Week 1

IMRaD
Title = is it good? must suggest problem & population, should identify type of study,
variables & participants
Abstract = synthesize main body of the report with focus on research question,
hypothesis, participants, method & design, statistical techniques, findings, and
conclusions
INTRO = state problem, lit review, conceptual framework, hypothesis or research
question
introduce reader to relevant professional literature both generally and specifically
research questions identifies purpose of study
rationale or justification found through literature presented as context/framework
for hypothesis
state hypothesis in such a way that predicted answer is clear
METHODS = research design and/or tradition
population and sample & setting
data collection & measurement
procedures
enhancement of rigour (qualitative)
RESULTS = data analysis
findings
theoretical integration (qualitative)
and DISCUSSION = interpretation of findings, implications of practice
reflect of manner of studys design and conduction (limitations, boundaries)
elaborate on interpretation of findings beyond what was done in results section
address significance of the study and findings, relate to earlier studies in the
same area
address possible intervening variables in the study that might explain why results
were forthcoming
suggest follow-up studies to reader
Conclusion/references = concluding statements, references, appendices, footnotes,
contact info, conflicts of interest/disclaimers
list of references reflects each cited source (consistent bibliographic citation)
elaborate on information provided earlier in article
author notes that provide insight regarding funding support for study, collegial
assistance
footnotes that elaborate on aspects of study that would have been misplaced or
distracting in main body

Hypothesis statements
make great exam questions!
gives insight to outcome
predictions of relationships between variables
can be a guess or tested
Research Hypothesis for Quantitative Research
Educated guess or presumption based on literature
States the nature of the relationship between two or more variables
Predicts the research outcome
Research study designed to test the relationship described in the hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis: precise statement indicating the nature and direction of the
relationship/difference between variables
Ex) I predict that students who come to class will have higher grades.
Non-directional Hypothesis: states only that relationship/difference will occur
Ex) Not coming to class will affect your mark.

Types of Data Analysis

Univariate = very simple, one variable (ex. the gender of students in the class) only gives
us info about sample, does not allow to make predictions about larger population
Bivariate = relationship between two variable, predicting relationship between sample
and population (ex. gender compared to test scores)
Multivariate = multiple variables, more complex statistical analysis possible

Data vs. Information

78, 79, 82, 79 these are meaningless, just numbers until given context (i.e. the
averages in KAs classes last term) then it becomes information.
Data = raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed; data can be something simple
and seemingly random and useless until it is organized
Information = processed, organized, structured data presented in a given context so it
becomes useful

Week 2
When to conduct lit review
You must conduct a lit review TWICE. The second one determines whether or not the
study findings were congruent with the findings of the studies in your literature.
Used by researchers to identify a research problem, orient to what is known and not
known, determine gaps or inconsistencies in a body of research, and assist with
interpretations.
Also used by non-researchers to acquire knowledge on a topic, evaluate current
practices, and develop evidence-based clinical protocols and interventions.

Sources of literature
Primary sources = written by someone who has observed or participated in an event,
must be read, including journals, final reports, or books with original research
Secondary sources = usually textbooks or encyclopaedias written by someone who has
not directly observed the described event; importance of these sources is that they
usually have a bibliography, which provides the reader with relevant primary sources
Stay within Canadian context (i.e. Stats Canada, CIHI, Health Canada, Bank of Canada)
Grey Literature = studies that are not widely distributed, may not have been published,
not peer-reviewed, may be difficult to obtain; excluding grey literature can lead to bias
and over estimation of effects

Levels of measurement:
Nominal = the values name the attribute uniquely (classification)
- the value does not imply any ordering of the cases (jersey numbers, dates on
calendar)
- these variables consist of categories that are non-ordered (race, gender)
 - a simple categorical variable is binary or dichotomous (1/0 or yes/no), for
example are students happy or not?
Ordinal = ranking, most typical scale of measurement in research
- ex. first, second, and the third place in a race = there is no measurable
difference between first and second place, but we know the order
- categorical, but we can say that some categories are higher than others (ex.
social class, level of education, etc.)
- we cannot measure the distance between the categories, only which is higher
or lower
- also an independent variable
Interval = scalar or index variables
- they provide a scale or index that allows us to measure between levels; we
can not only measure which is higher or lower, but by how much
- distance is measured between points on a scale with even units
- good example is temperature based on Fahrenhet or Celsius (no absolute
zero, you cant have no temperature, even if its 0 degrees its still there)
- ratios dont make sense (value of 80 is twice as much as 40, but it is not twice
as hot)
Ratio = has a zero point (for example, you can have NO income)
- similar to interval in that it can measure distance between two points, but can
do so in absolute terms
- is the STRONGEST level of measurement

Week 3
Types of data (primary and secondary)

Secondary = data has already been collected

Examples: researcher databases (common in Epi), vital statistics (birth/death
certificates), hospital & school records, private industry, governments, federal
agency stats (Census, etc.)
Limitations Advantages
- may be out of date for what you - no need to reinvent the wheel
want to analyse - it will save you money and time
- may not have been collected long - it may be very accurate
enough for detecting trends (depending upon who collected it
- incomplete data set, missing and how)
information on observations leaving - it has great exploratory value
analysis biased
- confounding problems (sample
selection bias, source choice bias)
- consistency/reliability: did
participants drop out? did variables
change?
- is the info exactly what you need?
are your proxy variables really what
you want to measure?
Counfounder = a variable that distorts the risk ratio or odds ratio of an exposure leading
to an outcome; it is a form of bias that can result in a distortion in the measure of
association between an exposure and a disease (must be eliminated for accurate
results)
- can occur when two groups are compared to one another, it is a mixing of effects
when groups are compared
- common confounders include age, socioeconomic status, and gender
- they must be associated with the disease being studies AND the exposure being
studied, it is not the casual pathway of interest (i.e. cannot cause the disease on its
own)

Primary
Examples: surveys, focus groups, questionnaires, personal interviews,
experiments and observational study
Limitations:
- do you have time and money to design collection instrument? select your
population sample? pre-test/pilot the instrument to work out sources or bias?
administrate the instrument? data entry?
- uniqueness; may not be able to compare to other populations
- researcher error, sample bias, confounders

Sampling (probability sampling)

Sampling is the process of collecting participants. A sample is a subset of the population.
Sampling bias is an over- or under-representation of a population.
Probability Sampling = requires resources and time
- reliable method of representing population
- avoids risks of bias
- allows researchers to estimate the magnitude of sampling error
- random selection of elements (each element has equal chance of being
selected)
Simple random sampling = use sample for a list of population elements, randomly
selects elements, cumbersome, not used in large surveys, no guarantee that the sample
is representative of the population
Stratified random sampling = population is divided into strata then randomly selected,
enhances representativeness, groups can be unequal
Cluster = successive random sampling, large to small, used in national surveys, has
larger sampling error than random, but is efficient
Systematic = taking the nth case, simple, random

Week 4
Surveys
Types of surveys:
- self-report data (a fundamental problem) = people respond the way THEY
want to, reflecting how they want to be seen, not always truthful
- face-to-face interviews, not the same as qualitative, but rather quantitative
questions asked in person
- telephone
- questionnaires, pretty much synonymous with surveys at this point
Survey Research: highly used and valuable form of research
- important to tie research to theory in order to add greater credibility
 - when doing this type of research, review existing surveys to learn about
effective designs
Mail surveys = follow up letters or telephone calls should be employed, greater return
equals less possibility for response bias
Internet surveys = email, survey monkey, Forms based survey

Types of Questionnaires:
Restricted or Closed = provides fixed-alternative questions that can be answered by a
simple yes or no or by checking a box
Open or Unrestricted = response categories are not specified, and the respondent is
allowed to answer in his or her own words (ex. you can ask a why? question)

Survey Error:
Sampling error = who are you sampling? how much sampling error can you tolerate?
how confident do you wish to be about estimates made from the sample?
Coverage error = does your list include everyone?
Measurement error = does everyone answer a question the same way?
Non-response error = why did respondent not answer? (Instrument = whole
questionnaire not returned, item = question not answered), compare early and
late respondents and determine if non-responders would answer differently and
change results

Interviews v Questionnaires
Interviews = investigator asks specific questions of a respondent and records responses,
- afford opportunity for in-depth analysis
- structured (specific set of questions)
- unstructured (no fixed agenda)
- Advantages = higher response rates
o appropriate for more diverse audiences
o opportunities to clarify questions or to determine comprehension
o opportunity to collect supplementary data through observation
Questionnaires = pen and paper response to a pre-determined set of questions,
- provides anonymity and encourages honesty
- questions should be standardized, valid, and reliable
- requires self-reporting & subject to bias recall
- Disadvantages = may not be able to explore responses in depth
o this problem may be alleviated with a good design (give open-ended
questions)
- Advantages = lower costs
o possibility of anonymity
o lack of interviewer bias

Question Types
Closed-ended = respondent selects from among several choices
Are you in university?
a. Yes
b. No

Response over a continuum = ordinal level of measurement,

 How important do you feel ___ is?
a. Very important
b. Important
c. Somewhat important
d. Not important
e. Not sure

Branching = certain questions only answered if specific response if given to another

question
1. Do you read People magazine?
a. Yes
b. No (go to question 3)
2. How much time do you spend reading People magazine?

Rank-order = responses determine a ranking

Number these 1-4 in order of important to you.
___ exercise
___ diet
___ education
___ entertainment

Open-ended = allows respondent to give their own answer

List three things you do every day.
________________________________
(qualitative findings can be quantified, assign numbers to responses)

Measurement Scales
Categorical = assigns or classifies
- gender
- diagnosis
- ethnic group
- ordinal (pain as minimal, moderate, severe)
Continuous = interval or ratio
- age, years of experience

Writing Questions
- everyone will interpret the same way
- respondents are able to respond accurately
- respondents are willing to answer
- use simple words
- keep it short
- be specific
- do not talk down
- avoid bias
- avoid hypotheticals
- use complete sentences
Question Criteria
Does the question require an answer?
If you fixed dinner last night, did you eat meat as part of that meal?
To what extent does the respondent have a ready made and accurate answer?
Are tall people more likely to be elected school President?
Can respondent accurately recall and report past behaviour?
How much television did you watch last month?

Question Principles
- use simple words and phrases
- avoid vague quantifiers

*Lichert = never ratio, always ordinal

*Visual analog scales: lichert scale, wherever you land on a scale, you are that number

Week 5 = Reading Week

Week 6
Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Role of Statistics
- in selecting subjects for study
- in assigning subjects to different groups
- describing the data collected in the study
- drawing inferences (generalizing) to larger populations than those studied

Descriptive Statistics
- methods used to obtain indices that characterize or summarize data collected
- focus is on the sample(s) at hand
- simple description of: individuals, collection of individuals
- used as basis for inferential statistics

The Meaning of Statistics

- Descriptive statistical analysis
o can function to describe data: to explain how the data look, what the
center point of the data is, how spread out the data may be, and how
one aspect of the data may be related to one or more other aspect
o no conclusions can be extended beyond this immediate group, and
any similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed

- Inferential Statistics
o methods that allow the researcher to generalize the characteristics
from a set of sample data to a larger population
o concerned with = describing the population from the sample, testing
differences between sample and population, between two samples,
between two measures of the same population
- a different function of statistics is to infer
 - Inferential statistical analysis
o involves observation of a sample taken from a given population
o conclusions about the population are inferred from the information
obtained about the sample
o can be used for estimation and prediction

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

- organize - generalize from sample to pops
- summarize - hypothesis testing
- simplify - relationships among variables
- presentation of data
(describes data) (make predictions)

Validity of the Study

- can you trust the conclusions of the study?
- Internal validity: the extent to which the outcomes of the student results from
the variables manipulated, measured or selected rather than from other
variables not systematically managed
- External validity: the extent to which the findings of a particular study can be
generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study

Basic Elements:
Hypothesis = a tentative statement (educated guess) about the expected relationship
between two or more variables
- state expected relationship or difference
- be worthy of being tested
- be testable
- be brief and clear
Variable = what is measured or varied; an attribute or characteristic of a person (or
object) that can change from person to person
- independent = a variable that is manipulated, measured or selected by the
researcher in order to observe its relation to the subjects response
- dependent = the variable that is observed and measured in response to an
independent variable
- control = any variable that is held constant in a research study by observing
only one of its instances or levels
- intervening = a hypothetical variable that is not observed directly in the
research study, but is inferred from the relationship between the independent
and dependent variable

Nonparametric Data
- data that are either counted (nominal scale) or ranked (ordinal scale)
- nonparametric statistical tests, often referred to as distribution-free tests, do
not require the more restrictive assumption of a normally distributed
population
- generally, have wider applications and are less difficult to compute
Parametric Data
 - either interval or ratio data
- parametrical statistical tests assume that the data are normally or near
normally distributed
- are frequently considered the more powerful of the two

Descriptive Data Analysis Techniques

Measures of central tendency = mean, median, mode
Measures of spread or variation = range, standard deviation, variance, coefficient of
variation
Standard measures
Measures of relationship = Spearman rank order correlation, Pearson product-moment
correlation

Frequency Distributions
- a systematic arrangement of numeric values on a variable from lowest to
highest, and a count of the number of times each value was obtained
- frequency distributions can be described in terms of: shape, central tendency,
variability
- can be presented in tabular form (counts and percentages)
- can be presented graphically (e.g. histograms)

Shapes of Distributions
1. Symmetry
- symmetric
- skewed (asymmetric) positively [tail to right] or negatively [tail to left]
2. Peakedness (how sharp the peak is)
3. Modality (number of peaks) unimodal, bimodal, multimodal
4. Normal Distribution = a bell curve (symmetrical, unimodal, not too peaked or too
flat)

Central Tendency
Index of typicalness of set of scores that comes form center of the distribution
- Mode = the most frequently occurring score in a distribution, useful mainly as
gross descriptor, especially of nominal measures
- Median = the point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of
cases fall, useful mainly as descriptor of typical value when distribution is
skewed
- Mean = equals the sun of all scores divided by the total number of scores,
most stable and widely used indicator of central tendency, fulcrum or balance
point of a distribution

Variability
- the degree to which scores in a distribution are spread out or dispersed
- homogeneity = little variability
- heterogeneity = great variability

Key Indexes of Variability

Range = highest value minus lowest value, the difference between the highest and
lowest scores
Standard Deviation (SD) = average deviation of scores in a distribution, most useful
Variance = a standard deviation, squared
Week 7
Pearsons r & Chi-square
Nonparametric tests: used primarily when
- outcomes are not measured on an interval or ratio scale and/or
- assumptions for parametric test are severely violated (especially when
sample sizes are small)
- refers to the fact that chi-square tests do not require assumptions about
population parameters nor do they test hypotheses about population
parameters
Parametric tests: like t tests and analysis of variance

Chi-square
- a statistical method assessing the goodness of fit between observed values
and those expected theoretically
- there are two non-parametric hypothesis tests using the chi-square statistic:
o the chi-square test for goodness of fit = uses frequency data from a
sample to test hypotheses about the shape or proportions of a
population
o chi-square test for independence = examine whether two variables
are independent or not

Correlations
- a correlation is a bond or connection between variables
- the simplest type of association
- linear

Scatterplot
- graphs the values of one variable on the X axis and the values of the second
one on the Y axis of a graph
- is data points are tightly packed along the diagonal, it indicates a strong
relationship

Correlation Coefficients
- a statistic that summarizes the magnitude and direction of relationships
between two variables
- Pearsons r
- computed with variables that are interval or ratio level measures
- higher the value of the coefficient, the stronger the relationship (negative or
positive, it doesnt matter)
- (-)1.00 = perfect relationship, 0.00 = no relationship
- correlation does not imply causation
Week 8
T-test
- test of whether two means are statistically the same
- can be done two ways: one sample or two sample
- two sample t-test are used when the dependent variable is an interval- or
ratio-level variable
- independent two-samples t-test = test two different groups of subjects
- dependent two-samples t-test = testing the same subjects twice

Anovas
- used to compare multiple means (3 or more) and see if the difference
between multiple sample means is significant
- to determine whether data from several groups have a common mean
- you can have one-way, two-way or n-way (where n is the number of factors)
- assumptions:
o dependent variable: interval or ratio level
o independent variable: nominal level or ordinal level with small number
of categories
- sources of variation:
o between-group variance: differences between the groups being
compared
o within-group variance: individual differences among people in the
groups
- the f statistic: the computed statistic
- takes into consideration the number of samples, sample size, means,
standard deviation
- also known as f-ratio
- it determines if the variation between sample means is significant

Week 9 = report writing

Week 10
Correlation and Simple Regression

What is a math/stats model?

- often describe relationship between variables
-