia.
Arguably the greatest Mesolithic work of art is the terracotta sculpture from
Romania, known as The Thinker of Cernavoda, an unmistakable image of
cognitive thought.
Neolithic Sculpture (c.4,000-2,000 BCE)
Neolithic art is noted above all for its pottery, but it also featured free
standing sculpture and bronze statuettes - in particular from the Indus Valley
Civilization, the North Caucasus and pre-Columbian art in the Americas. The
most spectacular form of Neolithic art was Egyptian pyramid
architecturewhose burial chambers led to an increased demand for various
types of reliefs as well as portable statues and statuettes. (See Egyptian
sculpture.) Indeed, the advent of the Bronze Age (In Europe: 3000-1200
BCE) as well as the emergence of cities and public buildings, and the
development of more sophisticated tools, triggered a general increase in the
demand for all types of art, including sculpture. See, for
instance, Mesopotamian sculpture (3000-500). It was during this era that art
began to assume a significant role in reflecting the aspirations of powerful
rulers and the deities they worshipped. In short, prosperous and ambitious
communities were good for sculpture.
Eastern Mediterranean Sculpture (c.2000-1100 BCE)
Following the flowering of architecture and other arts in Egypt, the Levant
also witnessed the rise of the Minoan culture on the island of Crete, which was
noted for its sculpture and metalwork. After an unknown catastrophe
(probably earthquake) around 1500 BCE, the Minoan civilization collapsed,
and Crete was conquered by the Myceneans from the Greek mainland, who
were themselves overcome and the city of Mycenae destroyed around 1100
BCE.
Far Eastern Sculpture (c.1700 BCE - 1150 CE)
Chinese art during the Shang Dynasty (c.1600-1050) developed along quite
different lines to Western varieties. For the finest bronze sculpture produced
in China during this period, see: Sanxingdui Bronzes (1200-1000 BCE).
Famous examples of Indian and South-East Asian sculpture include the
extraordinary reliefs at the 11th century Kandariya Mahadeva Hindu Temple
(1017-29) in Madhya Pradesh, India; and the 12th century Angkor Wat
Khmer Temple (1115-45) in Cambodia.
Sculpture of Classical Antiquity (c.1100-100 BCE)
Due to the cultural stagnation of the Greek "Dark Ages" (1100-900 BCE) and
the predominance of pottery during the Geometric Period (900-700 BCE),
Greek sculpture did not really appear until the Daedalic or Oriental-Style
Period around 650 BCE. Thereafter it developed according to the traditional
chronology of Greek art during classical antiquity, as follows: Archaic Period
(c.650-500 BCE); Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE); and Hellenistic Period
(c.323-100 BCE). For more, see: Greek Sculpture Made Simple.

Archaic Greek Sculpture (c.600-500 BCE)

The Archaic period was a time of slow but continuous experimentation; the
most prized form of Archaic Greek sculpture was the kouros (pl.kouroi), or
standing male nude.

Classical Greek Sculpture (c.500-323 BCE)

Divided into the Early Classical Period, High Classical Period and Late
Classical Period, this was the high point of Greek creativity. In the plastic arts,
famous sculptors like Polykleitos (5th century BCE), Myron (Active 480-444
BCE), and Phidias (c.488-431 BCE) (see his work at the Parthenon) achieved
a level of realism - further developed by later artists such
as Callimachus (Active 432-408 BCE), Skopas (Active 395-350
BCE), Lysippos(c.395-305 BCE), Praxiteles (Active 375-335 BCE),
and Leochares (Active 340-320 BCE) - which would remain unsurpassed until
the Italian Renaissance.

Hellenistic Greek Sculpture (c.323-27 BCE)

During this period (characterized by the spread of Greek culture throughout
the civilized world), classical realism was replaced by greater heroicism and
expressionism. See: Pergamene School of Hellenistic Sculpture (241-133
BCE). Famous works of Hellenistic Greek sculpture include: Dying Gaul by
Epigonus; the Winged Victory of Samothrace; Laocoon and His Sons by
Hagesandrus, Polydorus and Athenodorus (42-20 BCE), and the Venus de
Milo. For the greatest Hellenistic reliefs, see: Pergamon Altar of Zeus (166-56
BCE).

Despite the political and military demise of the Greek City States from around
200 BCE, and the consequent rise of Rome, Greek sculpture retained its
status as the finest ever made. Even the Romans failed to overcome their
sense of inferiority in the face of Greek artistry, although they were cute
enough to copy as many Greek works as possible, and it is largely through
these copies that the art of Greek sculpture is known. The real influence
of Hellenistic Statues and Reliefs actually occurred 1600-1700 years later
when it was "rediscovered" by artists of the Early Renaissance in Italy, after
which it formed the cornerstone of European art for the next four centuries.
In short, the Greeks get maximum points.

Celtic Metal Sculpture (400-100 BCE)

Let's not forget the Celts - a series of nomadic tribes which emerged from the
Caucasus around 800 BCE, and gradually spread westwards across Europe
(600-100 BCE) as far as the Iberian peninsula, Britain and Ireland. Although
highly mobile, and masters of blacksmithery and goldsmithery, they were too
disorganized to compete with the highly disciplined and centralized State of
Rome. Eventually wholly Romanized, at least on the Continent, their Celtic
metalwork art included some of the finest metal sculpture of the age (eg.
the Broighter Boat c.100-50 BCE). They were also exceptional traders and
their intricate metalwork designs were exported and imitated throughout the
known world. For stonework by the Celts, see: Celtic Sculpture. For
monumental Keltoi stone sculpture, see: the Turoe Stone.

World's Greatest Clay Sculpture

The Terracotta Army (dating to 246-208 BCE), a huge collection of clay
warriors and horses, was sculpted in Shaanxi province, China, under the
orders of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Thousands of figures remain buried at the
site. See also Chinese Buddhist Sculpture (100-present). For art in India,
see Indian sculpture(3300 BCE - 1850).

Roman Sculpture (c.200 BCE - c.200 CE)

Until about 27 BCE, despite the influence of earlier Etruscan sculptors - noted
for their "joi de vivre" - Roman sculpture was unidealized and realistic;
thereafter it became sternly heroic, and quite mediocre. It was designed
above all to express the majesty and power of Roman rule, thus aside from a
number of magnificent historical reliefs (eg. the spiral bas-relief of Trajan's
Column) and rare monuments (eg. the Ara Pacis Augustae), Roman sculptors
were largely employed in the production of portrait busts of the Emperors and
other dignitaries. In short, no big deal.

Byzantine Sculpture (330-1450 CE)

Up until the fourth century, early Christian sculpture had been almost
exclusively tomb reliefs for sarcophagi in Rome. When the Roman Empire
divided into East and West, the Eastern capital was located in Constantinople.
The art of the Eastern Roman Empire, based in Byzantium, was almost
entirely religious, but, aside from some shallow ivory reliefs and goldsmithing,
the Eastern Orthodox brand of Christianity did not permit 3-D artworks like
statues or high reliefs. Good for painters, bad for sculptors.

Sculpture During The Dark Ages (c.500-800)

As the name suggests, this was a dark and quiet time for European sculptors.
The Church was weak, the Barbarians (who weren't big into sculpture) were
strong, and cities were impoverished and uncultured. There was some activity
in Constantinople and on the fringes of Europe, for instance in Ireland, where
(from 800-1100) the monastic church began commissioning a number of
freestanding stone crosses known as Celtic High Cross sculptures - decorated
with Gospel scenes and other Celtic-style patterns - but little medieval art was
created on the Continent.

Note About Sculpture and Architecture

Before proceeding, it is worth emphasizing the key connection between public

architecture or building programs, and sculpture. In simple terms, public
buildings typically needed sculptural decoration, both inside and out.
Supporting columns often incorporated decorative motifs or statues and
reliefs, as did facades, doorways and various interior screens. Thus each new
major program of public works - typically heralded by a new style of
architecture - triggered a huge parallel program of sculpture. In short,
Medieval sculptors loved architects.

Early Romanesque Sculpture (Carolingian, Ottonian) (c.800-1050)

The revival of medieval sculpture began with Charlemagne I, King of the

Franks, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800. The Carolingian
empire dissolved quite quickly but Charlemagne's patronage of the arts was a
crucial first step in the revitalization of European culture, not least because
many of the Romanesque and Gothic churches were built on the foundations
of Carolingian architecture. Charlemagne's architectural achievements were
continued by the Holy Roman Emperors Otto I, II and III, in a style known as
Ottonian. So the art of sculpture was back, albeit on a modest scale. See
also: Medieval Artists.

Romanesque Sculpture (c.1000-1200)

In the 11th century, a more confident Christian Church began to reassert

itself. This doctrinal expansionism led to the Crusades to free the Holy Land
from the grip of Islam. The Crusaders' success and their acquisition of Holy
Relics triggered the construction of new churches and cathedrals across
Europe in the fully fledged Romanesque style of architecture - a style known
in Britain and Ireland as "Norman" architecture. This in turn led to a huge
wave of commissions for Romanesque sculpture and stained glass. Thus
finally, the art of sculpting was back. And with this new demand for plastic
art came the establishment of new carving and modelling workshops,
apprenticeships, and recognition for master-craftsmen. Indeed, by the 12th
century the leading sculptors became highly sought-after by Abbots,
Archbishops and other secular patrons, for their unique contribution to the
visual impact of the religious buildings under construction.

Famous Romanesque Sculptors:

Gislebertus (12th century)
Master of Cabestany (12th century)
Master Mateo (12th century)
Benedetto Antelami (active 1178-1196)

Gothic Sculpture (c.1150-1300)

The Church's building program stimulated the development of new

architectural techniques. These techniques came together during the mid-late
12th century in a style which Renaissance architects later dubbed "Gothic
architecture". Characteristic Romanesque-style features such as rounded
arches, massively thick walls and small windows and were replaced by
pointed arches, soaring ceilings, thin walls and huge stained glass windows.
This completely transformed the interior of many cathedrals into inspirational
havens, where the Christian mesage was conveyed in a variety of Biblical art,
including beautiful stained glass windows, and by a wide variety of sculpture.
Cathedral facades and doorways were typically filled with sculptural reliefs
depicting Biblical scenes, as well as rows of sculptures portraying Prophets,
Apostles, ancient Kings of Judea, and other gospel figures. Interiors featured
column statues and more reliefs, the whole thing being laid out according to
an intricate plan of gospel iconography designed to educate and inspire
illiterate worshippers.

In essence, the Gothic cathedral was intended to represent the Universe in

miniature - a unique piece of Christian art designed to convey a sense of
God's power and glory and the rational ordered nature of his worldly plan.
Among the greatest homes of Gothic architectural sculpture are the French
cathedrals of Notre Dame de Paris, Chartres, Reims, and Amiens; the German
cathedrals of Cologne, Strasbourg and Bamberg, and the English churches of
Westminster Abbey and York Minster - among many others. In
summary, Gothic sculpture represented the high-point of monumental
religious art. Although the Church would continue to invest heavily in the
power of painting and sculpture to inspire the masses (notably in the Counter
Reformation Baroque period), the Gothic era was really the apogee of
"idealistic" religious artistry. Henceforth, the art of sculpture would become
more and more enmeshed in secular as well as Papal politics.

Famous Gothic Sculptors:

Nicola Pisano (c.1206-1278)
Giovanni Pisano (c.1250-1314)
Arnolfo di Cambio (c.12401310)
Giovanni di Balduccio (c.12901339)
Andrea Pisano (1295-1348)
Filippo Calendario (pre-1315-1355)
Andre Beauneveu (c.1335-1400)
Claus Sluter (c.1340-1406)

See also: English Gothic Sculpture and German Gothic Sculpture.

Italian Renaissance Sculpture (c.1400-1600)

The Italian Renaissance was inspired by the "rediscovery" of, and reverence
for, the arts of Classical Antiquity, especially in the field of architecture and
sculpture. Renaissance art was also coloured by a strong belief in Humanism
and the nobility of Man. It began in Florence, being inspired by individuals
such as the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the sculptor Donatello
(1386-1466), the painter Tommaso Masaccio and the theorist Leon Battista
Alberti (1404-72), and financed by the Medici Family. It then spread to Rome
- where it received support from the Papal ambitions of Pope Sixtus IV (1471-
84), Pope Julius II (1503-13), Pope Leo X (1513-21) and Pope Paul III (1534-
45) - and Venice. The arts in Northern Europe (notably Flanders, Holland,
Germany and England) also underwent a renaissance, particularly in oil
painting, printmaking and to a lesser extent wood-carving, although this so-
called Northern Renaissance developed somewhat independently due to the
Reformation (c.1520) and the consequent lack of religious patronage from a
Protestant Church that took a dim view of religious painting and sculpture.

Early Renaissance Sculpture (1400-90)

Given the respect accorded to the Italian Renaissance, it's easy to forget that
many Italian artists were strongly influenced by Gothic traditions and
craftsmanship. Renaissance sculptors, in particular, were indebted to their
Gothic predecessors. One need only study the reliefs on the facades and
doorways of 12th century cathedrals to see the extraordinary three-
dimensional realism and emotionalism which was being achieved centuries
before the Renaissance. The big difference between Gothic and Renaissance
sculptors is that the names of the latter are now world-famous, while many of
the former are unknown.

Bearing this in mind, Early Renaissance sculptors sought to improve further

on Gothic works, taking much of their inspiration from Classical Roman and
Greek sculpture. In so doing, they injected their statues with a range of
emotion and imbued them with new energy and thought. The three greatest
3-D artists of the Early Renaissance were Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455),
Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, known as Donatello, and Andrea del
Verrocchio (1435-88).

Lorenzo Ghiberti

In 1401, a competition was held for the commission to create a pair of bronze
doors for the Florence Baptistry of St. John - one of the oldest surviving
churches in the city. Lorenzo Ghiberti duly won the commission for the doors,
which took him 27 years to finish. A second similar commission followed,
occupying Ghiberti for a further 25 years. However, his gates became a
tangible symbol of Florentine art, causing Michelangelo to refer to them "the
Gates of Paradise".

Donatello

Donatello, the first real genius of Italian Renaissance Sculpture, reinvented

the medium of sculpture in much the same way as Masaccio, Piero della
Francesca and Mantegna revolutionized the art of painting. Capable of
investing his figures with intense realism and emotion, his masterpiece is his
bronze sculpture David (c.1435-53), the first life-size nude sculpture since
Antiquity, which was created for the Medici family and sited in the Palazzo
Medici in Florence. The slender form of the Biblical shepherd boy seems
hardly capable of the homicidal skill required to slay Goliath, but both his
pensive feminine pose with its Classical contrapposto (twist of the hips),
exerts a hypnotic effect on the viewer. It must surely be one of the greatest
statues ever created. For details, see: David by Donatello.

Andrea del Verrocchio

The David (c.1475) by Andrea del Verrocchio is more refined but less intense
than Donatello's statue, while his equestrian statue of the
condottiere Bartolommeo Colleoni (1480s) is less heroic but conveys a greater
sense of movement and swagger than Donatello's Gattamelata (1444-53) in
Padua.

Other important sculptors of the early Renaissance include: Jacopo della

Quercia (c.1374-1438); Nanni di Banco (c.1386-1421); the terracotta
sculptors Luca Della Robbia (1400-1482), his nephew Andrea Della
Robbia(1435-1525), Niccolo Dell'Arca (1435-94) and Guido Mazzoni (1450-
1518); Antonio Rossellino (1427-79); Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432-98).

High Renaissance Sculpture (c.1490-1530)

Renaissance sculptors were dominated by Michelangelo (1475-1564), the

greatest sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, and arguably of all time. The art
historian Anthony Blunt said of Michelangelo's works like Pieta (1497-9,
marble, Saint Peters Basilica, Rome), David (1501-4, marble, Galleria
dell'Accademia, Florence) and Dying Slave (1513-16, marble, Louvre, Paris)
that they possessed a "superhuman quality" but also "a feeling of brooding, of
sombre disquiet... they reflect the tragedy of human destiny." Some of
Michelangelo's marble carvings have a flawless beauty and polish, testifying
to his absolute technical mastery. In the field of the heroic male nude he
remains the supreme exponent. For more, see David by Michelangelo.

Other important sculptors of the High Renaissance include the artist and
Venetian architect Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570) and Baccio Bandinelli(1493-
1560).

Northern Renaissance Sculpture (c.1400-1530)

In Northern Europe, the art of sculpture was exemplified in particular by two

awesome craftsmen who took the art of sculpting in wood to new heights: the
German limewood sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (1460-1531), noted for
his reliefs and freestanding wood sculpture; and the wood-carver Veit
Stoss (1450-1533) renowned for his delicate altarpieces.

Other important sculptors from North of the Alps include:

Hans Multscher (c.1400-1467); Giorgio da Sebenico (1410-1473);
Michel Colombe (c.1430-1512); Gregor Erhart (c.1460-1540).

Mannerist Sculpture (1530-1600)

If the confidence and order of the High Renaissance period was reflected in its
idealised forms of figurative sculpture, Mannerist sculpture reflected the chaos
and uncertainty of a Europe racked by religious division and a Rome recently
sacked and occupied by mercenary French soldiers. Mannerist sculptors
introduced a new expressiveness into their works, as exemplified by the
powerful Rape of the Sabines by Giambologna (1529-1608),
andPerseus (1545-54) by Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71). However, compare the
famous naturalistic recumbent marble statue of Saint Cecilia by Stefano
Maderno (1576-1636). See also Juan de Juni (1507-1577), who spread the
Renaissance to Spain, Alonso Berruguete (c.1486-1561) who introduced
Mannerism to Spain, and Francesco Primaticcio (1504-1570) who launched
Mannerism in France. For the top French Mannerist sculptors, see: Jean
Goujon (c.1510-68), Germain Pilon (1529-1590), Barthelemy Prieur (1536-
1611) and Adriaen de Vries (1560-1626).

Baroque Sculpture (c.1600-1700)

During the later 16th century, in response to the Protestant Reformation, the
Roman Catholic Church launched its own Counter Reformation. This
propaganda campaign, designed to persuade worshippers to return to the
"true" Church, employed the full panoply of the visual arts, including
architecture, sculpture and painting, and became associated with a grander,
more dramatic idiom known as Baroque art. It entailed massive patronage for
artists - good news for sculptors!

Even Saint Peter's Square in Rome, was remodelled in order to awe visitors.
The genius architect/sculptor Bernini (1598-1680) designed a series of
colonnades leading to the cathedral, which gave the impression to visitors
that they were being embraced by the arms of the Catholic Church.

Bernini was the greatest of all Baroque sculptors. After working for Cardinal
Scipione Borghese, he became the leading sculptor for Pope Urban VIII.
Drawn to the dramatic naturalism of what is called the Hellenistic baroque
style of the second and first century BCE, (eg. see works like The Vanquished
Gaul Killing Himself and his Wife) Bernini's unique contribution was to create
sensational illusionistic masterpieces (eg. by depicting a moment in time), in
a manner hitherto only achieved by painters. It was as if he treated the
relatively intractable materials of sculpture as if they were entirely malleable.
His sculptural technique and composition were so stunning that he attracted
no little criticism from envious rivals.

His main rival was Alessandro Algardi (1598-1654), the favourite sculptor of
Pope Innocent X. If Bernini epitomized Greek dramatic naturalism, Algardi's
style was more restrained (critics say feeble). Another rival was the Flemish
sculptor Francois Duquesnoy (1594-1643) whose style was entirely classical.
Duquesnoy was rather a shadowy figure who worked in a severe, unemotional
style which was nevertheless highly regarded by academic writers for its
perfect synthesis of nature and the antique. The draperies flow elegantly,
following the shape of the body, while the figure is balanced in perfect grace
and repose - the complete opposite of Bernini's dynamic movement and
intense feeling.
French Baroque sculpture was exemplified by Francois Girardon (1628-1715),
a sort of French Algardi, and his rival Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) whose
looser style was still relatively restrained compared to Bernini, and Pierre
Puget (1620-94) who was one of the very few sculptors to recapture the
immediacy of Bernini's best work.

Other Baroque sculptors include: Juan Martines Montanes (1568-

1649), Alonzo Cano (Granada, 1601-67), and Andreas Schluter (1664-1714),
the greatest Baroque sculptor in Northern Germany. In Southern Germany,
one of the greatest masters was Jorg Zurn (1583-1638), who produced the
awesome five-storey High Altar of the Virgin Mary (1613-16), in the Church of
Saint Nicholas at Uberlingen, on the northern shore of Lake Constance
(Bodensee).

For more, see: Baroque Sculpture.

Rococo Sculpture (c.1700-1789)

Basically a French reaction against the seriousness of the Baroque, Rococo

art began in the French court at the Palace of Versailles before spreading
across Europe. If Baroque sculpture was dramatic and serious, Rococo was all
frills and no substance, although in reality it was not so much a different style
from the Baroque but rather a variation on the style brought to fruition by
Bernini and his contemporaries. Even so, one can talk about Rococo qualities
in a work of sculpture - informality, gaiety, a concern for matters of the heart
and a self-conscious avoidance of seriousness.

The most successful sculptor of the first half of the 18th century
was Guillaume Coustou (1677-1746), Director of the French Academy from
1707, who continued the baroque trend of his uncle Coysevox. His pupil,
Edme Bouchardon (1698-1762), is a more interesting figure. whose feeling
for the antique led him to anticipate the later trend towards neoclassicism.
Jean-Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85), a favourite of Madame de Pompadour, was
another important exemplar of the Rococo style as was his chief rival
was Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716-91) who specialized in erotic figures that
have a tenuous derivation from Hellenistic originals. His masterpiece,
however, remains his classical "Bronze Horseman" monument to Peter the
Great in St Petersburg - see Russian Sculpture.

In England, the leading sculptors of the 17th/18th century included the

classicist Michael Rysbrack (1694-1770), the more theatrical Louis Francois
Roubiliac (1705-62), and the eminent wood-carver Grinling Gibbons (1648-
1721). German Rococo sculpture was exemplified in works by the Dresden
sculptor Balthazar Permoser (1651-1732), small groups of craftsmen working
in the churches of Catholic southern Germany, and Ignaz Gunther (1725-75)
whose figurative sculptures have a hard surface realism and polychromed
surface reminiscent of medieval German wood-carving.

Whimsical decadent Rococo was swept away by the French Revolution which
ushered in the new sterner style of Neoclassicism.

Neoclassical Sculpture (Flourished c.1790-1830)

Neoclassical art - basically Greek art with a modern twist - was dominated
by Neoclassical architecture. Neoclassical buildings include the Pantheon
(Paris), the Arc de Triomphe (Paris), the Brandenburg Gate (Berlin), and the
United States Capitol Building. Neoclassical sculpture involved an emphasis on
the virtues of heroicism, duty and gravitas. Leading Neoclassical
sculptorsincluded the exceedingly severe and heroic Antonio Canova (1757-
1822), the troubled portrait-bust master Franz Xaver Messerschmidt (1736-
1783), the more naturalistic/realist Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the
rather light-hearted Claude Michel called Clodion (1738-1814), and the
English sculptors Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823), Thomas Banks (1735-
1805), John Flaxman(1755-1826), and Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856).
Only later in the 18th century did a worthy successor to Canova appear in the
person of the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), who
approached the antique with a comparable high-mindedness albeit with less
originality.

19th Century Sculpture

In many ways, the nineteenth century was an age of crisis for sculpture. In
simple terms, architectural development had largely exhausted itself, religious
patronage had declined as a result of the French Revolution, and the general
climate of "populism", began to cause much confusion in the minds of
institutional and private patrons as to what constituted acceptable subjects
(and styles) for sculptural representation. Being involved in a more expensive
art-form than painters, and thus dependent on high-cost commissions,
sculptors often found themselves at the mercy of public opinion in the form of
town councils and committees. Aside from a number of grandiose public
monuments, and the usual commemorative statues of Bishops and Kings -
invariably executed in the sterile, conformist style required by the authorities
(eg. the Albert Memorial) - sculptors had few opportunities to showcase their
originality. Painting on the other hand was undergoing huge and exciting
changes. In short, it was not a great time to be involved in 3-D art.

Nineteenth century sculptors worth a mention include the versatile James

Pradier (1790-1852), the romantics Francois Rude (1784-1855), David
d'Angers (1788-1856), Antoine-Louis Barye (1796-1875), and Auguste
Preault(1809-79), and the Florentine Neo-Renaissance sculptress Felicie de St
Fauveau (1799-1886). One of the most talented artists was the light-
heartedJean-Baptiste Carpeaux (1827-75), whose sensuality was adapted to
the demands of decorative sculptors of the 1860s by Ernest Carrier-Belleuse
(1824-87), otherwise most noted for the fact that one of his pupils was an
unknown sculptor called Auguste Rodin. Jules Dalou (1838-1902) was a more
contemplative and serious follower of Carpeaux. Among the 19th century
classicists, leading figures included John Gibson (1791-1866), the talented
but frustrated Alfred Stevens (1817-75), the versatile George Frederick
Watts(1817-1904), and the American Hiram Powers (1805-73).

We should also not forget the imaginative French sculptor Auguste

Bartholdi(1834-1904) - better known as the creator of the world-famous
sculpture - The Statue of Liberty - in New York harbour. Also the great
monumental American sculptor Daniel Chester French (1850-1931), noted for
the seated figure of Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC.

Auguste Rodin

The great exception was the incomparable French genius Auguste

Rodin(1840-1917). One of the few authentic masters of modern sculpture,
Rodin saw himself as the successor to his iconic hero Michelangelo - although
the Florentine was a carver in marble while Rodin was principally a modeller
in Bronze. Also, while Michelangelo exemplifies the noble and timeless forms
of Classical Antiquity, Rodin's most characteristic works convey an
unmistakable modernity and dramatic naturalism. Arguably, Rodin's true
predecessors were the Gothic sculptors, for he was a passionate admirer of
the Gothic cathedrals of France, from whose heroic reliefs he derived much of
his inspiration. In any event, Rodin's impact on his art form was greater than
any sculptor since the Renaissance.

20th Century Sculpture: The Advent of Modernism

With sculpture less able to reflect the new trends of modern art during the
19th century, leaving artists like Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) free to pursue a
monumentalism derived essentially from Renaissance ideology, and others to
celebrate Victorian values in the form of patriotic and historical figures,
likewise executed in the grand manner of earlier times, it wasn't until the
emergence of modern 20th century sculptors like Constantin Brancusi (1876-
1957), Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916) and Naum Gabo (Naum Neemia
Pevsner) (1890-1977), that sculpture really began to change, at the turn of
the century. For the influence of tribal cultures on the development of 20th
century sculpture, see: Primitivism/Primitive Art. In this regard see the work
of Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (1891-1915) and his mentor Jacob Epstein (1880-
1959). In particular, note the impact of African sculpture on modern sculptors
of the Ecole de Paris.

In fact, the early decades of the 20th century saw fine art in a ferment. The
revolutionary Cubism movement, invented by Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and
Georges Braque (1882-1963), smashed many of the hallowed canons of
traditional art, and triggered a wave of experimentation in both painting and
sculpture. The latter was significantly redefined by a series of sculptors
like Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968) - see his "readymades" - Jacques
Lipchitz(1891-1973), and Alexander Archipenko (1887-1964), as well as
Brancusi, Boccioni and Gabo. Representationalism was rejected in favour of
new abstract expressions of space and movement, often using non-traditional
materials never before used in sculpture.

In the wake of Cubism, The Great War (1914-18) and the 1917 Bolshevik
Revolution had a further huge impact on artists across Europe, as exemplified
in the influential iconoclastic movements of Dada and Constructivism.
Sculptors joined painters in producing works of art reflecting new icons like
the machine, as well as new ideologies of design (eg. Bauhaus design school
theories), and form (eg. the incredible Merzbau of Kurt Schwitters).

The 1920s in Paris saw the emergence of Surrealism, a hugely influential

movement which sought a new "super-realism" in a style which embraced
both abstraction and naturalism. Famous surrealist artists working in 3-D
include: Salvador Dali (1904-89) who produced his surrealist Mae West Lips
Sofa and Lobster Telephone; Meret Oppenheim (1913-85) who created Furry
Breakfast; and FE McWilliam (1909-1992) who produced Eyes, Nose and
Cheek. Other modern sculptors like Jean Arp (1886-1966) as well as Henry
Moore (1898-1986) and Barbara Hepworth (1903-75) - leaders of modern
British sculpture - were experimenting with new forms of biomorphic/organic
abstraction, while the American Alexander Calder (1898-1976) was pioneering
mobile sculpture and kinetic art, and David Smith (1906-65) was developing
abstract metal sculpture. Many sculptors developed their style as the century
progressed: Alberto Giacometti (1901-66), for instance, began in surrealist
mode during the 1920s and 1930s before perfecting his unique semi-abstract
figurative works. See also the modernist British-American artist Jacob
Epstein (18801959), whose bold figurative works proved highly
controversial.

Post-War Sculpture (1945-70)

No sculpture emerged in New York or Paris to compare with the predominant

painting style of Abstract Expressionism (c.1945-62), although innovation
there certainly was, chiefly in the use of new materials and a growing mood of
conceptualism - a style which focuses on the idea behind the 3-D object,
rather than the object itself - as well as a blurring between painting and
sculpture. Major innovations - mostly by American sculptors, but
see Destroyed City (1953) by the Russian sculptor Ossip Zadkine (1890-
1967) - included the "sculptured walls" of Louise Nevelson (1899-1988) -
assemblages composed of found objects, mostly wood, sprayed in white,
black or gold paint and arranged in box-like shelves occupying a wall; the felt
sculptures of Robert Morris (b.1931); the neon and fluorescent works of Bruce
Nauman (b.1941); the works of Cesar (1921-98) made from car-parts; the
junk sculptures (eg. heaps of broken telephones) of Arman (Armand
Fernandez) (b.1928); the kinetic art of Jean Tinguely (1925-1991) and the
abstract sculpture of the British artist Sir Anthony Caro (1924-2013).

Pop-Art Sculpture

Chronologically, the first major post-war movement involving sculptors, was

1960s Pop-Art, which originated in the pioneering work of Robert
Rauschenberg (1925-2008) and Jasper Johns (b.1930) during the 1950s.
Famous Pop sculptures include: Japanese War God (1958) by the pioneer
Eduardo Paolozzi (b.1924), Ale Cans (1964) by Jasper Johns, the canvas,
foam rubber and cardboard Floor Burger (1962) and Giant Fag-Ends (1967)
by Claes Oldenburg (b.1929), and the witty Joe Sofa (1968) by the Italians
Jonathan De Pas (1932-91), Donato D'Urbino (b.1935) and Paolo Lomazzi
(b.1936) - all showing traces of earlier surrealist art. Pop sculpture isn't
serious but it's great fun.

Minimalist Sculpture

In complete contrast to Pop art, 1960s Minimalism explored the purity of

ultra-simplified forms to the point of absurdity. Famous Minimalist sculptors
include Sol LeWitt (b.1928) - the American conceptual artist noted for his
skeletal, geometric box-like constructions; the uncompromising simplified
forms of Donald Judd (1928-94); the experimental artist Walter de Maria
(b.1935); and the Massachusetts-born Carl Andre (b.1935). Minimalist
sculpture can be fully appreciated by anyone with a PhD in Fine Art
Interpretation.

Land Art: Environmental Sculpture

The 1960s also witnessed a completely new type of sculpture known as Land
Art (Earthworks, or Environmental art). Like kids building sand castles on the
beach, artists rushed out into the wilds and dug, excavated and re-shaped the
natural landscape to create (what they hoped was) art. The pioneer
environmental sculptor was the pessimistic Robert Smithson (1938-73).
Latterly, the artist-couple Christo and Jeanne-Claude Javacheff have achieved
fame by wrapping parts of the environment in coloured fabric, while Andy
Goldsworthy (b.1956) specializes in temporary environmental sculptures (eg.
made of snow) that decompose or disappear.
Postmodernist Contemporary Sculpture

By 1970, an increasing amount of contemporary art was becoming extremely

experimental - art critics might say wacky, incomprehensible and kitsch-like.
From the 1970s onwards, this tendency was christened "Postmodernist art".
Nobody really knows what this word means, and, if they do, they can't explain
it. As far as postmodernist sculpture is concerned, the best one can say is
that it takes sculpture to the limit of three-dimensional expression, and
frequently crosses over into other art-forms like installation, pureassemblage
art and even theatre. One of the most famous postmodernist sculptors is the
Indian-born British Turner Prize Winner Anish Kapoor(b.1954).

Damien Hirst

Postmodernism is exemplified by the works of Damien Hirst (b.1965), the

ingenious, market-driven leader of the 1980s Young British Artists movement,
who achieved world-wide fame for The Physical Impossibility of Death in the
Mind of Someone Living (1991), a dead Tiger shark pickled in a tank of
formaldehyde - Is it a sculpture or installation? Nobody really knows. Other
controversial works by Hirst include: Virgin Mother (2005) a huge work
depicting a pregnant female human, cut away to display the fetus, muscle
tissue and cranium; and his diamond encrusted skull For the Love of
God(2007). Critics claim Hirst is no more than a very innovative showman,
but collectors - as well as the public - seem to love him. Let history have the
final say on this multi-millionaire artist.

Not all contemporary sculpture is controversial as Hirst's dead shark. The

late-20th century has witnessed a number of exceptional sculptors working in
more or less traditional modes, albeit with a modernist conception. Famous
examples of contemporary sculpture include: the large scale metal sculptures
of Mark Di Suvero (b.1933), the monumental public forms of Richard
Serra(b.1939), the hyper-realist figures of Duane Hanson (1925-96) and John
De Andrea (b.1941), the environmental structures of Antony
Gormley (b.1950), the fabulous realist figures of Rowan Gillespie (b.1953),
the innovative Neo-Pop works of Jeff Koons (b.1955), and the surrealist
Maman spider sculptures of Louise Bourgeois (1911-2010).

Acclaimed sculptures of the early 21st century include works by Eduardo

Chillida (1924-2002) (eg. the iron piece Berlin, 2000, Bundeskanzleramt,
Berlin-Tiergarten); by Sudobh Gupta (b.1964) and Damian Ortega (b.1967),
among others too numerous to mention.

See also: Irish Sculpture.

Architectural Sculpture

Although outside the scope of this article, mention should be made of great
iconic works of architectural sculpture, including: The Colossus of Rhodes, The
Statue of Liberty, The Eiffel Tower, Nelson's Column, The Chicago Picasso,
and The Dublin Spike, among others.