Tectono sedimentary models of rift basins:

the Gulf of Suez and the Northern Red Sea

vorgelegt von: Frank Mller / Betreuer: Sven Egenhoff

Abstract

This report reviews models for the tectonical, sedimentary and stratigraphic evolution
of rift basins. At first pure shear, simple shear, heterogeneous stretching and plume
related rift basin models are presented at the basin and the sedimentary facies
model scale.
The different stratigraphic responses according to the tectonic evolution are
discussed in terms of the occurrence of pre-rift strata, syn-rift unconformity, syn-rift
strata, post-rift unconformity and post-rift strata.
The created stratigraphic classification is done based on the uniqueness of
sedimentary signatures occurring within the different geotectonic settings.
In the second part the northern Red Sea and Gulf of Suez stratigraphy is reviewed.
The geometry and kinematics of the rift are analysed and it is shown that the pure
shear model is applicable for these areas, in consideration of the inherited
geotectonic structures and therefore the formation of zigzag fault pattern.

Classification of rift basin stratigraphy (Figure 1)

Rift basins

A rift basin is defined as long, narrow continental trough that is bounded by normal
faults; a graben of regional extend. It marks a zone in which the entire thickness of
the lithosphere has ruptured under extensional stress. Therefore rift basis are
generated within the time span from initial rifting and rift-drift transition from which on
oceanic lithosphere is created at a spreading centre.

Pre-rift strata

In general strata deposited prior to rifting

according to the paleo-environment (Bradley et
al., 1984). The upper surface of the pre-rift strata
is the syn-rift unconformity or a superimposed
post-rift unconformity according to the
geotectonic evolution of the basin.
Fig. 1 Terminology of rift-basin stratigraphy
used by Bosence (1998)

Syn-rift unconformity (SRU)

The unconformity between pre-rift and syn-rift strata resulting from footwall uplift
respectively sea level fall, is either a local or widespread erosion surface. It is defined
Tectono-sedimentary models of rift basins Frank Mller

by an unconformity surface on rotated fault blocks with an overlap of syn- rift strata
characterised by the regular and progressive pitching out towards the margins.
The syn-rift unconformity is generated prior to and during rifting and so underlies syn-rift
strata.

Syn-rift strata

Sediments deposited in the active fault-controlled depocentres of the evolving rift.

Mechanical extension and subsidence of the basin (equivalent: rift phase of Falvey
(1974); synrift megasequence of Hubbard(1988)) also exert a strong control on
sedimentation and distribution of the syn-rift facies. The strata can show growth into
the active fault respectively repeated thinning into hangingwall basins (=fanning)
and facies variations (e.g. footwall derived fans) adjacent to faults. Furthermore
beds of the downthrown block may dip towards the footwall respectively the fault
surface in an orientation opposite to that produced by the drag (=rollover). These
movements generate soft sediment deformation structures (see Classification of soft
sediment structures SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES, John R.L. Allen, 1984). The term syn-
rift should be used in a local better than in a time-stratigraphic sense and therefore
show the above features indicating a syndepositional fault movement (Bosence,
1998).

Post-rift unconformity (PRU)

Erosional surface that marks the base of strata deposited during thermal or post-rift
subsidence phase of a basin (Badley et al., 1984).

Post-rift strata

Strata deposited during post-rift subsidence. These sediments gradually bury any
remaining rift-related topography of the basin and fill the cooling controlled
expanding accommodation space. Increase in density of lithosphere and
astenosphere, load of sediment and water do also have a large effect on the post-
rift subsidence rate which occurs spatially wider than the one induced by
mechanical extension.
The strata Hubbard (1988) called passive margin or the passive wedge is marked
by thick onlapping and offlapping. Stratigraphic sections which may be initially saw
tooth-shaped according to the unfilled rift-related topography.
Differential subsidence can be accommodated by planar and vertical normal fault
movement.

Geotectonic rift-basin models and their stratigraphic response

The following four different geotectonic models of rift basins are divided in two
groups: active (plume-related) and passive (pure shear, simple shear and
heterogeneous stretching) rift models. The passive type is characterised by tensional
stresses causing extensional plate movements and thus the input of hot
asthenospheric material is a passive response to lithospheric thinning. With the
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involvement of hot astenosphere caused by decompression melting, active rifting,

domal uplift and convective thinning occurs. The impingement of a thermal plume
or sheet on the base of the lithosphere also triggers these movements. The heating of
the lithosphere leading to rift uplift can only be realized by convection because
conduction and magma generation do not generate such high amounts of heat
flow from the astenosphere.
The following models illustrate the different stratigraphic relation and degree of
development of rift-related strata and unconformities in axial and lateral portions of
the rift basin.

Pure shear model stratigraphy (Figure 2)

Uniform and instantaneous

extension assumes the crust
to fail by brittle fracture.
The subcrustal lithosphere is
flowing plastical as reac-
tion on the extensional
stress. The arising isostatic
disequilibrium leads to a
compensating rise of the
astenosphere, and conse-
quent regional uplift, so the
homogeneous pure shear
Fig. 2 Pure shear model modified by BOSENCE (after McKENZIE) activates faulting and rota-
tion of strata in the brittle
upper crust.
The generated two rift border faults are dipping towards each other and the syn-rift
unconformity (SRU) develops over the footwall highs of rotated fault blocks. The
amount of initial fault controlled basin subsidence depends on the original thickness
of the crust and the amount of stretching. This regulation of the accommodation
space, together with the amount of sediment supply mainly controls the
development of the syn-rift strata thickness and fanning. The post-rift unconformity
(PRU) develops as a prominent surface extending laterally over the basin shoulders.
The second longer period of subsidence is thermally induced and caused by the
relaxation of lithospheric isotherms to their pre-stretching position. This basin scale
interaction generates the sag in which the post-rift strata occur.
The thermal subsidence decreases exponentially as a result of diminishing heat flow
with time. So the crust and fault-controlled subsidence is permanent, while the
thinning of mantel lithosphere is transient.

Simple shear model stratigraphy (Figure 3)

The lithospheric extension is accomplished by displacement along a large scale,

gently-dipping shear zone which traverses the entire lithosphere.
The displacement develops an asymmetric graben structure, partitioned into a
proximal and distal area. Rift flank uplift separating the two sites is related to an
unloading and flexural isostacy, which is synchronous with axial extension and sub-si-
dence (BRAUN & BEAUMONT, 1989).

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The subsiding and rotated

fault blocks over the lithos-
pheric detachment gen-
erate syn-rift strata accom-
modation space located in
the proximal site. Syn-rift
unconformity is locally
developed on those blocks
of the mechanically rifted
region. The distal region will
be uplifted in response to
mantel heating and upwel-
Fig. 3 Simple shear model modified by BOSENCE (after ling (WERNICKE, 1985). Thus
WERNICKE and BURCHFIEL, 1982) the deposited syn-rift strata
are eroded and the SRU
only appears in a local scale within this area. The PRU now affects the whole area
and represents a long-lived break in deposition superimposed on the syn-rift
unconformity in the distal area. This site is dominated by well developed widespread
post-rift strata in response to thermal subsidence, whereas the thermal subsidence
affecting the proximal area is smaller because of limited upper mantel thinning, so
the post-rift strata are thin.

Heterogeneous stretching model stratigraphy (Figure 4)

In the heterogeneous
model mechanical and
thermal subsidence are not
spatially separated like in
the simple shear model.
The upper crustal zone is
characterized by rotated
fault blocks propagating
away from the rift laterally.
The displacement executes
along a low angle lithos-
Fig. 4 Heterogeneous model modified by BOSENCE (after
COWARD, 1986) pheric detachment. The
underlying lower ductile
crust is affected by extension and thinning. This leads to an isostatic, local footwall
uplift and erosion of fault blocks within the inner zone.
Syn-rift strata may be present in the inner zone, but well preserved in the outer parts
caused by the propagating half-graben and therefore missing erosion. The
widespread PRU and post-rift strata may cut SRU in the formerly uplifted inner zone,
which accumulates large amounts of post-rift strata; whereas the sub-basins not
underlain by thinned lower crust/ upper mantel do only preserve poorly developed
post-rift strata as a response to slight thermal cooling and subsidence.

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Plume related model stratigraphy (Figure 5)

The plume related model is

based on a primarily rifted
and thinned continental
lithosphere. This passing
over a plume or a region of
hot astenosphere may
lead to decompression
and partial melting from
small rises in temperature
terminating in massive out-
pourings of basaltic lave
and related rifting. Plume
Fig. 5 Plume related model modified by BOSENCE (after WHITE related rifting has a large
and McKENZIE, 1989) effect because of the uplift
of extensional basins
through magmatic underplating and the dynamic support. The upwelling plume
causes lateral temperature gradients on the base of the lithosphere resulting in
horizontal variations in the normal stress (HOUSEMAN and ENGLAND 1986). Uplift then
occurs instantaneously, extending each rheological layer according to its own
deformation mechanism, caused by the imparting of excess potential energy in the
updomed area.
The stratigraphic relations in this model are controlled by the timing of the plume
affecting the stretching margin. Therefore two examples are given, when the plume
is synchronous with rifting and when it is prior to rifting (WHITE and McKENZIE, 1989).
The former characterized by SRU on footwall blocks covered by thick syn-rift
volcanics and limited thermal subsidence leads to relatively thin post-rift strata.
If the plume affects the system prior to rifting, the lithospheric doming begins and
raises the affected area up to 1-2 km high and 1000-2000 km broad accompanied
by synchronous extensional tectonism. This tectonic setting creates a significant SRU
followed by thick volcanic deposits. The post-rift strata also develops relatively thin
caused by the same limited thermal subsidence.

Application of rift models to the Gulf of Suez / northern Red Sea

General Setting (Figure 6)

The Gulf of Suez and the northern Red Sea as part of the Red Sea rift was initiated at
the end of the Oligocene located between the African and Arabian shield. The
Precambrian basement belongs to several superimposed orogenic cycles, the latest
being the Pan-African tectono-magmatic phase (about 500 Ma) which formed
the African craton, followed by early and late Palaeozoic magmatic events.

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Tectono-sedimentary models of rift basins Frank Mller

The surrounding Neogene tectonic setting includes (Figure 6):

Fig. 6 General setting

of the Gulf of Suez
and Red Sea .1.
Cenozoic volcanics;
2. basement/sedi-
mentary cover
boundary; 3. thrust
front; 4. fold axis; 5.
oceanic spreading
zone; 6. relative
movement of the
Arabian shield; AS-
Syrian folded Arc;
E.A.R-East Africa rift;
NJ-Nadj fault system
(after GENEBASS
group, published in
MONTENAT, 1986)

Taurus and Zagros orogenic belt in the north and north-east the Syric arc folds (AS)
Gulf of Aden oceanic spreading zone to the south-east
the Ethiopian rift to the south (E.A.R.)
Red Sea rifting succeeded the formation of the folded Syric arc in the late
Cretaceous to Eocene (CHOROWICZ and LYBERIS, 1987).
The inherited structural settings of this paleo tectonics are:
north-west/south-east faults, parallel to the basin axis (HUME, 1921), the so called
Clysmic trend,
north-north-east/south-south-west Aqaba trend, well developed in the Gulf of
Suez, but not that significant on the Red Sea margins (THIRIET et al., 1986),
the sub east-west or Duwi trend comprises large corridors of faults (JARRIGE et
al.,1986),
perpendicular to the fault axis, the cross trend, only occurs in the Gulf of Suez
and plays a minor role in the rift structure (OTT d`ESTOVOU et al., 1986).

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Settings of the Abu Ghusun area

Pre-rift strata

The pre-rift sedimentary cover is unconformably overlaying

the Precambrian basement. Those basement series include
various crystalline, metamorphic, volcanic and sedimentary
rocks with outcrops along the rift shoulders and within the
fault blocks. These units are related to the Pan-African
magmatic events (about 500 Ma) and have been
rejuvenated by evolving Cenozoic rifting.
Overlaying sediments of the pre-rift strata begin with a
continental terrigenous formation of sandstones, followed by
shaley and carbonate marine deposits. The Cretaceous
transgression advanced southwards into the Red Sea and
therefore the open marine sedimentation exists earlier in the
Gulf of Suez than in the northern Red Sea. For this reason the
pre-rift cover varies from about 2000 m in the northern Gulf
of Suez to 400800 m in the south respectively in the northern Fig. 7 surveyed areas, including
geological mapping by the
Red Sea. GENEBASS group (MONTENAT,
The rejuvenated east/west to north-east/south-west orien- 1986)
tated paleogeographic features are related to the Thetyan
influence and shown in the data of the French group GENEBASS (Figure 8).

The SRU shows only slight angularity and there is no major hiatus on the eastern
margin of the Gulf, so there is no evidence for widespread pre-rift doming in this
region.

Fig. 8 Relations be-

tween different sedi-
mentary units at the
Abu Ghusun are (see
Fig. 7), defined by
GENEBASS and pub-
lished by MONTENANT
et al., 1986

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Syn-rift strata

The syn-rift deposits

are separated in
three parts A to C
by the French Group
GENEBASS (Figure 8).
Deposits of the
group A are divided
in the sub-unit A1,
the Red series with
radiogenic K-Ar
ages ranging be-
tween 26 and 22 Ma
(late Oligocene to
Aquitanian), in-
Fig. 9 Synsedimentary deformation of the A1group related to contem-
poraneous wrench (regional strike-slip) faulting along N010 sinistral fault cluding red terri-
at Gebel Tarbul. A Outcropping structure 1 fault zone, 2 Eocene over- genous sediments (2
turned limestone (Thebes Fm.), 3 basial breccia of the red clastic Fm., 4
red clastics composed of reworked Nubian sandstone. B Synthetic view / 3, Fig. 8) and rare
of the structure. (C.MONTENAT et al.1988) basaltic dykes and
flows. Those fine-
grained sediments indicate a low relief
hinterland and were deposited on an
extensive low-relief region with shallow,
poorly drained depressions. PLAZIAT et
al. (1998) describes seismites
(convoluted structures, breccias,
sedimentary dykes, clay diapers,
liquefaction) induced by strong and
related earthquakes. Those indicators for
synsedimentary deformations can only
be preserved in flat depositional environ-
ments (Figure 9). The strike-slip deforma-
tion of the initial stage did not generate
high relief blocks and therefore had no
major influence on sedimentation
(Figure 11 A).
The second upper series A2 includes late
Aquitanian to early Burdigalian evapo-
rates and related anoxic sediments (4 /
5 / 6, Fig. 8). This series is tectonically
induced by antithetic normal move-
ments on Clysmic-trending (north-west /
south-east) faults (Figure 11 B). The con-
temporaneous ending of the strike-slip
Fig. 10 Syn-depositional tilt-block structures. A movement resulted in the generation of
Schematic map of block faulting which antithetical tilted blocks occurring in the
occurred during the deposition of evaporitic A2 Gulf of Suez and the northern Red Sea
unit. 1 basement, 2 evaporites, 3 fault, 4
foliation of metamorphic basement, 5 dip of (Figure 10). Due to the panels often
evaporites beds, c-d location of sections B & C. being separated by paleo-trending

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Tectono-sedimentary models of rift basins Frank Mller

faults, a zigzag pattern arose and groups of opposite dipping tilt-blocks are noted
(OTT d`ESTEVOU et al., 1987). The group A sediments are in general weakly uncon-
formable to conformable with the pre-rift strata.
The second group are the open marine deposits of the B formation, unconformably
overlaying the Group A or even the basement. Biostratigraphic data (PLAZIAT et al.,
1998) shows the late Burdigalian to Langhian age of these varying sedimentary facies
which are generated within distinct but spatially related environments (7 / 8 / 9 / 10,
Fig. 8).
The large amount of clastics within Group B sediments are an indicator for the
rejuvenation of fault blocks and reactivation of erosion.
So these are not due to persistent rotation of tilt-blocks
along listric faults but to the generation of a horst and
graben structure by the dislocation along predomi-
nantly synthetic faults (Figure 10). Thereby reefs are
built on structural highs and developing large car-
bonate talus are covering fault-scarps (PURSER et al.,
1998), while pelagic muds are accumulated in highly
subsident graben. The predominance of synthetic
faults result in the increase of the basinwards dip
marking the beginning of the flexuration stage. This also
indicates the centripetal migration of the subsidence
and coincides with maximum subsidence of the rift
(MORETTI and COLLETA, 1987).
The following unconformably overlying Group C is
generated within the mayor evaporation event during
rifting from Serravallian to late Miocene. Those deposits
mainly consist of sulphates locally associated with
stromatolitic carbonates. The thickness increases
significantly to the centre of the basin where halite was
deposited (11 / 12 / 13, Fig. 8). The horst and graben
patterns are sealed during deposition, especially the
algal mats and stromatolitic carbonates preceding the
evaporites and therefore seal morphologies (PRAT et
al., 1986).

Post-rift unconformity and strata

Group D following these successions overlie the Fig. 10 Block diagrams showing
evaporites unconformably or conformably depen- the polyphase tectonic evolution
ding on the structural position. If there is important of the rift (afterOTT d`ESTEVOU et
al., 1989). A Wrench-faulting
continental siliciclastic sedimentation (sand and con- stage with slightly subsident
glomerates), the peripheral basement is uplifted. partitioned rhombic panels. B Tilt-
block stage, antithetic Clysmic
Areas with open marine carbonates, calcarenites, normal faults cutting the panel. C
reefs and peri-reef sediments, were protected from Horst and graben stage, split
detrital sediments. blocks strongly subsided by
synthetic Clysmic faults.
The main events during the deposition are the halo-
kinetic movement of Group C evaporites and therefore strongly deformed Plio-
Pleistocene sediments (MART and RABINOVITZ, 1987). Because of the varying
signatures of salt tectonics the beginning of the post-rift strata can not exactly be
determined in this Red Sea area.

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Tectono-sedimentary models of rift basins Frank Mller

Conclusion

A number of described features such as inherited structures, formation of zigzag fault

pattern, initial strike-slip structural stage and polyphase extensional structures can be
seen as typical attributes of rift dynamics. The absence of extensive volcanism in the
early syn-rift phase, together with a widespread and significant pre-rift unconformity
argue against pre-rift updoming and therefore against an active rift model.
The symmetry of rift shoulders and basin, the formation of the rift shoulders synchro-
nous with rifting suggests that McKenzie`s (1978) pure shear model may be the most
appropriate.

References
ALLAN, Phillip A. (1997) Earth surface processes, Blackwell Science Publications.
ALLAN, Phillip A. and ALLAN, John R. (1993) Basin Analysis Principles & application,
Blackwell Science Publications.
PURSER, B.H. and BOSENCE D.W.J. (1998) Sedimentation and tectonics in rift basins
Red Sea Gulf of Aden, Chapman & Hall.
READING, H.G. (2000) Sedimentary environments Processes, facies and stratigraphy,
third edition, Blackwell Science.
WINDLEY, Brian F. (1997) The evolving continents, second edition, John Wiley & Sons.

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