Answers

1 Introduction and Review

1-1. The controlled variable is the monitored or measured output variable from a process that
must be controlled to within set limits. The manipulated variable is the input variable to a
process that is controlled by a signal from a controller to an actuator. By controlling the
input variable, the output variable in held to within its set limits.

1-2. The set point is the reference level to which the variable signal is compared. The error
signal is the difference between the set point and the measured variable. The correction
signal is the signal that is sent to the actuator by the controller in response to, and to
change the manipulated variable to correct the error signal.

1-3. 1 lb = 0.454 kg
63 kg = (63/0.454) lb = 138.77 lb

1-4. 1 ft = 0.305 m
1 in = (0.305/12) m = 25.42 mm = 25420 m
0.73 m-in = (25420 x 0.73 x 10-3) m = 18.56 m

1-5. 1 psi = 6.897 kPa

38.2 kPa = (38.2/6.897) psi = 5.54 psi

1-6. 1 ft-lb = 1.356 J

195 J = (195/1.356) ft-lb = 143.8 ft-lb

1-7. 1 lb = 4.448 N
385 N = (385/4.448) lb = 86.55 lb

1-8. 1 hp = 746 W
746 1.2 100
1.2 hp = (746 x 1.2) W = A = 8.75 A
110 93

1-9. 1 ft-lb = 1.356 J

27 ft-lb = (1.356 x 27) J = 36.6 J

1-10. Sensitivity = (17.5/7) mV/0 C = 2.5 mV/0 C

1-11. % FSD accuracy = (3 x 100/120) % = 2.5 %

1-12. Absolute accuracy = (25 x 4.5/100) % = 1.125 %

1
1-13. % FSD accuracy = (2 x 100/125) % = 1.6 %
% Span accuracy = (2 x 100/95) % = 2.1 %

1-14. Error (FSD) = (500 x 7/100) 0 F = 350 F

Error (Span) = (520 x 7/100) 0 F = 36.40 F

1-15. % FSD accuracy = (3 x 100/120) kg = 2.5 kg

% Span accuracy = (3 x 100/110) kg = 2.7 kg

1-16. % FSD accuracy = (0.5/129.9) % = 0.385 %

Absolute accuracy = 0.050 C
Resolution = 0.10 C

1-17. (a) Absolute accuracy = (45 x 0.5/100) fps = 2.25 fps

(b) Absolute accuracy = (100 x 0.5/100) fps = 0.5 fps

1-18. % FSD accuracy = (5 x 100/150) % = 3.3 %

% Span accuracy = (5 x 100/100) % = 5 %

1-19. Hysteresis = 7 % FSD See Figure S-1 (a).

1-20. Linearity 6 % FSD See Figure S-1 (b).

100 100
Gauge Reading psi

Gauge Reading psi

80 80 Actual
Curve
60 60
40 40 Best Fit
20 20 Linear
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
True Reading psi True Pressure psi

(a) (b)
Figure S-1
Graphs for (a) Problem 1-19, and (b) Problem 1-20.

2
2 Basic Electrical Components

3 10 8
2-1. = c/f = m = 1.3 m
230 10 6

2-2. 110 V p-p = 55/2 V RMS

2
55 1
P = E /R =
2
W = 22.24 W
2 68

2-3. R = L/A
950 3.14 0.16 0.16
L = RA/ = in = 0.36 in
4 53

2-4. R2 = R1 (1 + T), 183 = 130 (1 + 0.0045 T)

183 1
0 0
53
T= 1 C= C = 90.6 0 C
130 0.0045 130 0.0045
Final temp = 20 + 90.6 = 110.60 C

2-5. I = E/R = 17/133 A = 0.128 A = 128 mA

1 1 1 1
2-6. = + +
R 7.5k 12.5k 14.8k
7.5 12.5 14.5
R= k = 3.49 k
(12.5 14.8) + (12.5 7.5) + (14.8 7.5)
E = IR = 3.49 k x 2.7 mA = 9.42 V

2-7. R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 7.5 + 12.5 + 14.8 k = 34.8 k

E = IR = 34.8 k x 2.7 mA = 93.96 V

2-8. Equivalent of 7.5 k, 4.3 k, and 8.7 k in parallel = 2.08 k

Equivalent of 6.3 k, and 4.6 k in parallel = 2.66 k
Equivalent of 2.08 k, 11.8 k, and 2.66 k in series = 16.54 k
I = E/R = 18 V/16.54 k = 1.09 x 10-3 A = 1.09 mA

2-9. For 7.5 k E = 20.25 V, for 12.5 k E = 33.75 V, for 14.8 k E = 39.96 V
sum of voltages = 93.96 V, i.e. same answer as Problem 2-7, therefore Law holds

2-10. I in 7.5 k = 1.28 mA, I in 12.5 k = 0.768 mA, I in 14.8 k = 0.65 mA

sum of currents = 2.7 mA, same answer as Problem 2-6, therefore law holds

16 4.3
2-11. Volts at A = V = 4.91 V,
9.7 + 4.3

3
 16 3.7
Volts at C = V = 4.97 V,
8.2 + 3.7
Difference voltage = 4.91 V 4.97 V = - 0.06 V

2-12. C = A/d,
4.8 2.2 3.7 10 6
d = A/C = m = 9.1 x 10-3 m = 9.1 mm
4.3 10 9

2-13. Xc = 1/2fC,
1 10 9
f= = Hz = 2.84 x 103 Hz = 2.48 kHz
2CX C 2 3.14 3.2 0.02 10 6

2-14. I = E/R = 18/0.02 x 106 = 0.9 mA p-p = 0.318 mA RMS

1 1 1 1
2-15. = + +
C 110 pF 93 pF 213 pF
110 93 213
C= pF = 40.75 pF
110 93 + 110 213 + 93 213

340 840
2-16. Equivalent of 340 pF and 0.84 nF in series = pF = 242 pF
340 + 840
Equivalent of 242 pF and 0.43 nF in parallel = 242 + 430 pF = 672 pF
Equivalent of 0.52 nF and 190 pF in parallel = 520 + 190 pF = 710 pF
1 1 1 1
Equivalent capacitance is given by = + +
C 762 pF 710 pF 230 pF
672 710 230
C= pF = 138 pF
672 710 + 672 230 + 710 230

2-17. L = N2A/d,
2.8 5.6 10 7 10 4
N= = 1472 turns
10 3 10 2 4.7 3.14 0.7 2

2-18. XL = 2fL,
X 11.4 10 3
L= L = = 0.79 x 10-3 A = 0.79 mA
2f 2 3.14 2.3 10 6

L1 L2 4.2 8.7
2-19. L= = mH = 2.83 mH
L1 + L2 4.2 + 8.7

2-20. Equivalent of 720 uH in parallel with 1.2 mH = 450 uH

Equivalent of 450 uH in series with 2.1 mH = 2.55 mH
Equivalent of 1.6 mH in series with 890 uH = 2.49 mH

4
Equivalent of 2.49 mH in parallel with 2.55 mH = 1.26 mH
Equivalent of 2.7 mH in series with 1.26 mH = 3.96 mH

5
3 AC Electricity
3-1. T = CR,
T 15 10 6
R= = = 150 x 103 = 150 k
C 0.1 10 3

3-2. After1st CR voltage = 18 x 63.2 % V = 11.376 V

During 2nd CR voltage = (18 11.376) x 63.2 % = 6.624 x 63.2 % v = 4.186 V
Final voltage = 11.376 V + 4.186 V = 15.56 V

3-3. T = L/R
L 21 10 6
R= = = 1680 = 1.68 k
T 12.5 10 3

L 585 10 6
3-4. T= = s = 31.6 x 10-9 s = 31.6 ns
R 18.5 10 3

3-5. E2 = VR2 + (VL VC)2

VR = (122 + [16.8-9.5]2) = (144 53.29) = 90.71 V = 9.52 V

3-6. IR = 9.52/14 x 103 = 0.68 mA,

X VL 16.8 10 3 10 3
f = L = = Hz = 15.74 kHz
2L I L 2L 0.68 6.28 250

VC 1
3-7. XC = =
I C 2fC
IC 0.68 10 3
C= = F = 0.72 x 10-9 F = 0.72 nF
VC 2f 9.5 6.28 15.74 10 3

1 1 10 5
3-8. f = = = Hz = 11.88 x 103 Hz = 11.88 kHz
2 LC 6.28 0.25 0.72 10 9 6.28 1.34

E 12
3-9. I at resonance = = A = 0.86 mA
R 14 10 3

3-10. XL = 2fL = 6.28 x 23.5 x 103 x 0.25 = 36.89 k,

1 10 6
XC = = = 9.4 k
2fC 6.28 23.5 0.72
E 12 10 3 12
Is = = = mA = 0.39 mA
R 2 + (X L X C ) 14 2 + 27.5 2 30.86
2

6
 E 15.5
3-11. IR = = = 2.38 mA
R 6.5 10 3

E 15.5 6.28 54 10 3 6
3-12. IC = = 15.5 2fC = = 31.5 mA
XC 10 9

E 15.5 15.5 10 3
3-13. IL = = = = 19.9 mA
X L 2fL 6.28 54 10 3 2.3

3-14. IS = (IR2 + [IC IL]2) = (2.382 + 11.62) mA

= (5.66 + 134.56) = 140.2 mA = 11.84 mA

1 1 10 6
3-15. f = = Hz = Hz = 42.9 kHz
2 LC 6.28 2.3 6 10 12 23.3

3-16. Ic at resonance = 15.5 x 2fC = 15.5 x 6.28 x 35 x 103 x 6 x 10-9 = 20.44 mA

3-17. Is at resonance = 15.5/6.5 mA = 2.38 mA

110 125
3-18. Vs = V = 7.55 V
1820

7.55 2
3-19. P = = 25.9 mW,
2.2 10 3
110 2 10 3
R= k = 467 k
25.9

N 2 I 2 133 3.45
3-20. Current in primary = = A = 0.524 A
N1 875

7
4 Electronics
4-1. Analog circuits are where the input and output levels are continually varying.
Digital circuits are where the input and output levels are fixed, and have only two levels
high and low.

4-2. Stage gain = u x R = 5.8 x 8.2 = 47.56

4-3. R = gain/u = 33/5.8 k = 5.7 k

4-4. Gain = R/1.3 k = 285/1.3 = 219

4-5. R = gain x 1.3 k = 533 x 1.3 k = 693 k

4-6. R = 470 x 1.3 k = 611 k See Figure S-2.

R =611 k

R =1.3 k
-

+
Eout
Ein

Figure S-2
Answer for Problem 4-6.

4-7. The Offset null is used to set the output of an op-amp to zero when the differential
input is zero.

4-8. Eout = - 14 x 10-6 x 56 x 103 = - 0.784 volts

4-9. Transfer ratio = output/input = 27 mV/1 uA = 27 mV/uA = 27 V/mA

4-10. R1(R3 + R5) = R2R4

3.5(95 + 1.5)
R2 = k = 135.1k
2.5
I out R 135.1 mA
= 2 = = 25.7 mA/V
Ein R1 R3 3.5 1.5 V
27.5 3.8
I out = 3 = 0.098 mA
10 10 3

8
4-11. Iout/Ein = 8.5 = 100/3.5 R3
R3 = 100/8.5 x 3.5 k = 3.36 k

[17 ( 21)] 83
4-12. Vout = Vin x gain = mV = - 985.6 mV = - 0.986 V
3.2

4-13. Base number in binary is 2

4-14. 1011001 = 26 + 24 + 23 + 20 = 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 89

4-15. 0037 = 100101

4-16. 011010011100 = 0110-1001-1100 = 6-9-C

4-17. 111000111010 = 1110-0011-1010 = E-3-A

4-18. (a) byte = 8 bits (b) word = 16 bits

4-19. 1 output indicates sourcing

4-20. The gates used in digital circuits are; Buffer, Inverter, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR,
and XNOR.

9
5 Pressure

5-1. p = h
17.63 12 12
h= ft = 40.66 ft
62.4

5-2. p = 123 m x 9.8 kN/m3 = 1205.4 kPa

5-3. 1 psf = 0.048 kPa

1038 psf = 1038 x 0.048 kPa = 49.8 kPa

5-4. 1 psi = 5.17 cm of Hg

14.75 psi = 14.75 x 5.17 cm of Hg= 76.26 cm of Hg

5-5. Volume = 2.2 x 3.1 x 1.79 = 12.2078 ft3

1003 173
SW = lb/ft3 = 67.98 lb/ft3
12.2
SG = 67.98/64.2 = 1.09

5-6. Pressure = 5.7 x 9.8 x 0.83 kPag = (46.4 + 101.3) kPa a = 147.7 kPa a

763 4 27 4
5-7. Pressure = Force/ area = =
3.14 3.2 3.2 3.14 r 2
27 3.2 2
r= ft = 0.36 ft = 0.6 ft = 7.2 in
763

5-8. SW of liquid = 35.3 lb/ft3 x 4/3 lb/ft3 = 47 lb/ft3

SG = 47/62.4 = 0.75

5-9. Buoyancy Force = (15.5 8.7) x 9.8 N = 66.64 N

66.64
V= m3 = 0.0088 m3
9.8 770
15.5 9.8
SW = N/m3 = 17.26 kN/m3 = 1761 kg/m3
0.0088

283 62.43
5-10. p = + 14.7 psia = 402.3 + 14.7 psia = 417 psia
0.305 12 2

5-11. SW = 7.38 x 62.43 lb/ft3 = 460.7 lb/ft3

SW = 7.38 x 1000 kg/m3 = 7380 kg/m3

5-12. 25 kPa = 25 x 0.145 = 3.625 psi

49 kPa = 49 x 0.145 = 7.105 psi

10
 83 kPa = 83 x 0.145 = 12.035 psi

5-13. Force = 2.9 x 1.7 x 14.3 x 12 x 12 lb = 10,151.86 lb

103 1.26 62.43

5-14. Differential P = psi = 4.69 psi
12 3

1.9
5-15. 1.9 m = ft = 6.23 ft
0.305
10.3
10.3 cm = ft = 0.34 ft
100 0.305
Pressure = 6.23 x 62.43 + 0.34 x 62.43 x 13.55 + 14.7 x 12 x 12 psfa
= 389 + 287.5 + 2116.8 psfa = 2793.3 psfa

11.7 12 0.93 62.43

5-16. pressure = psi = 4.71 psi
12 3

8.7 0.305 3.7 3.14

2

5-17. Force = N = 0.14 N

12 4

107.5 12 2
5-18. Head of water = head = 248 head of water
62.43

5-19. Pressure = 270 x .019 psig = 5.13 + 14.7 psia = 19.83 psia

5-20. Pressure = 9.8 x 0.7 x 1.37 kPa = 9.4 kPa all cases
Weight 1st container = x 0.3 x 0.3 x 0.5 x 1.37 x 106 + x 0.55 x 0.55 x 0.2 x 1.37 x 106
= 193.6 + 260.3 = 453.9 kg = 4.4 kN
Weight 2 container = x 0.3 x 0.3 x 0.7 x 1.37 x106 = 271.2 kg = 2.66 kN
nd

Weight 3rd container = 193.6 + x 0.3 x 0.3 x 0.2 x 1.37 x 106/4 = 193.6 + 19.4
= 213 kg = 2.09 kN

11
6 Level
6-1. p = h
4.7 144
= lb/ft3 = 39.8 lb/ft3
17

127 10 3
6-2. h= m = 10.8 m
9.8 1.2 10 6

6-3. 15 lb = 15 x 4.448 N = 66.72 N = 6.81 kg

V = 6.81/785 m3 = 0.00867 m3

833 10 6
6-4. = g/m3 = 630 g/m3
9.8 135 10 3

6-5. Buoyancy = 17 3 lb = 14 lb
14
V= ft3 = 0.22 ft3
62.4
17
= lb/ft3 = 77.27 lb/ft3
0.22

6-6. Buoyancy + 72 kg = 1263 x V kg

V x 1000 + 72 = 1263 x V
72 3
V= m = 0.274 m3
263
Weight = 1263 x 0.274 = 345.8 kg

6-7. Weight of liquid = 533 52 lb = 481 lb

4W 4 481
L= = ft = 0.48 ft = 5.7 in
d 2
63 3.14 4.5 2

4W 4 1578
6-8. d= = m = 0.87 m
L 3.2 3.14 830

6-9. d=
(Cd Ca )r
Ca
=
(Cd Ca )r = (283 25)13 12 = 13
d Ca 4 31 25

Cad 65 1.7 75
6-10. Cd = + Ca = + 75 pF = 3453 + 75 pF = 3528 pF = 3.5 nF
r 2.4

12
 32 3.14 3.2 2
6-11. Weight = p x A = N = 257.4 N = 26 kg
4

62.4 55
6-12. p = d = psf = 286 psf = 1.99 psi
12

28
6-13. d = p/ = m = 0.05m = 5 cm
560

470 3.14 4.7 4.7 0.132

6-14. F = d2h/4 = kg = 0.107 kg
4 100 100

F 3.2 12
6-15. d = = ft = .0907 ft = 1.09 in
h 33 3.14 45

47 20.88 12
6-16. = p/d = lb/ft3 = 58.88 lb/ft3
200

6-17. d = (Cd Ca) r/Ca =

(7400 157 ) 2.7 m = 1.58 m
79 157

d 2 h 61 3.14 8 8 42
6-18. F1 = = = 11.54 lb
4 4 100 100 12 0.305 0.305
2 = 732/16.02 = 45.7
5.9
45.7 3.14 8 8 42 +
2d h
2
2.54
F2 = = = 9.12 lb
4 4 100 100 0.305 0.305 12
Difference = 11.54 9.12 lb = 2.42 lb

2 10.5 0.305
6-19. t = d/Vel = s = 0.019 s = 19 ms
340

2 6.7 0.305
6-20. t = d/Vel = s = 0.012 s = 12 ms
340

13
7 Flow
7-1. Q = VA
3.2 4 12 12
V = Q/A = ft/s = 11.98 ft/s
3.14 7 7

7-2. A = Q/V
305 4
d= m = 0.0298 m = 2.98 cm
60 1000 7.3 3.14

239 0.1337 4
7-3. d= ft = 0.158 ft = 1.9 in
60 27 3.14

90 4 10 4
7-4. V= m/s = 1.7 m/s
3.14 0.82 0.82 10 6

0.73 3.14 23 23 3
7-5. Q= m /s = 0.03 m3/s = 30 L/s
4 100 100
0.03 4
d= m = 0.152 m = 15.2 cm
3.14 1.66

7-6. A1 V1 = A2 V2
6.3 3.14 8.1 8.1 4
d1 = ft = 0.75 ft = 9 in
5.1 4 12 12 3.14

3.14 5.5 5.5 97 0.1337 3

7-7. Q= ft /s = 2.14 ft3/s = 16 gal/s
4 12 12
2.4 3.2 3.2
Q(3.2) = ft3/s = 1.63 ft3/s = 12.19 gal/s
3.2 3.2 + 1.8 1.8
2.4 1.8 1.8
Q (1.8) = ft3/s= 0.514 ft3/s = 3.85 gal/s
3.2 3.2 + 1.8 1.8

7-8. R = VD/v
2000 1.7 12
V= ft/s = 0.1275 ft/s
10 5 3.2

7-9. m x h = mV2/2g
V = (2 x 32.2 x 273) ft/s = 132.6 ft/s

385 0.1337 12 12
7-10. V1 = ft/s = 2.13 ft/s
60 3.14 4.3 4.3

14
 385 0.1337 12 12
V2 = ft/s = 5.39 ft/s
60 3.14 2.7 2.7
2 2
p1 V1 p V
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2g 2g
62.4 144 5.39 5.39 2.13 2.13
p1 = [93 + 14.7] + + 0 0 14.7
144 62.4 2 32.2 2 32.2
249 62.4
p1 = psig = 93.2 psig
144 14.7

2 2
p1 V p V
7-11. + 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2g 2g
2
0 + 0 + 17 = 0 + V2 /2g + 1.5
V2 = 15.5 x 2 32.2 = 31.6 ft/s

109 0.1337 4 12 12
7-12. V = Q/A = ft/s = 68.9 ft/s
3.14 6.23 6.23
V12/2g = Z2
68.9 68.9
Z2 = ft = 73.7 ft
2 32.2

fLV 2
7-13. hL =
2 Dg
0.027 118 17 17 12
hL = ft = 24.5 ft
7 2 32.2

fLV 2 0.033 73 4.3 4.3

7-14. D = = ft = 0.43 ft = 5.2 in
hL 2 g 1.6 2 32.2

3.14 4.1 4.1 2

7-15. A2 = ft = 0.092 ft2
4 12 12
3.14 9.7 9.7 2
A1 = ft = 0.51 ft2
4 12 12
28200 0.1337
V2 = ft/s = 11.38 ft/s
60 60 0.092
11.38 0.092
V1 = ft/s = 2.05 ft/s
0.51
2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2g 2g
p1
+
2.05 2.05
+0=
(65 + 14.7 )144 + 11.38 11.38 + 0
62.4 2 32.2 62.4 2 32.2

15
 p1 = (183.92 + 2.01 0.065)62.4 = 11597.97 psfa = 80.54 psia = 65.84 psig

7-16. hL = kV2/2g
7.2 2 32.2
V= ft/s = 2.57 ft/s
3 1.5 + 6 0.9 + 7 8.5 + 9 0.085

C D AV 2
7-17. F =
2g
4.8 2 32.2 4 12 12
V = ft/s = 9.1 ft/s
0.35 0.79 6.3 6.3 3.14 62.4

C D AV 2
7-18. F =
2g
6.3 2 32.2
A= ft2 = 1.09 ft2
0.41 78.3 3.4 3.4
Length of side = 1.04 ft

7-19. 8 x 32/rev x 570 rev = 145920 in3/hr

Flow rate = 145920/231 gal/hr = 631.7 gal/hr = 631.7/60 gpm = 10.53 gpm

2 2
p1 V p V
7-20. + 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2g 2g
p1 p 2 V2 V1
2 2

= + Z 2 Z1
2g
because Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2
V1 A2 1.8 1.8
= = = 0.32
V2 A1 3.2 3.2
1.28 144 V2 0.32 0.32V2
2 2

=
62.4 62.4
1.28 144
V2 = ft/s = 14.3 ft/s
0.898
14.3 1.8 1.8 3.14 3
Q = VA = ft /s= 0.253 ft3/s = 1.89 gal/s
4 12 12

16
8 Temperature and Heat
0
8-1. F = (0C x 9/5) + 32 = (115 x 9/5) + 32 = 2390 F
0
F = (456 273)9/5 + 32 = 361.40 F
0
F = - 460 + 423 = - 370 F
0
8-2. R = (273 - 13) x 1.802 = 468.520 R
0
R = 1.802 x 645 = 1162.290 R
0
R = 460 - 123 = 3370 R
0
8-3. C = (115 32) x 5/9 = 46.10 C
0
C = 356 273 = 830 C
0
C = (533 x 0.555) 273 = 22.810 C
0
8-4. K = 273 - 215 = 580 K
0
K = - (56 + 32) x 5/9 + 273 = 224.20 K
0
K = 436 x 0.555 = 241.980 K

8-5. Heat = 3 ft3 x 62.43 lb x 15 BTU = 2809.35 BTU x 252 = 708 kcals

8-6. 15 x 0.089 x (189 t) = 5 x 8.35 (t 66)

1.335 (189 t) = 41.75 (t 66)
43.185t = 3007.815
t = 69.80 F

4.3 0.092 50 13.2 17 60 0

8-7. T increase = F = 258.20 F
1055

8-8. Calories = 129 x 0.031 x 157 = 627.84 cal

220 3.14 7 7 36.4 12

8-9. Heat = BTU/hr = 2852.11 BTU/hr
4 12 12 9

kATd 0.8 12 15 9 98
8-10. Q = = BTU/hr = 7471 BTU/hr
L 17

220 3.14 7 7 12(59.4 t )

8-11. = 30 0.22(t 23)
24 24 9
78.35 (59.4 t) = 6.6 (t 23)
11.87 x 59.4 11.87t = t 23
t = 705/12.87 = 54.80 F

52 14 0.17 25 54
8-12. Q = hA T = BTU = 2,784.6 BTU
60

17
8-13. Q =15 x 19 x 0.19 x 10-8{(125 + 460)4 (74 + 460)4} = 0.5415 x 10-8 (11.712-8.131) 1010
Q = 194 BTU/Hr

8-14. Change in L = 5 x 15 x 234 x 10-6 m = 0.017 m = 1.7 cm

2.5
8-15. = 115 x 156 x
12
2.5
= = 1.15 x 10-5/0 F = 11.5 x 10-6/0 F
12 115 156

8-16. 1.3 x 2.7 x 5.4 x 14 x 492 x 10-6 ft3 = 0.13 ft3 = 224.6 in3

8-17. R2 = R1 (1 + R {342 x 5/9})

3074/2246 = 1 + 190R
R = 0.3686/190 = 1.94 x 10-3 /0 C

8-18. R = 1998(1 + 243 x 0.0045) = 1998 x 2.0935 = 4183

8-19. Vout = (1773 67) x 40 x 106 x 5/9 = 0.0379 v = 37.9 mv

8-20. 63.2 % x (212 69) + 69 = 90.476 + 69 = 159.376 0 F

63.2 % (212 159.376) = 33.26 0 F
After 3.4s temperature = 33.26 + 159.37 0 F = 192.64 0 F

18
9 Humidity, Density, and Viscosity
9-1. Relative humidity = (a) 33 %, (b) 20 %, (c) 12 %

9-2. Dry bulb temperature = (a) 910 F, (b) 980 F, (c) 1150 F

9-3. Relative humidity = 64 %

9-4. Wet bulb t = 49.50 F.

Absolute humidity = 0.005 lb/lb (36 grains/lb)

9-5. Relative humidity = 18 %

Absolute humidity = 0.01 lb/lb (70 grains/lb)

9-6. Water vapor pressure = (a) 0.32 psi, (b) 0.175 psi

9-7. 25 %:- 0.0114 lb/lb (80 grains/lb), 95 %:- 0.0343 lb/lb (240 grains/lb)
Water required = 0.0343 0.0114 lb/lb (240 80 grains/lb)
= 0.0229 lb/lb (160 grains/lb)

9-8. 15 %, 420 F:- 10.5 BTU/lb, 0.0007 lb/lb (6 grains/lb)

80 %, 950 F:- 84.4 BTU/lb, 0.0286 lb/lb (200 grains/lb)
Heat = 84.4 10.5 = 73.9 BTU/lb
Water = 0.0286 0.0007 lb/lb (200 6 grains/lb) = 0.0279 lb/lb (194 grains/lb)

9-9. Water = 0.027 lb/lb (190 grains/lb)

9-10. 350 F: 12 BTU/lb 800 F: 39.4 BTU/lb

Heat = 39.4 12 BTU/lb = 27.4 BTU/lb

9-11. Space = 14 ft3/lb x 4.7 lb = 65.8 ft3

9-12. SW () = g = 1.395 x 32.2 lb/ft3 = 44.92 lb/ft3

44.9(42.7 3.5)
p = h = psf = 146.7 psf = 1.018 psi
12

9-13. SW = 32.2 x 1.234

p =32.2 x 1.234 x 54 psf = 2145.7 psf = 14.9 psi

9-14. air = 0.0037 x 32.2 lb/ft3

0.127
SG = = 1.066
0.0037 32.2

19
 AV 7.3 2 1.2 1.2 14.7 12
9-15. F = = lb = 0.337 lb
y 0.11 10 5

Fy 0.23 1.7 10 4
9-16. V = = ft/s = 4.43 ft/s
A 35 2.1 12

9-17. pH = log 1/0.0006 = 3.22

9-18. 3.5 = log 1/c1

1 1
c1 = 3.5 = g/l = 0.000316 g/l
10 3162.3
0.56 = log1/c2
1 1
c2 = 0.56 = g/l = 0.27 g/l
10 3.63
c1-c2 = 0.000316 0.27 g/l = 0.269684 g/l

9-19. 13.2 = log 1/c

1 1
c = 13.2 = g/l = 6.33 x 10-14 g/l
10 1.58 10 13

9-20. 7 = log 1/c

c = 1/107 = 10-7 g/l

20
10 Other Sensors
10-1. F = ma = 17 x 21 lb = 357 lb

10-2. a = F/m = 55/81 m/s2 = 0.68 m/s2

10-3. Torque = Fd = 33 x 13 lb-ft = 429 lb ft

10-4. F = T/d = 11/13 N = 0.846 N

10-5. Couple = Fd
d = 53/15 m = 3.5 m

10-6. F = c/d = 38/8 lb = 4.75 lb

10-7. w1 x d1 = w2 x d2
10 0.5
d2 = m = 0.31 m = 31 cm
16

15 2
10-8. w2 = ft = 6.38 ft
4.7

10-9. w = 3 x 2.7 lb = 8.1 lb

weight of basket = 8.1 6 lb = 2.1 lb

10-10. d = w/ = 0.73/2.3 m = 0.32 m = 32 cm

10 10 4
10-11. p = f/A = Pa = 5.66 Pa
75 75 3.14

23 3.14 9.2 9.2

10-12. F = pA = lb = 1528 lb
4

340
10-13. = v/f = m = 0.026 m = 2.6 cm
13 10 3

3 10 8
10-14. f = v/ = 2
Hz = 1.2 x 1010 Hz = 12 GHz
2.5 10

375
10-15. Difference = 10 log dB = 4.77 dB
125

21
 p
10-16. 67 = 20 log
0.0002
p
3.35 = log
0.0002
3.35
p = 10 x 0.00002 Pa = 0.0448 Pa

10-17. 3.83 = 10 log d/20

d = 100..383 x 20 = 2.415 x 20 ft = 48.3 ft

85
10-18. Change = 10 log = 10 x 0.385 dB = 3.85 dB
35

360
10-19. Angular sensitivity = = 0.20
115 16

63 1021
10-20. Pulses = p/s = 1072 p/s = 1.072 kp/s
60

22
11 Actuators and Control
11-1. Regulators are self compensating pressure reducers. The regulators can have internal or
external feedback and can use spring, weight, or external pressure for a reference.

11-2. Actuators are used to control flow rates at the input to a process. The actuator can be
electrically, pneumatic, or hydraulically controlled.

11-3. An instrument pilot-operated pressure regulator is a pressure regulator that is an

externally compensated regulator; it uses an external air supply to obtain feedback
amplification to enhance regulation and range.

11-4. An actuator that always opens when there is loss of a control signal has fail safe open
operation.

11-5. Regulators can be spring, weight, or pressure loaded.

11-6. Actuators can have electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic control.

11-7. Electrical contactors are used to switch electrical power to high voltage/current motors
and equipment and to give isolation between the low level voltage control circuits and the
high power circuits.

11-8. The position of a valve is communicated back to the controller using a potentiometer
attached to the valve drive control which gives an output voltage proportional to the
position of the valve in analog controllers or the position of the valve is monitored
optically or with magnetic sensors to give feedback in a digital system.

11-9. Optoisolators are used in low level digital electrical circuits to give voltage isolation and
ground separation between different system blocks.

11-10. A safety valve is used in pneumatic or hydraulic systems that can experience high
pressures to prevent system from exploding due to excessive pressure build up. This can
often be caused by failure in other parts of the system.

11-11. A DIAC is used to set the trigger voltage level of a TRIAC or similar solid state power
switch.

11-12. There are six types of solid state power control devices in common use they are; SCR,
TRIAC, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, and MCT.

11-13. The SCR is triggered on the positive half-cycle only, the TRIAC can be triggered on both
the positive and negative half-cycles. The saturation voltage of the TRIAC is higher than
that of the SCR.

23
11-14. The TRIAC is a triggered device where as the IGBT is a gate controlled device, the IGBT
has a faster turn on than the TRIAC and a slightly lower saturation voltage. The TRIAC
has a high reverse breakdown voltage, the IGBT has a low reverse breakdown voltage,
making it possible for the TRIAC to control both positive and negative going voltages,
but the IGBT can only be used with positive voltages.

11-15. There are five valve families in common use, they are; Globe, Butterfly, Diaphragm,
Ball, and Rotary Plug.

11-16. Within the family of Globe valves there are; variable rate opening valves, single and
double seating valves, straight through and angled, cage guided, split body, two way
valves (both diverging and converging), three way, fail safe open and closed etc.

11-17. CV = Q x (SG/Pd)

2
Q 1.8 60
2

SG =
78
Pd = psi = 1.51 x 1.25 psi = 1.9 psi
CV 88 62.4

11-18. A three position valve has three positions; firstly, a neutral position when the valve is
Off, secondly, an upper position where the In port is connected to the upper Out
port, and thirdly, a lower position where the In port is connected to a lower Out port.

11-19. To control the power, the maximum time constant is at half-power which is of the
cycle time.
cycle time = x 1/60 s = 4.17 ms

5 = 12 (1-e-t/RC)

From which t = 0.54 RC = 4.17 ms

C = 4.17/0.54 x 25 x 1000 x 1000 = 0.31 F

11-20. Voltage drop across bridge = 1.5 x 2 V = 3 V

Voltage seen by load = 120 3 1.6 V = 115.4 V

Power supplied to load = V2/R = 115.4 x 115.4/0.5 W = 26.6 kW

Current in load = 115.4/0.5 = 230.8 A

Power loss in diodes + SCR = 230.8 A x 4.6 V = 1.06 kW

24
12 Signal Conditioning
12-1. The two magnetic field sensors most commonly used are the Hall Effect device and the
Magneto Resistive Element.

12-2. Sensors are devices used to monitor physical variables and to give an output proportional
to the variable. Transducers are used to change the output of a sensor into another form
of energy that can be directly viewed or amplified for transmission with minimal loss of
information. A converter is used to convert signal format without changing the type of
energy, i.e. when converting a voltage into a current or digital signal.

12-3. Signals have to be conditioned to compensate for the following;

(a) Sensor output signals are not always referenced to ground.
(b) Sensors are temperature sensitive, i.e. the output changes with temperature.
(c) Adjust the sensitivity of the sensor.
(d) The variable monitored by the sensor and its output do not necessarily have a linear
relationship.
(e) Amplification of low level signals for noise reduction and transmission.
(f) Filtering for reduction or minimization of pick up and noise.

12-4. Gas from a regulated supply flows through a constriction reducing the pressure. A flapper
valve controlled by a sensor controls the rate of release of the gas from a nozzle and
hence the pressure.

12-5. To generate a 0.21 V reference voltage from 10 V (See Figure S-3)

0.21(10 + R1) = 10 x R1
2.1
R1 = k = 0.2145 k = 214.5
9.79
5 10
Feedback resistor (R2) = k = 142.86 k
0.56 0.21

+10 V
R2
10 k
0.21 V
- 5 k
-
+
+ Vout
R1
-
5 k
Vin = 0.21 V + R2

Figure S-3
Circuit for use with Problem 12-5.

25
12-6. Mechanical sensor movement can be converted into display signals by a mechanical
linkage and electrical signals using a potentiometer, or a linear voltage differential
transformer.

12-7. A reference temperature for a thermocouple can be provided by a constant temperature

enclosure for the cold junction, or measuring the temperature of the cold junction and
correcting the output signal electrically.

12-8. Strain gauges are normally mounted in pairs at right angles, so that only one gauge is
under strain and the other gauge is used for temperature correction in a restive bridge
circuit.

12-9. The transducers used with diaphragm type pressure sensors use strain gauges to convert
the strain in the diaphragm into resistance for electrical measurement or capacitive
sensors use capacitive changes to convert the movement in the diaphragm into electrical
signals.

12-10. The resistor is used to correct the potentiometer reading at the half full point, when the
tank is half full the potentiometer has reached 2/3rd of the final value. Hence the resistor
between the wiper and ground is given by (27 x 2/3) k = 18 k.

12-11. Amplifiers with non-linear elements in their feedback can be used for linearization, such
as logarithm and antilogarithm amplifiers.

12-12. The effect of a resistor in series with a non-linear element in a logarithmic amplifier is to
increase the gain at the higher input voltages, but does not affect the gain at the lower
input voltages.

12-13. A resistor in parallel with a non-linear element in a logarithmic amplifier will reduce the
gain at the lower input voltages, and only slightly reduce the gain at the higher input
voltages.

12-14. Linearization in digital circuits can be achieved using correction equations, or look up
tables.

12-15. Temperature corrections can be made by using a similar element in the adjacent arm of a
bridge set up as with a strain gauge. Look up tables for correction can be used, or
temperature sensitive elements to control the sensitivity of the output of the sensor as in
an amplifier.

12-16. The pressure ranges used in pneumatic equipment are 3 to 15 psi or 6 to 30 psi. Zero is
not used because of the difficulty of transmitting low pressures, and it can be used as a
failure mode.

12-17. Linearization of a potentiometer output controlled by a float on an angular arm, or a float

with a pulley and counter balance driving a potentiometer.

26
12-18. A differential capacitive measurement can be made in an AC bridge or using digital
techniques. An external capacitor can be used with a single capacitance to obtain a
differential capacitance.

12-19. The meter contacts to a RTD should be as close to the element as possible to eliminate
errors due to lead resistance, and the voltage drop due to supply current flowing in the
lead wires.

12-20. Direct line of sight sensors that are hard to use with transducers are sight glasses for level
indication, liquid in glass thermometers, rotameter for flow, U-tube manometers for
pressure, hydrometers for density, and sling psychrometer for humidity.

27
13 Signal Transmission
13-1. Data can be transmitted as analog signals using voltage or current levels, or as a digital
transmission over hard wired connections, digital transmission can be used over fiber-
optic cables or as RF signals.

13-2. In telemetry amplitude width modulation or frequency modulation are used.

13-3. RTD use two wire, three wire, or 4 wire connections. The two wire system is the least
expensive with the 4 wire system the most expensive but most accurate. The three wire
system uses compensation to correct for errors introduced in the wiring so that it
approaches the accuracy of the 4 wire system at medium cost.

13-4. The standard ranges are 3 to 15 psi and 6 to 30 psi for pneumatic signals, 0 to 5 V, 0 to 10
V, or 0 to 12 V for electrical voltage signals, and 4 to 20 mA and 10 to 50 mA for
electrical current signals.

13-5. Two techniques are normally used to convert digital to analog signals. A resistor network
can be used to convert the signals or pulse width modulation can be used.

13-6. Offset refers to the minimum signal level usually zero, whilst span refers to the range of
the signal, i.e. minimum to maximum.

13-7. There are several digital transmission standards, the two most common were the IEEE-
488 (1 > 2 V and 0 <0.8 V), and the RS-232 (1 +3 to +25 V and 0 - 3 to 25 V)
but in many cases are being replaced by other standards

13-8. An optoisolator is a photo-transistor optically coupled to a LED to enable the

transmission of digital signals between systems operating at different voltage levels.

13-9. Digital signals transfer data faster and more accurate than analog signals, are unaffected
by noise, can be isolated if the ground voltage levels are different, can be transmitted
over very long distances without loss of accuracy, and data can be stored.

13-10. A PLC has two modes of operation the I/O scan mode where the inputs are scanned for
new data, and the execution mode where the PLC evaluates the data received and sends
out the necessary corrective action signals.

13-11. Foundation Fieldbus has a transmission speed of 31.25 kb/s for the H1 and 100 Mb/s for
the HSE

13-12. A smart sensor is the name given to the integration of the sensor with a processor and the
all the circuits necessary to interface to the sensor, actuator, and a central computer via a
Fieldbus. The processor can supply the linearization to the sensor signal, temperature
correction, and PID control to the actuator.

28
13-13. PPM is a technique used in width amplitude modulation, to minimize the power
requirements by transmitting only a pulse that is coincident with the lagging edge of the
PWM signal. Hence, requiring less power than a PWM signal.

13-14. A ladder diagram is a method of programming a PLC, by representing the

interconnections between the elements by symbols, the interconnections look similar to
the rungs in a ladder.

13-15. Amplitude modulation uses less power than frequency modulation conserving on battery
power.

13-16. When using screened differential signal transmission; the main advantage of current
signals are that the current signals have zero as a failure mode, and current signals are
less susceptible to variations in line resistance, but take longer to reach their final value
than voltage signals.

13-17. Pneumatic signals are used in place of electrical signals for safety reasons, such as when
there is a chance that a spark from an electrical signal could ignite combustible material,
or cause an explosion in a volatile atmosphere.

13-18. A controller has two modes of operation; they are the I/O scan mode and the Execution
mode

13-19. There are 212 steps -1 for zero when using a 12 bit DAC, or 4095 steps, the percentage
resolution is 0.024 %.

13-20. Fieldbus H1 can have 240 devices per segment with 65,000 segments, Fieldbus HSE
unlimited devices, and Profibus can have 127 devices per segment with 65,000 segments.

29
14 Process control
14-1. On/Off action is the simplest form of control. The output variable from a process is
compared to a reference, turning the control signal to the input variable to the process
on or off depending on whichever is the greater.

14-2. Differential On/Off action is simple On/Off action with built in hysteresis to delay the
on and off switching points with respect to the reference.

14-3. In Proportional action the amplitude of the output variable is compared to a reference,
giving an output error signal with an amplitude proportional to the amount of the
deviation of the variable signal from the reference signal. The error signal is then used to
control the input variable by an amount proportional to the amplitude of the error signal.

14-4. Integral or Reset action is used to correct for long term corrective action, and applies a
correction signal that is proportional to the area between the measured variable and the
reference.

14-5. Derivative, Rate, or Anticipatory action is used to reduce the correction time that occurs
with proportional action alone. Derivative action senses the rate of change of the
measured variable, and applies a correction signal that is proportional to the rate of
change of the measured variable only.

14-6. See Figure S-4 (a).

14-7. See Figure S-4 (b).

14-8. See Figure S-4 (c).

14-9. See Figure S-4 (d).

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure S-4
Answers for Problems 14-6 through14-9.

14-10. See Figure S-5.

30
 Proportional
Amplifier
-
+
Variable
-
- -
+ Error + +
Set Point Signal Differentiator -
+ Correction
Signal
Figure S-5
Answer to Problem 14-10.

14-11. On/Off sensing can be used for level sensing, positioning sensing, limit sensing,
HVAC etc.

14-12. In proportional action the gain is adjusted for minimum correction time, with excessive
gain overshoot occurs and oscillation can occur, with too little gain the signal may not be
able to correct for a change in the measured variable.

14-13. The measured variable is the amplitude of the signal being measured. The error signal is
the difference between the measured variable and the set point.

14-14. Dead time is the time between when an error occurs and the time when corrective action
starts. Lag time is the time between when an error occurs and the time it takes to return
the measured variable to its set point, or the error signal is returned to zero.

14-15. The error signal is the difference between the measured variable and the set point. The
offset is that fraction of the error signal, which when amplified produces the correction
signal for a change in the measured variable.

14-16. Correction time can be reduced by minimizing time constants, or estimating the aiming
value of a time constant from the rate of change of a signal. Fast responding sensors. Use
digital versus analog for faster transmission time, Use derivative action in the PID loop.
Placement of temperature sensors as close as possible to the process when monitoring
flow.

14-17. Dead-band is a set hysteresis between the turn On level and turn Off levels in a
system to prevent rapid switching between the On and Off points.

14-18. Time constants slow down the response time of a process control loop.

14-19. Derivative action is not normally used for pressure control, level control, or flow control.

14-20. On/Off is normally used in systems with high inertia, or systems with a slow response
time to avoid rapid switching between states and are systems that have a set switching

31
point. Process control systems have low inertia and require continuous monitoring, and
feedback to give a fast response time.

32
15 P & ID
15-1. A hydraulic supply line.

15-2. See Figure S-6 (a).

15-3. Discrete and inaccessible to operator voltage indicator.

15-4. See Figure S-6 (b).

15-5. Converter used to change a 3-15 psi pressure measurement to a 4-20 mA current
measurement from a flow sensor.

15-6. See Figure S-6 (c).

15-7. Two way digitally operated valve, which is closed in the power fail mode

15-8. See Figure S-6 (d).

SR S S
SS
A B

C
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure S-6
Answers for Problems 15-2, -4, -6, -8.

15-9. Conveyer belt with a weight measurement sensor and transmitter.

15-10. Two way spring loaded, pneumatic operated valve, which is closed in the power fail
mode.

15-11. Documentation must be kept up to date to prevent time lost in maintenance, repair, and
modifications, as well as to prevent catastrophic errors.

15-12. Process engineering is normally responsible for P&ID.

15-13. P&ID documents are normally developed by an engineering team made up of engineers
from process engineering and control engineering.

15-14. The following information should be in a P&ID document;

Plant equipment, location size, pressure, liquid level, and usage.
All interconnect lines showing type.

33
 Motors with voltage, power, and current.
Instruments with location, function, loop number, and range.
Control valves showing type, type of control, valve action, temperature, pressure etc.
Safety valve range, regulator range and temperatures etc.
All sensing devices, recorders, transmitters, and loop number.

15-15. Information in a PLC documentation should be;

System overview and description of control process.
Block diagram of units in the system.
List of all inputs and outputs, destination, and number.
Wiring diagram of I/O modules, address of I/O point, and rack location.
Rung description, number, and function.

15-16. Information in an Alarm and Trip document should be;

Safety requirement specification.
Logic diagram and description.
Functional test procedures, and maintenance.
Monitor points, and trip levels.
SIS action if tripped or power lost.
Manual shut down procedures.
Restart procedures.

15-17. The SIS is an alarm and trip system to alert operators or maintenance of a malfunction, to
shut down a system in an orderly fashion when a malfunction occurs, or to switch failed
units over to standby units.

15-18. Sensors in process control are normally continuous monitoring devices where as in a SIS
they are normally limit sensing devices.

15-19. See Figure S-7 (a).

15-20. See Figure S-7 (b).

(a) (b)
Figure S-7
Answers for (a) Problem 15-19; Pressure loaded regulator, and (b) Problem 15-20; Pneumatic
operated butterfly valve.

34