ACI 224R-90

Control of Cracking
in Concrete Structures

Reported by ACI Committee 224

The principal causes of cracking in concrete and recom- Contents

mended crack control procedures are presented. The cur-
rent state of knowledge in microcracking and fracture me- Chapter 1 -Introduction, page 224R-2
chanics is discussed. The control of cracking due to drying
shrinkage and crack control for flexural members, layered Chapter 2 -Crack mechanisms in concrete,
systems and mass concrete are covered in detail. Long-
term effects on cracking are considered, and crack control page 224R-2
procedures used in construction are presented. Informa- 2.1 - Introduction
tion is provided to assist the engineer and the constructor 2.2 - Microcracking
in developing practical and effective crack control pro- 2.3 - Fracture
grams for concrete structures.
Chapter 3 -Control of cracking due to drying
Keywords: adiabatic conditions; aggregates: air entrainment; an- shrinkage, page 224R-9
chorage (structural); beams (supports); bridge decks; cement-ag-
gregate reactions; cement content; cement types; compressive 3.1 - Introduction
strength: computers; concrete construction; concrete pavements; 3.2 - Crack formation
concrete slabs; concretes; conductivity: consolidation; cooling; 3.3 - Drying shrinkage
crack propagation; cracking (fracturing); crack width and spacing: 3.4 - Factors influencing drying shrinkage
creep properties; diffusivity; drying shrinkage; end blocks; expan- 3.5 - Control of shrinkage cracking
sive cement concretes; extensibility; failure; fibers; heat of hydra- 3.6 - Shrinkage-compensating concretes
tion; insulation; joints (junctions); machine bases; mass concrete;
microcracking; mix proportioning; modulus of elasticity; moisture Chapter 4 -Control of cracking in flexural
content; Poisson ratio; polymer-portland cement concrete; pozzo-
lans; prestressed concrete; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels; members, page 224R-16
restraints; shrinkage: specifications; specific heat; strain gages; 4.1 - Introduction
strains; stresses; structural design; temperature; temperature rise 4.2 - Crack control equations for reinforced concrete beams
(in concrete); tensile stress; tension; thermal expansion; volume 4.3 - Crack control in two-way slabs and plates
change. 4.4 - Tolerable crack widths versus exposure conditions in re-
inforced concrete
4.5 - Flexural cracking in prestressed concrete
4.6 - Anchorage zone cracking in prestressed concrete
4.7 - Tension cracking

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices , and Com- Chapter 5 -Long-term effects on cracking,
mentaries are Intended for guidance in designing, planning,
executing, or inspecting construction, and in preparing speci- page 224R-21
fications Reference to these documents shall not be made in
the Project Documents. If items foun d in these documents are
5.1 - Introduction
desired to be part of the Project Documents, they should be 5.2 - Effects of long-term loading
phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the Proj- 5.3 - Environmental effects
ect Documents. 5.4 - Aggregate and other effects
5.5 - Use of polymers in improving cracking characteristics

Copyright 0 1990 , American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved including written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained
copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or from the copyright proprietors.

224R-1
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Chapter 6- Control of cracking in concrete
layered systems, page 224R-23
6.1 - Introduction
6.2 - Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) overlays
6.3 - Latex modified concrete (LMC) overlays
6.4 - Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC) systems
Chapter 7- Control of cracking in mass con-
crete, page 224R-26
7.1 - Introduction
7.2 - Crack resistance
7.3 - Determination of temperatures and tensile strains
7.4 - Control of cracking
7.5 - Testing methods and typical data
7.6 - Artificial cooling by embedded pipe systems
7.7 - Summary - Basic considerations for construction controls
and specifications
Chapter 8- Control of cracking by correct
construction practices, page 224R-36
8.1 - Introduction
8.2 - Restraint
8.3 - Shrinkage
8.4 - Settlement
8.5 - Construction
8.6 - Specifications to minimize drying shrinkage
8.7 - Conclusion
Chapter 9 -References, page 224R-42
9.1 - Specified and/or recommended references
9.2 - Cited references
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Cracks in concrete structures can indicate major
structural problems and can mar the appearance of
monolithic construction. They can expose reinforcing
steel to oxygen and moisture and make the steel
more susceptible to corrosion. While the specific
causes of cracking are manifold, cracks are normally
caused by stresses that develop in concrete due to
the restraint of volumetric change or to loads which
are applied to the structure. Within each of these
categories there are a number of factors at work. A
successful crack control program must recognize
these factors and deal with each of them, in turn.
This report presents the principal causes of crack-
ing and a detailed discussion of crack control pro-
cedures. The body of the report consists of seven
chapters designed to help the engineer and the con-
tractor in the development of effective crack control
measures.
This report is an update of a previous committee
report, issued in 1972.1.1 The original report was
supplemented by an ACI Bibliography on cracking,1 . 2
also issued by this committee. In the updating pro-
cess, many portions of the report have undergone
sizeable revision, and the entire document has been
subjected to a detailed editorial review. Chapter 2,
on crack mechanisms, has been completely rewritten
to take into account the experimental and analytical
work that has been done since the completion of the
first committee report. Chapter 6, on crack control
in concrete layered systems, is new to the report
and deals with a form of concrete construction that
was in its infancy at the time the first report was
drafted. Individual chapters on crack control in re-
inforced and prestressed concrete members have
been condensed into a single chapter, Chapter 4, on
crack control in flexural members. The resulting pre-
sentation is more concise and, hopefully, more useful
to the structural designer. Chapter 5, on long-term
effects, details some interesting findings on the
change of crack width with time. Chapters 3, 7, and
8, which consider drying shrinkage, mass concrete,
and construction practices, respectively, have been
expanded and updated to take into account the most
recently developed procedures in these areas. In ad-
dition, new sections have been added to Chapters 7
and 8 which provide specific guidance for the devel-
opment of crack control programs and specifications.
The committee hopes that this report will serve as
a useful reference to the causes of cracking and as a
key tool in the development of practical crack con-
trol procedures in both the design and the construc-
tion of concrete structures.
References
1.1. ACI Committee 224, Control of Cracking in Con-
crete Structures, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, N O .
12, Dec. 1972, pp. 717-753.
1.2. ACI Committee 224, Causes, Mechanism, and Con-
trol of Cracking in Concrete, ACI Bibliography No. 9,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 92 pp.
Chapter 2 - Crack mechanisms in concrete*
2.1 - Introduction
Beginning with the work at Cornell University in
the early 1960s,2 .1 a great deal has been learned
about the crack mechanisms in concrete, both at the
microscopic and the macroscopic level. Of special in-
terest during the early work was the realization that
the behavior of concrete, under compressive as well
as tensile loads, was closely related to the formation
of cracks. Under increasing compressive stress, mi-
croscopic cracks (or microcracks) form at the mortar-
coarse aggregate boundary and propagate through
the surrounding mortar, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
During the first decade of research, a picture de-
veloped that closely linked formation and propaga-
tion of these microcracks to the load-deformation be-
havior of concrete. Prior to load, volume changes in
cement paste cause interfacial cracks to form at the
mortar-coarse aggregate boundary.2.2,2.3 Under short-
term compressive load, no additional cracks form un-
til the load reaches approximately 30 percent of the
compressive strength of the concrete.2.1 Above this
value, additional bond cracks initiate throughout the
matrix. Bond cracking increases until the load
reaches approximately 70 percent of the compressive
strength, at which time microcracks begin to propa-
gate through the mortar. Mortar cracking continues
at an accelerated rate until the material ultimately
fails. For concrete in uniaxial tension, experimental
work indicates that major microcracking begins at
about 60 percent of the ultimate tensile strength.2.4
*Principal author: David Darwin.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
Studies of the stress-strain behavior and volume
change of concrete 2.5 indicate that the initiation of
major mortar cracking corresponds with an observed
increase in the Poissons ratio of concrete. The term
discontinuity stress is used for the stress at which
this change in material behavior occurs.
In general, it has been agreed that the micro-
cracking that occurs prior to loading has very little
effect on the strength of concrete. However, work
by Brooks and Neville 2.6 indicates that the effect of
early volume change on microcracking of concrete
may result in a reduction of both tensile and com-
pressive strength as concrete dries out. Their study
shows that upon drying, the strength of test speci-
mens first increases and then decreases. They postu-
late that the initial increase is due to the increased
strength of the drier cement paste and that the ulti-
mate decrease in strength is due to the formation of
shrinkage induced microcracks.
Work by Meyers, Slate, and Winter 2.7 and Shah
and Chandra2.8 demonstrates that microcracks in-
crease under the effect of sustained and cyclic load-
ing. Their work indicates that the total amount of
microcracking is a function of the total compressive
strain in the concrete and is independent of the
method in which the strain is applied. Sturman,
Shah, and Winter2.9 found that the total degree of
microcracking is decreased and the total strain ca-
pacity in compression is increased when concrete is
subjected to a strain gradient.
At about the same time that the microcracking
studies began, investigators began applying fracture
mechanics to the studies of concrete under load. The
field of fracture mechanics, originated by Griffith2.10
in 1920, serves as the primary tool for the study of
brittle fracture and fatigue in metal structures.
Since concrete has for many years been considered a
brittle material in tension, fracture mechanics is con-
sidered to be a potentially useful analysis tool for
concrete by many investigators. 2. .12
The field of fracture mechanics was first applied
to concrete by Kaplan 2.11 in 1961. The classical the-
ory serves to predict, the rapid propagation of a
macrocrack through a homogeneous, isotropic, elas-
tic material. The theory makes use of the stress in-
tensity factor, K I , which is a function of crack geom-
etry and stress. Failure occurs when K I reaches a
critical value, K Ic , known as the critical stress-in-
tensity factor under conditions of plane strain. K Ic is
thus a measure of the fracture toughness of the ma-
terial. To properly measure K Ic for a material, the
test specimen must be of sufficient size to insure
maximum constraint (plane strain) at the tip of the
crack. For linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)
to be applicable, the value of K Ic must be a material
constant, independent of the specimen geometry (as
are other material constants such as yield strength).
The earliest experimental work utilized notched
tension and beam specimens of mortar and con-
224R-3
$EGlrgyj
m
m 0.0012 0. CKI
STRAIN STRAIN
Fig. 2.1 - Cracking maps and stress-strain curves
for concrete loaded in uniaxial compression. *
*From S. P. Shah, and F. O. Slate, Internal Microcracking,
Mortar-Aggregate Bond and the Stress-Strain Curve of Con-
crete, Proceedings, International Conference on the Structure of
Concrete (London, Sept. 1965), Cement and Concrete Association,
London, 1968, pp. 82-92.
crete. 2.11-2.14 The crack resistance was expressed in
terms of the strain energy release rate at the onset
of rapid crack growth, G, which is directly related to
the fracture toughness of the material. Later in-
vestigations evaluated the crack resistance of paste,
mortar and concrete in terms of the fracture tough-
ness, itself.2.15 Work by Naus and Lott2.16 indicated
that the fracture toughness of paste and mortar in-
creased with decreasing water-cement ratio, but that
the water-cement ratio had little effect on the frac-
ture toughness of concrete. They found that K Ic in-
creased with age, and decreased with increasing air
content for paste, mortar, and concrete. The effec-
tive fracture toughness of mortar increased with in-
creasing sand content, and the fracture toughness of
concrete increased with an increase in the maximum
size of coarse aggregate.
Additional work by Naus,2.17 presented just prior
to the previous committee report,1.1 indicated that
fracture toughness was not independent of speci-
men geometry for tensile specimens of paste, mortar
and concrete and that fracture toughness was a func-
tion of the crack length. These observations lead to
the possibly erroneous conclusion that fracture me-
chanics may not be applicable to concrete. Because
certain size requirements must be met, before frac-
ture mechanics is applicable, these results may only
indicate that the test specimen did not satisfy all of
the minimum size requirements of linear elastic frac-
ture mechanics.
The balance of this chapter describes some of the
more recent studies of crack mechanisms in concrete
and gives a somewhat different picture from that
presented in the previous committee report.
 224R-5

l/3
0
w
oz
z
- 10
o UNCOATEDAGG.
l COATED AGG.

1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

MICROSTRAIN

Fig. 2.4 - Stress-strain curves as influenced by coating aggregates (Reference

2.36).

seemed to indicate a very large effect, thus empha- Work by Carino,2.38 using polymer impregnated
sizing the importance of interfacial strength on the concrete, seems to corroborate these two studies.
behavior of concrete. These studies utilized rela- Carino found that polymer impregnation did not in-
tively thick, soft coatings on the coarse aggregate to crease the interfacial bond strength, but did increase
reduce the bond strength. Since these soft coatings the compressive strength of concrete. He attributed
isolated the aggregate from the surrounding mortar, the increase in strength to the effect of the polymer
the effect was more like inducing a large number of on the strength of mortar, thus downgrading the im-
voids in the concrete matrix. portance of the interfacial bond.
Two other s t u d i e s 2 . 3 6 , 2 . 3 7 which did not isolate the The importance of mortar, and ultimately cement
coarse aggregate from the mortar indicate that the paste, in controlling the stress-strain behavior of
interfacial strength plays only a minor role in con- concrete is illustrated by the finite element work of
trolling the stress-strain behavior and ultimate Buyukozturk2.37 and Maher and Darwin. 2.31,2.32 Using
strength of concrete. Darwin and Slate 2 . 3 6 used a a linear finite element representation of a physical
thin coating of polystyrene on natural coarse aggre- model of concrete, Buyukozturk was able to simulate
gate. They found that a large reduction in interfacial the overall crack patterns under uniaxial loading.
bond strength causes no change in the initial stiff-
ness of concrete under short-term compressive loads
and results in approximately a 10 percent reduction
in the compressive strength as compared to similar
concrete made with aggregate with normal inter-
facial strength (see Fig. 2.4). They also found that
the lower interfacial strength had no appreciable ef-
fect on the total amount of microcracking. However,
in every case, the average amount of mortar crack-
ing was slightly greater for the specimens made
with coated aggregate. This small yet consistent dif-
ference may explain the differences in the stress-
strain curves.
Perry and Gillott 2 . 3 7 used glass spheres with dif-
Mortar
ferent degrees of surface roughness as coarse aggre-
gate. Their results indicate that reducing the inter-
facial strength of the aggregate decreases the
initiation stress by about 20 percent, but has very
little effect on the discontinuity stress. They also ob- Fig. 2.5 - Stress-strain curves for concrete model. *
served a 10 percent reduction in the compressive
*From A. Maher. and D. Darwin, Microscopic Finite Element
strength for specimens with low mortar-aggregate Model of Concrete, presented at the First International Confer-
bond strength. ence on Mathematical Modeling (St. Louis. Aug.-Sept. 1 9 7 7 ) .
224R-6 ACI COMMl=lTEE REPORT

S t r e s s . PSI duplicated 2.25 While the statistical variations un-

w-
\
. _
-- Normal fnterfaclal Str.
- ._ I nfuxte I nterfaciaf Str
._ Zwo Tenstle and Cohewe
I nterfaclal Str.
- - - Z e r o InterfacIal Str.
L_._ 1
*l. 0 *2. 0
Strdln. 0.001 In/in
Fig. 2.6 - Stress-strain curve for finite element
model of concrete with varying values of mortar-ag-
gregate bond strength (Reference 2.32).
However, his finite element model could not dupli-
cate the nonlinear experimental behavior of the
physical model using the formation of interfacial
bond cracks and mortar cracks as the only nonlinear
effect. Maher and Darwin2 .31,2.32 have shown that by
using a nonlinear representation for the mortar con-
stituent of the physical model, a very close represen-
tation of the actual behavior can be obtained. The
results for Buyukozturks model are shown in Fig.
2.5 .
The inability of linear elastic models 2.25,2.26,2.39 to
duplicate the nonlinear behavior of concrete utilizing
microcracking alone has been explained as being due
to the fact that concrete is really a statistical mate-
rial. When the proper statistical variation is se-
lected, the nonlinear behavior of concrete can be
4 lMPar
doubtedly play a part, the major nonlinear behavior
can also be matched by considering the non-
linearities of the mortar constituent.2.31,2.32 Fig. 2.6 il-
,
lustrates the results obtained for a highly simplified
model of concrete under uniaxial compression using
a nonlinear representation for mortar. The stress-
strain curve for the model without cracking differs
Aggregate
very little from that of models that have a normal,
Mortar or above normal, amount of microcracking. Micro-
cracks have a relatively minor effect on the primary
stress-strain behavior of the models. The dominant
effect of microcracking is to increase the lateral
0. 0 1.0 .?. 0 strain. In every case the failure of the model is gov-
erned by crushing of the mortar which occurs at
an average strength below that of the mortar alone.
Newman 2.5s and Tasuji, Slate, and Nilson 2.40 lhave
observed that the principal tensile strain in concrete
at the discontinuity stress appears to be a function
of the mean normal stress, 0, = (0,+0,+0,)/3. In
their study of the biaxial strength of concrete, Ta-
suji, et al., observe that the final failure of their
specimens consists of the formation of macroscopic
tensile cracks. They also observe that the stress at
discontinuity occurs at approximately 75 percent of
the ultimate strength in compression and at about 60
percent of the ultimate strength for those cases in-
volving tension, matching the levels at which mortar
cracking begins. 2.3,2.4 l Their work seems to point very
strongly toward a limiting tensile strain as the
governing factor in the strength of concrete.
Overall, the damage to cement paste seems to
play an important role in controlling the primary
stress-strain behavior of concrete under short-term
axial load. In normal weight concrete, aggregate
particles act as stress-raisers, increasing the initial
stiffness and decreasing the strength of the paste.
For cyclic and sustained loading, a great deal of the
bond cracking results from load induced volume
changes within the paste, but has no significant ef-
fect on strength. A number of investigators feel that
the onset of mortar cracking marks the true ulti-
mate strength of concrete. 2.6-2.8,2.33,2.34,2.41
l Whether
mortar cracking itself controls the strength of con-
v MORTAR@21 v crete or whether it only signals intimate damage of
0 CONCRETE 0 the cement paste remains to be seen. Additional
studies in this area are clearly warranted.

2.3 - Fracture
Since the publication of the previous report, a
number of investigations have shed additional light
ti on the applicability of fracture mechanics to con-
* OS I I I I I * crete and its constituent materials.
lJ4 l/2 314 1 Shah and McGarry utilized flexure specimens sub-
(6.4) (12.7)(19. 1)(2X 4) jected to three-point loading.2.42 Their work indicates
NOTCH DEPTH, INCHES (mm) that while paste is notch sensitive, neither mortar
nor concrete are affected by a notch (Fig. 2.7). Shah
Fig. 2.7 - Effect of notch depth on flexure strength and McGarry also ran a series of tests using notched
(Reference 2.42). tensile specimens and determined that paste speci-
 CONTROL OF CRACKING 224R-7

mens, and mortar specimens made with fine aggre-

gate that passed the #30 sieve, are notch sensitive,
but that mortar specimens containing larger sizes of
aggregate are not notch sensitive.
Brown utilized notched flexure specimens and
double cantilever beam specimens of paste and mor-
tar2.18 8 His tests show that the fracture toughness of
cement paste is independent of crack length and is
therefore a material constant. The fracture tough-
ness of mortar, however, increases as the crack
propagates, indicating that the addition of fine ag-
gregate improves the toughness of paste. This be-
havior is similar to the behavior found in structural
steels that exhibit a plane strain-plane stress transi-
tion. Because the plane strain-plane stress transition
occurs beyond the limits of LEFM, the analysis is
more complex. To re-establish the applicability of
LEFM, larger test specimens must be used with
tougher materials such as mortar.
Mindess and Nadeau investigated the effect of
notch width on KI for both mortar and concrete.2.20
Utilizing notched beam specimens of constant length
and depth, with varying widths, they found that
within the range studied, there was no dependence
of fracture toughness upon the length of crack front.
Since their work utilized small specimens with a
depth of only about 50 mm (2 in.), there is some in-
dication that rather than measuring the fracture 0.10 L I I

1 4
toughness of the material, they were simply measur-
ing the modulus of rupture. a/a0 (log scale)
The applicability of these results, and much of the
other fracture mechanics work, has been brought Fig. 2.8 - Relationship bet ween test results and
into perspective based on the experimental work by theory for notched concrete beams (Reference 2.22).
Walsh. In separate investigations of notched beam
specimens2.21 and beams with right angle re-entrant
notches2.22 Walsh has demonstrated that specimen
size has a marked influence on the applicability of
linear elastic fracture mechanics to the failure of
plain concrete specimens. As illustrated in Fig. 2.8,
for specimens of similar geometry but below a cer-
tain critical size, the specimen capacity is governed
by the modulus of rupture of concrete, calculated
from the linear stress distribution. For specimens
above this size, the strength is governed by the frac-
ture toughness, which he approximated as a function
of the square root of the compressive strength of the L-__ -- ~_. - -~ 1
concrete. Walsh concluded that, for valid toughness
testing of concrete, the depth of notched beams
must be at least 230 mm (9 in.). This type of behav- Fig. 2.9 - Effect of notch depth on flexural strength
ior is also observed in metals, i.e., for valid fracture (Reference 2.23).
mechanics test results, the test specimens must
meet minimum size requirements (ASTM E 399). notch sensitivity of paste, mortar and concrete using
These size requirements are dependent upon the three-point bend specimens similar to those used by
square of the toughness levels being measured. Thus Shah and McGarry2.42 As shown in Fig. 2.9, they de-
a material whose toughness level is twice that of termined that both mortar and concrete are notch
another material (all other properties being equal), sensitive, but less sensitive than cement paste. They
must have specimen dimensions four times that of conclude that the disagreement with the earlier re-
the first material for the test results to be equally sults is due in part to their improvement in the load-
valid. ing procedure. They feel that linear elastic fracture
Gjorv, Sorensen and, Arnesen2.23 investigated the mechanics is applicable to the small specimens of
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
paste, but not to the small size specimens of mortar
and concrete. Even the small specimens of mortar
and concrete, however, have some degree of notch
sensitivity since the failure is not consistent with the
modulus of rupture based on the net cross section.
Citing Walshs earlier work,2.21 they agree that
LEFM is applicable to large concrete specimens, but
that it is not applicable to small specimens.
Hillemeier and Hilsdorf 2.43 utilized wedge loaded,
compact tension specimens to measure the fracture
toughness of paste, aggregate and the paste-aggre-
gate interface. They feel that, while the failure of
concrete in tension and compression is controlled by
many interacting cracks rather than by the propaga-
tion of a single crack, fracture mechanics does offer
an important tool for evaluating the constituent ma-
terials of concrete. They found that paste is a notch
sensitive material and that the addition of entrained
air or soft particles has only a small affect on K I c .
Their work indicates that the KIc values for inter-
facial strength between paste and aggregate is only
about one-third of the KIc value for paste alone, and
that the characteristic value of KIC for aggregate is
approximately ten times that of paste.
Swartz, Hu, and Jones2.24 used compliance mea-
surement to monitor crack growth in notched con-
crete beams subjected to sinusodial loading. They
conclude that this procedure is useful for monitoring
crack growth in concrete due to fatigue. Based on
the appearance of the fracture surface, which shows
a combination of both aggregate fracture and bond
failure, they feel that fracture toughness is not a
pertinent material property. However, they state
that an effective fracture toughness might be a
significant material property if related to specific
material and specimen variables such as aggregate
size and gradation, and proportions of the mix, and
if the calculation considers the nonlinear material re-
sponse of concrete.
A number of investigators do not feel that the
Griffith theory of linear fracture mechanics is di-
rectly applicable to all concrete2.23, 2.24* 2.42 (ASTM E
399). Some like Swartz, et a1.2.24 feel that the theory
has application when the limitations and specific
nonhomogenous effects are taken into account.
Clearly, specimen size requirements must be given
more attention. Of key interest in future work are
the observations by Walsh2.21 2.22 that show that if
the specimens are large enough, the effects of
heterogeneity are greatly reduced and that concrete
may approximate a homogenous material to which
the principles of fracture mechanics can be applied.
References
2.1. Hsu, Thomas T. C.; Slate, Floyd O.; Sturman, Ger-
ald M.; and Winter, George, Microcracking of Plain Con-
crete and the Shape of the Stress-Strain Curve, ACI
J OURNAL Proceedings V. 60, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp. 209-224.
2.2. Hsu, Thomas, T. C., Mathematical Analysis of
Shrinkage Stresses in a Model of Hardened Concrete,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 60, No. 3, Mar. 1963, pp.
371-390.
2.3. Slate, Floyd O., and Matheus, Ramon E., Volume
Changes on Setting and Curing of Cement Paste and Con-
crete from Zero to Seven Days, ACI JO U R N A L, Pro-
ceedings V. 64, No. 1, Jan. 1967, pp. 34-39.
2.4. Evans, R. H., and Marathe, M. S., Microcracking
and Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete in Tension, Mate-
rials and Structures, Research and Testing (Paris), V. 1,
No. 1, Jan. 1968, pp. 61-64.
2.5. Newman, Kenneth, Criteria for the Behavior of
Plain Concrete Under Complex States of Stress, Pro-
ceedings, International Conference on the Structure of
Concrete (London, Sept. 1965), Cement and Concrete Asso-
ciation, London, 1968, pp. 255-274.
2.6. Brooks, J. J., and Neville, A. M., A Comparison of
Creep, Elasticity and Strength of Concrete in Tension and
in Compression, Magazine of Concrete Research (London),
V. 29, No. 100, Sept. 1977, pp. 131-141.
2.7. Meyers, Bernard L.; Slate, Floyd O.; and Winter,
George, Relationship Between Time-Dependent Deforma-
tion and Microcracking of Plain Concrete, ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 66, No. 1, Jan. 1969, pp. 60-68.
2.8. Shah, Surendra P., and Chandra, Sushil, Fracture
of Concrete Subjected to Cyclic and Sustained Loading,
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 67, No. 10, Oct. 1970, pp.
816-824.
2.9. Sturman, Gerald M.; Shah, Surendra P.; and Winter,
George, Effects of Flexural Strain Gradients on Micro-
cracking and Stress-Strain Behavior of Concrete, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62, No. 7, July 1965, pp. 805-822.
2.10. Griffith, A. A., The Phenomena of Rupture and
Flow in Solids, Transactions, Royal Society of London,
No. 221A, 1920, pp. 163-198.
2.11. Kaplan, M. F., Crack Propagation and the Frac-
ture of Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 58, No. 5,
Nov. 1961, pp. 591-610.
2.12. Glucklich, Joseph, Static and Fatigue Fractures of
Portland Cement Mortars in Flexure, Proceedings, First
International Conference on Fracture, Sendai, Japan, V. 2,
1965, pp. 1343-1382.
2.13. Romualdi, James P., and Batson, Gordon B., Me-
chanics of Crack Arrest in Concrete, Proceedings, ASCE,
V. 89, EM3, June 1963, pp. 147-168.
2.14. Huang, T. S., Crack Propagation Studies in Micro-
concrete, MSc Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Colorado, Boulder, 1966.
2.15. Lott, James L., and Kesler, Clyde E., Crack Prop-
agation in Plain Concrete, Symposium on Structure of
Portland Cement Paste and Concrete, Special Report No.
90, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1966, pp.
204-218.
2.16. Naus, Dan J., and Lott, James L., Fracture
Toughness of Portland Cement Concretes, ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 66, No. 6, June 1969, pp. 481-489.
2.17. Naus, Dan J., Applicability of Linear-Elastic Frac-
ture Mechanics to Portland Cement Concretes, PhD
Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, Aug. 1971.
2.18. Brown, J. H., Measuring the Fracture Toughness
of Cement Paste and Mortar, Magazine of Concrete Re-
search (London), V. 24, No. 81, Dec. 1972, pp.185-196.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
2.19. Evans, A. G.; Clifton, J. R.; and Anderson, E.,
The Fracture Mechanics of Mortars, Cement and Con-
crete Research, V. 6, No. 4. July 1976, pp. 535-547.
2.20. Mindess, Sidney, and Nadeau, John S., Effect of
Notch Width of KIc for Mortar and Concrete, Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 6, No. 4, July 1976, pp. 529-534.
2.21. Walsh, P. F., Fracture of Plain Concrete, Indian
Concrete Journal (Bombay), V. 46, No. 11, Nov. 1972, pp.
469-470, 476.
2.22. Walsh, P. F., Crack Initiation in Plain Concrete,
Magazine of Concrete Research (London), V. 28, No. 94,
Mar. 1976, pp. 37-41.
2.23. Gjorv, O. E.; Sorensen, S. I.; and Arnesen, A.,
Notch Sensitivity and Fracture Toughness of Concrete,
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 7, No. 3, May 1977, pp.
333-344.
2.24. Swartz, Stuart E.; Hu, Kuo-Kuang; and Jones,
Gary L., Compliance Monitoring of Crack Growth in Con-
crete, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 104, EM4, Aug. 1978, pp.
789-800.
2.25. Shah, Surendra P., and Winter, George, Inelastic
Behavior and Fracture of Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , P r o -
ceedings V. 63, No. 9, Sept. 1966, pp. 925-930.
2.26. Testa, Rene B., and Stubbs, Norris, Bond Failure
and Inelastic Response of Concrete, Proceedings, ASCE,
V. 103, EM2, Apr. 1977, pp. 296-310.
2.27. Darwin, David, Discussion of Bond Failure and In-
elastic Response of Concrete, by Rene B. Testa and Nor-
ris Stubbs, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 104, EM2, Apr. 1978,
pp. 507-509.
2.28. Spooner, D. C., The Stress-Strain Relationship for
Hardened Cement Pastes in Compression, Magazine of
Concrete Research (London), V. 24, No. 79, June 1972, pp.
85-92.
2.29. Spooner, D. C., and Dougill, J. W., A Quantitative
Assessment of Damage Sustained in Concrete During
Compressive Loading, Magazine of Concrete Research
(London), V. 27, No. 92, Sept. 1975, pp. 151-160.
2.30. Spooner, D. C.; Pomeroy, C. D.; and Dougill, J. W.,
Damage and Energy Dissipation in Cement Pastes in
Compression, Magazine of Concrete Research (London),
V. 28, No. 94, Mar. 1976, pp. 21-29.
2.31. Maher, Ataullah, and Darwin, David, A Finite
Element Model to Study the Microscopic Behavior of Plain
Concrete, CRINC Report-SL-76-02, The University of
Kansas Center for Research, Lawrence, Nov. 1976, 83 pp.
2.32. Maher, Ataullah, and Darwin, David, Microscopic
Finite Element Model of Concrete, Proceedings, First In-
ternational Conference on Mathematical Modeling (St.
Louis, Aug.-Sept. 1977), University of Missouri-Rolla, 1977,
v. III, pp. 1705-1714.
2.33. Karsan, I. Demir, and Jirsa, James 0.. Behavior
of Concrete under Compressive Loadings, Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 95, ST12, Dec. 1969, pp. 2543-2563.
2.34. Neville, A. M., and Hirst, G. A., Mechanism of
Cyclic Creep of Concrete, Douglas McHenry Symposium
on Concrete and Concrete Structures, SP-55, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 83-101.
2.35. Nepper-Christensen, Palle, and Nielsen, Tommy
P. H., Modal Determination of the Effect of Bond Between
Coarse Aggregate a n d M o r t a r o n t h e C o m p r e s s i v e
Strength of Concrete, ACI JO U R N A L , Proceedings V. 66,
No. 1, Jan. 1969, pp. 69-72.
224R-9
2.36. Darwin, David, and Slate, F. O., Effect of Paste-
Aggregate Bond Strength on Behavior Concrete, J o u r -
nal of Materials, V. 5, No. 1, Mar. 1970, pp. 86-98.
2.37. Perry, C., and Gillott, J. E., The Influence of Mor-
tar-Aggregate Bond Strength on the Behavior of Concrete
in Uniaxial Compression, Cement and Concrete Research,
V. 7, No. 5, Sept. 1977, pp. 553-564.
2.38. Carino, Nicholas J., Effects of Polymer Impregna-
tion on Mortar-Aggregate Bond Strength, Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 7, No. 4, July 1977, pp. 439-447.
2.39. Buyukozturk, Oral, Stress-Strain Response and
Fracture of a Model of Concrete in Biaxial Loading, PhD
Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, June 1970.
2.40. Tasuju, M. Ebrahim; Slate, Floyd 0.; and Nilson,
Arthur H., Stress-Strain Response and Fracture of Con-
crete in Biaxial Loading, ACI JO U R N A L , Proceedings V .
75, No. 7, July 1978, pp. 306-312.
2.41. Shah, Surendra P., and Chandra, Sushil, Critical
Stress, Volume Change, and Microcracking of Concrete,
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 65, No. 9, Sept. 1968, pp.
770-781.
2.42. Shah, Surendra P., and McGarry, Fred J., Griffith
Fracture Criterion and Concrete, Proceedings, ASCE, V.
97, EM6, Dec. 1971, pp. 1663-1676.
2.43. Hillemeier, B., and Hilsdorf, H. K., Fracture Me-
chanics Studies of Concrete Compounds, Cement and Con-
crete Research, V. 7, No. 5, Sept. 1977, pp. 523-535.
Chapter 3 - Control of cracking due to drying
shrinkage*
3.1 - Introduction
Cracking of concrete due to drying shrinkage is a
subject which has received more attention by archi-
tects, engineers, and contractors than any other
characteristic or property of concrete. It is one of
the most serious problems encountered in concrete
construction. Good design and construction practice
can minimize the amount of cracking and eliminate
the visible large cracks by the use of adequate re-
inforcement and contraction joints.
Although drying shrinkage is one of the principal
causes of cracking, temperature stresses, chemical
reactions, frost action, as well as excessive tensile
stresses due to loads on the structure, are fre-
quently responsible for cracking of hardened con-
crete. Cracking may also develop in the concrete
prior to hardening due to plastic shrinkage.
Information presented in this chapter concerns
only the subjects of cracking of hardened concrete
due to drying shrinkage; factors influencing shrink-
age; control of cracking; and the use of expansive ce-
ments to minimize cracking.
The subject of construction practices and specifica-
tions to minimize drying shrinkage is covered in
Chapter 8 (Sections 8.3 and 8.6) of this report.
*Principal author: Miloss Polivka.
224R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3.2 - Crack formation
Why does concrete crack due to shrinkage? If the
shrinkage of concrete caused by drying could take
place without any restraint, the concrete would not
crack. However, in a structure the concrete is al-
ways subject to some degree of restraint by either
the foundation or another part of the structure or by
the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete. This
combination of shrinkage and restraint develops ten-
sile stresses. When this tensile stress reaches the
tensile strength, the concrete will crack. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 3.1.
Another type of restraint is developed by the dif-
ference in shrinkage at the surface and in the inte-
rior of a concrete member, especially at early ages.
Since the drying shrinkage is always larger at the
exposed surface, the interior portion of the member
restrains the shrinkage of the surface concrete, thus
developing tensile stresses. This may cause surface
cracking, which are cracks that do not penetrate
deep into the concrete. These surface cracks may
with time penetrate deeper into the concrete mem-
ber as the interior portion of the concrete is subject
to additional drying.
ORIGINAL LENGTH
I I
UNRESTRAINED
SHRINKAGE t-
RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE
DEVELOPS TENSILE STRESS
IF TENSILE STRESS IS
GREATER THAN TENSILE
STRENGTH, CONCRETE CRACKS
Fig. 3.1 - Cracking of concrete due to drying
shrinkage.
The magnitude of tensile stress developed during
drying of the concrete is influenced by a combination
of factors, such as (a) the amount of shrinkage, (b)
the degree of restraint, (c) the modulus of elasticity
of the concrete, and (d) the creep or relaxation of the
concrete. Thus, the amount of shrinkage is only o n e
factor governing the cracking. As far as cracking is
concerned, a low modulus of elasticity and high
creep characteristics of the concrete are desirable
since they reduce the magnitude of tensile stresses.
Thus, to minimize cracking, the concrete should have
low drying shrinkage characteristics and a high de-
gree of extensibility (low modulus and high creep) as
well as a high tensile strength. However, a large ex-
tensibility of a concrete member subjected to bend-
ing will cause larger deflections.
3.3 - Drying shrinkage
When concrete dries, it contracts or shrinks, and
when it is wetted again, it expands. These volume
changes, with changes in moisture content, are an
inherent characteristic of hydraulic cement con-
cretes. It is the change in moisture content of the ce-
ment paste that causes the shrinkage or swelling of
concrete, while the aggregate provides an internal
restraint which significantly reduces the magnitude
of these volume changes.
When cement is mixed with water, several chem-
ical reactions take place. These reactions, commonly
called hydration, produce a hydration product con-
sisting essentially of some crystalline materials (prin-
cipally calcium hydroxide) and a large amount of
hardened calcium silicate gel called tobermorite
gel. This rigid gel consists of colloidal size particles
and has an extremely high surface area. In a hard-
ened cement paste, some of the water is in the capil-
lary pores of the paste, but a significant amount is in
the tobermorite gel. Shrinkage is due to the loss of
adsorbed water from the gel. On drying the first wa-
ter lost is that which occupies the relatively large
size capillaries in the cement paste. This loss of wa-
ter causes very little, if any, shrinkage. It is the loss
of the adsorbed and inter-layer water from the hy-
drated gel that causes the shrinkage of the paste.
When a concrete is exposed to drying conditions,
moisture slowly diffuses from the interior mass of
the concrete to the surface where it is lost by evapo-
ration. On wetting this process is reversed, causing
an expansion of the concrete.
In addition to drying shrinkage, the cement paste
is also subject to carbonation shrinkage. The action
of carbon dioxide, CO2, present in the atmosphere on
the hydration products of the cement, principally cal-
cium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, results in the formation of
calcium carbonate, CaCO,, which is accompanied by
a decrease in volume. Since carbon dioxide does not
penetrate deep into the mass of concrete, shrinkage
due to carbonation is of minor importance in the
overall shrinkage of a concrete structure. However,
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
carbonation does play an important role in the
shrinkage of small laboratory test specimens, partic-
ularly when subjected to long-term exposure to
drying. Thus, the amount of shrinkage observed on a
small laboratory specimen will be greater than the
shrinkage of the concrete in the structure. The sub-
ject of shrinkage due to carbonation is discussed in
detail by Verbeck.3.1
3.4 - Factors influencing drying shrinkage
The major factors influencing shrinkage include
the composition of cement, type of aggregate, water
content, and mix proportions. The rate of moisture
loss or the shrinkage of a given concrete is greatly
influenced by the size and shape of the concrete
member, the environment, and the time of drying
exposure. These and other factors influencing magni-
tude and rate of shrinkage are herein discussed.
3.4.1 Effect of cement - Results of an extensive
study made by Blaine, Arni, and Evans,3.2 of the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards on a large number of
portland cements indicate that it is not possible to
say that a cement, because it conforms to the re-
quirements of one of the standard types of cements,
will have greater or less shrinkage than a cement
meeting requirements for some other type of ce-
ment. Their results on neat cement pastes showed a
wide distribution of shrinkage values especially for
the Type I cements. The 6 month drying shrinkage
strain of the neat pastes ranged from about 0.0015
to more than 0.0060 with an average for the 182 ce-
ments tested of about 0.0030. They found that lower
shrinkage of pastes was associated with: 1. lower
C3A/SO3 ratios, 2. lower Na2O and K2O contents,
and 3. higher C4AF contents of the cement. Tests by
Brunauer. Skalny, and Yudenfreund3.3 show that for
short curing periods Type II cement pastes exhib-
ited considerably less shrinkage than Type I pastes.
However, the shrinkage of pastes cured for 28 days
was about the same for the two types of cements.
Tests made by the California Division of High-
ways 3.4 on mortar or paste as a measure of behavior
in concrete indicate that Type II cements generally
produce lower shrinkage than Type I cements, and
much lower than Type III cements. Tests by Lerch1.5
show that the proportion of gypsum in the cement
has a major effect on shrinkage. Cement producers
moderate the differences in shrinkage due to cement
composition by optimizing its gypsum content.
The fineness of a cement can have some influence
on drying shrinkage. Tests by Carlson3.6 showed that
finer cements generally result in greater concrete
shrinkage, but the increase in shrinkage with in-
creasing fineness is not large. His results show that
the composition of the cement is a factor and thus
for some cements an increase in fineness may show
little change and in some cases even a lower con-
crete shrinkage.
224R-11
TABLE 3.1 - Effect of type of aggregate on
shrinkage of concrete3.6
l-year
Specific Absorption, shrinkage,
Aggregate gravity percent percent
t
Sandstone 2.47 5.0 0.116
Slate 2.75 1.3 0.068
Granite 2.67 0 .8 0.047
Limestone 2.74 0.2 0.041
Quartz 2.66 0.3 0.032
3.4.2 Influence of type of aggregate - Coarse and
fine aggregates, which occupy between 65 and 75
percent of the total concrete volume, have a major
influence on shrinkage. Concrete may be considered
to consist of a framework of cement paste whose
large potential shrinkage is being restrained by the
aggregate. The drying shrinkage of a concrete will
be only a fraction (about l/4 to l/6) of that of the ce-
ment paste. The factors which influence the ability
of the aggregate particles to restrain shrinkage in-
clude (a) the compressibility of aggregate and the ex-
tensibility of paste, (b) the bond between paste and
aggregate, (c) the degree of cracking of cement
paste, and (d) the contraction of the aggregate par-
ticles due to drying. Of these several factors, com-
pressibility of the aggregate has the greatest in-
fluence on the magnitude of drying shrinkage of
concrete.
The higher the stiffness or modulus of elasticity of
an aggregate, the more effective it is in reducing the
shrinkage of concrete. The absorption of an aggre-
gate, which is a measure of porosity, influences its
modulus or compressibility. A low modulus is usually
associated with high absorption.
The large influence of type of aggregate on drying
shrinkage of concrete was shown by Carlson.3.6 As an
example some of his shrinkage data for concretes
with identical cements and identical water-cement
ratios are given in Table 3.1.
Quartz, limestone, dolomite, granite, feldspar, and
some basalts can be generally classified as low-
shrinkage producing types of aggregates. High-
shrinkage concretes often contain sandstone, slate,
hornblende and some types of basalts. Since the ri-
gidity of certain aggregates, such as granite, lime-
stone or dolomite, can vary over a wide range, their
effectiveness in restraining drying shrinkage will
vary accordingly.
Although the compressibility is the most impor-
tant single property of aggregate governing concrete
shrinkage, the aggregate itself may contract an ap-
preciable amount upon drying. This is true for sand-
stone and other aggregates of high absorption capac-
ity. Thus, in general, aggregate of high modulus of
elasticity and low absorption will produce a low-
shrinkage concrete. However, some structural grade
lightweight aggregates, such as expanded shales,
224R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

crete can be minimized by keeping the water con-

+ 119 142 166 190 kg/m3
5 0.060 tent of the paste as low as possible and the total ag-
u gregate content of the concrete as high as possible.
% 0.050 This will result in a lower water content per unit
volume of concrete and thus lower shrinkage.
The total volume of coarse aggregate is a signifi-
cant factor in drying shrinkage. Concrete propor-
tioned for pump placement with excessively high
I sand contents will exhibit significantly greater
," 0.020 shrinkage than will similar mixes with normal sand
z contents.
zis 0.010
200 240 280 320 Ib/yd3
Tests reported by Tremper and Spellman3.4 show
that the cement factor has little effect on shrinkage
WATER CONTENT OF CONCRETE of concrete. Their data show that as the cement fac-
Fig. 3.2 - Typical effect of water content of con- tor was increased from 470 to 752 lb/yd 3 (279 to 446
crete on drying shrinkage (Reference 3.8). kg/m3) the water content remained nearly constant,
while percentage of fine aggregate was reduced.
clays, and slates which have high absorptions, pro- The amount of mixing water required for concrete
duced concretes exhibiting low shrinkage character- of a given slump is greatly dependent on the max-
istics.3.7 imum size of aggregate. The surface area of aggre-
Maximum size of aggregate has a significant effect gate, which must be coated by cement paste, de-
on drying shrinkage. Not only does a large aggre- creases with increase in size of aggregate. The large
gate size permit a lower water content of the con- effect that the maximum size of aggregate has on
crete, but it is more effective in resisting the shrink- the water requirement of concrete is shown in Fig.
age of the cement paste. Aggregate gradation also 3.3. The data plotted in this figure, taken from ACI
has some effect on shrinkage. The use of a poorly 211.1 shows, for example, that for a 3 to 4 in. (75 to
graded fine or coarse aggregate may result in an 100 mm) slump concrete, increasing the aggregate
oversanded mix, in order to obtain desired work- size from 3/4 in. (19 mm) to 11/2 in. (38 mm) decreases
ability, and thus prevent the use of the maximum the water requirement from 340 to 300 lb/yd3 (202 to
amount of coarse aggregate resulting in increased 178 kg/m3). This 40 lb (24 kg) reduction in water
shrinkage. content would reduce the 1 year drying shrinkage by
3.4.3 Effect of water content and mix proportions - about 15 percent.
The water content of a concrete mix is another very Also shown in Fig. 3.3 is the effect of slump on
important factor influencing drying shrinkage. The water requirement. For example, the water require-
large increase in shrinkage with increase in water ment of a concrete made with 3/4 in. (19 mm) size ag-
content was demonstrated in tests made by the U.S. gregate is 340 lb/yd3 (202 kg/m3) for a 3 to 4 in.
Bureau of Reclamation.3.8 A typical relationship be- slump, but only 310 lb/yd3 (184 kg/m31 for a 1 to 2
tween water content anddrying shrinkage is shown in. slump (25 to 50 mm). This substantial reduction
in Fig. 3.2. An increase in water content also re- in water content would result in a lower drying
duces the volume of restraining aggregate and thus shrinkage.
results in higher shrinkage. The shrinkage of a con- Another important factor which influences the wa-
ter requirement of a concrete, and thus its shrink-
age, is the temperature of the fresh concrete. This
37.5 75 effect of temperature on water requirement as given
400 2.5
(237)
19.0 150 m m
by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 3. is shown in
Fig. 3.4. For example, if the temperature of fresh
350 concrete were reduced from 100 to 50 F (38 to 10 C),
(208) it would permit a reduction of the water content by
300 33 Ib/yd 3 (20 kg/m 3) and still maintain the same
(178) slump. This substantial reduction in water content
would significantly reduce the drying shrinkage.
250
(148) From the above discussion it must be concluded
200 that, to minimize the drying shrinkage of concrete,
3/8
(119) 3/4 1 1/2 3 6 in. the water content of a mix should be kept to a min-
MAXIMUM SIZE OF AGGREGATE
imum. Any practice that increases the water re-
quirement, such as the use of high slumps, high tem-
peratures of the fresh concrete or the use of smaller
Fig. 3.3 - Effect of aggregate size on water require- size coarse aggregate, will substantially increase
ment of non-air-entrained concrete (ACI 211.1). shrinkage and thus cracking of the concrete.
 CONTROL OF CRACilNG
4.4 10.0 15.6 21.1 26.7 32.2 378 OC
310
084)
300
(I 78)
290
(I 72)
280
(166)
0 270
0 (160)
260
(154140 50 60 70 80 90 100 OF
TEMPERATURE OF FRESH CONCRETE
Fig. 3.4 - Effect of temperature of fresh concrete
on its water requirement (Reference 3.8).
3.4.4 Effect of chemical admixtures - Chemical ad-
mixtures are used to impart certain desirable prop-
erties to the concrete. Those most commonly used
include air-entraining admixtures, water-reducing
admixtures, set-retarding admixtures, and accelera-
tors.
It would be expected that when using an air-en-
training admixture, the increase in the amount of air
voids would increase drying shrinkage. However, be-
cause entrainment of air permits a reduction in wa-
ter content with no reduction in slump, the shrink-
age is not appreciably affected by air contents up to
about 5 percent.3.8 Some air-entraining agents are
strong retarders and contain accelerators which may
increase drying shrinkage by 5 to 10 percent.
Although the use of water-reducing and set-re-
tarding admixtures will permit a reduction in the
water content of a concrete mix, it will usually not
result in a decrease in drying shrinkage. Actually
some of these admixtures may even increase the
shrinkage at early ages of drying, although the later
age shrinkage of these concretes will be about the
same as that of corresponding mixes with no admix-
tures.
The use of calcium chloride, a common accelerator,
will result in a substantial increase in drying shrink-
age, especially at the early ages of drying. Tests
made by the California Department of Transporta-
tion 3.44showed that the 7 day shrinkage of a concrete
containing 1.0 percent of calcium chloride was about
double that obtained for the control mix without ad-
mixture. However, after 28 days of drying, the
shrinkage of the concrete containing calcium chloride
was only about 40 percent greater than that of the
control mix.
3.4.5 Effect of pozzolans - Fly ash and a number of
natural materials such as opaline cherts and shales,
diatomaceous earth, tuffs and pumicites are pozzo-
lans used in portland cement concrete. The use of
some natural pozzolans can increase the water de-
224R-13
w
iii
a
a
-0 4 8 I2 16 20 24 28 in.
w DEPTH BELOW CONCRETE SURFACE
Fig. 3.5 - Rates of drying of concrete exposed to 50
percent relative humidity (Reference 3.9).
mand as well as the drying shrinkage of the con-
crete. Also, it was observed that the use of some of
these pozzolans increased drying shrinkage although
they had little effect on the water content of the
concrete. Some fly ashes have little effect on drying
shrinkage, while others may increase the shrinkage
of the concrete. All of these observations are based
on results of tests made on laboratory size speci-
mens. However, as noted in Section 3.4.7 and Fig.
3.6, the larger the concrete member, the lower the
shrinkage. This may explain the negligible difference
in shrinkage cracking of field structures, with and
without pozzolan, despite clearly greater shrinkage
of the concretes with pozzolans in laboratory tests
on small size specimens.
3.4.6 Effect of duration of moist curing - Car1son3.6
reported that the duration of moist curing of con-
crete does not have much effect on drying shrink-
age. This is substantiated by the test results of the
California Department of Transportation3. which
show substantially the same shrinkage in concrete
that was moist cured for 7, 14, and 28 days before
drying was started. As far as the cracking tendency
of the concrete is concerned, prolonged moist curing
may not necessarily be beneficial. Although the
strength increases with age, the modulus of elastic-
ity also increases by almost as large a percentage,
and the net result is only a slight increase in the
tensile strain which the concrete can withstand.
Steam curing at atmospheric pressure, which is
commonly used in the manufacture of precast struc-
tural elements, will reduce drying shrinkage (AC1
517). Also, because stream curing will produce a
high early-age strength of the concrete, it will re-
duce its tendency to crack, since the precast mem-
bers are unrestrained.
3.4.7 Influence of size of member - The size of a
concrete member will influence the rate at which
moisture moves from the concrete and thus in-
fluence the rate of shrinkage. Carlson3* has shown
224R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
that for a concrete exposed to a relative humidity of
50 percent, drying will penetrate only about 3 in.
(75 mm) in 1 month and about 2 ft (0.6 m) in 10
years. Fig. 3.5 shows his theoretical curves for the
drying of slabs. Hansen and Mattock3.10 made an
extensive investigation of the influence of size and
shape of member on the shrinkage and creep of con-
crete. They found that both the rate and the final
values of shrinkage and creep decrease as the mem-
ber becomes larger.
This significant effect of size of member on drying
shrinkage of concrete must be considered when eval-
uating the potential shrinkage of concrete in struc-
tures based on the shrinkage of concrete specimens
in the laboratory. The rate and magnitude of shrink-
age of a small laboratory specimen will be much
greater than that of the concrete in the structures.
Test results of several studies carried out to com-
pare the shrinkage of concrete in walls and slabs in
the field with the shrinkage of small laboratory
specimens have shown, as expected, that the shrink-
age of the concrete in a field structure is only a frac-
tion of that obtained on the laboratory specimens.
Even in laboratory tests the size of the specimen
used has a significant influence on shrinkage. As an
example of the effect of specimen size on shrinkage
is the data presented in Fig. 3.6, giving the results
of shrinkage tests obtained on four different size
concrete prisms. It will be noted that the shrinkage
of the prisms having a cross section of 3 x 3 in. (7.5
x 7.5 cm) was more than 50 percent greater than
that of the concrete prism having a cross section of 5
x 6 in. (12.5 x 15 cm).
3.5 - Control of shrinkage cracking
Concrete tends to shrink due to drying whenever
its surfaces are exposed to air of low relative humid-
ity. Since various kinds of restraint prevent the con-
7.5x7.5 10 x 10 10x12 5 12.5x 15 cm
I I
I
I purpose paints are ineffective, because they permit
3x3 4x4 4x5 5x6 in
AVERAGE END AREA DIMENSION OF CONCRETE PRISM
( LOG SCALE )
Fig. 3.6 - Effect of specimen size on drying shrink-
age of concrete (Principal authors data).
crete from contracting freely, the possibility of
cracking must be expected unless the ambient rela-
tive humidity is kept at 100 percent or the concrete
surfaces are sealed to prevent loss of moisture. The
control of cracking consists of reducing the cracking
tendency to a minimum, using adequate and prop-
erly positioned reinforcement, and using control
joints. The CEB-FIP Code give quantitative recom-
mendations on the control of cracking due to shrink-
age, listing various coefficients to determine the
shrinkage levels that can be expected. Control of
cracking by correct construction practices is covered
in Chapter 8 of this report, which includes specifica-
tions to minimize drying shrinkage (Section 8.6).
Cracking can also be minimized by the use of ex-
pansive cements to produce shrinkage-compensating
concretes. Shrinkage-compensating concretes are dis-
cussed in Section 3.6.
3.5.1 Reduction of cracking tendency - As men-
tioned previously, the cracking tendency is due not
only to the amount of shrinkage, but also to the de-
gree of restraint, the modulus of elasticity, and the
creep or relaxation of the concrete. Some factors
which reduce the shrinkage at the same time de-
crease the creep or relaxation and increase the mod-
ulus of elasticity, thus offering little or no help to
the cracking tendency. Emphasis should be placed,
therefore, on modifying those factors which produce
a net reduction in the cracking tendency.
Any measure that can be taken to reduce the
shrinkage of the concrete will also reduce the crack-
ing tendency. Drying shrinkage can be reduced by
using less water in the mix and larger aggregate
size. A lower water content can be achieved by us-
ing a well-graded aggregate, stiffer consistency, and
lower initial temperature of the concrete. As dis-
cussed in Section 3.4.4, however, the reduction of
water content by the use of water-reducing admix-
tures will not usually reduce shrinkage.
Another way to reduce the cracking tendency is to
use a larger aggregate size. A larger aggregate
size allows an increase in aggregate volume and a
reduction in the total water required to obtain a
given slump. The larger aggregate also tends to re-
strain the concrete more, and although this may re-
sult in internal microcracking, such internal cracking
is not necessarily harmful.
A third way to reduce the cracking tendency is to
apply a surface coating to the concrete, which will
prevent the rapid loss of moisture from within. This
means of controlling cracking has not been used to
its full potential and should be given better consider-
ation. However, many surface coatings such as all-
the moisture to escape almost as fast as it reaches
the surface. Chlorinated rubber and waxy or resin-
ous materials are effective coatings, but there are
probably many other materials which will slow the
evaporation enough to be beneficial. Any slowing of
 CONTROL OF CRACKING 224R-15

the rate of shrinkage will be beneficial, because con-

crete has a remarkable quality of relaxing under sus- STEEL\ _----
tained stress. Thus, concrete may be able to with- _B---
stand two or three times as much slowly applied
shrinkage as it can rapid shrinkage. ORIGINAL LENGTH
3.5.2 R e i n f o r c e m e n t - Properly placed re-
inforcement, used in adequate amounts, will not only
reduce the amount of cracking but prevent unsightly
cracking. By distributing the shrinkage strains along T A b T
___++IC~*___
the reinforcement through bond stresses, the cracks t
are distributed in such a way that a larger number
of very fine cracks will occur instead of a few wide EXPANSION PUTS STEEL IN
cracks. Although the use of such reinforcement to TENSION AND CONCRETE IN
control cracking in a relatively thin concrete section COMPRESSION M
is practical, it is not needed in massive structures
such as dams due to the low drying shrinkage of
these mass concrete structures. The minimum
amount and spacing of reinforcement to be used in
floors, roof slabs, and walls is given in AC1 318.
3.6.3 Joints - The use of joints is the most effective STRESS LOSS DUE TO
method of preventing formation of unsightly crack- SHRINKAGE AND CREEP
ing. If a sizable length or expanse of concrete, such
as walls, slabs or pavements, is not provided with RESIDUAL EXPANSION OR, -+j
adequate joints to accommodate shrinkage, it will SMALL CONTRACTION
make its own joints by cracking. .
Contraction joints in walls are made, for example, Qr 3. 7 - Basic concept of shrinkage-compensating
l

concretes.
by fastening to the forms wood or rubber strips
which leave narrow vertical grooves in the concrete
on the inside and outside of the wall. Cracking of the
wall due to shrinkage should occur at the grooves,
r/ .
p-
CURING

DRYING

relieving the stress in the wall and thus preventing

formation of unsightly cracks. These grooves should
be sealed on the outside of the wall to prevent pene-
tration of moisture. Sawed joints are commonly used
in pavements, slabs and floors.
Joint location depends on the particulars of place-
ment. Each job must be studied individually to de-
termine where joints should be placed.*
3.6 - Shrinkage-compensating concretes
Shrinkage-compensating concretes made with ex-
pansive cements can be used to minimize or elimi-
nate shrinkage cracking. The properties and use of
expansive cement concretes is published in numer-
ous papers and reports.3-11* 3*12 Of the several types
of expansive cements produced, the Type K
shrinkage-compensating expansive cement is most
commonly used in the United States.
In a reinforced concrete, the expansion of the ce-
ment paste during the first few days of curing will
develop a low level of prestress inducing com-
pressive stresses in the concrete and tensile stresses
in the steel. The level of compressive stresses devel-
oped in the shrinkage-compensating concretes
ranges from 25 to 100 psi (0.2 to 0.7 MPal. When
subjected to drying shrinkage, the contraction of the
concrete will result in a reduction or elimination of
its precompression. The initial precompression of the
SHRINKAGE- COMPENSATING
CONCRETE, p = 0.16Ym
PORTLAND CEMENT
CONCRETE
;
, I I I I
0 50 100 150 2oc
AGE OF CONCRETE, DAYS
Fig. 3.8 - Length change characteristics of shrink-
age-compensating and portland cement concretes
(Relative humidity = 50 percent).
concrete minimizes the magnitude of any tensile
stress that may ultimately develop due to shrinkage,
and thus reduce or eliminate the tendency to crack-
ing. This basic concept of the use of expansive ce-
ment to produce a shrinkage-compensating concrete
is illustrated in Fig. 3.7.
A typical length change history of a shrinkage-
compensating concrete is compared to that of a port-
land cement concrete in Fig. 3.8. The amount of re-
inforcing steel normally used in reinforced concrete
*Guidance on joint sealants and control joint location in slabs is avail-
able in ACI 504 and in ACI 302, respectively.
224R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
made with portland cements is usually more than ad-
equate to provide the elastic restraint needed for
shrinkage-compensating concrete. To take full advan-
tage of the expansive potential of shrinkage-com-
pensating concrete in minimizing or preventing
shrinkage cracking of unformed concrete surfaces, it
is important that positive and uninterrupted water
curing (wet covering or ponding) be started immedi-
ately after final finishing. For slabs on well satu-
rated subgrades, curing by sprayed-on membranes
or moisture-proof covers have been successfully uti-
lized. Inadequate curing of shrinkage-compensating
concrete may result in an insufficient expansion to
elongate the steel and thus subsequent cracking dur-
ing drying shrinkage. Specific recommendations and
information on the use of shrinkage-compensating
concrete are contained in ACI 223.
References
3.1. Verbeck, George J., Carbonation of Hydrated Port-
land Cement, Cement and Concrete, STP-205, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1958, pp.
17-36.
3.2. Blaine, R. L.; Arni, H. T.; and Evans, D. N., Inter-
relations Between Cement and Concrete Properties: Part 4
- Shrinkage of Hardened Portland Cement Pastes and
Concrete, Building Science Series No. 15, National Bu-
reau of Standards, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1969, 77 pp.
3.3. Brunauer, S.; Skalny, J.: and Yudenfreund, H.,
Hardened Cement Pastes of Low Porosity: Dimensional
Changes, Research Report No. 69-8, Engineering Re-
search and Development Bureau, New York State Depart-
ment of Transportation, Albany, Nov. 1969, 12 pp.
3.4. Tremper, Bailey, and Spellman, Donald L., Shrink-
age of Concrete - Comparison of Laboratory and Field
Performance, Highway Research Record. Highway Re-
search Board, No. 3, 1963, pp. 30-61.
3.5. Lerch, William, The Influence of Gypsum on the
Hydration and Properties of Portland Cement Pastes,
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 46, 1946, pp. 1252-1297.
3.6. Carlson, Roy W., Drying Shrinkage of Concrete as
Affected by Many Factors, Proceedings, ASTM, V. 38,
Part II, 1938, pp. 419-437.
3.7. Reichard, T. W., Creep and Drying Shrinkage of
Lightweight and Normal Weight Concrete, M o n o g r a p h
74, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1964,
30 pp.
3.8. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Re-
clamation, Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
3.9. Carlson, Roy W., Drying Shrinkage of Large Con-
crete Members, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 33, No. 3,
Jan.-Feb. 1937, pp. 327-336.
3.10. Hansen, Torben C., and Mattock, Alan H., In-
fluence of Size and Shape of Member on the Shrinkage and
Creep of Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No.
2, Feb. 1966, pp. 267-290.
3 . 1 1 . ACI C o m m i t t e e 2 2 3 , E x p a n s i v e C e m e n t
Concretes-Present State of Knowledge, ACI J O U R N A L ,
Proceedings V. 67, No. 8, Aug. 1970, pp. 583-610.
3.12. Klein Symposium on Expansive Cement Concretes,
SP-38, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973,
491 pp.
Chapter 4 - Control of cracking in flexural
members*
4.1 - Introduction
With the regular use of high strength reinforcing
steel and the strength design approach for re-
inforced concrete, and higher allowable stresses in
prestressed concrete design, the control of cracking
may be as important as the control of deflection in
flexural members. Internal cracking in concrete can
start at stress levels as low as 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) in
the reinforcement. Crack control is important to pro-
mote the aesthetic appearance of structures, and for
many structures, crack control plays an important
role in the control of corrosion by limiting the possi-
bilities for entry of moisture and salts which, to-
gether with oxygen, can set the stage for corrosion.
This chapter is concerned primarily with cracks
caused by flexural and tensile stresses, but temper-
ature, shrinkage, shear and torsion may also lead to
cracking.4.1 Cracking in certain specialized struc-
tures, such as reinforced concrete tanks, bins and
silos, is not covered in this report. For information
on cracking concrete in these structures, see Refer-
ence 4.2 and ACI 313.
Extensive research studies on the cracking be-
havior of beams have been conducted over the last
5 0 y e a r s . M o s t o f t h e m a r e r e p o r t e d i n ACI
Bibliography No. 9 on crack control.4.3 Others are
referenced in this chapter. Reference 4.1 contains an
extensive review of cracking in reinforced concrete
structures. Several of the most important crack pre-
diction equations are reviewed in the previous com-
mittee report. 1.1 Additional work presented in the
CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structure gives
the European approach to crack width evaluation
and permissible crack widths.
Recently, fiber glass rods have been used as a
reinforcing material.4.4To date, experience is lim-
ited, and crack control in structures reinforced with
fiber glass rods is not addressed in this report. It is
expected, however, that future committee docu-
ments will address crack control in structures using
this and other new systems as they come into use.
4.2 - Crack control equations for reinforced con-
crete beams
A number of equations have been proposed for the
prediction of crack widths in flexural members; most
of them are reviewed in the previous committee re-
port 1.1Pand in key publications listed in the refer-
ences. Most equations predict the probable max-
imum crack width, which usually means that about
90 percent of the crack widths in the member are
below the calculated value. However, research has
shown that isolated cracks in beams in excess of
twice the width of the computed maximum can
*Principal authors: Edward G. Nawy and Peter Gergely.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
sometimes occur,*-4 though generally the coefficient
of variation of crack width is about 40 percent.4-1
Evidence also exists indicating that this range in
crack width randomness may increase with the size
of the member. 1.1 Besides limiting the computed
maximum crack width to a given value, the designer
should estimate the percentage of cracks above this
value which can be tolerated.
Crack control equations recommended by ACI
Committee 224 and the Comite Euro-International
du Beton (CEB) are presented below.
4.2.1 ACI Committee 224 recommendations - Re-
quirements for crack control in beams and thick one-
way slabs in the ACI Building Code (ACI 318) are
based on the statistical analysis4-6 of maximum
crack width data from a number of sources. Based on
the analysis, the following general conclusions were
reached:
1. The steel stress is the most important variable.
2. The thickness of the concrete cover is an impor-
tant variable, but not the only geometric considera-
tion.
3. The area of concrete surrounding each re-
inforcing bar is also an important geometric vari-
able.
4. The bar diameter is not a major variable.
5. The size of the bottom crack width is influenced
by the amount of strain gradient from the level of
the steel to the tension face of the beam.
The equations that were considered to best pre-
diet the most probable maximum bottom and side
crack widths are:
W* = 0 . 0 9 1 v-a p (f, - 5) x 10-3 (4.la)
0.091 rt,, A
w, = . (f, - 5) x 1 0 - 3 l (4.lb)
-1-G. t,l&
where
W* = most probable maximum crack width at bot-
tom of beam, in.
w, = most probable maximum crack width at level
of reinforcement, in.
fJ = reinforcing steel stress, ksi
A = area of concrete symmetric with reinforcing
steel divided by number of bars, in.2
tb = bottom cover to center of bar, in.
t, = side cover to center of bar, in.
P = ratio of distance between neutral axis and
tension face to distance between neutral axis
and centroid of reinforcing steel = 1.20 in
beams
h1 = distance from neutral axis to the reinforcing
steel, in.
Simplification of Eq. (4.la) yielded the following
equation
w = 0.076~fs ~AX D3 (4.2)
224R-17
where
w = most probable maximum crack width, in.
d c = thickness of cover from tension fiber to
center of bar closest thereto, in.
When the strain, Ed, in the steel reinforcement is
used instead of stress, f,, Eq. (4.2) becomes
w = 2.2 p L, V-JX (4.3)
E, = strain in the reinforcement
Eq. (4.3) is valid in any system of measurement.
The cracking behavior in thick one-way slabs is
similar to that in shallow beams. For one-way slabs
having a clear concrete cover in excess of 1 in. (25.4
mm), Eq. (4.2) can be adequately applied if p = 1.25
to 1.35 is used.
AC1 318 Section 10.6 uses Eq. (4.2) with p = 1.2 in
the following form
2 = f,cQi- (4.2a)
Using the specified cover in AC1 318, maximium
allowable z = 175 kips per in. for interior exposure
corresponds to a limiting crack width of 0.016 in.
(0.41 mm).
The Code allows a value of z = 145 kips per in.
for exterior exposure based on a crack width value
of 0.013 in., (0.33 mm), which may be excessive based
on Table 4.1. While application of Eq.
(10.4) of AC1 318-771 to beams gives adequate crack
control values, its application to one-way slabs with
standard 3/4 in. (19 mm) cover and reinforced with
steel of 60 ksi (414 MPa) or lower yield strength
results in large reinforcement spacings. However,
the provisions of Code Section 7.6.5 indirectly limit
the spacing of such reinforcement in one-way slabs.
AC1 340.1R contains design aids for the applica-
tion of Eq. (4.2a).
4.2.2 CEB recommendations -Crack control recom-
mendations proposed in the European Model Code
for Concrete Structures apply to prestressed as well
as reinforced concrete and can be summarized as
follows:
The mean crack width, wm in beams is expressed
in terms of the mean crack spacing, srm such that
Kn = L&n (4.4)
where
(4.5)
and represents the average strain in the steel.
fs steel stress at the crack
f II = steel stress at the crack due to forces causing
cracking at the tensile strength of concrete
K = bond coefficient, 1.0 for ribbed bars, reflecting
influence of load repetitions and load duration
224~018 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
The mean crack spacing is
S rm
(4.6)
where
c = clear concrete cover
S bar spacing, limited to 15d,
x2 = 0.4 for ribbed bars
x3 = depends on the shape of the stress diagram,
0.125 for bending
QR = A, /A,
A t = effective area in tension, depending on ar-
rangement of bars and type of external
forces; it is limited by a line c + 7d, from the
tension face for beams; in the case of slabs,
not more than halfway to the neutral axis
A simplified formula canbe derived for the mean
crack width in beams with ribbed bars,
f
w, = 0.7 _- 3c + 0.05 -!
d
(4.7)
E S QR
A characteristic value of the crack width,
presumably equivalent to the probable maximum
value, is given as 1.7~~.
4.3 - Crack control in two-way slabs and plates
Crack control equations for beams underestimate
the crack widths developed in two-way slabs and
plates4.7 and do not tell the designer how to space
the reinforcement. The cracking mechanism in two-
way slabs and plates is controlled primarily by the
steel stress level and the spacing of the re-
inforcement in the two perpendicular directions. In
addition, the clear concrete cover in two-way slabs
and plates is nearly constant [3/4 in. (19 mm) for inte-
rior exposure], whereas it is a major variable in the
crack control equations for beams.
Analysis of data in the only major work on crack-
ing in two-way slabs and plates4s7 has provided the
following equation for predicting the maximum
crack width:
&,sI:
w= w s
n
(4.8)
where the radical rl = db,s21et, is termed the grid
index, and can be transformed into
]
k = fracture coefficient, having a value k = 2.8 x
lO-5 for uniformly loaded restrained two-way
action square slabs and plates. For concen-
trated loads or reactions, or when the ratio
of short to long span is less than 0.75 but
larger than 0.5, a value of k = 2.1 x 1O-5 is
applicable. For span aspect ratios 0.5, k =
1.6 x 1O-s
P = (as defined in Section 4.2.1) 1.25 (chosen to
simplify calculations though varies between
1.20 and 1.35)
fs = actual average service load stress level, or
40 percent of the design yield strength fy,
ksi
d b1 = diameter of the reinforcement in direction
1 closest to the concrete outer fibers, in.
s1 = spacing of the reinforcement in direction l,
in.
s2 = spacing of the reinforcement in per-
pendicular direction 2, in.
46
1" = direction of reinforcement closest to the
outer concrete fibers; this is the direction for
which crack control check is to be made
Qrl = active steel ratio
= _
Area of steel A, per ft width
12 (dbt + 2CJ
where Cl is clear concrete cover measured
from the tensile face of concrete to the near-
est edge of the reinforcing bar in direction
b& 1VW
w = crack width at face of concrete, in., caused
by flexural load
Subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to the directions of re-
inforcement.
For simply supported slabs, the value of k should
be multiplied by 1.5. Interpolated k values apply for
partial restraint at the boundaries. For zones of flat
plates where transverse steel is not used or when its
spacing s2 exceeds 12 in., use s2 = 12 in. in the
equation.
If strain is used instead of stress, Eq. (4.8)
becomes
(4.9)
where values of the kl = 29 x 100~ times the k
values previously listed.
References 4.8 and 340.1R contain design aids for
the application of these recommendations.
4.4 - Tolerable crack widths versus exposure condi-
tions in reinforced concrete
Table 4.1 is a general guide for tolerable crack
widths at the tensile face of reinforced concrete
structures for typical conditions and is presented as
an aid to be used during the design process. The
table is based primarily on Reference 4.9. It is im-
portant to note that these values of crack width are
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
TABLE 4.1 - Tolerable crack widths,
reinforced concrete
Tolerable
Exposure condition crack width, in.
Dry air or protective membrane 0.016
0.012
Humidity, moist air, soil
Deicing chemicals 0.007
Seawater and seawater spray:
wetting and drying 0.006
Water retaining structures* 0.004
*Excluding nonpressure pipes
not always a reliable indication of the corrosion and
deterioration to be expected. In particular, a larger
cover, even if it leads to a larger surface crack
width, may sometimes b e preferable for corrosion
control in certain environments. Thus, the designer
must exercise engineering judgment on the extent of
crack control to be used. When used in conjunction
with the recommendations presented in Sections
4.2.1 and 4.2.3 to limit crack width, it should be ex-
pected that a portion of the cracks in the structure
will exceed these values by a significant amount.
4.5 - Flexural cracking in prestressed concrete
Partially prestressed members, in which cracks
may appear under working loads, are used exten-
sively. Cracks form in these members when the ten-
sile stress exceeds the modulus of rupture of the
concrete (Sfl to 90 under short-term conditions).
The control of these cracks is necessary mainly for
esthetic reasons. The residual crack width, after re-
moval of the major portion of the live load, is small
[about 0.001 in. to 0.003 in. (0.03 to 0.08 mm)] and
therefore, crack control is usually not necessary if
the live load is transitory.
The prediction of crack widths in prestressed con-
crete members has received far less attention than
in reinforced concrete members. The available ex-
perimental data are limited and, at the same time,
the number of variables is greater in prestressed
members.
4.5.1 Crack prediction equations - One approach to
crack prediction, w h i c h r e l a t e s i t t o t h e non-
prestressed case, has two steps. First the decom-
pression moment is calculated, at which the stress at
the tension face is zero. Then the member is treated
as a reinforced concrete member and the increase in
stress in the steel is calculated for the additional
loading. The expressions given for crack prediction
in nonprestressed beams may be used to estimate
the cracks for the load increase above the decom-
pression moment. A multiplication factor of about
1.5 is needed when strands, rather than deformed
bars, are used nearest to the beam surface in the
224R-19
prestressed member to account for the differences in
bond properties.
The difficulty with this approach is the complexity
(mm) of calculations. The determination of the decompres-
sion moment and, especially, the stress in the steel
(0.41)
(0.30)
is complicated and unreliable unless elaborate meth-
(0.18) ods are used.4.10 For this reason, approximate meth-
ods for crack width prediction are attractive. These
(0.15) are not much less accurate than the more com-
(0.10) plicated methods, and the lack of sufficient data, cov-
ering large variations in the variables, precludes
further refinements at this date.
The CEB Model Code has the same equation for
the prediction of the crack width in prestressed
members as in nonprestressed members (see Section
4.2.2). The increase in steel strain is calculated from
the decompression stage. Several other equations
have been proposed.4.11-4.0
Limited evidence seems to indicate that unbonded
members develop larger cracks than bonded mem-
bers. Nonprestressed deformed bars may be used to
reduce the width of the cracks to acceptable levels.
The cracks in bonded post-tensioned members are
not much different from cracks in pretensioned
beams.
4.5.2 Allowable crack widths - Some authors state
that corrosion is a greater problem in prestressed
concrete members because of the smaller area of
steel used. However, recent research results4. indi-
cate that there is no general relationship between
cracking and corrosion in most circumstances. Fur-
t h e r m o r e cracks close upon removal of the load, and
the use of crack width limits should depend on the
fluctuation and magnitude of the live load.
4.6 - Anchorage zone cracking in prestressed con-
crete
Longitudinal cracks frequently occur in the ancho-
rage zones of prestressed concrete members due to
transverse tensile stresses set up by the concen-
trated forces.4.22T 4.23 Such cracks may lead to (or in
certain cases are equivalent to) the failure of the
member. Transverse reinforcement (stirrups) must
be designed to restrict these cracks.
Two types of cracks may develop: spalling cracks
which begin at the end face (loaded surface) and
propagate parallel to the prestressing force, and
bursting cracks which develop along the line of the
force or forces, but away from the end face.
For many years stirrups were designed to take
the entire calculated tensile force based on the anal-
ysis of the uncracked section. Classical and finite-ele-
ment analyses show similar stress distributions for
which the stirrups are to be provided. However,
since experimental evidence shows that higher
stresses can result.4.23 than indicated by these an-
alyses, and the consequences of under-reinforcement
224R-20 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
can be serious, it is advisable to provide more steel
than required by this type of analysis.
More recently, designs have been based on
cracked section analyses. A design procedure for
post-tensioned members using a cracked section an-
alysis4.24 has found acceptance with many design-
ers. For pretensioned members, an empirical equa-
tion has proven to be quite usefu1.4.25
Spalling cracks form between anchorages and
propagate parallel to the prestressing forces and
may cause gradual failure, especially when the force
acts near and parallel to a free edge. Since analyses
show that the spalling stresses in an uncracked
member are confined to near the end face, it is im-
portant to place the first stirrup near the end sur-
face, and to distribute the stirrups over a distance
equal to at least the depth of the member to fully ac-
count for both spalling and bursting stresses. Pre-
cast blocks with helical reinforcement may be used
when the prestressing forces are large.
4.7 - Tension cracking
The cracking behavior of reinforced concrete mem-
bers in tension is similar to that of flexural mem-
bers, except that the maximum crack width is larger
than that predicted by the expressions for flexural
members.4.26T 4.27 The lack of strain gradient, a n d
resultant restraint imposed by the compression zone
of flexural members, is probably the reason for the
larger tensile crack width.
Data are limited but it appears that the maximum
tensile crack width may be expressed approximately
in a form similar to that used for flexural crack
width.
w = O.lOf,&tA x 10-3 (4.10)
References
4.1. Leonhardt, Fritz, Crack Control in Concrete Struc-
tures, IABSE Surveys No. S4/77, International Associa-
tion for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1977,
26 pp .
4.2. Yerlici, V. A., Minimum Wall Thickness of Circular
Concrete Tanks, Publication No. 35-11, International Asso-
ciation for Bridge & Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1975,
p. 237.
4.3. ACI Committee 224, Causes, Mechanism, and
Control of Cracking in Concrete, ACI Bibliography No. 9,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 9.2 pp.
4.4. Nawy, Edward G., and Neuwerth, G. E., Behavior
of Concrete Slabs, Plates and Beams with Fiber Glass as
Main Reinforcement, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, ST2,
Feb. 1977, pp. 421-440.
4.5. Clark, Arthur P., Cracking in Reinforced
Concrete Flexural Members, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings
V. 52, No. 8, Apr. 1956, pp. 851-862.
4.6. Gergely, Peter, and Lutz, Leroy A., Maximum
Crack Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members,
Causes, Mechanism, and Control of Cracking in Concrete,
SP-20, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1968, pp.
87-117.
4.7. Nawy, Edward G., and Blair, Kenneth W.,
Further Studies on Flexural Crack Control in Structural
Slab Systems, Cracking, Deflection, and Ultimate Load of
Concrete Slab Systems, SP-30, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1971, pp. 1-41.
4.8. Nawy, Edward G., Crack Control Through
Reinforcement Distribution in Two-Way Acting Slabs and
Plates, ACI JO U R N A L, Proceedings V. 69, No. 4, Apr.
1972, pp. 217-219.
4.9. Nawy, Edward G., Crack Control in Reinforced
Concrete Structures, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 65,
No. 10, Oct. 1968, pp. 825-836.
4.10. Nilson, Arthur H., Design of Prestressed Concrete,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978, 526 pp.
4.11. Abeles, Paul W., Cracks in Prestressed Concrete
Beams, Proceedings, Fifth IABSE Congress (Lisbon,
1956), International Association for Bridge and Structural
Engineering, Zurich, 1956, pp. 707-720.
4.12. Bennett, E. W., and Dave, N. J., Test Perfor-
mances and Design of Concrete Beams with Limited
Prestress, The Structural Engineer (London), V. 47, No.
12, Dec. 1969, pp. 487-496.
4.13. Holmberg, Ake, and Lindgren, Sten, Crack
Spacing and Crack Widths Due to Normal Force and
Bending Moment, Document D2:1970, National Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, 1970, 57 pp.
4.14. Rao, A.S.P.; Gandotra, K.; and Ramaswamy, G.
S., Flexural Tests on Beams Prestressed to Different
Degrees of Prestress, Journal, Institution of Engineers
(Calcutta), V. 56, May 1976.
4.15. Bate, Stephen C. C., Relative Merits of Plain and
Deformed Wires in Prestressed Concrete Beams Under
Static and Repeated Loading, Proceedings, Institution of
Civil Engineers (London), V. 10, Aug. 1958, pp. 473-502.
4.16. Bennett, E. W., and Chandrasekhar, C. S., Cal-
culation of the Width of Cracks in Class 3 Prestressed
Beams, Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers
(London), V. 49, July 1971, pp. 333-346.
4.17. Hutton, S. G., and Loov, R. E., Flexural Behavior
of Prestressed, Partially Prestressed, and Reinforced
Concrete Beams, ACI JO U R N A L , Proceedings, V. 63,
No. 12, Dec. 1966, pp. 1401-1410.
4.18. Krishna, Raju N.; Basavarajuiah, B. S.; and
Ahamed Kurty, U. C., Flexural Behavior of Pretensioned
Concrete Beams with Limited Prestress, Building
Science, V. 8, No. 2, June 1973, pp. 179-185.
4.19. Stevens, R. F., Tests on Prestressed Reinforced
Concrete Beams, Concrete (London), V. 3, No. 11, Nov.
1969, pp. 457-462.
4.20. Nawy, E. G., and Huang, P. T., Crack and
Deflection Control of Pretensioned Prestressed Beams,
Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 22, No. 3,
May-June 1977, pp. 30-47.
4.21. Beeby, A. W., Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete and Its Relation to Cracking, The Structural
Engineer (London), V. 56A, No. 3, Mar. 1978, pp. 77-81.
4.22. Gergely, Peter, Anchorage Systems in Pre-
stressed Concrete Pressure Vessels; Anchorage Zone
Problems, ORNL-TM-2378, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge,
Tenn., 1969, pp. l-49.
4.23. Zielinski, J. L., and Rowe, R. E., An
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
Investigation of the Stress Distribution in the Anchorage
Zones of Post-Tensioned Concrete Members, Technical
Report No. 9, Cement and Concrete Association, London,
Sept. 1960, 32 pp.
4.24. Gergely, P., and Sozen, M. A., Design of Anchor-
age Zone Reinforcement in Prestressed Concrete Beams,
Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 12, No. 2,
Mar.-Apr. 1967, pp. 63-75.
4.25. Marshall, W. T., and Mattock, A. H., Control of
Horizontal Cracking in the Ends of Pretensioned Concrete
Girders, Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 7,
No. 5, Aug.-Oct. 1962, pp. 56-74.
4.26. Broms, Bengt B., Crack Width and Crack
Spacing in Reinforced Concrete Members, ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings, V. 62, No. 10, Oct. 1965, pp. 1237-1256.
4.27. Broms, Bengt B., and Lutz, Leroy A., Effects of
Arrangement of Reinforcement on Crack Width and
Spacing of Reinforced Concrete Members, ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 62, No. 11, Nov. 1965, pp. 1395-1410.
Chapter 5 - Long-term effects on cracking*
5.1- Introduction
Cracking in concrete is affected by the long-term
conditions to which the concrete element is sub-
jected. In most cases, long-term exposure and long-
term loading extend the magnitude of cracks in both
reinforced and plain concrete. The discussion in this
chapter summarizes the major long-term factors
which affect the crack control performance of con-
crete.
5.2 - Effects of long-term loading
As discussed in Chapter 2, both sustained and
cyclic loading increase the amount of microcracking
in concrete. The total amount of microcracking ap-
pears to be a function of the total strain and is
largely independent of the method by which the
strain is induced. Microcracking due to long-term
loading may well be an effect, rather than a major
cause, of creep, and microcracks formed at service
load levels do not seem to have a great affect on the
strength or serviceability of concrete.
The effect of sustained or repetitive loading on
macroscopic cracking, however, may be an important
consideration in the serviceability of reinforced con-
crete members, especially in terms of corrosion of
reinforcing steel and appearance.
The increase in crack width due to long-term or
repetitive loading can vary between 10 percent and
1,000 percent over the span of several years. 5.1-5.8
While there is a large scatter in the data, informa-
tion obtained from sustained loading tests of up to 2
.7,5.8
and fatigue tests with up to one million
cycles5.4, 5.5,5.8,5.9
indicate that a doubling of crack
width with time can be expected. Under most condi-
tions, the spacing of cracks does not change with
time at constant levels of stress. 5.4,5.7,5.8 An excep-
*Principal authors: David Darwin and Ernest K. Schrader.
224-21
tion to this occurs at low loads or in beams with
high percentages of reinforcement, in which case the
total number and width of cracks increase sub-
stantially after the loading has begun.5.2,5.4,5.8 The
largest percentage increase in crack width is then
expected in flexural members subject to low levels
of load, since the cracks take more time to develop.
For both prestressed and reinforced concrete flex-
ural members, long-term loading and repetitive load-
ing seem to give about the same crack widths and
spacing.5.9 The rate of crack development, however,
is considerably faster under repetitive loading. 5.5,5.8-5.10
As discussed in Chapter 4, crack width is a func-
tion of cover. For short-term static and fatigue load-
ing, surface crack width is approximately propor-
tional to the steel s t r a i n 5 . 7 , 5 . 8 , 5 . 1 0 Cracks grow in
width under sustained loading at a decreasing rate.
However, the rate of growth is faster than the aver-
age observed surface strain at the level of the steel.
For long term loading, crack width is proportional to
the steel strain (including the effects of creep), plus
the strain induced in the concrete due to shrink-
age.5.7
Under initial loads, cracks adjacent to re-
inforcement are restricted by the bond between the
steel and the concrete,5.7-5.11 and thus the width of
surface cracks do not provide a good indication of
the exposure of the reinforcing steel to corrosive
conditions. Over a period of time, however, the ad-
hesion bond between the steel and the concrete un-
dergoes breakdown. After about 2 years, the crack
width at the reinforcement is approximately equal to
the crack width at the surface.5.7 At this stage,
cracks in flexural members are triangular in shape
increasing in width from the neutral axis to the sof-
fit, and are approximately uniform across the width
of the beam. Therefore, after a few years, the width
of a surface crack provides a good estimate of the
crack width at the level of the reinforcing steel.
Many questions remain as to the importance of
crack width on the serviceability of reinforced and
prestressed concrete members. 5.12-5.14 Added
cover is generally acknowledged as a method of im-
proving the corrosion protection for reinforcing
steel. Since additional cover also results in added
surface crack width, and since this surface crack
width appears to provide a good estimate of the
crack width at the level of the steel, the entire ques-
tion of the importance of crack width on corrosion
protection remains open. It does seem clear that
crack widths predicted on the basis of short term
static tests do not provide a precise guide to crack
widths in structures actually in service.
5.3 - Environmental effects
The long-term effects of an adverse environment
in both producing and in enlarging concrete
cracks 5.15,5.16 can be damaging to both concrete and
224R-22 ACI COMMll-i=EE REPORT
reinforcement. If concrete is not resistant to freezing
and thawing when critically saturated, it will de-
velop cracks when frozen. The lack of such resis-
tance may be due to either the use of non-frost-resis-
tant coarse aggregate or the failure to produce a
satisfactory air-void system or failure to protect the
concrete from freezing prior to the reduction of the
freezable water content by maturity to a tolerable
range. The achievement of critical saturation in non-
frost-resistant concrete may be facilitated by the
presence of preexisting cracks which allow entry of
water more readily than would be the case other-
wise. The initiation of D-cracking near joints or
other cracks in pavements is a good example. In
more extreme cases, it is not uncommon for cracks
in the roadway deck of dams and navigation locks
(caused either by thermal stress or shrinkage of the
richer topping mix) to spall due to water which
freezes in the cracks themselves (independent of the
frost resistance of the concrete). On the otherhand,
preexisting cracks may also function to allow con-
crete to dry below critical saturation before freezing,
when this might not occur in the absence of such
cracks. Hence, the role of cracks as they effect the
deficiencies in frost resistance will vary with the en-
vironmental conditions (e.g., typical time of drying
after wetting before freezing), crack width, ability of
cracks to drain, etc.
If the aggregate used in the concrete is durable
under freeze-thaw conditions and the, strength of the
concrete is high, the concrete durability will bet-
ter. (AC1 201.2R). Field exposure tests of reinforced
concrete beams5*17 (subjected to freezing and thaw-
ing and an ocean side environment) indicate that
the use of air-entrained concrete made the beams
more resistant to weathering than the use of non-
air-entrained concrete. Beams with modern de-
formed bars were found to be more durable than
those using old-style deformations. Maximum crack
widths did not increase with time when the steel
stress was less than 30 ksi, (210 MPa) but did in-
crease substantially (50 to 100 percent) over a 9 year
period when the steel was 30 ksi (210 MPa) or more.
5.4 - Aggregate and other effects
Concrete may crack as the result of expansive re-
actions between aggregate and alkalis derived from
cement hydration, admixtures or external sources
(e.g., curing water, ground water, alkaline solutions
stored or used in the finished structure).
Possible solutions to these problems include limita-
tions on reactive constituents in the aggregate, limi-
tations on the alkali content of cement, or addition of
a satisfactory pozzolanic material. The potential for
some expansive reactions, e.g., alkali-carbonate, is
not reduced by pozzolanic admixtures. AC1 201.2R
and Reference 5.18 give details on identification and
evaluation of aggregate reactivity.
Based on reports of AC1 Committees 201 and
212 9 5.15.5.16 the possible hazard of using calcium chlo-
ride in a water-soluble salt environment warrants a
recommendation against its use under such circum-
stances. Also, the use of calcium chloride in re-
inforced structures exposed to unusually moist envi-
ronments is to be avoided regardless of the presence
or absence of water-soluble salts in adjacent waters
and soils.
Detrimental conditions may also result from the
application of deicing salts to the surface of hard-
ened concrete. When such applications are neces-
sary, calcium chloride or sodium chloride should be
used and only within recommended application rates.
Concrete subjected to water soluble salts should be
air entrained [6.5 to 7.5 percent for normal 3L4 in. (19
mm) MSA concrete and 4.5 to 5.5 percent for F/2 in.
(38 mm) MSA concrete], should have adequate cover
(about 2 in.), and should be made with a high-quality
mix yielding low permeability.
5.5 - Use of polymers in improving cracking c h a r -
acterisitics
Extensive work is available on the use of polymers
in modifying the characteristics of concrete.5*1gy 5.20p
5.21 Polymer-portland cement concretes have a large
deformation capacity, high tensile and compressive
strengths and negligible permeability. The tensile
splitting strength can be as high as 1550 psi
(10.7 MPa).5-22 Polymer impregnation is another
method of introducing beneficial polymer systems
into concrete. This procedure creates a layer of high
quality material to the depth that has been im-
pregnated. These materials are discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 6.
Because of these desirable characteristics, it is ex-
pected that structural elements made with polymer
modified concrete will exhibit superior serviceability
in cracking, deflection, creep, shrinkage, and per-
meability.
References
5.1. Bate, Stephen C. C., A Comparison Between Pre-
stressed Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Beams Under
Repeated Loading, Proceedings Institution of Civil Engi-
neers (London), V. 24, Mar. 1963, pp. 331-358.
5.2. Brendel, G., and Ruhle, H., Tests on Reinforced
Concrete Beams Under Long-Term Loads (Dauerstandver-
suche mit Stahlbetonbalken), Proceedings, Seventh
IABSE Congress (Rio de Janeiro, 1964), International As-
sociation of Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich,
1964, pp. 916-922.
5.3. Lutz, LeRoy A.; Sharma, Nand K.; and Gergely, Pe-
ter, Increase in Crack Width in Reinforced Concrete
Beams Under Sustained Loading, ACI JOURNAL , Pro-
ceedings, V. 64, No. 9, Sept. 1968, pp. 538-546.
5.4. Abeles, Paul W.: Brown, Earl L. II; and Morrow,
Joe W., Development and Distribution of Cracks in Rect-
angular Prestressed Beams During Static and Fatigue
Loading, Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 13,
No. 5, Oct. 1968, pp. 36-51.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
5.5. Bennett, E. W., and Dave, N. J., Test Perfor-
mances and Design of Concrete Beams with Limited Pre-
stress, The Structural Engineer (London), V. 47 No. 12,
Dec. 1969, pp. 487-496.
5.6. Holmberg, A., and Lindgren, S., Crack Spacing and
Crack Width Due to Normal Force or Bending Moment,
Document D2, National Swedish Council for Building Re-
search, Stockholm, 1970, 57 pp.
5.7. Illston, J. M., and Stevens, R. F., Long-term Crack-
ing in Reinforced Concrete Beams, Proceedings, In-
stitution of Civil Engineers (London), Part 2, V. 53, Dec.
1972, pp. 445-459.
5.8. Holmberg, Ake, Crack Width Prediction and Min-
imum Reinforcement for Crack Control, Dansk Selskab
for Byaningsstatik (Copenhagen), V. 44, No. 2, June 1973,
pp. 41-50.
5.9. Rehm, Gallus, and Eligehausen, Rolf, Lapped
Splices of Deformed Bars Under Repeated Loadings
(Ubergreifungsstosse von Rippenstahlen unter nicht ruhen-
der Belastung), Beton und Stahlbetonbau (Berlin), No. 7,
1977, pp. 170-174.
5.10. Stevens, R. F., Tests on Prestressed Reinforced
Concrete Beams, Concrete (London), V. 3, No. 11, Nov.
1969, pp. 457-462.
5.11. Broms, Bengt B., Technique for Investigation of
Internal Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Members, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 62, No. 1, Jan. 1965, pp. 35-44.
5.12. Atimtay, Ergin, and Ferguson, Phil M., Early
Chloride Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete - A Test Re-
port, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 70, No. 9, Sept. 1973,
pp. 606-611.
5.13. Beeby, A. W., Concrete in the Oceans - Cracking
and Corrosion, Technical Report No. 1, Cement and
Concrete Association (London), 1978.
5.14. Beeby, A. W., Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete and Its Relation to Cracking, The Structural
Engineer (London), V. 56A, No. 3, Mar. 1978, pp. 77-81.
5.15. Mather, Bryant, Cracking Induced by Environ-
mental Effects, Causes, Mechanism, and Control of Crack-
ing in Concrete, SP-20, American Concrete Institute, De-
troit, 1968, pp. 67-72.
5.16. Mather, Bryant, Factors Affecting Durability of
Concrete in Coastal Structures, Technical Memorandum
. No. 96, Beach Erosion Board, Washington, D.C., June
1957.
5.17. Roshore, Edwin C., Field Exposure Tests of Rein-
forced Concrete Beams, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 64,
No. 5, May 1967, pp. 253-257.
5.18. Woods, Hubert, Durability of Concrete Construc-
tion, Monograph No. 4, American Concrete Institute/Iowa
State University, Detroit, 1968, 187 pp.
5.19. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Concrete Pol-
ymer Materials, BNL Report 50134 (T-5091, 1968.
5.20. Polymers in Concrete, SP-40, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1973, 362 pp.
5.21. Polymers in Concrete, SP-58, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1978, 420 pp.
5.22. Nawy, Edward G.; Ukadike, Maurice M.; and
Sauer, John A., High Strength Field Polymer Modified
Concretes, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, ST12, Dec. 1977,
pp. 2307-2322.
224R-23
Chapter 6 - Control of cracking in concrete
layered systems*
6.1 - Introduction
A layered concrete system can be created by a
mortar or concrete overlay (topping) placed on an
existing concrete surface. The use of layered con-
crete systems has been increasing during the last
10 years in the renovation of deteriorating bridge
decks, strengthening and/or renovation of concrete
pavements, warehouse floors, walkways, etc., and in
new two-course construction of decks and pave-
ments. The overlay can be portland cement low
slump dense concrete (LSDC), polymer-portland ce-
ment concrete (PPCC), more commonly referred to
as latex modified concrete (LMC), fiber reinforced
concrete (FRC), or internally sealed concrete. A lay-
ered system can also be created by impregnating
the upper portion [l/z to 3 in. (10 to 80 mm1 ] of exist-
ing concrete with a monomer system that requires
polymerization after soaking.
The major sources and types of cracking in these
layered concrete systems are:
1. Differential shrinkage cracking
2. Reflective cracking (stress cracking)
3. Differential temperature cracking
4. Edge curling and delamination
5. Incorrect construction practices
Long term observations 6.1-6.3 of many layered
concrete systems have shown that differential
shrinkage cracks are by far the most common and
most likely to increase and widen with time.
6.2 - Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) overlays
When properly proportioned, mixed, and placed, a
crack resistant topping layer of FRC can be the solu-
tion to certain field problems. Fibrous concrete over-
lays of highways, airfields, warehouse floors, walk-
ways, etc., have been used since the early 1970s.
Fibers are usually steel with lengths between 10
and 60 mm (l/2 to 2l/2 in.). The effects of fibrous
concrete on cracking in a layered system depend
largely on the field conditions of each situation.
Some typical observations for similar field or labo-
ratory conditions are discussed below.6*2-6*7
6.2.1 Bond to underlying concrete - During early fi-
brous concrete overlay work, it was thought that a
partially bonded layer was the ideal system. The
term partially bonded means that no deliberate at-
tempt is made to bond or to debond the topping
layer to the underlying material through agents, fas-
teners, polyethylene sheet, etc. The surface to be
overlaid is cleaned of all loose material, usually by
hosing, and generally left in damp condition. After
the evaluation of partially bonded projects, this pro-
cedure has become the least desirable technique to
*Principal authors: Alfred G. Bishara and Ernest K. Schrader.
224R-24 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
use. Over a period of several years many partially
bonded FRC overlays have shown noticeable
amounts of reflective cracking and edge curling. The
curled edges are typical in thin overlays [less than
about 3 in. (76 mm)] and can result in cracks if sub-
jected to long-term dynamic loading.
If the base slab is relatively crack free, or if the
overlay is of sufficient thickness and strength to re-
sist the extension of cracks in the original slab, a
bonded layer with matched joints is generally the
best approach. If the FRC layer is of sufficient thick-
ness, a totally unbonded overlay is generally best
where severe cracking is present or may develop in
the base slab. Essentially unbonded systems have
been constructed satisfactorily where FRC is placed
over an asphalt layer. The asphalt itself will act as a
debonding layer if it has a reasonably smooth sur-
face without potholes. This type of construction
lends itself particularly well to deteriorated airfield
slabs which have been resurfaced with asphaltic con-
crete but require additional rigid pavement to take
increased loads imposed by heavy aircraft. Another
technique, which has been used when the base mate-
rial to be overlaid is reasonably smooth, consists of
placing the FRC over a layer of polyethylene sheet.
On irregular, spalled, or potholed surfaces a thin lev-
eling and debonding layer of sand or asphalt is desir-
able.
6.2.2 Fiber size and volume - The crack arresting
mechanism on which the basic theory of FRC is
founded depends on fiber spacing.6.8 Although fiber
size and volume have little effect on the formation of
the first crack they are major factors influencing
subsequent crack development. As fiber diameter in-
creases for any given volume percentage, the num-
ber of fibers decreases and the spacing between fi-
bers increases. Also, as the volume percentage
decreases, the spacing increases. If the fiber spacing
becomes relatively large [more than about 5 mm (0.2
in.)], the crack arresting mechanism is limited. Re-
gardless of the reason, as the fiber spacing in-
creases, the number of small cracks decreases, but
the number and width of larger cracks increase. For
concrete with 20 mm t3/4 in.) aggregate, about 0.9
percent fibers by total volume will provide sub-
stantial crack resistance. For concrete with 10 mm
(3/8 in.) aggregate about 1.2 percent is normal, and
for mortar, 1.4 to 1.8 percent is adequate. If fiber
contents much greater than these are used, or if ag-
gregate gradations are not suitable, high cement and
water requirements result and the FRC layer is sus-
ceptible to shrinkage cracks.
6.2.3 Fiber type and shape - Because of their in-
creased resistance to pullout, deformed steel fibers
have an advantage over smooth ones with regard to
both pre- and post-cracking behavior. However, the
advantage is not always worth the additional ex-
pense.
The basic crack theory is applicable to both glass
and metallic fibers, but the two types do exhibit
some difference in physical crack behavior. Test+*
have shown that glass FRC has less ability to store
energy after its failure in flexure than steel FRC.
Also, microcracking in the general vicinity of a ma-
jor crack is typically more prominent with steel than
glass. The failure (crack) zone for glass is more local-
ized.
6.2.4 Fibers in open cracks - There has been con-
siderable discussion about the condition and effec-
tiveness of steel fibers that bridge over or through a
crack. At the time of cracking, the fibers lose their
bond to the concrete but continue to provide a me-
chanical resistance to pullout. This post-cracking
strength is one of the most important characteristics
of FRC. The obvious problem is that after cracking,
steel fibers will oxidize and provide no long-term
benefit. However, the majority of investigations
6.3,6.5,6.6
have shown, that if the cracks are tight
(0.001 - 0.003 in. (0.03-0.08 mm)], the fibers will not
oxidize, even after several years of exposure. Long-
term evaluations are currently underway.6.3
6.2.5 Mix proportion conditions-ACI 544.3R
provides detailed information on suitable mixture
proportions for steel fiber reinforced concrete. The
water requirement for fibrous concretes is higher
than that of normal concrete due to the high surface
area of the fibers. The high water content provides
the basic ingredient for shrinkage cracks. Through
the use of water reducing admixtures, the mix water
can be held to reasonable levels.6-gp JO If possible,
these admixtures should be used to adjust the mix
proportioning for a bonded overlay so that the wa-
ter/cement ratio and cement factor approach the
same values as used in the underlying material, If
possible, the overlay should have aggregates of
similar physical properties unless the original ag-
gregates are unsuitable.
6.2.6 Joint overlays - Different methods of joint
overlaying have been tried; most have been unsuc-
cessful.6.7 As with conventional concrete overlays, if
joints in a base slab are overlayed with FRC without
taking special design precautions to prevent reflec-
tive cracking, the overlay will crack at joint loca-
tions.
6.3 - Latex modified concrete (LMC) overlays
Latex modified mortar and concrete bonded over-
lays [3/4 to 1 l/z in. (20 to 40 mm)] have been used in
the renovation of deteriorated bridge decks and in
new two-course construction to effectively resist the
penetration of chloride ions from deicing salts and
prevent the subsequent corrosion of the reinforcing
steel and the spalling of the concrete deck.6.11,6.12
Some of these decks have been in use for over 10
years.
Inspections of a large number of bridge decks
overlaid with LMC6.1 have indicated that there is a
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
high incidence of fine, random, shrinkage cracks in a
large portion of the renovation jobs. This type of
cracking is not as extensive in new two-course con-
struction. Transverse cracks, spaced 3 to 4 ft (0.9 to
1.2 m) apart, also appear on many of the bridges in-
spected. However, there may be a relationship be-
tween the degree of transverse cracking and the in-
tensity of heavy truck traffic during reconstruction.
To keep the bridges in service, traffic is normally
diverted to one lane, while renovation and applica-
tion of the overlay proceed on an adjacent traffic lane.
The quality of the overlay may be affected by the
movement of the deck, although extensive data do
not exist linking the effect of traffic-induced vibra-
tions during reconstruction to deterioration or crack-
ing in bridge decks. If traffic must be maintained,
consideration should be given to placing overlays
when traffic is low and/or when vehicle speed is
restricted.
To reduce the incidence of cracking and sub
sequent loss of latex modified concrete overlays it is
recommended 6 .1 that:
1. The surface of the underlying concrete should
be cleaned by sand blasting to assure adequate
bonding with the overlay. To reduce air pollution,
particularly in urban areas, high pressure water jet
cleaning [5000 to 6000 psi (35-40 MPa) at the nozzle]
may be used just prior to placement of the overlay,
in lieu of sand blasting;
2. The slump of latex modified concrete mixtures
should be between 3 to 4 in. (75 to 100 mm) to re-
duce differential shrinkage and the high incidence of
random cracking;
3. The finishing equipment should have been
proven to be effective for adequately placing the con-
crete to the required density;
4. A thin coating of the overlay mixture should be
thoroughly scrubbed into the surface of the under-
lying clean concrete immediately before placing the
overlay mix to increase the bonding between the
layers; coarser particles of the mixture which cannot
be scrubbed into immediate contact with the surface
of the underlying concrete, should be removed;
5. In new two-course construction, the overlay
should be placed after removing the forms from the
base concrete, so that stresses caused by the weight
of the overlay are born by the underlying concrete.
If placed before the forms are removed, the overlay
will have to carry a portion of its own weight and
may crack in negative moment regions;
6. Overlays should be placed only when the am-
bient weather conditions are favorable, as defined in
ACI 308 on curing, or when appropriate actions are
taken for cold-weather concreting (ACI 306R) or hot-
weather concreting (ACI 305R).
224R-25
6.4 - Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC) systems
Surface impregnation and polymerization of con-
crete in place is a relatively new process but has
been used successfully in a number of field proj-
ects.6.13,6.15 There has been considerable discussion
about this procedure due to observations of cracks
during or immediately after the drying step of these
p r o j e c t s . I n t h e c a s e s t h a t h a v e b e e n eval-
uated, 6.14,6.15 the cracks were determined to either
have been in the concrete prior to the impregnation
or they were caused by improperly controlled drying
during initial stages of the impregnation procedure.
Temperatures during drying are usually in the range
of 120 C (240 F) to 150 C (310 F) for about 4 to 12 hr.
To some extent, thermal expansion will offset drying
shrinkage until the concrete cools. Ideally, during
the soak period and after cooling, the monomer will
fill any cracks that have been created in the top sur-
face of the concrete due to drying. The cracks will
be mended when the monomer is polymerized. If a
crack is open and can drain (as is the case with ver-
tical surfaces and cracks through the full depth of a
slab), the monomer can run out of the crack before it
is polymerized, and no mending will occur. If a more
viscous monomer is used, so that it does not drain
from the crack, the depth of penetration into the
concrete will be adversely affected. If there is a wa-
ter source behind the material to be polymerized it
is possible for moisture to re-enter the crack, after
drying has been completed, but before the monomer
soak starts. In this case, the presence of moisture
prevents the monomer from entering the concrete
adjacent to the crack, and the crack will not mend.
The engineer should thoroughly evaluate all ef-
fects of the drying cycle in a PIC project and plan
the drying temperatures and duration, the cooling
cycle, and the monomer system to prevent the oc-
currence of unmended cracks. The strain capacity,
thermal expansion, and specific heat of the material
should be considered. Restraints, preventing move-
ment at the perimeter of the concrete to be poly-
merized, should be avoided.
The long-term influence of polymer impregnation
on the behavior of cracking in concrete is not known
at this time but will be established by the evaluation
of currently completed field projects.
References
6.1. Bishara, A. G., Latex Modified Concrete Bridge
Deck Overlays - Field Performance Analysis, Report
No. FHWA/OH/79/004, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C., Oct. 1979, 97 pp.
6.2. Gray, B. H., Fiber Reinforced Concrete - A Gen-
eral Discussion of Field Problems and Applications, Tech-
nical Manuscript M-12, U.S. Army Construction Engineer-
ing Research Laboratory, Champaign, Apr. 1972.
6.3. Schrader, Ernest K., and Munch, Anthony V. Deck
224R-26
Slab Repaired by Fibrous Concrete Overlay, Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, C01, Mar. 1976, pp. 179-196.
6.4. Gray, B. H.; Williamson, G. R.; and Batson, G. B.,
Fibrous Concrete - Construction Material for the Seven-
ties, Conference Proceedings M-28, U.S. Army Construc-
tion Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, May
1972, 238 pp.
6.5. Hefner, S., Fibrous Concrete McCarran Inter-
national Airport, Las Vegas, Nevada, Dec. 1974.
6.6. Rice, John L., Fibrous Concrete Pavement Design
Summary, Technical Report No. M-134, U.S. Army Con-
struction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign,
June 1975, 13 pp.
6.7. Gray, B. H., and Rice, John L., Fibrous Concrete
for Pavement Applications, Report No. M-13, U.S. Army
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory,
Champaign, Apr. 1972, 9 pp.
6.8. Shah, S. P., and Naaman, A. E., Mechanical Prop-
erties of Glass and Steel Fiber Reinforced Mortar, De-
partment of Materials Engineering, University of Illinois,
Chicago, Aug. 1975.
6.9. Utilization of Wirand Concrete in Bridge Decks,
Report by General Analytics, Monroeville, Pa., for Battelle
Memorial Institute, May 1971.
6.10. Walker, A. J., and Lankard, D. R., Bridge Deck
Rehabilitation with Steel Fibrous Concrete, Presented at
the Third International Exposition on Concrete Construc-
tion (New Orleans, Jan. 1977), Battelle Columbus Labora-
tories, 1977.
6.11. Bishara, A. G., and Tantayanondkul, P., Use of
Latex in Concrete Bridges Decks, Report No. EES 435
(ODOT-12-74) Ohio Department of Transportation, The
Ohio State University, 1974.
6.12. Clear, K. C., Time to Corrosion of Reinforcing
Steel in Concrete Slabs, Transportation Research Record,
No. 500, Transportation Research Board, 1974, pp. 16-24.
6.13. Schrader, Ernest K.; Fowler, David W.; Kaden,
Richard A., and Stebbins, Rodney J., Polymer Impregna-
tion Used in Concrete Repairs on Cavitation/Erosion Dam-
age, Polymers in Concrete, SP-58, American Concrete In-
stitute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 225-248.
6.14. Depuy, G. W., Recent Developments in Concrete-
Polymer Materials, Second International Symposium on
Concrete Technology (Monterrey, Mexico, Mar. 19751, U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975.
6.15. Smoak, W. G., Polymer Impregnation of New
Concrete Bridge Deck Surfaces, Interim Report No.
FHWA-RD-75-72, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
Prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washing-
ton, D.C., June 1975.
Chapter 7 - Control of cracking in mass
concrete*
7.1 - Introduction
Temperature induced cracking in a large mass of
concrete can be prevented if proper measures are
taken to reduce the amount and rate of temperature
change. Measures commonly used include precooling,
post-cooling or a combination of the two, and more
*Principal authors: Donald L. Houghton and Roy W. Carlson.
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
recently, thermal insulation has been used to protect
exposed surfaces. The degree of temperature control
necessary to prevent cracking varies greatly with
such factors as the location, the height and thickness
of the structure, the character of the aggregate, the
properties of the concrete and the external re-
straints. Although a large amount of the data for
this chapter has been obtained by experience gained
from the use of mass concrete in dams, it applies
equally well in mass concrete used in other struc-
tures such as steam power plants, powerhouses,
bridge and building foundations, navigation locks,
etc. Tremie concrete, a specialized type of mass con-
crete, has been amply covered in Chapter 8 of ACI
304 and will not be discussed in this report.
The location of the structure affects the degree of
temperature control which will be required. Gener-
ally at high altitudes the daily variations in temper-
ature are greater than at low altitudes. Often at
high altitudes, the ambient temperature variation
alone may be sufficient to cause cracks to form at
exposed surfaces. These surface cracks continue in-
ward with only approximately half the stress which
is necessary to cause internal cracking. A similar
condition is likely to be found when a structure is lo-
cated at a high latitude; only in this case the temper-
ature variations are seasonal, rather than daily.
In the case of a dam, the height affects the need
for crack control. If the dam is very high, the design
stresses will be high and more cement must be used
to provide the stipulated factor of safety. This
makes for more heat generation and a consequent
tendency toward higher internal temperatures. Also,
the higher dam will have greater horizontal dimen-
sions which cause greater restraint and the need for
still closer temperature control.
The properties of the concrete affect the problem
of crack control. Concretes differ widely in the
amount of tensile strain they can withstand before
cracking. For strain which is applied rapidly, the
two factors which govern the strain capacity are the
modulus of elasticity and the tensile strength. For
strain which is applied slowly, the creep (or re-
laxation) of the concrete is important. The factors af-
fecting strain capacity and creep rate are discussed
more fully in Section 7.2.
Another important property of concrete is the
coefficient of thermal expansion. The amount of
strain which a temperature change will produce is
directly proportional to the coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion of the concrete. The average coefficient of
thermal expansion of mass concrete is about 9 mil-
lionths per deg C (5 millionths/F), but with some ag-
gregates, the coefficient may be as high as 15 mil-
lionths or as low as 7 millionths (4 to 8 millionths/F).
Thus, in the extreme case, where a concrete has a
low tensile strength, a high modulus o f elasticity, a
high coefficient of thermal expansion, and is fully re-
strained, it may crack when there is a quick drop in
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
temperature of only 3 C (6 F). On the other hand,
some concretes can withstand a quick drop in tem-
perature of as much as 10 C (20 F), even when fully
restrained. More data on the thermal expansion of
concrete may be found in the reports of ACI Com-
mittee 207 (ACI 207.1R and ACI 207.2R).
From these considerations, it is apparent that the
degree of crack control necessary for the safe elimi-
nation of joints may vary from nothing at all, for a
dam near the equator with favorable aggregates, to
very costly measures, in a location where temper-
ature variations are great and where the only eco-
nomical aggregates have high elastic moduli and
high thermal expansion. In the latter case, present
practice calls for both precooling and post-cooling,
and for the application of thermal insulation to ex-
posed surfaces during cold weather. The insulation is
left in place long enough to permit the concrete tem-
perature at the surfaces to slowly approach the am-
bient, or until additional concrete is placed on or
against the surface being protected. Additional re-
search into the most effective use of thermal in-
sulation is needed particularly for regions having se-
vere or sub-arctic climates.
There are two measures which can be taken to
provide safety against cracking. The first is to mod-
ify the materials and mix proportions to produce
concrete having the best cracking resistance, or the
greatest tensile strain capacity. This may require
careful aggregate selection, using the minimum ce-
ment content for interior concrete, restricting the
maximum aggregate size, or using other specialized
procedures. The second measure to prevent cracking
is to control the factors which produce tensile strain.
This may mean precooling, post-cooling, insulating
(and possibly heating) the exposed surfaces of the
concrete during cold weather and designing to min-
imize strains around galleries and other openings.
7.2 - Crack resistance
The tensile strain which concrete can withstand
varies greatly with the composition of the concrete
and the strain rate. When strain is applied slowly,
the strain capacity is far greater than when the ac-
tion is rapid. Thus, concrete in the interior of a large
mass which must cool slowly, can undergo a large
strain before failure. If concrete contains rough tex-
tured aggregate of small maximum size, the strain
capacity will be high. However, there is an optimum
with respect to the aggregate size. Smaller aggre-
gate requires more cement for a given strength
which results in more heat, a higher maximum tem-
perature, and greater subsequent strain due to cool-
ing. Thus, the gain through greater strain capacity
of the richer concrete with smaller aggregate may
be more than offset by the greater strain that must
be withstood, if the size is reduced too much.
224R-27
As stated above, the two factors governing the
tensile strain which a concrete can withstand are the
tensile strength and the modulus of elasticity. Many
tests on very lean concretes, such as are used for
the interior of large dams, have shown that tensile
failure occurs without much plastic strain when
loading is applied rapidly. For such concrete, the
tensile strain which the concrete can withstand is
approximately equal to the tensile strength divided
by the modulus of elasticity of the concrete. For
many purposes, then, it is sufficiently accurate to as-
sume that the tensile strain capacity is inversely
proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the con-
crete. It follows that the modulus of elasticity of the
aggregate is important because of its large effect on
the deformability of the concrete. Tensile strength is
also important, and for this reason, crushed aggre-
gates are apt to be superior to natural aggregates
for crack prevention.
Strain capacity can be measured directly on
cylindrical specimens loaded in tension, or it can be
determined on concrete beams located at the third
points.7.1
A high creep rate of concrete is helpful in pre-
venting cracking when the tensile strain is applied
gradually. Since the tensile strength of concrete is
nearly independent of prior loading, creep tends to
increase the strain capacity. In the case of Dworshak
Dam, for example, the strain to failure was almost
three times as great for strain applied over 2 months
as for quickly applied strain.7.1
The creep of concrete under sustained stress is af-
fected by the stiffness of the aggregate. When the
modulus is high, the creep is low and vice versa. The
importance of aggregate rigidity on creep of con-
crete may be illustrated by two examples. First, as-
sume that the aggregate and the cement paste have
the same modulus of elasticity. When compressive
stress is applied, the stress and the corresponding
strain will be the same in the aggregate as in the ce-
ment paste. The aggregate does not creep under
moderate stress but the paste does, and the paste
which is between aggregate particles relaxes and
loses stress. The lost stress must be shifted to the
aggregate to maintain equilibrium. This imposes an
elastic strain on the aggregate which accounts for a
large part of the creep of the concrete. The amount
of this elastic strain is directly related to the modu-
lus of elasticity of the aggregate; the more rigid the
aggregate, the lower the creep. Next, assume that
the aggregate has a much higher modulus than the
cement paste. When compressive stress is applied,
the average stress in the aggregate will be higher
than that in the cement paste and the paste will
creep less than it did when the moduli were equal.
The elastic strain in the aggregate due to the creep
of the paste will then be less than it was when the
moduli were equal. Thus, an increase in the rigidity
224-28 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
of the aggregate acts in two ways to reduce the
creep of the concrete.
7.3 - Determination of temperatures and tensile
strains
Tensile strain in mass concrete results mainly
from the restraint of thermal contraction, and to a
lesser degree from autogenous shrinkage. Drying
shrinkage is important only because it may cause
shallow cracks to occur at surfaces. Thus, temper-
ature change is the main contributor to tensile strain
in mass concrete. The prediction of probable strain
requires the prediction of the temperature to be ex-
pected. This prediction can be made quite reliably if
the adiabatic temperature curve for the concrete is
known, as well as the thermal diffusivity, boundary
temperatures and dimensions. The finite element
method can be used for the prediction of temper-
ature distribution.7.3a 7.4 The main problem is that of
choosing the correct boundary temperatures, which
often depend upon the ambient temperatures. It is
often satisfactory to use air temperatures found in
weather reports as the surface temperatures to be
used in the computations. For information on other
methods of predicting temperatures in mass con-
crete, see the report ACI 207.lR.
After the predicted temperature history is known,
the determination of probable tensile strain is the
next step. This can be accomplished using finite ele-
ment computer programs.7.5a 7.6 Even with the finite
element method, a thorough analysis is laborious
because of the time-dependent variables. The analy-
sis must include many steps of time to properly
account for the creep (or relaxation) and the differ-
ent and changing properties of every lift of concrete.
On the other hand, strains near a boundary due to
brief thermal shocks can be computed quite readily
because in such cases the concrete can be assumed to
be fully restrained. In this case, the strain is simply
the temperature drop multiplied by the coefficient of
expansion. This is important, because in many
cases, the control of boundary strain is sufficient to
prevent cracking. Internal strains usually develop
slowly enough to be tolerable, even if large. De-
scriptions of test methods suitable for measuring the
physical properties necessary for the prediction of
temperatures and strains are given in Section 7.5.
7.4 - Control of cracking
Given the probable temperatures and strains, the
designer must determine what measures are most
practicable to provide ample safety against cracking.
The preventative measures will vary from nothing
where weather and materials are favorable, to very
expensive measures, where conditions are unfavor-
able. Some of the conditions which facilitate crack
prevention are:
1. Concrete with large tensile strain capacity.
2. Small daily and seasonal temperature varia-
tions.
3. Low cement content (permitted by low design
stresses).
4. Cement of low heat generation.
5. Short blocks.
6. Slow rate of construction when no cooling is
used.
7. Low degree of restraint, as with yielding foun-
dation, or in portions of structure well removed from
restraining foundation.
8. High yearly average temperature.
9. Absence of stress raisers, such as galleries.
10. Low casting temperature.
This list suggests many of the measures which can
be taken to prevent cracking. First, an attempt
should be made to produce a concrete with large
tensile strain capacity. This may mean limiting the
maximum aggregate size to a value somewhat below
that which might be the most economical otherwise.
Where several sources of aggregate are available ec-
onomically, preference should be given to that which
yields best crack resistance; usually this will be a
crushed material of low thermal expansion and low
modulus of elasticity.
The heat producing characteristics of cement play
an important role in the amount of temperature rise.
ASTM Type II (moderate heat) cement should be
used for mass concrete construction (Note: Type IV,
low heat cement is, also, recommended, but is not
readily available). Pozzolans can be used to replace
a portion of the cement to reduce the peak temper-
ature due to the heat of hydration (207.2R). In some
cases, up to 35 percent or more of the cement can be
replaced by an equal volume of a suitable pozzolan
and still produce the same strength at 90 days or
1 year. Some of the more common pozzolans used in
mass concrete include calcined clays, diatomaceous
earth, volcanic tuffs and pumicites and fly ash. The
actual type of pozzolan to be used and its appropriate
replacement percentage are normally determined by
test, cost, and availability.
The lowest practical cement content permitted by
the strength and durability requirements should be
used to reduce the heat of hydration and the con-
sequent thermal stresses and strains. More than the
necessary amount of cement is a detriment rather
than an advantage.
In general, a reduction in the water content of
concrete permits a corresponding reduction in the
cement content. The concrete with less water and
cement is superior in two important ways: it under-
goes less temperature change and less drying
shrinkage. Minimum water content can be achieved
by such measures as specifying powerful vibrators
which permit low slump, by using a water-reducing
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
agent, and by placing the concrete at a low temper-
ature.
Precooling the concrete during its production and
post-cooling it with embedded pipe systems after it
is placed are especially effective measures. Details
on pipe cooling are given in Section 7.6.
One measure which offers promise is that of plac-
ing crack resistant concrete at boundaries (sides and
top of lifts). Even though the more crack resistant
concrete may be too costly to be used throughout
the structure, it can be used to this limited extent
without serious effect on economy. But thin layers of
concrete next to the forms cannot be placed easily
with present-day construction methods, which make
use of very large buckets. Therefore, it appears
more promising to use precast concrete panels for
forms and to leave these panels as a permanent part
of the structure. These panels should be of good
quality for durability, and preferably lightweight so
as to provide good thermal insulation. Since most
cracks originate at boundaries, this partial measure
may make the whole structure crack free. More in-
formation on the use of precast panels for protection
of mass concrete can be found in ACI 347.1R.
Thermal insulation on exposed surfaces during
cold weather can protect concrete from cracking, if
enough insulation is used and it is left in place long
enough. If the insulation is sufficient to allow slow
cooling, the tensile strain need never exceed the
dangerpoint. The concrete can relax as rapidly as
the tensile stress tends to develop, until finally,
stable temperatures are reached. However, if the
concrete has a very slow relaxation rate (or creep
rate) the amount of insulation and the long protection
time required may make this measure impractical.
In extreme environments, where large amounts of
insulation will be required during severely cold
months, it may be necessary to remove the in-
sulation in stages as the warmer months approach,
Temperatures within the concrete just below the in-
sulation should be allowed to slowly approach the
environmental temperature. This is to prevent the
occurrence of thermal shock which could induce
cracking at the surface with possible, subsequent,
deeper propagation into the mass. Precautions must
be taken against using too much insulation or leav-
ing it in place too long, which could result in stop-
ping the desired cooling of the interior mass, and, in
some cases, cause the interior temperature to begin
to increase again.
Insulation, as currently used for concrete, can be
obtained in a variety of forms and materials having
practical installed conductances ranging from 3.6 to
0.5 kg cal/m/hr/C (0.75 to 0.10 BTU/hr/sq ft/F). It
can be obtained in semirigid board type panels, roll-
on flexible rubber type material, and foamed spray-
on material which becomes semirigid in place. The
semirigid panels are usually installed on the inside
224R-29
face of the forms. Temporary anchors embedded in
the newly placed lift of concrete retain the insulation
on the concrete surface when the forms are lifted.
The insulation is easily removed from the surface
when desired. Roll-on insulation is particularly appli-
cable for use on horizontal lift joints. It is easy to in-
stall and remove and can be reused many times.
Spray-on insulation can be used on either horizontal
or vertical surfaces. This type of insulation is partic-
ularly useful for increasing the thickness and effec-
tiveness of insulation already in place and for in-
sulating forms. Experience has shown that insulation
which permits transmission of light rays should not
be used because a temperature rise occurs between
the insulation and the concrete when the insulation
is subjected to direct sunlight. Spray-on insulation of
timed longevity for frost protection of agricultural
plants and trees, also, appears to have potential for
the insulation of concrete lift joints during the active
construction season. This insulation can be formu-
lated to disintegrate at a given time after appli-
cation. Thus, it can be timed to remain effective on
the lift joints for approximately the period of time
between successive placements and be easily re-
moved by a final washing prior to placement of the
new lift. Precast panels made of low conductance
lightweight concrete or regular weight concrete cast
with laminated or sandwich layers of low con-
ductance cellular concrete also are acceptable as a
means of insulating the interior concrete. The panels
would then serve as both forms and face concrete.
7.5 - Testing methods and typical data
7.5.1 Adiabatic temperature rise - The temperature
rise which would occur if there were no heat loss is
defined as adiabatic temperature rise. The reader is
referred to ACI 207.1R for methods of test. That re-
port gives data on adiabatic temperature rise of con-
cretes having a single cement content but having
different types of portland cement. Fig. 7.1 gives
typical adiabatic curves for Type II cement and var-
ious quantities of cement and pozzolan. Curves A
and B in Fig. 7.1 represent data from mixes contain-
ing equal volumes of cementitious materials (ce-
ment plus pozzolan) thereby showing the effect of
pozzolan replacement of cement on temperature
reduction.
7.5.2 Thermal properties of concrete - Thermal dif-
fusivity and thermal expansion are important in the
control of cracking due to temperature change, and
their determination is detailed in References ACI
207.1R and 7.8 through 7.10. The approximate
range of thermal properties is shown in Table 7.1.
7.5.3 Creep of concrete - Creep may be defined as
the continued deformation of concrete under sus-
tained stress. A standard test for creep of concrete
in compression is detailed in ASTM C 512-76.7. l5
Creep of concrete in tension is difficult to measure;
224R-30 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

50 - A

40

c _,_ 20
1

0
D
I

LEGEND .
Curve A - Portland Cement - 306Ib/cu yd(l8l kg/~);Pozzolan-None
Curve B - Portland Cement - 214 Ib/cuyd (127 kg/m3);l%zzoIon-74lb/cuyd(44kg/m)
IO Curve C - Portland Cement I81 Ib/cu yd (107kg/m3);Pozzolan-63Ib/cuyd (37 kg/m) -5
Curve D - Portland Cement - 148 lb/w yd (88 kg/d); PDZroh-50 Ibhu yd(30 kg/m)

Type II Cement

0 -0
0 4 8 I2 I6 20 24 28

Age , Days

Fig. 7.1 - Typical adiabatic temperature curves for mass concrete (Reference 7.7)

TABLE 7.1 - Illustrative range of thermal and elastic

properties of mass concrete

Thermal properties
__-___-____~_-__~_--__-
Coefficient of linear
expansion, millionths Diffusivity
Conductivity _____--_- -__----- Specific heat
__ ppp
BTU/lb O F
_----__ ft or
Per O F Per O C _ --__ -_ ft x hr x O F m x hr x O C-_- - hr Cal/g O C
- -~-~
4 7.2 0.040
to to to 0.22
8 14.5 0.067 I__~--~-- - -
-_. _~____ _ _. _ ~_----_ ----- -- - - l----
____-------
Elastic~_~_____~---_~-----_
properties
- ____- -_- -_------
Static modulus of elasticity (E) for age _of__--__~-~-_--_
test indicated _----____-----p
,
1 day ---___-_--- -_- _- --_----_, 3 days 7 days 28 days
___--- 90 days
__YPW
__~---_.----~-
psi kg/cm2 psi kg/cm psi kg/cm psi kg/cm psi, kg/cm Poissons
Ratio
-6 -3
x 10 -6 -3 -6 -3 -6
x10 -3 x 10 - 6 x 10 -3
x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
~-_.__--_.__---
-_----_L--_----_.~-___- --_-- - - - - - _,__---_
0.15
0.66 46.4 2.00 141 2.56 180 4.00 281 5.00 352 to
0.25
1
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
thus, creep as measured in compression is assumed
to apply to tension as well. Such an assumption can
be considered as reasonable when the stress is low.
When the stress exceeds about 60 percent of the ul-
timate and microcracking occurs, not only does the
instantaneous deformation increase, but the rate of
creep increases, also. However, since the measured
strain in a beam which is gradually loaded from the
age of 1 month, to failure-at about 3 months, is only
about 10 percent more than that computed using
creep data as obtained from similar concrete in com-
pression, it appears permissible to apply com-
pression creep data to concrete stressed in tension
in cases where approximate results will suffice.
Creep of concrete is measured on carefully sealed
specimens stored at a constant temperature and
loaded to a constant stress. The measurement is usu-
ally made by means of embedded strain meters, al-
though any reliable method of measuring strain can
be employed. Butyl rubber is satisfactory for sealing
the specimens, but neoprene should be avoided be-
cause it allows some moisture to escape. Specimens
should be loaded at the same ages as specified for
the modulus of elasticity tests, but loading at the
early age of 1 day is not always practical. Again, the
specimens should be large enough to permit concrete
very nearly like that to be used in the structure.
Cylinders of 9 x 18 in. (28 x 56 cm) size and with 3
in. (76 mm) maximum sized aggregate or 6 x 16 in
(15 x 40 cm) cylinders with 11/2 in. (38 mm) maximum
aggregate are frequently used. The symposium on
creep of concrete,7.1 gives useful coefficients for con-
verting creep of smaller aggregate concrete to creep
for mass concrete. Fig. 7.2 shows typical creep data
obtained from laboratory investigations.7.1 Table
7.2 illustrates important computations that can be
made using the data in the Fig. 7.2. Shown in Table
7.2 are values for sustained modulus of elasticity E,
which in turn are used to develop tensile stress
coefficients per degree temperature drop for the con-
dition of full restraint. For example, concrete 2 days
of age loaded at age 1 day would have a sustained
modulus of elasticity (E,) of l/1.5 = 0.66 psi x lo6
(46.4 kg/cm2 x lo31 (see Fig. 7.2 and Table 7.2A),
and if fully restrained would be stressed 0.66 x 5.5
psi per F = 3.6 psi/F (0.46 kg/cm2/C) for each degree
drop in temperature (see Table 7.2B).
7.5.4 Modulus of elasticity - This subject is treated
in detail in ACI 304. Table 7.1 shows values of the
modulus of elasticity of a particular concrete after
various ages of curing.
7.5.5 Autogenous volume change - Autogenous
volume change7.7, 7.13 is the expansion or contraction
of the concrete due to causes other than changes in
temperature, moisture or stress. Thus, it is a self-
induced expansion or contraction. Expansion can be
helpful in preventing cracks, but a contraction in-
creases in tendency to crack. Autogenous volume
224R-31
1
2.8
T o t a l Strain
E=l481+00547~ (I+11 ---Icq
2.4
c =0.521+0 0 7 0 0 LOG. (1+1) -3Oayr
E =0384+0.0579 L O G . (1+1) -7Dg
E =0.231+0.0500 Log (1+1) b -28asDays 30
2.0 E =0.209+0.0294 LOG. (1+1 ) -9OCOyS
1 Day E
Y
2
1 20 ;
1.2
0
I
0.6
0.5
0.4
Time,(t+l) Days
Specific Creep Only
Fig. 7.2 - Typical concrete creep curves for mass
concrete.
change is usually measured by strain meters
embedded in concrete cylinders which are carefully
sealed (to insure that there is no loss in moisture) and
kept at constant temperature. Measurements are
begun as soon as the specimens are hardened and
sealed, and continued periodically for months.
7.5.6 Tensile strain capacity - The tensile strain ca-
pacity tests are generally performed on unreinforced
concrete beams under third-point flexural loading.
Relatively large beams ranging from 12 x 12 in. (30
x 30 cm) to 24 x 24 in. (60 x 60 cm) in cross section
and 64 to 130 in. (160 to 325 cm) long are generally
used.7.2 Strain capacity is determined from these
tests under rapid and slow loading to simulate both
rapid and slow temperature changes in the concrete.
The loading rates are generally 40 psi (0.28 MPa) fi-
ber stress per minute and 25 psi (0.17 MPa) fiber
stress per week for rapid and slow loading tests, re-
spectively. The strain for rapid loading can be mea-
sured using either surface or embedded strain gages
or meters.7.1, 7.7 For long-term tests, embedded me-
ters are best. The strain can also be determined
from deflection measurements. The concrete test
beam used for determining the strain capacity
should be protected during the test to prevent loss
of moisture by wrapping it with an impermeable ma-
terial. Testing should be conducted at a constant
temperature for maximum accuracy in measurement.
Detailed test procedures can be found in References
7.1 and 7.14 Fig. 7.3 shows the unit strain values
224R-32 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

and using small ice particles as a replacement of

OF OUTER FIBERS
BEAMSTRESS
Fig. 7.3 - Unit tensile strain versus beam stress
(References 7.1 and 7.7).
versus beam stress at outer fibers for a typical labora-
tory investigation.7.1* 7.11
In the preliminary studies of temperature and con-
struction control plans for mass concrete projects,
approximate methods for estimating tensile strain
capacity under rapid and slow loadings given in Ref-
erences 7.5 and 7.20 may be used.
7.6 - Artificial cooling by embedded pipe systems
The overall program for cooling concrete, includ-
ing important field control criteria, should be deter-
mined during the design stage. Precooling concrete
prior to placement is accomplished by a variety of
methods, including cooling all ingredients of the mix
part of the mixing water. Post-cooling of concrete is
accomplished by circulating cool liquids (usually wa-
ter) through pipes embedded in the concrete.
Studies made during the design stage will estab-
lish such items as lift height, pipe spacing, water
temperature and rate of flow, acceptable rate of
temperature drop (for both rapid and slow drops),
and approximate duration of cooling.
In general, the duration of cooling and the heat re-
moved by the pipe cooling should be sufficient to in-
sure that a secondary internal temperature rise in
the mass does not exceed the primary rise. It is,
I
however, important that steep cooling gradients,
which can result in cracking the mass, be avoided.
This is particularly true in smaller masses where cir-
culation of cooling water should be stopped when the
maximum temperature has been reached and just
begins to drop. A vulnerable location in pipe cooling
systems is centered at the cooling coils where sharp
gradients and cracking can be induced if termination
of cooling water circulation is not timely.
Resistance thermometers should be used in suf-
ficient numbers to permit adequate monitoring and
control of the internal concrete temperatures.
Construction drawings should show basic pipe lay-
out and spacing including minimum spacing, and the
layout at dam faces, transverse construction joints,
interior openings and in sloping, partial, and isolated
concrete lifts. A pipe layout for a typical concrete
lift is shown in Fig. 7.4.

TABLE 7.2 - Illustration of computation of sustained modulus

of elasticity (Es) and stress coefficients

A. Sustained modulus
Es at age of concrete at time of loading, days
1 day 3 days 7 days
2 2
Time after psi
-6
kg/cm psi
-6
kg /cm psi I
loading days x 10 - 10-3 x 10 x 10-3 x 10-6b t x 1 0 -3 x 10 -6 I x 10 -3
t t t-- ------

0.68 47.6 1.92 134 2.61 183 I 4.33 I 303

0.66 46.2 1.76 123 2.46 I 172 3.76 263
0.64 44.8 1.62 113 2.15 151 3.34 234
0.63 44.1 1.35 95 1.98 !1 139 I 2.99 I- 210
._~
(1) Sustained modulus of elasticity IE / values are based on data given in
Fig. 7.2

E,z ______ ______ ~._______-___.___

unit elastic strain/psi + Vz specific creep for time of loading

R. Tensile stress coefficients for condition of full restraint and decreasing temperature
Age of concrete at time of loading
1 day 3 days 7 days I
- --- -- -- -
lb/in./F kg/cm/C TGkg,em)C
m Ib/in./F 1 kglcmJ/C i lb/in.,,: i
~~g!~~/~
0 3.7 0.47 11.0 1.33 14 ; 1.81 24 I 3.00
1 3.6 0.46 9.7 1.22 14 i 1.70 21 2.60
3 3.5 0.45 8.9 , 1.12 12 I 1.50 / 18 I 2.31
7 3.5
I
0.44 7.4
j
0.94 I 11 1.38 16 ! 2.08
__
(2) Coefficient of lineal thermal expansion of concrete assumed to be 5.5 mil
lionths/F (9.9 millionths/C,
 CONTROL OF CRACKING 224R-33

Multiply By To Obtain
8
s
W
4@2'-O" 3
w .
Inches
Feet
0 0254
0 3048
Meters
Meters
~_
8
W

PLAN ELEV. I I35

1" = 30'-0" +_FlDw 47
C O IL LIN FEET

r-- -&--- Elev. 1140

K-1 Elev 1135

Detail " B " Section A-A

Fig. 7.4 - Typical cooling coil layout (Reference 7.11).

Fig. 7.5 - Schematic of embedded pipe cooling embedment system in mass

concrete.

In most areas of the dam, a uniform spacing can
be maintained for the cooling pipe, but isolated areas
always exist in all dams which tend to result in a
concentration of pipes. These concentrations tend to
occur at the downstream face of the dam where in-
lets and outlets to cooling pipes are located, adjacent
to openings in the dam, and at isolated and sloping
lifts of concrete. Proper planning will alleviate many
of the undesirable conditions that can result from
these concentrations. For example, it must be deter-
mined to what extent the cost saving procedure of
concentrating cooling pipe inlets and outlets near
contraction joints can be permitted at the face of the
dam. Also, it must be decided if cooling pipes to iso-
lated areas in the foundation and at openings such as
galleries can extend from the downstream face of
the dam or if a vertical riser must be used.
For ease of installation, the pipe used for post-
cooling should be thin wall tubing. Aluminum tubing
is lightweight and easy to handle. However, break-
down from corrosion inducing elements of the con-
crete is a potential problem for aluminum pipe if
cooling activities must be carried on over a period of
several months. In this case, steel tubing is pre-
ferred.
Compression type couplings are used because thin
wall tubing cannot be threaded satisfactorily.
Surface connections to the cooling pipe should be
removable to a depth of 4 to 6 in. (102 to 152 mm) so
224R-34 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
that holes can be reamed and dry packed when con-
nections are removed.
Forms should be designed and constructed so that
shutdown of cooling activities is not necessary when
forms are raised.
Wire tiedowns embedded at the top of the con-
crete lift at about 10 ft (3 m) spacing satisfactorily
secure the pipe during concrete placing.
Coils must be pressure tested for leaks at the
maximum pressure they will receive from the cool-
ing system prior to placing concrete. Pressure must
also be maintained during concrete placement to pre-
vent crushing and permit early detection of damage,
should it occur.
After cooling is completed and the pipe is no
longer needed, it should be thoroughly flushed with
water at a high enough pressure to remove foreign
matter and grouted full with a grout mixture com-
pensated for plastic shrinkage or settlement. The
grout should remain under pressure until final set is
attained.
Fig. 7.5 shows the schematic layout of a typical
pipe cooling system.
Sight flow indicators should be installed at the end
of each embedded pipe coil to permit ready obser-
vance of cooling water flow. In addition to regular
observance of flows, water temperatures and pres-
sures and concrete temperatures should be observed
and recorded at least once daily while the lift is
being cooled.
The refrigeration plant for cooling water may be
centrally located, or several smaller complete por-
table plants may be used to permit moving the re-
frigeration system as the dam progresses upward.
Sufficient standby components, equal in capacity to
the largest individual refrigeration units should be
provided.
7.7 - Summary - Basic considerations for construc-
tion controls and specifications
The construction controls and specifications for
mass concrete must be such that the structures will
be safe, economical, durable, and pleasing in appear-
ance. Each of these requirements in turn affects the
crack resistance. Safety will be assured if the con-
crete has sufficient strength and continuity (absence
of cracks). Economy will depend upon such features
as the best choice of aggregates, adequate but not
excessive temperature control, low cement content,
etc. Durability will depend upon the quality of the
concrete, exposure conditions, and freedom from
chemical reactions of a deteriorating nature. Pleas-
ing appearance will come from good workmanship,
freedom from cracks and stains, absence of leakage
and leaching, etc. The importance of a com-
prehensive materials test program to establish nec-
essary control prior to preparation of construction
controls and specifications cannot be over-
emphasized.
7.7.1 Safety
7.7.1.1 Safety against crushing-concrete strength- A
strength should be specified which will provide an
adequate factor of safety against crushing of the con-
crete. The nominal factor of safety is merely the
compressive strength divided by the maximum
stress to be expected in the structure. However, nei-
ther the strength nor the maximum stress can be ac-
curately determined. The strength is usually derived
from tests on cylindrical specimens which are not
completely representative of the structure. The max-
imum stress is usually taken as the design stress
which is based upon assumed concrete properties.
For such reasons, it is considered good practice to
use a safety factor as high as three or four, meaning
that the strength should be three or four times the
expected maximum stress. The 90-day strength is of-
ten used and is derived from tests of job cylinders.
Since the cylinders are made from wet screened con-
crete, the measured strength is corrected to a mass-
concrete equivalent by applying a reduction factor of
about 0.80 for typical conditions. For specific data on
appropriate reduction factors, the reader should re-
fer to the U.S. Burau of Reclamation, Concrete Man-
ual, 8th Edition. 7.
The factor of safety, as defined above, is subject
to a number of additional factors which, more or
less, balance one another. Since the average
strength of the job cylinders is used, half of the
tests will be weaker. The strength at 90 days is not
the ultimate strength. There can be a large gain af-
ter 90 days depending upon the composition of the
cement. However, even a factor of safety of three
is far more than enough to cover any likely differ-
ences between plus and minus corrections.
For interior concrete, the lowest practical
strength should be specified so as to reduce the ce-
ment content. This, in turn, will reduce the heat of
hydration and the consequent thermal stresses, thus
increasing the crack resistance of the concrete. More
than the necessary amount of cement is detrimental
rather than advantageous.
7.7.1.2 Safety against sliding- Sound, uncracked con-
crete provides a very large factor of safety against
sliding. However, hardened horizontal lift joints may
impair the safety. Therefore, the specifications
should require care in the preparation of lift surfaces
and in the placement and compaction of concrete
thereon. Also, the lift surfaces should slope slightly
upward toward the downstream edge (in the case of
a dam) such that the downstream edge is higher
than the upstream edge. It is not necessary to use a
mortar layer on lift surfaces prior to the placement
of the next lift.
7.7.2 Economy - Many factors which affect the
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
economy also affect crack resistance. For example,
the least expensive aggregate may have bad thermal
properties and thus require expensive temperature
control to prevent cracking. The aggregate which
makes concrete of highest tensile-strain capacity
may increase the water requirement and, therefore,
also the cement requirement, thus offsetting the
benefits of high strain capacity. Some of the factors
which affect economy are discussed below.
7.7.2.1 Selection of aggregate- Aggregate should be
chosen that makes good concrete with the lowest
overall cost. If natural aggregate near the site has
unfavorable properties for crack prevention, crush-
ing to increase crack resistance may be an economi-
cal expedient because of the consequent saving in
temperature control. When crushing is either advan-
tageous or necessary, rock which has the most favor-
able properties should be chosen. The rock should
have a low coefficient of thermal expansion, a low
modulus of elasticity, and it should produce particles
of good shape and surface texture. All of these fac-
tors are important in increasing the resistance of the
concrete to cracking.
7.7.2.2 Aggregate size- The largest maximum size of
aggregate, up to approximately 6 in. (150 mm) in di-
ameter, should be specified as can be placed prop-
erly in the structure, except for concrete which must
resist high-velocity water flow. Larger aggregate
permits the use of less water and cement per cubic
yard, resulting in savings in both the amount of ce-
ment and the amount of temperature control neces-
sary for required crack resistance.
7.7.2.3 Water content. A reduction in the water con-
tent of concrete permits a corresponding reduction
in the cement content. The concrete with less water
and cement is superior in many ways: it undergoes
less temperature change, less drying shrinkage, and
as a result is more durable and crack resistant. As
indicated in Section 7.4, minimum water content can
be achieved by specifying adequately powerful vibra-
tors which permit the use of low slump concrete, by
using a water-reducing agent when appropriate, and
by producing and placing the concrete at low tem-
perature.
7.7.2.4 Use of pozzolan. In most locations, good poz-
zolans such as fly ash are available, and they can be
used to replace a portion of the cement. This can re-
sult in a considerable saving in cost, and possibly
more important, it can reduce the heat generation
and improve the resistance against cracking. An-
other advantage of using pozzolan is that when used
in adequate amounts, it reduces the expansion due
to reactive aggregates when such are encountered.
The appropriate amount of pozzolan for a reactive
aggregate should be based upon test data obtained
with the pozzolan and cement being used.
7.7.3 Durability - Durability of concrete is closely
related to the exposure conditions. In tropical cli-
224R-35
mates, for example, there may be no deteriorating
influences acting on the concrete except that which
is subject to high-velocity water flow. For the main
structure in such a case, any concrete which has the
required strength can be expected to last in-
definitely, and the cement content should be kept
low to minimize heat generation and resultant poten-
tial cracking.
Where the climate is severe, such that there is
much freezing and thawing in winter, the water-ce-
ment ratio of surface concrete should be kept lower
than that necessary for strength alone. Air entrain-
ment should be mandatory. For any concrete which
might be subject to both alternations of freezing and
water pressure, the water-cement ratio should be
less than 0.40 by weight. The effect of the rich
boundary concrete on thermally induced cracking
will be minimized by keeping the thickness of the
boundary layer to a minimum, probably 2 ft (0.6 m)
or less.
7.7.4 Control of cracking - A detailed discussion of
the control of cracking in massive structures has
been presented in this chapter. With proper plan-
ning and execution, the procedures presented will
serve as useful tools in developing a crack control
program for mass concrete structures.
References
7.1. Houk, Ivan E., Jr.; Paxton, James A.; and Hough-
ton, Donald L., Prediction of Thermal Stress and Strain
Capacity of Concrete by Tests on Small Beams, ACI
J O U R N A L , Proceedings V. 67, No. 3, Mar. 1970, p p .
253-261.
7.2. Houghton, Donald L., Determining Tensile Strain
Capacity of Mass Concrete, ACI JO U R N A L, Proceedings V .
73, No. 12, Dec. 1976, pp. 691-700.
7.3. Wilson, E. L., The Determination of Temperatures
within Mass Concrete Structures, Report No. 68-17,
Structural Engineering Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, Dec. 1968.
7.4. Polivka, R. M., and Wilson, E. L., Finite Element
Analysis of Nonlinear Heat Transfer Problems, Report
No. UC SESM 76-2, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of California, Berkeley, June 1976.
7.5. Sandhu, R. S.; Wilson, E. L.; and Raphael, J. M.,
Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis with Incremental
Construction and Creep, Report No. 67-34, Structural
Engineering Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley, Dec. 1967.
7.6 Liu, Tony C.; Campbell, R. L.; and Bombich, A. A.,
Verification of Temperature and Thermal Stress
Analysis Computer Programs for Mass Concrete
Structures, Miscellaneous Paper No. SL-79-7, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Apr. 1979.
7.7. Houghton, Donald L., Concrete Volume Change
for Dworshak Dam, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, P02, Oct.
1969, pp. 153-166.
7.8. Method of Test for Thermal Diffusivity of Mass
Concrete, (CRD-C 37-73), Handbook for Concrete and
Cement, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Dec.
1973, 3 pp.
224R-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
7.9. Method of Test for Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion of Concrete, (CRD-C 39-55), Handbook for
Concrete and Cement, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Vicksburg, 1939, 2 pp.
7.10. Method of Test for Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion of Coarse Aggregate, Strain Gage Method,
(CRD-C 125-63), Handbook for Concrete and Cement, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, June 1963, 5 pp.
7.11. Symposium on Creep of Concrete, SP-9, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1964, 160 pp.
7.12. McCoy, E. E., Jr.; Thorton, H. T.; and Allgood,
J. K., Concrete Laboratory Studies, Dworshak (Bruces
Eddy) Dam, North Fork Clearwater River Near Orofino,
Idaho: Creek Tests, Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-613,
Report 2, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Dec. 1964.
7.13. Houk, Ivan E., Jr.; Borge, Orville E.; and
Houghton, Donald, Studies of Autogenous Volume
Change in Concrete for Dworshak Dam, ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 66, No. 7, July 1969, pp. 560-568.
7.14. McDonald, J. E.; Bombich, A. A.; and Sullivan,
B. R., Ultimate Strain Capacity and Temperature Rise
Studies, Trumbull Pond Dam, Miscellaneous Paper
C-72-20, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Aug. 1972.
7.15. Liu, Tony C., and McDonald, James E.,
Prediction of Tensile Strain Capacity of Mass Concrete,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 75, No. 5, May 1978, pp.
192-197.
7.16. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
Chapter 8 - Control of cracking by correct
construction practices*
8.1 - Introduction
Construction practices, as used in this chapter, in-
clude designs, specifications, materials, and mix con-
siderations, as well as on-the-job construction perfor-
mance. Before discussing control of construction
practices which affect cracking, it is worthwhile to
mention the basic cause of cracking. It is restraint.
If all parts of the concrete in a concrete structure
are free to move as concrete expands or contracts,
particularly the latter, there will be no cracking due
to volume change.
Obviously, however, all parts of concrete struc-
tures are not free, and inherently, cannot be free to
respond to the same degree to volume changes. Con-
sequently, differential strains develop and tensile
stresses are induced. When these differential re-
sponses exceed the capability of the concrete to
withstand them at that time, cracking occurs. This
points to the importance of protecting new concrete
for as long as practicable from the loss of moisture
or a drop in temperature. These considerations may
result in stresses capable of causing cracks at an
*Principal author: Lewis H. Tuthill.
early age but which might be sustained at greater
maturity. Preferably, concrete should have a high
tensile strain-to-failure capacity. This is influenced
greatly by the aggregate, and a low modulus of
elasticity in tension is desirable.
8.2 - Restraint
Restraint exists in many circumstances under
which the structure and its concrete elements must
perform. Typical examples will illustrate how re-
straint will cause cracking, if the concrete is not
strong enough to withstand the tensile stresses de-
veloped.
8.2.1 - A wall or parapet anchored along its base to
the foundation or to lower structural elements less
subject or responsive to volume change, will be re-
strained from shrinking when its upper portions
shorten due to drying or cooling. Cracking is usually
inevitable unless contraction joints (or at least
grooves of a depth not less than 10% of the wall
thickness on both sides, in which the cracks will oc-
cur and be hidden) are provided at intervals ranging
from one (for high walls) to three (for low walls)
times the height of the wall.
8.2.2 - Exterior and interior concrete, particularly
in heavier sections, will change temperature or mois-
ture content at different rates and to different de-
grees. When this happens, the interior concrete re-
strains the exterior concrete from shrinking, and
tensile strains develop which may cause the exterior
to crack. This occurs when the surface cools, while
the interior is still warm from the heat of hydration,
or when the surface concrete dries faster than the
interior concrete. As noted earlier, it is often fea-
sible to protect the surface for a time at early ages
so that such stress-inducing differentials cannot de-
velop before the concrete is strong enough to with-
stand the strain without cracking.
8.2.3 - Acting similarly to the interior concrete in
the foregoing example, temperature reinforcement
can restrain the shrinkage of surface concrete, but
more and narrower cracks may result.
8.2.4 - Restraint will occur at sharp changes in sec-
tion, since the effect of temperature change or
drying shrinkage will be different in the two sec-
tions. If feasible, a contraction joint can be used to
relieve the restraint.
8.2.5 - Restraint of flat work results from anchor-
age of slab reinforcement in perimeter slabs or foot-
ings. When a slab is free to shrink from all sides to-
ward its center, there is a minimum of cracking.
Contraction joints and perimeter supports should be
designed accordingly (see Section 3.5.3).
8.2.6 - Wall, slabs, and tunnel linings placed against
the irregular surface of a rock excavation are re-
strained from moving when the surface expands or
contracts in response to changes in temperature or
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
moisture content. As discussed in Section 8.2.1,
closely spaced contraction joints or deep grooves
must be provided to prevent or hide the cracks
which often disfigure such surfaces. In tunnel lin-
ings, the shrinkage in the first few weeks is primar-
ily thermal, and the use of cold concrete (50 F or
10 C) has reduced cracking materially. By the time
drying is significant, the concrete lining is much
stronger and better able to resist shrinkage crack-
ing. However, circumferential cracks in tunnel lin-
ings and other cast-in-place concrete conduits and
pipe lines can be greatly reduced in number and
width. As shown in the Bureau of Reclamation Con-
crete Manual,8.1 this can be done if a bulkhead is
used to prevent air movement through the tunnel,
and shallow ponds of water are placed in the invert
as soon as possible after lining, and left until the
tunnel goes into service. If the tunnel carries water,
there will be no further drying shrinkage. If it does
not, the concrete will have become much stronger in
the humid environment and will be better able to re-
sist shrinkage-induced tensile stresses.
8.2.7 - The typical examples presented above
clearly indicate that many crack control procedures
must be considered by the engineer during design.
While proper construction performance can contrib-
ute a great deal (as will be discussed below), the con-
tractor cannot be expected to utilize the best pro-
cedures, unless these procedures are included in the
designs and specifications on which the bid price is
based.
8.3 - Shrinkage
The following sections discuss the major causes of
shrinkage, which is a key contributor to the forma-
tion of cracks in concrete.
8.3.1 Effect of water content - The greater the wa-
ter content of concrete, the more it will shrink on
drying. Such a hypothesis is clearly indicated in Fig.
3.2, as well as in Reference 8.1. The use of the low-
est practical slump is important. Of major impor-
tance is the selection of mix proportions that require
the least amount of water per cubic yard for the de-
sired concrete strength. This means avoiding over-
sanded mixes (the richer the concrete, the coarser
the sand should be and the less there should be of it
in the mix); using the largest maximum aggregate
size practical; using aggregate with the most favor-
able shape and grading conducive to best work-
ability; and using well-graded sand with a minimum
of fines passing the l00-mesh and free of clay, such
that its sand equivalent value is not less than 80
percent AASHTO T176.
Contrary to common belief, increasing the cement
content of concrete, per se, does not necessarily
cause an increase in shrinkage. This is because the
water requirement of concrete does not change
much with a change in cement content. Drying
shrinkage is proportional to water content (Fig. 3.2),
224R-37
not cement content. Moreover, the reduction of the
amount of fine aggregate to compensate for the
added cement, in accordance with correct principles
of concrete proportioning, will offset any tendency to
increase the water requirement.
8.3.2 Surface drying - Surface drying will ulti-
mately occur except when the surface is submerged
or backfilled. It will cause shrinkage strains of up to
600 millionths or more. The amount of shrinkage
cracking depends on 1. how dry the surface concrete
becomes, 2. how much mixing water was in the con-
crete, 3. the character and degree of restraint in-
volved, and 4. the extensibility of the concrete. The
extensibility represents how much the concrete can
be strained (stretched), without exceeding its tensile
strength and is the sum of creep plus elastic strain
capacity. The latter is largely related to the composi-
tion of the aggregate and may vary widely. Typi-
cally, some concretes of highly quartzitic gravels
have a low strain capacity and a high modulus of
elasticity, while some concretes of granitic and
gneissic aggregate have a high strain capacity and a
low modulus of elasticity. Concretes having a low
strain capacity are much more sensitive to shrinkage
due to drying (and to drop in temperature) and will
be subject to a greater amount of cracking.
Accordingly, as mentioned in connection with tun-
nel linings and conduits, a prime objective of crack
control procedures is to keep the concrete wet as
long as feasible, so that it will have time to develop
more strength to resist cracking forces. The impor-
tance of this will vary with the weather and the
time of year. Cold concrete (below 50 F, 10 C) dries
very slowly, provided the relative humidity is above
40 percent. At some depth, concrete loses moisture
slowly, as shown in Fig. 3.5. Where surface drying
may be rapid, more care must be devoted to uninter-
rupted curing to get good surface strength. Cracking
stresses will be further reduced by creep, if the sur-
face is prevented from drying quickly at the end of
the curing period. To accomplish this, the wet curing
cover can be allowed to remain several days without
wetting after the specified curing period (preferably
7 to 10 days), until the cover and the concrete under
it appear to be dry. If job conditions are likely to be
such that these measures will be worthwhile, they
should be required in the specifications for the work.
8.3.3 Plastic shrinkage - Plastic shrinkage cracks
occur most commonly, and objectionably, in the sur-
faces of floors and slabs when the ambient job condi-
tions are so arid that moisture is removed from the
concrete surface faster than it is replaced by bleed
water from below. These cracks occur prior to final
finishing and commencement of the curing process.
As the moisture is removed, the surface concrete
contracts, resulting in tensile stresses in the essen-
tially strengthless, stiffening plastic concrete, that
cause short random cracks or openings in the sur-
224R-38 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
face. These cracks are usually rather wide at the
surface but only a few inches in depth. The cracks
generally range from a few inches to a few feet in
length and are a few inches to two feet apart.
Sometimes plastic shrinkage cracks appear early
enough to be worked out in later floating or first
trowelling operations. When this is successful, it is
advisable to postpone these operations as long as
possible to get their maximum benefit without the
recurrence of cracking.
In other cases, an earlier than normal floating may
destroy the growing tension by reworking the sur-
face mortar and prevent plastic cracking that would
otherwise occur. At the first appearance of cracking
while the concrete is still responsive, a vigorous ef-
fort should be made to close the cracks by tamping
or beating with a float. If firmly closed, they will be
monolithic and are unlikely to reappear. However,
they may reappear if they are merely trowelled
over. In any event, curing should be started at the
earliest possible time.
Conditions most likely to cause plastic shrinkage
cracking are high temperatures and dry winds. Ac-
cordingly, specifications should stipulate that effec-
tive moisture control precautions should be taken to
prevent a serious loss of surface moisture under
such conditions. Principal among these precautions
are the use of fog (not spray) nozzles to maintain a
sheen of moisture on the surface between the finish-
ing operations. Plastic sheeting can be rolled on and
off before and after floating, preferably exposing
only the area being worked on at that time. Least
effective but helpful are certain sprayed mono-
molecular films which inhibit evaporation. Wind-
breaks are desirable, and as such, it is desirable to
schedule flatwork after the walls are up (ACI 305R,
ACI 302.1R).
Other helpful practices that may augment the
bleeding and counteract the excessive loss of surface
moisture, are 1. using a well dampened sub-grade, 2.
cooling the aggregates by dampening and shading
them, and 3. using cold mixing water or chipped ice
as mixing water to lower the temperature of the
fresh concrete.
8.3.4 Surface cooling - Surface cooling will shrink
the surface of average unrestrained concrete about
10 millionths for each deg C (5.5 millionths per deg
F) the temperature goes down. This amounts to 9
mm in a 30 m length with a drop of 30 C (l/3 in. in
100 ft with a drop of 50 F). The amount of shrinkage
is reduced by restraint and creep, but tensile
stresses are induced. The earlier the age and the
slower the rate at which cooling or drying occur, the
lower the tensile stresses will be. This is due to the
relaxing influence of creep, which imparts more ex-
tensibility to concrete at early ages.
In ordinary concrete work, the winter protection
required for the development of adequate strength
will prevent the most critical effects of cooling. The
system of contraction joints and grooves previously
discussed for control of shrinkage cracking will serve
the same purpose against substantial later drops in
surface temperature. In addition to Chapter 7 of
this report, Chapters 4 and 5 of ACI 207.1R discuss
temperature controls for mass concrete to minimize
the early temperature differences between interior
and exterior concrete. Primarily, these controls
lower the interior temperature rise caused by the
heat of hydration by using 1. no more cement than
necessary, 2. pozzolans for a portion of the cement, 3.
water reducing admixtures, 4. air-entrainment, 5.
large aggregate, 6. low slump, and 7. last but by no
means least, where at all practicable, chipped ice for
mixing water to reduce the temperature of the fresh
concrete as much as possible. See Fig. 3.4 and Fig.
3.1 of ACI 207.2R. At no time should forms be
removed to expose warm surfaces to low tempera-
tures. As mentioned in Section 8.3.2, the extensibil-
ity, or strain the concrete will withstand before
tensile failure, is a function of the aggregate and
should be evaluated, especially on larger projects.
What applies to one will not necessarily apply to
another.
8.4 - Settlement
Settlement or subsidence cracks develop while
concrete is in the plastic stage, after the initial vi-
bration. They are not due to any of the causes dis-
cussed above, but are the natural result of heavy
solids settling in a liquid medium. Settlement cracks
occur opposite rigidly supported horizontal re-
inforcement, form bolts or other embedments. Some-
times concrete will tend to adhere to the forms. A
check will appear at these locations, if the forms are
hot at the top or are partially absorbent. Cracks of-
ten appear in horizontal construction joints and in
bridge deck slabs over reinforcing or form bolts with
only a few inches cover. The cracks in bridge decks
can be reduced by increasing the concrete cover.8.2
Properly executed late revibration can be used to
close settlement cracks and improve the quality and
appearance of the concrete in the upper portion of
such placements, even though settlement has taken
place and slump has been lost.
8.5 - Construction
A great deal can be done during construction to
minimize cracking, or in many cases to eliminate it.
But, as noted in Section 8.2.7, such actions must be
required by the specifications and by the engineer-
ing forces which administer them. Such actions
include the following:
8.5.1 Concrete aggregates - The aggregate should
be one which makes concrete of high strain capacity,
if reasonably available (see Section 7.2). Fine and
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
coarse aggregates have to be clean and free of un-
necessary fine material, particularly clays. The sand
should have a sand equivalent value in excess of 80
percent, and this should be verified frequently
(AASHTO T176). The sand should have sufficient
time in storage for the moisture content to stabilize
at a level of less than 7 percent on an oven-dry basis.
8.5.2 Expansive cement - Expansive cement can be
used to delay shrinkage during the setting of con-
crete in restrained elements reinforced with the min-
imum shrinkage steel required by ACI 318. T h e
principal property of these cements is that the
expansion induced in the concrete while setting and
hardening is designed to offset the normal drying
shrinkage. With correct usage (particularly with
early and ample water curing on which maximum
expansion depends), the distance between joints can
sometimes be tripled without increasing the level of
shrinkage cracking. Details on the types and correct
usage of shrinkage compensating cements are given
in ACI 223-83.
8.5.3 Non-shrink grout, mortar, or concrete - Ordin-
arily, the solids in grout, mortar, and concrete
mixtures will settle before hardening, and water will
rise, some of it to the top surface. This settlement
can be objectionable if a space is to be filled up
tightly without leaving a void at the top, such as un-
der machine bases. Measures taken to prevent such
subsidence have produced what is known in the
trade as Non-shrink grout, mortar, or concrete.
Some of the materials merely prevent settlement;
others in addition, provide a slight expansion as the
mixture hardens.
The most widely used materials contain unpolished
aluminum powder. These should contain no stearates,
palmitates, or fatty acids. In an alkaline solution, such
as exists in portland cement mixtures, the aluminum
reacts to form aluminum oxide and hydrogen. The
hydrogen gas tends to expand the mixture and thus
prevents subsidence and may even cause expansion.
The amount of aluminum powder used varies widely
with conditions, but is usually in the neighborhood of
0.005 to 0.01 percent by weight of the cement. It is
not possible to specify an exact percentage because
the amount to be used varies with such factors as
temperature, alkali content of the cement, and the
richness of the mix. Therefore, it is advisable to make
trial mixes with various percentages of aluminum
powder to find which percentage gives the desired
(slight) expansion under the prevailing conditions.
The amount of aluminum powder used is so small that
it is advisable to dilute it by blending with 50 parts
of sand or fly ash. This diluted mixture will have
enough bulk so that it can be easily measured and
properly dispersed in the mix.
Among the admixtures that merely prevent settle-
ment, a number of different mechanisms are in op-
eration. One commercial grout is so highly acceler-
224R-39
ated that it starts setting before settlement takes
place. Another is composed of organic gelling com-
pounds of soluble cellulose which increase in viscosity
so that the solid particles remain in suspension. Still
another contains a form of carbon with a very large
surface area. In the dry form, it contains a large
amount of adsorbed air, which is released gradually
into the mix producing an expansion.
Gas forming agents and air releasing agents pro-
duce the same net effect, although all grouts, mortars
and concretes employing these agents have no ex-
pansive properties after hardening, and have a
drying shrinkage at least equal to similar plain
grouts, mortars and concretes not employing them.
Grouts which expand (if unconfined) after hardening
can function as nonshrink grouts, as opposed to
grouts that expand only in the plastic state and later
suffer drying shrinkage.
Among the commercial admixtures, there is one
containing a metallic aggregate which, in addition to
opposing settlement during hardening, provides a
modest expansion after hardening. This acts to hold
the grout tightly up under base plates, etc., and also
tends to offset the effect of drying shrinkage.
Where feasible, the problem of settlement can be
solved by the use of dry tamped mortar, instead of
a fluid grout or mortar. Grout mixed in a colloid mill
will not readily settle.
It should be noted that prepackaged Non-shrink
grouts, like any portland cement grouts and mor-
tars, are subject to shrinkage if exposed to drying
and may deteriorate and lose serviceability if ex-
posed to an aggressive environment (weathering,
salt spray, etc.).
8.5.4 Handling and batching - Should be done with
all practical care to avoid contamination, overlap of
sizes, segregation, and breakage, s o t h a t e x t r a
amounts of fines are not needed in the mixes to ac-
count for variations in grading without a serious loss
of workability. This is best done by finish screening
and rinsing as a combination of coarse aggregate
sizes goes to the batch plant bins. Every effort
should be made to uniformly batch and mix the con-
crete so that there will be a minimum of trouble-
some variation in slump and workability. These, in-
variably, lead to demands for a greater margin of
workability, with more sand and more water in the
concrete.
8.5.5 Excessive workability - Whether it is achieved
with unneeded higher slump, oversanding,
small aggregate, or even higher air content (which
may reduce strength), is always popular and in de-
mand on the job. It must be discouraged if the best
concrete for the work (having adequate workability
with proper handling and vibration, and having min-
imum shrinkage factors) is to be obtained.
8.5.6 Cold concrete - Cold concrete, when com-
224R-40 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
bined with factors to reduce water and cement
content to a practical minimum will reduce temper-
ature differentials which cause cracking. Cold con-
crete is particularly useful for massive concretes. It
requires less mixing water and thus reduces drying
shrinkage. In warm weather it expedites the work
by reducing slump loss, increasing pumpability, and
by improving the response to vibration. It is ob-
tained by substituting chipped ice for all or a part of
the batched mixing water. In cold weather, concrete
is naturally cold and every effort should be made to
use it as cold as possible without inviting damage
from freezing. It is pointless to expect to protect
surfaces, edges, and corners by placing needlessly
warm concrete in cold weather. These vulnerable
parts must be protected with insulation or protective
enclosures (ACI 306R).
8.5.7 Revibration - When done as late as the
formed concrete will respond to the vibrator, will
eliminate cracks and checks where something rigidly
fixed in the placement prevents a part of the con-
crete from settling with the rest of it. Settlement
cracks are most apparent in the upper part of wall
and column placements where revibration can be
readily used. Deep revibration corrects cracks
caused by differential settlement around blockout
and window forms, and where slabs and walls are
placed monolithically.
8.5.8 Finishing - Flatwork finishing can make a
great difference in the degree of freedom from all
types of cracking (ACI 302.1R). Low-slump concrete
should be used. More than a 3 in. (76 mm) slump is
rarely necessary except perhaps in very hot weather
in which both slump and moisture are lost quite
rapidly. Finishing should not be done in the
presence of surface water. Precautions (see Section
8.3.4) should be taken to prevent plastic shrinkage.
Any required marking and grooving should be
carefully cut to the full depth specified. Curing
should be prompt, of full duration, and the wet cover
should be allowed to dry before it is removed.
8.5.9 Curing and protection - Newly placed con-
crete must be brought to a level of strength maturity
and protected from low temperatures and drying
conditions which would otherwise cause cracking.
The curing and protection should not be discontin-
ued abruptly. If the new concrete is given a few days
to gradually dry or cool, creep will have an opportu-
nity to reduce the possibility of cracking when the
curing and protection are fully discontinued.
8.5.10 Miscellaneous - Some items normally cov-
ered in specifications (or certainly which should be
covered where appropriate) require special attention
during construction because of their potential effects
on cracking.
1. Reinforcement and embedments must be prop-
erly positioned with the designated thickness of
cover in order to prevent corrosion, expansion and
cracking.
2. Concrete should not be placed against hot re-
inforcement or forms.
3. Formwork support should be strong enough to
be free of early failures and distortion causing crack-
ing.
4. Subgrade and other supports must not settle
unevenly, to prevent cracks due to overstress in the
structure.
5. Contact between aluminum and steel embedded
in the concrete must be eliminated, particularly if
use of calcium chloride is permitted. If it is used, cal-
cium chloride must be limited to the absolute min-
imum (see Section 3.4.4).
6. Special care is needed in handling precast units
to prevent overstress due to handling.
7. Unvented salamanders in cold weather (ACI
306R) or gasoline operated equipment must be
avoided where adequate ventilation is not
furnished, because of the danger of carbonation
shrinkage surface cracking.
8. Control joints, discussed in Sections 3.5.3 and
8.2.6, must not be omitted and grooves must be of
the specified depth and well within the maximum
permitted spacing.
9. In addition to cleanliness of aggregate, stipu-
lated in Section 8.3.1, any reactive elements of
aggregate should be neutralized through the use of
low alkali cement or a suitable pozzolan, or prefer-
ably both. Certain cherts and other expansive ag-
gregates and lignite can cause cracks at popouts. Job
specifications should cover these aggregate proper-
ties and constructors should ensure observance of
these requirements.
10. Correct amounts of entrained air should be
specified and used to prevent cracking due to freez-
ing and thawing and exposure to calcium or sodium
chloride.
8.6 - Specifications to minimize drying shrinkage
Actions during construction to obtain the lowest
possible drying shrinkage must be supported by the
specifications. Unless bids are taken on this basis,
the contractor cannot be expected to provide other
than ordinary materials, mixes, and procedures. The
following items should be carefully spelled out in the
specifications.
8.6.1 Concrete materials - They can have an impor-
tant influence on drying shrinkage.
1. Cement should be Types I, II, V, or IS, prefera-
bly not Type III.
2. Aggregates favorable to low mixing water con-
tent are (a) well graded, (b) well shaped (not elon-
gated, flat, or splintery), and (c) free of clay, dirt,
and excess fines.
3. Aggregate should consist of rock types which
will produce low-shrinkage concrete (see Section
3.4.2).
4. Calcium chloride should be prohibited.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING
8.6.2 Concrete mixes - For least shrinkage, the mix
proportioning should incorporate those factors that
contribute to the lowest water content. This means:
1. The largest practical maximum size of aggre-
gate (MSA).
2. The lowest practical sand content.
3. The lowest practical slump.
4. The lowest practical temperature.
5. Less than half the smooth grading curve
amount of small coarse aggregate, No. 4 to 3/8 or
3/4 in. (4.75 mm to 9.5 or 19 mm), especially if it is
crushed material.
8.6.3 Concrete handling and placing - Equipment
(chutes, belts, conveyors, pumps, hoppers, and
bucket openings) should be capable of working effec-
tively with lower slump, larger MSA concrete wher-
ever it is appropriate and feasible to use. (It is cau-
tioned that too often, in order to expedite pumping,
the actions taken are those which increase drying
shrinkage and resultant cracking: more sand, more
fines, more water, more slump, smaller aggregate.
When pumping is to be permitted and freedom from
shrinkage cracking is important, special emphasis
must be placed on obtaining effective locations and
an adequate number of contraction joints. Moreover,
the use of pumping equipment capable of handling
mixes favorable to least cracking should be re-
quired.)
Vibrators should be the largest and most powerful
that can be operated in the placement.
Upper lifts of formed concrete should be re-
vibrated as late as the running vibrator will pene-
trate under its own weight.
8.6.4 Finishing - Finishing should follow the
recommendations of ACI 302.1R to minimize or
avoid all forms of surface cracking.
It is particularly important that flatwork joint
grooves have a depth of at least l/5 of slab thick-
ness, but not less than 1 in. (25.4 mm) deep.
8.6.5 Forms -Forms should have ample strength to
sustain strong vibration of low slump concretes.
Exposure of warm concrete surfaces to fast drying
conditions or to low temperatures prior to curing,
should be avoided during form removal, if drying
and thermal shrinkage cracking is to be prevented.
8.6.6 Contraction joints - Plans should include an
adequate system of contraction joints to provide for
shrinkage. Formed grooves should be constructed in
both sides of parapet, retaining, and other walls at
the depth and spacing indicated in Sec. 8.2.1.
8.6.7 Curing and protection - These procedures
should insure the presence of adequate moisture to
sustain hydration and strength development in the
surface concrete. Rapid drying of the surfaces at the
conclusion of the specified curing period should be
224R-41
avoided. Providing time for adjustment and gradual,
slow elongation will minimize cracking.
Water curing should use a wet cover in contact
with the concrete surfaces. At the end of the wet
curing period, preferably at least 7 days, the cover
should be left in place until it and the concrete sur-
face appear to be dry, especially in arid weather.
In less arid areas and for interiors, the forms will
provide adequate curing if exposed surfaces are pro-
tected from drying and provided they can be left in
contact with the concrete for at least 7 days. There-
after, the forms should be left on with loosened bolts
long enough to allow the concrete surfaces to dry
gradually.
Ponding is not a desirable method of curing in an
arid climate because of the quick drying that occurs
when it is discontinued.
Because drying is slow and prolonged, a properly
applied sealing compound provides good curing for
flatwork placed on a well-wetted subgrade and pro-
vides adequate curing for massive sections. In an
arid climate, sealing compounds are not adequate for
thinner structural sections. When used on formed
surfaces, they should be applied when the thor-
oughly wetted surface is still damp but no longer
wet.
8.7 - Conclusion
As noted early in this chapter, it is the responsi-
bility of the engineer to develop effective designs and
clear and specific specifications. To assure both the
owners and the engineers satisfaction with the re-
sults, the engineer should have the owner arrange for
inspection by either the owners personnel, the en-
gineer, or a reliable professional inspection service
who will insure that the construction is performed on
the same basis as it was bid. Without the full and
firm intent to confirm the specified character and de-
gree of performance, there is a serious chance that
undesirable results will be obtained. Without firm in-
spection and controls, and a clear understanding of
the job requirements by the contractor, it is likely
that concrete will contain more water than it should,
finishing operations will be expedited with the water
brush (or hose), and curing will be interrupted or ab-
breviated (not to mention other less obvious items
which influence the later appearance of unsightly
cracks). When properly applied, the procedures dis-
cussed in this chapter can be used to produce a high
quality concrete with the least probable amount of
cracking.
References
8.1. Concrete M a n u a l 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
8.2. Dakhil, Fadh H.; Cady, Philip D.; and Carrier,
Roger, E., Cracking in Fresh Concrete as Related to
224R-42 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Reinforcement, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 72, No. 517.2R
8, Aug. 1975, pp. 421-428.
Chapter 9 - References
9.1- Recommended references
The documents of the various standards producing
organizations referred to in this document are listed
below with their serial designation.
American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
tion Officials
T176 Plastic Fines in Graded Aggregate and
Soils By Use of the Sand Equivalent Test
American Concrete Institute
201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
207.1R Mass Concrete
207.2R Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and
Reinforcement on Cracking of Massive
Concrete
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Propor-
tions for Normal, Heavyweight, and
Mass Concrete
212.1R/ Admixtures for Concrete
212.2R and Guide for Use of Admixtures in Con-
crete
223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrink-
age-compensating Concrete
302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Con-
struction
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transpor-
tating, and Placing Concrete
305R Hot Weather Concreting
306R Cold Weather Concreting
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
313 Recommended Practice for Design and
Construction of Concrete Bins, Silos,
and Bunkers for Storing Granular Ma-
terials
318 Building Code Requirements for Rein-
forced Concrete
340.lR Design Handbook in Accordance with the
Strength Design Method of ACI 318-83,
Volume 1 - Beams, Slabs, Brackets,
Footings, and Pile Caps (SP-17)
347.1R Precast Concrete Units Used as Forms
for Cast-in-Place Concrete
504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete
Structures
Accelerated Curing of Concrete at Atmo-
spheric Pressure - State of the Art
544.3R Guide for Specifying, Mixing, Placing
and Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced
Concrete
ASTM
C 512 Test Method for Creep of Concrete in
Compression
E 399 Test Method for Plane-Strain Fracture
Toughness of Metallic Materials
Cornit Euro-International du B&ton and F&i&&m Inter-
nationale de la Prkcontrainte
CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures
The above publications may be obtained from the fol-
lowing organizations:
American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
tion Officials
444 North Capital St., N.W.
Suite 225
Washington, DC 20001
American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 48219
ASTM
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
Cornit Euro-International du B&on and Federation In-
ternationale de la Precontrainte - English edition avail-
able from:
British Cement Association
Wexham Springs
Slough SL# 6PL
ENGLAND
9.2 - Cited references
Cited references are provided at the end of each chapter.
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which
consists of 24 members; 21 were affirmative, 2 were not returned,
and 1 abstained. It has been processed in accordance with the
Institute procedure and is approved for publication and discus-
sion.
 CONTROL OF CRACKING 224R-43

ACI Committee 224

Cracking

David Darwin Bernard L. Meyers

Chairman Past Chairman

R. S. Barneyback, Jr. Donald L. Houghton Robert E. Philleo

Eduardo Santos Basilio Paul H. Kaar Milos Polivka
Alfred G. Bishara Tony C. Liu Julius G. Potyondy
Roy W. Carlson J. P. Lloyd Robert E. Price
Noel J. Everard LeRoy Lutz Ernest K. Schrader
J. Ferry-Borges V. M. Malhotra Lewis H. Tuthill
Peter Gergely Dan Naus Robert L. Yuan
Edward G. Nawy

The committee voting on the 1990 revisions was as follows:

Grant T. Halvorsen* Randall W. Poston

Chairman Secretary

Florian G. Barth Will Hansen Ernest K. Schrader

Alfred G. Bishara Tony C. Liu Wimal Suaris
Howard L. Boggs Edward G. Nawy Lewis H. Tuthill*
Merle E. Brander John D. Nicholas Thomas D. Verti
David Darwin* Harry Palmbaum Zenon Zielinski
Fouad H. Fouad* Arnfinn Rusten
Peter Gergely Andrew Scanlon

*Members contributing to these revisions.