A Grammar Development Course, Jeff Mohamed PDF

A Grammar Development Course
For
American Teachers Of EFL/ESL
Jeff Mohamed
English International Publications

.
Published by English International Publications

www. english-international. com
Copyright. 2000 Jeff Mohamed
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any

means without permission in writing from the author.
Printed in the United States of America

Preface
This book is designed to help both native and non-native English speaking teachers of EFL/ESL to improve
their knowledge of and familiarity with American English grammar. It is not intended to be a
comprehensive grammar reference for teachers or a grammar practice book for students.
Many people believe that anyone who can speak and write English reasonably accurately is equipped to
teach the language to foreign students. Unfortunately, this is not at all the case. Knowing the language is
important but it is impossible to teach English effectively unless you know a lot about the language. In
particular, you need to know a lot about grammar.
There are two main reasons why teachers of EFL and ESL need to know their grammar:
As most modern EFL/ESL programs include a significant grammar component, teachers need to be able
to introduce and clarify grammatical items such as verb tenses and other structures. You cannot clarify
items adequately unless you are able to analyze them.
In most countries, grammatical knowledge is regarded as being very important. So foreign students
expect their English teachers to be able to answer grammar questions. They will rapidly lose faith in any
teacher who cannot answer such questions confidently and accurately.
The material in this book is arranged so that each unit consolidates, extends and practices the material from
earlier units. It is therefore essential that you complete the units in the order in which they appear.
Each unit contains a series of exercises followed by answer keys and commentaries. If you want to
understand and to become familiar with the grammar areas which are covered, you need to complete each
exercise in writing. Reading a unit will help you to understand the grammar items and terms, but you will
only be able to recall these later if you invest effort in writing down the answers to the exercises.
It is important that you take time to absorb the contents of one unit before starting the next. So it is best to
take a significant break after completing a unit. Then, when you return to the book, start by re-reading the
previous unit to consolidate what you have already learned and to prepare yourself for the new unit.
Most of the material in this book has been piloted over several years with more than a thousand native and
non-native speakers of American English. Some of these were already experienced EFL/ESL teachers while
others had no teaching experience whatsoever. In all cases, they felt that the material made them much
more confident about their formal knowledge of American English grammar and greatly improved their
ability both to teach grammatical items and to answer their students' questions about grammar.
In addition to clarifying grammatical items and terminology, this book also contains units which describe
and explain some practical methods of teaching grammar to foreign students. If you are going to participate
in a TEFL/TESL certificate program, you will probably learn more about these methods during your
course. If you are going to teach without formal training, the material in these units will show you some
simple yet effective ways by which you can introduce or review grammar items in your classes.
I hope that you will enjoy working through this book and that doing so will enable you to become a more
effective teacher of American English.
. JefTMohamed
California
August 2000
List Of Contents
Page
Unit 1 Terminology: Parts of Speech 1
Unit 2 Terminology. Sentences and Verbs
Unit 3 Basic Grammatical Characteristics of English 10
Unit 4 The Concept of "Grammaticality" 17
Unit 5 Varieties, Dialects and "Standard English" 20
Unit 6 Sentences and Utterances 26
Unit 7 Compound Sentences and Clauses 31
Unit 8 Verb Tenses and Aspects 38
Unit 9 The Present Simple and the Present Progressive 45
Unit 10 The Past Simple 51
Unit 11 Talking About the Past 53
Unit 12 The Passive Voice 57
Unit 13 Verb Forms, Tense and Function 62
Unit 14 Discourse 69
Unit 15 Conditionals 76
Unit 16 Reported Speech 82
Unit 17 Phrasal and Multi-Word Verbs 88
Unit 18 Some Other Grammatical Structures . 92
Unit 19 The Grammar of Vocabulary 98
Unit 20 A Basic Approach to Teaching Grammar 100
Unit 21 More Examples of PPP Lessons 105
Unit 22 Test-Teach-Test and Discovery Approaches 111

A Grammar Development Course For American Teachers
Unit l
Terminology: Parts of Speech
The aim of this unit is to remind you of the names and functions of some basic parts of speech. You need to
be familiar with these in order to analyze examples of language.
Exercise 1
Beside each part of speech listed below, write a definition and then an example.
Definition Example
noun
pronoun
article
adjective
verb
adverb
preposition
conjunction
possessive
adjective
possessive
pronoun
demonstrative
adjective
demonstrative
pronoun
determiner
Commentary on Exercise 1
noun Word for a thing, person or place. tree, man, Anne, idea
Names of specific people, places, etc. are called
"proper nouns" and are capitalized. Other nouns Anne, England, Ford
are called "common nouns." tree, man, sea, otter
pronoun Word standing in place of a noun. It can be the I, he, it, they, them
subject or object of a verb.
article Word defining a noun. There are two indefinite a, an, the
articles: a, an. There is one definite article: the.
adjective Word adding information about a noun or pronoun. big, happy, exciting
verb Word indicating an action or state. go, be, live, work
adverb Word giving information (on time, manner, place, etc.) often, slowly, then, very
about a verb or adjective or another adverb.
preposition Word or words used before a noun or pronoun to

give more information (about time, place, etc.). in, out of, after
conjunction Word joining words, phrases, etc. and, although

possessive Word going in front of nouns to indicate who
adjective something belongs to. my, her, our
possessive Word standing in place of a noun and possessive mine, hers, ours
pronoun adjective and showing who something belongs to.
demonstrative An adjective which specifies which noun is being this, that, these, those
adjective referred to: for example, those in / want those books.
demonstrative When a demonstrative adjective replaces this, that, these, those

pronoun a noun, it is known as a demonstrative pronoun: for
example, those in Give me those.
determiner One of a group of words which limit or specify nouns. a, the, your, this
Determiners include articles and possessive and
demonstrative adjectives.
Note:
It is very important to realize that the same word may act as different parts of speech when it appears in
different sentences. For example,/as/ is an adjective in if is a fast car, but it is an adverb in He drives
fast. Similarly, before is an adverb in She has done it before but it is a conjunction in He looked before
he left
Exercise 2
Match the part of speech on the left with the underlined word in the appropriate sentence on the right.
1. noun (common) a. She saw the man arrive.
2. article (definite) b. I want one of those.
3. verb c. It was her book.
4. preposition d. He was a tall man.
5. demonstrative pronoun e. After sleeping, they went out.
6. possessive adjective f. It was hot.
7. article (indefinite) g. Where did you see it?
8. pronoun h. She drove really carefully,
9. adverb i. Are you sure it was hers?
10. possessive pronoun j. It happened quickly,
11. conjunction k. He sat on the table.
12. adjective 1. It was a large cat.
Answers to Exercise 2
1. 1
2. a
3. j
4. k
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. g
9. h
10. i
11. e
12. f
3
Exercise 3
Name the part of speech represented by each underlined word in the following text.
Anne decided to walk, although it was getting dark. She left the bar, with its bright lights, and stepped
into the street. She heard a car coming up behind her. It was moving slowly, as if very reluctant to
pass her. It sounded like a Bug; exactly like her own Bug, in fact. (Hers was parked safely at home
tonight, unfortunately.) She hesitated, and then turned into a side-street.
decided = verb although = conjunction She = pronoun
bar noun (common) its = possessive adjective bright = adjective
into preposition the = article (definite) a - article (indefinite)
behind = preposition slowly = adverb very = adverb
pass = verb Bug = noun (proper) her = possessive adjective
Hers = possessive pronoun at = preposition men = adverb
Exercise 4
For each part of speech on the left below, underline the appropriate word or words in the list on the right.
1. pronoun his she to was
2. adverb thai me is badly
3. possessive adjective your an her my
4. preposition up also of her
5. possessive pronoun her it yours mine
1. she 4. up of
2. then badly 5. yours mine
3. your her "my
Unit 2
in
Terminology: Sentences and Verbs

The aim of this assignment is to remind you of some grammatical terms which we use when describing or
analyzing English sentences and verbs.
Exercise 1
In each sentence below, identify the subject. Then identify the direct and/or indirect object in the sentence.
Subject Direct Object Indirect Object
1. The food looked good.
2. Bill bought a car.
3. They offered him a drink.
4. Later, he told them a joke.
5. Where did you get it?
6. I'll see them tomorrow.
The subject is die person or tiling which performs an action: for example, He in He brought. The direct
object is the person or thing on which the action is performed: for example, a sandwich in He brought a
sandwich. The indirect object refers to another person or thing to which the action relates: for example, her
in He brought her a sandwich.
1. The subject is The food. There is no object.
2. The subject is Bill. There is a direct object, a car.
3. The subject is They. The direct object is a drink, while him is the indirect object.
4. The subject is he. The direct object is a joke, while them is the indirect object.
5. The subject is you and the direct object is it.
6. The subject is J and the direct object is them.
,
Exercise 2
For each of the following terms, try to write a definition and to give an example.
Definition Example
a. transitive verb
b. intransitive verb
c. main verb
d. auxiliary verb
e. modal auxiliary verb
f. infinitive
g. present participle
h. past participle
i. regular verb
j . irregular verb
a. A transitive verb is one that has or can have a direct object: it describes an action that can be done to
to someone or something: He loves her. The bird gte the bread.
b. An intransitive verb cannot have an object: She appeared at the door. They shivered.
c. A main verb is a verb which can operate in a sentence independently of an auxiliary verb:
Mar got knows. He talks a lot They arrived yesterday.
d. An auxiliary verb is used with a main verb to indicate the time or tense of the main verb, or to form
questions or negatives. Auxiliaries are often called helping verbs:
He is working. Do you smoke? She has not left.
You should note that to have can function as both an auxiliary verb and as a main verb in different
sentences. So has is an auxiliary verb in He has bought a car but a main verb in He has a car.
e. A modal auxiliary verb is one of a group of auxiliary verbs which express degrees of possibility or
necessity: They may help. You can't go. You should sleep.
f. The infinitive is the basic form of a verb: for example, eat or drive. When it appears with the word to, it
should strictly be referred to as "the infinitive with to" To avoid confusion, the term "base form" or
"basic form" is preferable to the term "infinitive."
6
n g. Present participles are forms of verbs, created by adding ing to the base form, which are used in
some verb tenses and as adjectives: They've been working- It's really interesting.
h. Past participles are forms of verbs which are used in some verb tenses and as adjectives:
You have visited it. She has sold it. He was bored.
The past participle of regular verbs ends in -ed: talked, walked, jumped, started. Irregular verbs
have a variety of different forms: broken, gone, run, seen, etc.
i. A regular verb has both its Past Simple and past participle forms made up of the basic form + -ed. So,
walk is a regular verb: the Past Simple is walked, as is the past participle.
j. Irregular verbs have Past Simple and past participle forms made up in other ways. For example:
go I went I gone, see I saw I seen, cut I cut I cut.
Exercise 3a
In each example below, underline the verb and say whether it is transitive or intransitive.
1. He tells lies.
2. It looks fresh.
3. She likes fruit.
4. That place smells.
5. She drives a Maserati.
6. Smell the flowers!
Exercise 3b
In the sentences below, decide which underlined words are main verbs and which are auxiliary verbs.
With each main verb, decide which form is being used: base form, present participle, or past participle.
1. He has seen it.
2. We can tell her.
3. He is arriving soon.
4. Where did you go?
5. He has a pen.
6. You should not do that.
7. She will have finished.

- -"S
Commentary on Exercise 3a
1. tells transitive
2. looks intransitive
3. likes transitive
4. smells intransitive
5. drives transitive
6. Smell transitive
Commentary on Exercise 3b
1. has auxiliary * seen main verb (past participle)
2. can auxiliary tell main verb (base form)
3. is auxiliary arriving main verb (present participle)
4 did auxiliary go main verb (base form)
5. has main verb *
6. should auxiliary do main verb (base form)
7. will/have auxiliaries* finished main verb (past participle)
* Note that the same word can serve as an auxiliary in one sentence, but as the main verb in another.
** Note also that a main verb can sometimes be accompanied by two auxiliary verbs.
Exercise 4
Using the terminology covered in Units 1 and 2, identify and explain the error in each sentence below.
1. It wasn't hers book; it was mine.
2. Afterward the party, she drove home.
3. They speak French real well.
4. He couldn't go out because he was working very hardly
5. I thought a good idea.
6. Bill goed there yesterday.
7. They haven't saw it yet.
8. He saw both her and I.

1. The possessive pronoun hers has been used instead of the possessive adjective her.
2. Afterward is an adverb and not a conjunction. It needs to be replaced by the conjunction After.
3. The word well needs to be modified by the adverb really, rather than by the adjective real.
4. The speaker or writer has assumed that hardly is the adverb form of the adjective hard. In fact,
hard is irregular in that its adjective and adverb forms are the same.
5. The verb thought has been used transitively. However, think is an intransitive verb in English, and so
it cannot have a direct object.
6. Go is an irregular verb; its Past Simple form is went.
7. The sentence requires the past participle seen, rather than the Past Simple saw.
8. The subject pronoun / should be replaced by the object pronoun me.

Unit 3
Basic Grammatical Characteristics of English
In this unit, we will highlight some major grammatical characteristics of English, and we will give you
some practice with using the terminology and concepts covered in Units 1 and 2. The unit will also remind
you of how much languages differ from each other, and how students' mistakes in English often result from
differences between their native languages and English.
Exercise 1
On the left, you will see brief descriptions of features of various languages. Examples are given either in
the language or as a literal translation. With each feature, think about how that aspect of language operates
in English. Then, write a description of the English feature in the right-hand column. You will find a
commentary on all the features at the end of this unit.
I. Basic Word Order Pattern

In Turkish, in a statement sentence with a
subject, verb and object, the normal order
is SOV (Subject/Object/Verb). This is true
with both noun and pronoun objects.
Literal: You the man told. I you told.
In Russian and Greek, there is no fixed
word order pattern.
2. Subject and Verb

In Spanish, pronoun subjects are usually
included in the verb.
John spoke = John habla.
He spoke = Habla.
3. Regular and Irregular Verbs

In Spanish, most verbs are regular: they
fall into three main groups which conjugate
according to regular patterns in different tenses.
Verbs which do not conjugate according to
these patterns are described as being irregular.
10
11
4. Verb Tenses and Forms
In German, there are five major verb
tenses or forms, none of which are
progressive. Some of the forms are
constructed using auxiliaries, and some
by modifying the basic form of the verb.
The forms may be given the labels:
Present
Past
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect.
5. Negative Statement Form

In French, this is formed by placing ne
before the verb or auxiliary and pas
after it. The ne is contracted if the
following verb or auxiliary begins with a
vowel.
/ don't know = Je ne sais pas.
He hasn 't come -Iln 'est pas venu.
In Greek, the equivalent of not is
placed before the auxiliary or the main
verb. The not cannot be contracted.
Literal: He not did it. She not will go.
6. Question Forms
In spoken Arabic, questions are formed
simply either by adding a question word
or using rising intonation.
Literal: You like it? When he went?
7. Question Tags
In French, there is one fixed question tag:
n 'est-cepas? This can be roughly
translated as isn 't it?
Literal: // was wet, isn't it?
Literal: They're leaving, isn't it?
8. The Verb Be
Like many languages, Arabic does not
have a present form of the verb be.
^ Literal: She my friend. I Libyan.
i 1 ,

(
A Grammar Development Course For American Teacher
9. Modal Auxiliaries
In Spanish, modal auxiliaries operate
like other verbs: they have an infinitive
form with to, and different forms for
different persons.
Literal: He cans stay.
10. Nouns and Declension

In some languages, such as Latin, common
and proper nouns decline: their form varies
according to whether their function in a
sentence is that of subject, direct object, etc.
11. Nouns and Number

In Farsi, nouns do not have plurals.
Literal: I saw three car.
In German, most nouns form the plural
by adding en or er to the end of the
singular noun form. Some nouns do not
have any plural form.
12. Nouns and Gender

All German nouns have grammatical
gender: neuter, feminine, or masculine.
In French, all nouns are either masculine
or feminine. (Note that here we are not
talking about actual gender.)
13. Articles
Some languages, such as Russian, Thai
and Swahili, have neither definite nor
indefinite articles.
Arabic does not have indefinite articles .
Literal: / saw bird. He bought book.
14. Articles, Number and Gender

Many languages have indefinite and
definite articles which change to reflect
the number and/or gender of the nouns to
which they refer. French, for example,
has three definite articles: la (feminine
singular), le (masculine singular), and
les (all plurals).
12
13
15. Pronouns and Gender
In Farsi, pronouns have no grammatical
gender, a woman or man, an animal, a
physical object, a place and an abstract
concept are all referred to as it.
Literal: See that man? It is English.
In French, pronouns are either feminine

or masculine. So, a woman and a chair
are both referred to as elle (she),
while a man or a book is il (he).
16. You Pronoun Forms

French has two you pronouns. Tu is
familiar and is used when addressing one
person. Vous is the formal singular
form. When addressing more than one
person, vous is always used.
17. Adjectives and Adverbs

In Scandinavian languages and German,
adverbs very often have the same form as
the equivalent adjectives.
Literal: // was good. It went good.
18. Adjective Order

In Portuguese and in Vietnamese, an
adjective used with a noun usually follows
that noun.
Literal: / live in that house big.
19. Adjective Agreement

In Romance languages, adjectives change
form to reflect the number or gender
(actual or grammatical) of the pronouns
or nouns to which they refer. So, in
French, a boy is intelligent, while a girl
is intelligente; two men are referred to as
being intelligents, while two women are
referred to as being intelligentes.
s
Commentary on Exercise 1 )
We will now look at each of the features covered in Exercise 1 and see how they normally operate in
English. With each feature, we will concentrate here on highlighting its main aspects, rather than go into
great detail. In many cases, we will examine features in more depth in later units.
1. Basic Word Order Pattern

English statement sentences which include a direct object normally follow a SVO (Subject-Verb-Object)
pattern, irrespective of whether the object is a noun or a pronoun. So we would say She bought a car and
She bought it. A very few sentences, such as some exclamatory ones, do not fit this SVO pattern: for
example. Never have I seen such a strange place!
In sentences which contain both direct and indirect objects, the most common two patterns which occur are
those represented in the sentences I gave him the letter and I gave the letter to him. However, other
patterns also occur, notably in different dialects.
2. Subject and Verb

English verbs always require separate subject pronouns, as in He spoke and They went.
3. Regular and Irregular Verbs

English verbs are usually described as being either regular or irregular, according to their Past Simple and
past participle forms. The Past Simple and past participle forms of regular verbs are identical, and they are
constructed by adding -ed or -d or -ied to the base form of the verb, sometimes after omitting the final letter
of that verb: walk/walked'walked, save/saved/saved, and hurry/hurried/hurried.
Irregular verbs form their Past Simple and past participle in a variety of ways: go/went/gone,
see/saw/seen, and cut/cut'eut.
4. Verb Tenses and Forms

English verbs are usually referred to as having twelve major tenses or forms, six of which are described as
"simple" and six of which are called "progressive" or "continuous." (When describing verb forms, the
words "progressive" and "continuous" are synonymous )
The twelve major forms are:
Present Simple They work.
Present Progressive They are working.
Future Simple They will work.
Future Progressive They will be working.
Past Simple They worked
Past Progressive They were working.
Present Perfect Simple They have worked
Present Perfect Progressive They have been working.
Future Perfect Simple They will have worked.
Future Perfect Progressive They will have been working.
Past Perfect Simple They had worked
Past Perfect Progressive They had been working. -^ .
The uses of these tenses and forms, and their relationship to time, will be examined in later units.
5. Negative Statement Form

This is usually formed by adding not or the contracted form n 't to the verb or the auxiliary or modal
auxiliary which precedes it, as in the following sentences: He is not English, They aren't staying, She has
not seen them, I cannot say, and She shouldn 't do that.
In the Present and Past Simple tenses, all verbs except he require the auxiliaries do/does or did to be added
to the verb, as in these sentences: / don't know, He does not agree, and She didn 't say.
6. Question Forms
Question formation is more complex in English than it is in many other languages. In sentences containing
the verbs be or auxiharies or modal auxiliaries, the normal subject verb order is usually inverted, as in the
following sentences: Is he here?, Are you listening?, Has he done it?. Should I stay?. Where are they?,
and When will they arrive? In the Present and Past Simple forms of verbs, the auxiliaries do, does and did
have to be added, as in these examples: Do you know?, Does she agree? and Did they stay?
When the question word Who is used as a subject, the auxiliary forms of do are not used, as in the
examples Who knows? and Who went?
-
7. Question Tags
English has both positive and negative question tags, and these tags normally vary according to the form of
the verb or auxiliary or modal auxiliary to which they relate. Among the many patterns which are therefore
possible are the following: She's French, is she?. She's French, isn't she?. She isn't French, is she?.
They went, did they?. They went, didn't they? and They didn't go, did they?
As can be imagined, the use of positive and negative question tags is extremely difficult for foreign
learners of English to master.
8. The Verb Be
The verb be has a full range of forms, including present forms, as in the sentences She's a friend and I'm
K,anauian.
9. Modal Auxiliaries
English has a number of modal auxiliaries which are used to express degrees of possibility: can, could,
may, must, etc. These modal auxiharies do not have an infinitive form with to. you cannot say to must or
to may. Also, in the Present Simple, the modal auxiliaries do not take a final s in the third person singular:
we say she goes but she should (go), she can (go), etc.
10. Nouns and Declension

English nouns do not decline. They have the same form irrespective of their grammatical function, as in
these sentences: That woman is tall, I have met that woman, and He gave that woman a book.
11. Nouns and Number

Most English nouns have a plural form. This is usually constructed by adding -5 or -es or -let to the basic
noun form, as in the following examples: car/cars, watch/watches, and territory/territories. Some nouns
have irregular plural forms, as in: knife/knives, man/men, goose/geese and deer/deer.
English also contains many mass or abstract nouns which do not usually have a plural form: chaos,
information, water, etc. Such nouns are called "non-count" nouns.
15
12. Nouns and Gender

English nouns do not normally have grammatical gender, in the sense that they are not categorized as being
masculine, feminine or neuter. Of course, when common or proper nouns referring to individual people are
replaced by pronouns, we use the pronouns he/him and she/her depending upon the actual gender of the
people concerned.
Animals are sometimes accorded gender and sometimes not. So we might respond to the statement That
lion is really old widi either Is he? or Is it? Some people confer feminine gender on inanimate objects, as
in the following: That's my new car. Isn't she a beauty? However, such usage is comparatively rare and it
is now regarded by many people as reflecting sexist attitudes.
13. Articles
English has both definite and indefinite articles: a, an and the. The rules for their use are very complex. For
example, abstract or mass nouns do not usually take an indefinite article, hence the sentence Milk is good
for you. However, they can take a definite article, as in The milk that you bought is really fresh.
14. Articles, Number and Gender

English articles are unchanging in regard to gender and number: a man/woman/chair, the man/woman/
chair, and the men/women/chairs.
15. Pronouns and Gender

Inanimate objects have no gender in English, and so diey are referred to as it in the singular and they in the
plural. Females are referred to using the subject and object pronouns she and her, while males are referred
to using he and him. In the plural, both females and males are referred to as they or them.
16. You Pronoun Forms

English normally has only one pronoun form, you, which is used for singular and plural, and for both
formal and informal relationships.
17. Adjectives and Adverbs

In most cases, adverbs are constructed by adding -ly to the adjective form, as with: quick/quickly,
beautiful/beautifully and tender/tenderly. Adverbs which are regarded as irregular are formed in other
ways: good/well, fast/fast, etc.
18. Adjective Order

When an adjective accompanies a noun, it normally precedes it, as in / want a green sweater.
19. Adjective Agreement

English adjectives usually have only one form, and they do not change to reflect number or gender. The
only exception is the adjective blond, which does have different masculine and feminine forms: a man is
blond but a woman is blonde.
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.
Unit 4
The Concept of "Grammaticality"
English is spoken as a native language by many millions of people in countries as far apart as Australia and
England, the USA and India, Canada and Ghana. Not surprisingly, there is considerable variation in the
patterns and forms of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation used by the people in different English-
speaking countries and regions. We will examine some of these differences in a later unit.
In spite of the many variations used by different English speakers, it is generally felt that there are some
very basic features or patterns in English which are used by virtually all speakers of the language,
irrespective of where they live. For example, there are basic grammatical patterns of the type we examined
in the previous unit. Sentences which conform to these patterns are said to be "grammatical," while
sentences which do not conform are said to be "ungrammatical."
Native speakers of English acquire knowledge of grammaticality at an early age, usually well before they
start school. We may not yet understand all the details of the process, but it is clear that they acquire the
knowledge unconsciously, drawing it from the speech of their parents and other people around them. It is
this knowledge which gives native speakers the ability, even as young children, to construct sentences
which are grammatical, and to avoid constructions which are ungrammatical.
Exercise 1
Which of the sentences below do you think are ungrammatical, in the sense that they do not conform to
possible sentence patterns in English? Which features cause them to be ungrammatical? Why do you think
foreign learners of English often construct sentences like these?
1. Those shoes are expensives.

2. Is a hot day, isn't it?
3. They not understand.
4. I should to eat first.
5. That lamp there; how much is she?
6. He musts work harder.
7. She a new car bought.
8. It's a house large.
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You have probably decided that all of the sentences are ungrammatical, and you may have identified the
following ungrammatical features.
1. There should not be an s on expensive, as English adjectives do not have plural forms.
2. Is should read if is, because English verbs usually requires separate subjects.
3. This should be They don't understand. In English, a main verb cannot be turned into a negative
simply by placing not in front of it.
4. The to needs to be omitted. English modal auxiliaries are not followed by the infinitive with to.
5. The final word should be it. Only people, and perhaps animals, usually have gender in English.
6. The modal auxiliary should be must, since English model auxiliaries do not have different forms for
different subjects.
7. The object a new car should come after the verb to reflect the normal English word order of SVO.
8. The adjective large should precede the noun house, because English adjectives do not normally
directly follow the nouns to which they refer.
Foreign learners of English often produce sentences similar to those in Exercise 1. As you have probably
realized, this is because learners frequently try to construct English sentences using patterns which are
possible and acceptable in their own native or first language: in what linguists refer to as their "LI." When
learners mistakenly transfer grammatical or other features from their first language to another language, the
errors which are produced are said to be the result of "LI interference."
Further comments on grammaticality

It should be noted fliat the grammaticality or otherwise of a sentence does not necessarily obscure its
meaning or have any significant effect on its communicative effectiveness. For example, while It's a house
large is certainly an ungrammatical sentence, it would probably be readily understood by any speaker of
English. Young children frequently produce sentences which are totally ungrammatical but totally
comprehensible. Let me give you an example from my own experience. When my daughter Emma was two
years old, she had a eye infection. I told her mat we had to go to the doctor's to get her eye examined. Her
response was Emma go okay eye. No go doctor. I was in no doubt as to what she meant!
Conversely, the fact that a sentence is grammatical should not be taken to imply that it necessarily has or
conveys meaning. Red oceans smell green skies is perfectly grammatical, but most people would consider
it to be meaningless.
Similarly, there is no direct relationship between grammaticality and truth. The sentence My cat speaks
English beautifully is grammatical, but it is certainly not true - at least in the case of my cat.
18
The distinction between grammatical and ungrammatical may appear to be a useful one. As you saw in
Exercise 1, most English speakers would seem to agree that at least some sentence patterns are
ungrammatical in that they are rarely if ever produced by people who have English as their LI. However,
as we will see later, the distinction between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences is not as clear or
simple as you might think, partly because some groups of native speakers frequently and consistently
produce what many or most other groups of native speakers would regard as being ungrammatical
sentences.
'
Unit 5
Varieties, Dialects and "Standard English"
In previous units, we suggested that it is possible to identify some grammatical patterns which are used by
virtually all native speakers of English. To many people, this suggests that it is possible to draw up a finite
list of agreed grammatical patterns and rules to which English speech and writing should conform. In other
words, many people believe in the existence of a "Standard English."
Here, we will look at how English is used by native speakers and will examine the concept of Standard
English.
Exercise 1
Put an asterisk beside each of the following sentences which you think is ungrammatical, in that it would
probably never be produced by an educated native speaker of English. For the moment, do not worry about
the degree of politeness or formality conveyed by the sentences.
1. I would like for you to do this.
2. Did you do it yet?
3. I really want out now.
4. He already has done it.
5. It has gotten out of control.
6. I don't want to go, but I might do.
7. This stew has beans in.
8. That will be Diana at the door now.
9. This house wants painting.
10. I'm next, amn't I?
11. Had you a good time last night?
12. I am here since three o'clock.
13. Please call me when you will arrive.
14. This applies to teachers; as well, it applies to students
20
In fact, every single one of these sentences might well be produced by a native speaker of English - in
certain English-speaking countries. The first five are examples of US English. Sentences 6 to 9 are from
English English, while 10 and 11 are examples of Scottish English. Numbers 12 and 13 are from Indian
English, while the final example is from Canadian English. Within the relevant country, each sentence
would be regarded as an example of grammatical English and it could be used by an educated speaker in
both informal and formal contexts.
Varieties of English
English is the native language of many different countries. In each of these countries, educated speakers use
some specific grammatical patterns and constructions which would not be used, and might even not be
understood, by educated native speakers in other English-speaking countries.
Some people seem to believe that the English spoken in some countries is inferior to that spoken in others:
for example, that the English spoken in the West Indies is inferior to that used by educated speakers from
England. This attitude is the result of a basic lack of understanding of the nature of language in general,
and of English in particular.
The view currently held by most linguists is that English exists in a number of varieties. Each variety is
used in a specific country or geographical area, and each has evolved its own grammatical patterns, as well
/
as other linguistic elements, such as distinct pronunciation features. From a linguistic standpoint, all
varieties of English are equally valid: no variety is in any way inferior or superior to any other. So, for
example, although American English originally developed out of British English, those two varieties of
English are now independent of, and in every way equal to, each other. Examples of American English
cannot be evaluated by reference to norms of British English usage.
Exercise 2
Put an asterisk beside any of the following sentences which you regard as being incorrect. Put two asterisks
beside any sentence which you think would not normally be produced by any native English speaker.
1. They've putten it in the wrong place.
2. She may can come.
3. He's very nice, isn't it?
4. We at lunch now.
5. He be coming tomorrow.
21
\
You have probably put an asterisk beside every sentence, and you may well have put two asterisks beside
several of the examples. In fact, all of the sentences might well be produced by native English speakers, and
even by educated ones, depending upon where you were. They are all examples of dialects: types of
language varieties used in specific geographical areas or by specific social groups.
1. Putten is the normal past participle of put in many parts of Northern England.
2. In southern states in the USA, it is not unusual to use two modal auxiliaries together.
3. In Welsh English, isn 't it? is normally used as an unchanging question tag.
4. Speakers of Black American English frequently or usually omit present tense forms of the verb be.
5. In parts of Southern England, be is used in place of cm, Is and are.
Dialects and "Standard English"

In many or even most people's minds, each variety of English has one standard form and one or more
dialects. The so-called standard form is the one which is generally used by educated people within the
country concerned, and it is the form which is usually taught in that country's schools. It is widely believed
to be superior to the various dialects, which are often felt to be nonstandard or substandard.
Modern linguists totally reject this view of the relationship between dialects and "standard" forms of
English. They point out that terms such as "Standard American English" and "Standard British English"
represent vague, abstract concepts which cannot be clearly defined. The so-called standard forms are
themselves merely dialects: forms of language used by certain groups of people within a country or region.
The only significant difference between a standard form and other dialects is that the standard form is the
dialect used by the class or group of people who have achieved a position of social eminence within a
country. It is the result of social, political and economic developments. Therefore, linguists point out, labels
such as "Standard American English" and "Standard British English" are political and social labels rather
than linguistic ones. Linguistically, no dialect can be said to be superior to any other. All dialects are
equally complex, logical and consistent. All of them allow us to produce an unlimited set of sentences, and
to express a full range of facts, feelings, concepts and thoughts.
Prescriptive and Descriptive Views of Language
Many people, particularly older people or those working in education, have a "prescriptive" view of
language. In other words, they have a vision of an ideal standard form of language and believe everyone
should try to conform to that ideal. They characterize as incorrect any use of language which diverges from
that ideal form. Older dictionaries and grammar books are usually prescriptive: they tell you what you
should be saying, according to what they think the standard form is. In many countries, there are even
official academies which decide which words, etc. are acceptable and which are not. A prescriptive view of
language is one which seeks to tell people what language they should be using, based on theoretical \\
principles. It tends to ignore realities such as the fact that languages are constantly evolving.
22
^
As we have suggested above, such a prescriptive view of language is no longer accepted by modern
linguists, who see it as reflecting a misunderstanding of the very nature of language. Linguists, including
the writers of most modern dictionaries and grammar books, normally take a "descriptive" approach: if
something is said or used by many or most people, it cannot be condemned as wrong or incorrect. A
descriptive view informs people what language is being used by most people in a specific country or area.
The following exercise will help you better to understand the differences between, and the implications of,
prescriptive and descriptive views of language. Complete both parts of the exercise before looking at the
commentary on the following page.
Exercise 3
Do you agree with the following statements about English? Why, or why not?
1. It is better not to split infinitives: to quickly go.
2. Sentences should not end with prepositions: Which restaurant are you going to?
3. Contractions should only be used in very informal speech: I'm arriving tomorrow.
4. When asking for permission. May I do that? is better English than Can I do that?
5. You should avoid using the verb get, since there is always a better alternative verb.
6. Whom did you see? is better English than Who did you see?
7. Gay means "lively" or "lighthearted," and it should not be used to describe sexual orientation.
Which of the following sentences would you regard as being examples of incorrect English? Why?
8. That's him.
9. Someone was at the door, but they have gone now.
10. Him writing that really annoyed me.
11. Which of these two ties would be best?

12. Pop music is boring, I am totally disinterested in it.
13. I wish I would have known that!
14. I am hearing what you are saying.
23
1. The prescriptive view is that you should never split an infinitive. Why? Because English should reflect
the rules of Latin, and in Latin it is not possible to split infinitives. The descriptive view is that there is no
reason why English should reflect Latin. Further, usage should surely be determined by what is clear and
effective. So, splitting an infinitive is often desirable. The British linguist, David Crystal, points out that it
would be difficult to improve on the introductory sentence of "Star Trek" ("to boldly go..."), even though
it contains a split infinitive.
2. The only reason to avoid ending sentences with prepositions is that this was not done in Latin. Winston
Churchill mocked this attitude effectively when he wrote: This is something up with which I will not put.
3. Contractions are perfectly normal in spoken English. Educated speakers use them in both formal and
informal speech. Of course, they are not appropriate in formal written English.
4. There is nothing at all grammatically wrong with using Can I as a means of asking for permission.
May I is simply another, more polite way of asking for permission.
5. Get is a perfectly normal English verb. Some people tend to overuse it. However, there are times when
no other verb would be as appropriate: for example, Where did you get that book? would almost always
be more appropriate than Where did you obtain that book?
6. Most educated speakers prefer Who did you see? except in very formal speech or writing.
7. Gay used to refer to lightheartedness. It now also refers to sexual orientation. People who object to this
are ignoring the fact that words naturally and inevitably change their meanings and use over the years. Nice
once meant "promiscuous." Should we now refuse to accept it being used with any other meaning?
8. Of course, it would be more grammatically correct to say That is he. However, many people would
probably think that That is he sounds rattier pompous.
9. The use of they to refer to a singular or unknown subject is now generally regarded as acceptable.
10. Object pronouns are often used instead of possessive pronouns in sentences like this, even by educated
speakers. It may not be long before such usage is regarded as being grammatically correct.
11. Even educated speakers often use superlatives when they should theoretically use comparatives.
12. Disinterested (which strictly speaking means "unbiased") is probably used in place of uninterested'by
most native speakers of English, educated or otherwise. Modern dictionaries accept this usage, and some
point out that disinterested has been used with this meaning for several hundred years.
13. Theoretically, it should be / wish I had known that! However, you will rarely hear the "correct" form
used in spoken American English. The "correct" form is also rarely used in Britain. Most people there say /
wish I'd have known that!
14. Traditionally, verbs such as hear cannot be used in progressive forms. In current US usage, however,
forms such as / am hearing you have become totally acceptable even in formal contexts.
24
So Is Everything Correct?
So far in this unit, we have suggested that terms such as "grammatical," "ungrammatical," "correct" and
"standard" are by no means as well-defined or as useful as some people imply. However, this is not to
suggest that everything that people use is correct or acceptable English. For example, grammatical forms
like he am are not generally acceptable and can therefore be regarded as incorrect, at least in terms of the
kind of English which foreign students want to learn to use.
At the same time, we need to recognize that forms which are generally regarded as being incorrect at one
point in time may well later become so widely used that they become acceptable, and therefore correct! A
descriptive approach to language recognizes this fact. A prescriptive approach loses sight of it in the mass
of arbitrary rules which it puts forward and insists on.
One of the mam points which descriptive linguists are making in this regard is that, when looking at
language use, we should think in terms of items being appropriate or inappropriate in specific contexts,
rather than in terms of general correctness. The concept of appropriateness is a key one when evaluating
the language use of native English speakers and of foreign students of English, and we will examine the
concept in more depth in the next unit.
25
_
Unit 6
Sentences and Utterances
In this unit, we will look at the nature of sentences and some of the ways in which they are formed in
English. We will draw a distinction between sentences and other types of utterances, and between simple
and compound sentences. We will also look at how simple sentences can be analyzed.
Sentences and Utterances

It is possible to define the word "sentence" in several different ways. According to the broadest definition, a
sentence is a unit of one or more words having one of a small number of intonation or punctuation patterns
and typically expressing an independent statement, question, exclamation, request, etc. By this definition,
It's hot and He's the person who took it and Help! would all be regarded as sentences, as would Why?
and Because I say so. However, most of us use the word "sentence" in a more restricted sense and
understand it to refer to a group of words which can stand independently and which contains at least one
subject and main verb. By this definition, It's hot and He's the person who took it would be regarded as
sentences but Help! and Why? and Because I say so would not.
For the purposes of teaching EFL or ESL, it is convenient to describe examples of speech (or writing)
using two distinct labels: "utterance" and "sentence." We use the word "utterance" as a broad label for any
word or group of words which functions as an independent unit of speech (or writing). So all of the
examples given in the previous paragraph are utterances. We use the word "sentence" more narrowly to
refer to any group of words which functions as an independent unit and contains at least one subject and
main verb. Of the examples given in the previous paragraph, only It's hot and He's the person who took it
are sentences.
Exercise 1
In the dialogue below, we have underlined each word or group of words which forms an utterance. Circle
the utterances which can be regarded as sentences according to me definition in the previous paragraph.
Alex: Okay. So what's next?

Liz: What?
Alex: What do we do next?
Liz: Oh. The kitchen.
Alex: Why the kitchen?
Liz: Whv not the kitchen?
Alex: Oh. No reason
26
i
The only utterances which contain at least one subject and main verb are So what's next? and What do we
do next? So these are the only sentences in the dialogue.
Simple and Compound Sentences

It is useful to be able to distinguish between sentences which express only one main idea and those which
express two or more ideas. In grammatical terms, it is possible to do this by distinguishing between "simple
sentences" and "compound sentences." Simple sentences are those which contain a single main verb: /
bought the shoes and / saw them yesterday are both simple sentences. / bought the shoes from that new
shop next to the post office on Market Street is also a simple sentence: it is longer than the other examples
but it still contains only one main verb. Compound sentences contain more than one main verb: / bought
the shoes that I saw yesterday is a compound sentence, because both bought and saw are main verbs.
Exercise 2
Which of the following utterances are sentences? Which ones are compound sentences?
a) They're arriving tomorrow.
b) He's hungry because he hasn't eaten.
c) That's the book I was telling you about.
d) What a day!
e) Where have you been?
f) He speaks Italian and French really well.
g) He speaks and writes Italian.
h) She was pleased that she passed the test,
i) How about a movie?
All of the utterances are sentences except for d) and i).
Utterances a), e) and f) are simple sentences. Each one has only a single main verb.
Utterances b), c), g) and h) are compound sentences. Each one contains two main verbs.
27
_ . ..
V
More About Simple Sentences

As you may have discovered in school, there are many different ways of analyzing or diagrarnrning
sentences. Here we are going to go over some of the basic elements into which sentences can be divided.
The simplest sentences have only two parts, a Subject (S) and a Verb (V). The subject is the person or
thing which is the topic of the sentence and/or the agent of the verb; for example, She is the subject in the
sentence She left and He and I is the subject in the sentence He and I agree.
Other simple sentences may include an Object (O): the person or thing which is affected by the action
mentioned in the sentence. For example, this book is the object in both / bought this book and Have you
read this book? In these sentences, this book is the Direct Object (Od). However, sentences can also
include an Indirect Object (Oi). In / gave her the book and He told her a lie, the word her is the indirect
object while the book and a lie are direct objects.
Some sentences also include words or phrases which give us more information about other parts of the
sentence. These words or phrases are known as Complements (C) because they complement or add to other
elements. In It's hot and It's a nice day, the word hot and the phrase a nice day are complements.
Exercise 3
Analyze the following sentences by underlining each word or phrase and labeling it as S, V, Od, Oi or C.
a) John and Helen are coming.
b) I lost it.
c) She had two of them

?ijM
d) They gave us directions.
e) It was beautiful.
f) Who has it?
g) I don't know anything,
h) Who did they see?
i) Who told John and Peter that?
j) That was the problem,
k) Didn't you have one?
28
V
S V
a) John and Helen are coming
S V Od
b) I lost it.
S V Od
c) She had two of them.
S V Oi Od
d) Thev gave us directions.
S V C
e) It was beautiful.
S V Od
f) Who has it?
S V Od
g) I don't know anything.
Od V S V
"~"s h) Who did thev see? (The verb is did... see. Because the sentence is a question, the subject they
is inserted between the auxiliary and the main verb. The object Who could
be replaced by Whom.)
S V Oi Od
i) Who told John and Peter that?
S V C
j) That was the problem.
V S V Od
k) Didn't you have one? (Didn 't... have is the verb. Because the sentence is a question, the subject
you is inserted between the auxiliary and the main verb.)
Still More About Simple Sentences

There is one more element which may be found in simple sentences: the Adverbial (A). An adverbial is a
word or phrase which gives additional information about time, manner, place, etc. The word later and the
phrase over there are adverbials in the sentences /'// see you later and It's over there.
Exercise 4 on the following page will give you some practice in identifying adverbials and in distinguishing
them from other elements in sentences.
29
Exercise 4 t gimm i
)
Identify the objects, the complements and the adverbials in the following sentences. Use the labels Od, Oi,
C and A.
a) They paid by check.
b) She left her purse at home.
c) Then I walked back.
d) He worked hard in Alaska.
e) There were people there earlier.
f) That's very true.
g) He gave me the change,
h) He gave it to me.
A (Adverbial of manner)
a) They paid by check.
Od A (Adverbial of place)
b) She left her purse at home.
A A (Then: Adverbial of time back. Adverbial of place)

c) Then I walked back.
A A (hard: Adverbial of manner in Alaska: Adverbial of place)

d) He worked hard in Alaska.
C A A (there: Adverbial of place earlier: Adverbial of time)

e) There were people there earlier. (Note that There is the subject.)
f) That's very true.
Oi Od
g) He gave me the change.
Od A (When the indirect object follows a direct object, it is preceded

h) He gave it tome. by a preposition, in this case to, and is regarded as an adverbial.)
30
'
Unit 7
J
Compound Sentences and Clauses
In this unit, we will look at how to form and analyze compound sentences. We will also look at some of the
different types of clauses which appear in compound sentences.
Forming Compound Sentences

As we saw in the previous unit, compound sentences are formed by joining together two or more utterances
which could each stand alone as a simple sentence. So, for example, the compound sentence He's hungry
because he hasn 't eaten could be expressed as two separate simple sentences: He's hungry and He hasn 't
eaten. The same is true of That's the book (that) I told you about, which could be expressed as That's the
book and / told you about it. As the following exercise shows, there are many different ways of forming
compound sentences.
Exercise 1
Turn each pair of simple sentences below into a compound sentence. Use the format indicated in
parentheses.
a) I watched TV. I drank a soda. (... and ...)
b) He got home. He took a shower. (When ...)
c) That's the place. They warned you about it. (... which ...)
d) She'd like to go. She can't. (... but...)
f) They went in. They immediately sat down. (... as soon as ...)
...
31
g) You can wait. You can come back later. (... or...)
h) He told his wife. She was shocked. (... who ...)
i) They were talking. Someone knocked on the door. (While ...)
a) I watched TV. I drank a soda. (...and...)
I watched TV and (I) drank a soda.
b) He got home. He took a shower. (When ...)

When he got home, he took a shower.
c) That's the place. They warned you about it. (... which ...)
That's the place which they warned you about.
d) She'd like to go. She cant. (... but...)

She'd like to go but she can't.
f) They went in. They immediately sat down. (... as soon as ...)
They sat down as soon as they went in.
g) You can wait. You can come back later. (... or ...)
You can wait or you can come back later.
h) He told his wife. She was shocked. (... who ...)

He told his wife, who was shocked.
i) They were talking. Someone knocked on the door. (While ...)

While they were talking, someone knocked on the door.
Each of the compound sentences above is made up of two clauses: a clause is a section of a sentence which
contains a subject and a main verb. (Sections of sentences which do not contain a main verb are referred to
as phrases.) Simple sentences have only one clause, while compound sentences are made up of two or more
clauses. As we will see on the next page, clauses can be divided into different types or categories.
In some compound sentences, the order of the clauses can be varied without affecting the meaning of die
sentence as a whole. For example, b) could be expressed as He took a shower when he got home.
32
Some Important Types or Categories of Clauses

1. Clauses with conjunctions
The most common way to join separate clauses or simple sentences together to form compound sentences is
by means of a conjunction: and, but, after, when, because, if, etc.
Exercise 1
Underline those five of the following words or phrases which cannot be used as conjunctions. (It may help
if you think about which of the words or phrases cannot be placed immediately in front of a clause such as
... they went out.)
before some unless as whether with or like
too so until as soon as since by although
Check your answers with those given on the next page before doing Exercise 2.
Exercise 2
Match the corresponding clauses on the right and left below to form compound sentences. Underline the
conjunction which joins the two halves of each sentence.
1) It was expensive a) eveiTthing was fine.
2) They called me b) it was an accident.
3) If you work hard, c) it's delicious.
4) He was hungry, d) before they left.
5) My boss was angry e) I was watching TV.
6) Once I had explained, f) you should pass the exam.
7) As I told you yesterday, g) as soon as I can. .
8) When you called, h) but I bought it.
9) However you cook it, i) so he had a hamburger,
10) I'll finish it j) because I was late for work.
33
before some unless as whether .with or like
_too so until as soon as since by although
1) It was expensive h) but I bought it.
2) They called me d) before they left.
3) If you work hard, f) you should pass the exam,
4) He was hungry, i) so he had a hamburger.
5) My boss was angry j) because I was late for work.
6) Once I had explained, a) everything was fine.
7) As I told you yesterday, b) it was an accident. .
8) When you called, e) I was watching TV.
9) However you cook it, c) it's delicious.
10) I'll finish it g) as soon as I can.
2. Relative Clauses
" ifflriffiirf f i ^ f ^tfrflt f' :
Another way to make two clauses into one sentence is by using relative pronouns. For example, we can use
the relative pronouns who, which or that in place of the pronouns he, she, they and it. So a pair of simple
sentences such as / have a brother and He lives in England is transformed into the compound sentence I
have a brother who lives in England. Similarly, Our kitchen has a microwave and // doesn 't work can
become Our kitchen has a microwave which (or that) doesn't work:
The relative pronoun who is normally used to refer to people, while which and that refer to things.
However, we also use that to refer to people, particularly in informal speech or writing: She has a brother
that is a stockbroker.
Exercise 3
Join the sentences below using who, which or that.
1 ) 1 know a man. He keeps horses.
2) She has a piano. It cost $10,000. _
3) That's the woman. She won the lottery.
34
" >
4) There's a store. It sells cool shorts.
5) I saw a girl. She had a nose ring.
6) Where's the teacher? I had her before.
7) That's a view. I don't share it.
8) They're young men. You have to meet them.
Look at the sentences which you have created for 6), 7) and 8). How are they different from the first five
sentences?
1) I know a man. He keeps horses. I know a man who/that keeps horses.
2) She has a piano. It cost $10,000. She has a piano which/that cost $10,000.
3) That's the woman. She won the lottery. That's the woman who/that won the lottery.
J 4) There's a store. It sells cool shorts. There's a store which/that sells cool shirts.
5) I saw a girl. She had a nose ring. I saw a girl who/that had a nose ring.
6) Where's the teacher? I had her before. Where's the teacher whom/who/that I had before?
7) That's a view. I don't share it. That's a view which/that I don't share.
8) They're young men. You have to meet them. They're young men whom/who/that you have to meet.
In sentences 6), 7) and 8) the pronouns which were replaced were object pronouns {her, it, them) rather
than subject pronouns (he, she, I, it, they, etc.) So in 6) and 9) the relative pronoun whom can, some
would say should, be used instead of who. Also, we can leave out the relative pronoun altogether when it is
the object in a clause. So we could put: Where's the teacher I had before?, That's a view I don't share
and They're young men you have to meet.
3. More About Relative Clauses &.*"

All of the sentences which you produced in Exercise 3 included "defining" (or "restrictive") relative clauses.
A defining relative clause is one which defines or identifies the person or tiling which is being discussed. It
is also possible for compound sentences to include "nondefining" (or "nonrestrictive") relative clauses.
These do not identify the person or thing being discussed; they merely add information about the person or
thing mentioned in the main clause.
35
\

In the sentence / gave John some wine which I bought in Italy, the clause beginning with which is a
defining relative clause: it tells you which wine I gave to John. In / gave John some wine, which he drank
slowly, the clause starting with which is a nondefining relative clause: it does not tell you which wine I
gave to John but merely tells you what he did with it.
Most people find the distinction between defining and nondefining relative clauses quite confusing. The
following exercise should help to clarify the distinction.
Exercise 5
Decide whether the relative clause in each sentence below is a defining or a nondefining clause.
Type of Relative Clause
1) She doesn't like films which contain a lot of violence.
2) The cousin who lives in Canada is the one I see most often.
3) I bought a necklace for my wife, who loves jewelry.
4) He hates people who chew gum.
5) This is Alan Turner, who has just gotten back from India.
6) They live in New York City, which I detest.
7) Their house, which has green shutters, is really beautiful.

1)
8) I can't find the book that I was reading.
What do you notice about the punctuation in examples 3, 5 and 6?
Type of Relative Clause
1) She doesn't like films which contain a lot of violence. Defining

She likes some films but not violent ones.
2) The cousin who lives in Canada is the one I see most often. Defining
I have several cousins. I am talking about the one in Canada.
3) I bought a necklace for my wife, who loves jewelry. Nondefining

I only have one wife! She happens to like jewelry.
4) He hates people who chew gum. Defining

He does not hate all people, but only those who chew gum.
36
5) This is Alan Turner, who has just gotten back from India. Nondefming
You presumably know only one Alan Turner. He just returned from India.
6) They live in New York City, which I detest. Nondefming

There is only one New York City. I happen to detest it.
7) Their house, which has green shutters, is really beautiful. Nondefming

Their house is really beautiful. It happens to have green shutters.
8) I can't find the book that I was reading. Defining

The particular book I am looking for is that one book which I was reading.
In examples 3, 5, 6 and 7 the relative clauses are separated from the rest of the sentences by commas. This
separation shows that they are not essential to the main clause and could be omitted.
If you are still having problems understanding defining and nondefming clauses, try the next exercise.
Exercise 6
Mr. and Mrs. Brown have three sons but only one daughter. They are rich. They have two houses and an
apartment They also have a plane and two boats.

Below are six pairs of sentences about the Browns. In each pair, which sentence makes more sense?
la) The son who is at Yale is twenty,

lb) The son, who is at Yale, is twenty.
2a) The daughter who is really tall plays basketball.

2b) The daughter, who is really tall, plays basketball.
3a) The house which is in Boston is huge.

3b) The house, which is in Boston, is huge.
4a) The apartment which is in New York is small.

4b) The apartment, which is in New York, is small.
5a) The plane which is a jet cost $2,000,000.

5b) The plane, which is a jet, cost $2,000,000.
6a) The boat which they prefer is a yacht.

,6b) The boat, which they prefer, is a yacht.
la) identifies which of the three sons is under discussion. 2b) is about their only daughter. 3a) identifies
which of die two houses is being discussed. 4b) tells us something about their only apartment. 5b) tells us
the cost of their only plane. 6a) identifies which of their two boats they prefer.
37
Unit 8
Verb Tenses and Aspects
Most people believe English has twelve verb tenses. If asked to list these, they would give the names of the
verb forms shown in the table on the next page. In fact, strictly speaking, English has only two tenses: the
Present Simple and the Past Simple. This is because, linguistically, a tense involves a change to the base
form of a verb; verb forms created by the addition of auxiliaries are actually "aspects." So, the Present
Perfect Simple is an aspect and not a tense. We will return to this distinction later, when we look at the
relationship between verb forms, time and function. For now, we will look at tenses and aspects together.
The table on the next page shows the names of twelve tenses/aspects, and an example of each one. It also
shows that they can be grouped under various headings: Simple / Progressive; Perfect / Non-Perfect;
Present / Past / Future. When looking at the table, you should bear the following points in mind.
1. Each tense/aspect can exist in two forms or voices: the Active and the Passive.
For example, Eliot wrote it is Past Simple Active, while It was written by Eliot is Past Simple Passive. In
this unit, we consider only examples in the Active voice, since this is more common than the Passive.
2. The name which each tense/aspect is given carries a time label: Past, Present or Future. As we
shall sec later, however, the relationship between tense/aspect and real time is not as straightforward as it
may appear from these labels.
3. Six tenses/aspects are called Simple, and six are called Progressive (or Continuous).
The so-called Simple forms are used when we view an event as a complete whole. The Progressive forms
are used when we view an action as being occupying a period of time and as being in some way incomplete.
It is important to understand in this context that the choice of tense/aspect is not determined by the
objective length of events in real time, but by the speaker's perception of those events. This should be clear
from looking at the following sentences relating to the same event:
/ talked with John for ten minutes at the bus stop yesterday.
When I was talking with John at the bus stop, it started to rain.
In both cases, the speaker spent the same amount of objective real time talking with John. So, clearly, the
speaker's choice of Simple or Progressive verb form cannot relate to objective or real time.
Each Progressive aspect is formed by using the some part of be (is, was, will be, has been, etc.) as an
auxiliary and adding ing to the main verb (e.g., walking).
4. Six tenses/aspects are called Perfect, while six are Non-Perfect. The Perfect forms are used when we
look back on events. We use the Present Perfect when we look back on events from a present perspective:
He has lived here for ten years or He has been living here for ten years. When we look back from a
future perspective, we use the Future Perfect: By next year, I will have lived here for ten years (or / will
have been living here for ten years). We use the Past Perfect when we look back from a past perspective:
When I met her, she had lived therefor ten years (or she had been living therefor ten years).
Each perfect aspect is formed by using some part of have (has, have, had, will have, etc.) together with
the past or present participle of the main verb (e.g., He has gone. She has been working.)
38
TABLE OF MAJOR VERB TENSES/ASPECTS

I'tni.. ' WW**"
J
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE *
PRESENT Present Simple Present Progressive
NON- She walks She is walking
PERFECT PAST Past Simple Past Progressive
FORMS She walked She was walking
FUTURE Future Simple Future Progressive
She will walk She will be walking
PRESENT Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive
She has walked She has been walking

PERFECT
PAST Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Progressive
FORMS She had walked She had been walking
FUTURE Future Perfect Simple Future Perfect Progressive
She will have walked She will have been walking
Note: There is another major group of verb forms which relate to time. These forms are constructed using
the verb be + going to +the basic form of verbs; for example. She is going to meet them and He was
going to do it later. These going to forms are used in contexts which involve looking forward to the future.
The forms are most often used when looking forward from a present or past perspective, as in the two
examples above. It is possible to use a going to form when looking forward to the future from the future;
for example, I'll be going to see them sometime after I get to England. In normal speech, however, this
form is comparatively rare.
Exercise 1
Look at the tense/aspect table on the following page. Some of the tense/aspect labels have been omitted, as
have some example sentences. Write in the missing labels and examples.
When you have completed this, check your answers with the complete table at the top of this page.
39
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE
PRESENT Present Simple

She is walking
NON-
PERFECT PAST Past Progressive

She walked She was walking
FORMS
FUTURE Future Progressive

She will walk
PRESENT Present Perfect Progressive

She has walked
PERFECT
PAST Past Perfect Simple
She had been walking
FORMS
FUTURE Future Perfect Progressive
She will have walked She will have been walking
Exercise 2
Using the table above, identify the verb tense/aspect used in each of the following sentences
1. She went there yesterday.

I I I U F M m '
2. I'll be seeing them soon.
3. He's working really hard.
4. He'd lived there for over fifty years.
5. She had been listening for hours.
6. They know a lot of people.
7. It was raining.
8. He will have finished by now.
9. They've been keeping very quiet lately.
10. We'll have been walking for hours by then
11. You'll get there.
12. You've done a great job.
40
1. She went there yesterday. Past Simple
2. I'll be seeing them soon. Future Progressive
3. He's working really hard. Present Progressive
4. He's lived there for over fifty years. Present Perfect Simple
5. She had been listening for hours. Past Perfect Progressive
6. They know a lot of people. Present Simple
7. It was raining. Past Progressive
8. He will have finished by now. Future Perfect Simple
9. They've been keeping very quiet lately. Present Perfect Progressive
10. We'll have been walking for hours by then. Future Perfect Progressive
11. You'll get there. Future Simple
12. You've done a great job. Present Perfect Simple

\
Exercise 3
Without looking at the answers above, list as many verb tenses/aspects as you can. Do not worry if you
cannot remember them all at this stage.
1 Present 7. Past
2. Present 8. Past
3 Present 9. Future
4 Present 10. Future
5 Past 11. Future
6. Past 12 Future
When you have finished, check your list against the list on the left below. For the moment, ignore the
sentences on the right below
41
Exercise 4
Match up the verb tense name on the left with the appropriate example sentence on the right. Then check
your answers against the answers given at the bottom of the page.
1. Present Simple They saw him yesterday.

2. Present Progressive* I will have been working.
3. Present Perfect Simple He will be arriving Thursday.
4. Present Perfect Progressive* She goes there every day.
5. Past Simple He has been walking for hours.
6. Past Progressive* They will leave tomorrow.
7. Past Perfect Simple 1 had finished the work.
8. Past Perfect Progressive* We will have seen him by then.
9. Future Simple They have done their best.
10. Future Progressive* The cat was sleeping.
11. Future Perfect Simple We had been talking for hours
12. Future Perfect Progressive* You are doing well.
* Note: The terms "progressive" and "continuous" are interchangeable when describing verb
forms.
1. Present Simple She goes there every day.
2. Present Progressive You are doing well.
3. Present Perfect Simple They have done their best.
4. Present Perfect Progressive He has been walking for hours.
5. Past Simple They saw him yesterday.
6. Past Progressive The cat was sleeping.
7. Past Perfect Simple I had finished the work.
8. Past Perfect Progressive We had been talking for hours.
9. Future Simple They will leave tomorrow.
10. Future Progressive He will be arriving Thursday.
11. Future Perfect Simple We will have seen him by then.
12. Future Perfect Progressive I will have been working.
42
Exercise 5
Name the verb tenses/aspects used in the following sentences.
1 She has gone.
2. He's walking.
3. It had begun.
4. I'll be sleeping.
5. She has been working.
6. I will see you.
7. It collapsed.
8. He smokes.
9. He will have done it.
10. They had been talking.
11. She was arguing.
12. We will have been working.
All of the sentences in Exercise 5 were affirmative statements. With the answers below, we have given
some example sentences which are negative statements and questions.
1 Present Perfect Simple Have you seen it? She hasn 't been there.
2. Present Progressive Is it raining? They aren 't sleeping.
3. Past Perfect Simple Where had she been ? He hadn 't eaten for days.
4. Future Progressive Will they be arriving soon ? I won % be staying.
5. Present Perfect Progressive Haven't you been working? They haven't been studying.
6. Future Simple How will you get there? We won't agree to that
7. Past Simple When did they leave? I didn 't see it
8. Present Simple Don't you go there often ? He doesn 't smoke.
9. Future Perfect Simple Won't she have arrived by then ? He won't have gone yet
10. Past Perfect Progressive Had she been sleeping? He hadn't been working.
11. Past Progressive Was he living here? They weren 't working.
12. Future Perfect Progressive Will you have been working? I won't have been painting.
Exercise 6
Name the tense/aspect used in each of the following sentences.
1. When did she go? 6. When does the plane land?
2. They don't like it. 7. Didn't you see them today?
3. Where has he been? 8. He already has one.
4. Who took it? 9. Have you done it yet?
5. She won't agree. 10. Aren't you staying?
1. When did she go? Past Simple 6. When does the plane land? = Present Simple
2. They don't like it. = Present Simple 7. Didn 'tyou see them today? = Past Simple
3. Where has he been? = Present Perfect Simple. 8. He already has one. = Present Simple
4. Who took it? - Past Simple 9. Have you done it yet? = Present Perfect Simple
5. She won't agree. - Future Simple 10. Aren't you staying? = Present Progressive
44
Unit 9
The Present Simple and the Present Progressive
In this unit, we will examine and contrast two of the major verb tenses: the Present Simple and the Present
Progressive. We will look at how these two tenses are formed and at how they are used. This will help you
when you want to analyze and contrast other verb tenses.
The Present Simple: Form

Each verb tense/aspect has three major forms: Positive (Statement), Negative (Statement), and Question.
These three forms of the Present Simple are outlined below.
POSITIVE In most persons, the Positive form is the same as the basic form (infinitive without to):
I walk You stay We go They hurry
In the Third Person Singular, most verbs end in s:
He walks She stays It goes John hurries
NEGATIVE In most persons, you put do not I don 7 in front of the basic form of the verb:
I don't walk They don't hurry We do not smoke
In the Third Person Singular, you put does not I doesn 't in front of the basic form:
He doesn't walk It doesn't go Jane does not hurry
QUESTIONS In most persons, the question is made in this way:

do + subject + basic form of verb:
Do they walk ? Do we go ? Do I know ?
In the Third Person Singular, the question is made this way:
does + subject + basic form of verb:
Does she smoke? Does it work? Does Bill know?
When there is a question word, it normally goes at the beginning of the clause:
When do they leave? How do I start? Why does she smoke? Where does it go?
Exercise 1
1. Change the following sentences into: a) the negative b) questions with when and why:
I drive to work.
She smokes.
They walk home.
He shops there.
2. Change the sentences above into questions beginning with who.
45
1. a) Negative b) Questions with When and Why
I do not/ don't drive to work. When do I drive to work ? Why do I drive to work ?
She does not / doesn 't smoke. When does she smoke? Why does she smoke?
They do not / don't walk home. When do they walk home? Why do they walk home?
He does not / doesn't shop there. When does he shop there? Why does he shop there?
2. Wh o drives to work ?
Who smokes?
Who walks home?
Who shops there?
Note: The subject question word who does not operate in the same way as the other question words (what,
when, where, how, etc.). It operates like a Third Person Singular subject.
Exercise 2
1. What problems do you think students have with the positive statement forms of the Present Simple?
2. Can you see rules for whether you add -s, -es or -ies to the basic form of the verb in Third Person
Singular positive statements in the Present Simple?
3. What problems do you think students may have with the Third Person Singular of the question and
negative statement forms of the Present Simple?
1. They forget to change the Third Person Singular to end with s, es or ies; so they produce
sentences such as He go to work by bus and She smoke.
Sometimes they do the opposite and produce sentences such as / lives here and TTiey works hard.
2. The basic rules are as follows:

- add -s to the basic form of most verbs: walks, jumps, cracks, sees, makes
- add -es to verbs ending in o, sh, ss: goes, does, crashes, amasses
- add -ies to verbs ending with y after a consonant: hurries, tries, empties
- add -s to verbs ending with y after a vowel: prays, says, buys.
3. They add -s, -es or -ies to the basic form of the verb: e.g., He doesn't goes. When does she eats?
Note: There are some important exceptions to the form rules we have outlined for the Present Simple,
particularly in the case of modal auxiliaries. We will look at some of these in a later unit.
46
The Present Simple: Meaning and Use
You probably already realize that one verb tense or aspect may have more than one meaning or use. Two
very common uses of the Present Simple are to express:
- Actions which are repeated: He works hard every day. They often eat fish.
- Constant states: She lives in Fresno. I like oranges.
However, as you will see in the following exercise, the Present Simple tense has' several other important
meanings or uses.
Exercise 3a
What is the use or meaning of the Present Simple in each of these sets of sentences?
a. She gets up early. He usually goes to bed late.
b. She lives in Phoenix. We work in a bank. He comes from Canada.
c. Water boils at 212 degrees. The sun sets in the west. New Yorkers joke a lot.
d. You pour the oil into the pan. Then you add the onions.
e. I'll be glad if it rains. What will you do if that happens?
f. I understand that. He thinks so. It includes tax.
Exercise 3b
g. When do we use the Present Simple to talk about events which took place entirely in the past?
These express repeated or habitual actions. Such cases often contain adverbs of frequency such
as always, often, sometimes, and rarely.
The Present Simple is therefore logically used when discussing schedules: The movie starts at
8:00 (every night). By extension, we often use it when discussing one-off events if these are
scheduled: // is only showing one night; it starts at 8:00.
These express constant, long-term or permanent states.
These express universal truths and generalizations.
Here the Present Simple is used for describing processes and giving instructions.
e. The Present Simple is used when talking about die future after if and after conjunctions such
as when, before, and as soon as.
In some languages, the Future Simple is used in such cases. So, some students mistakenly
produce sentences in English such as I'll see him when/if he will come.
f. Some English verbs normally have only one present tense/aspect, the Present Simple. They do
not exist in the Present Progressive in all or some of their meanings. Some examples are:
like, love, hate, want, prefer
believe, know, mean, remember, suppose
hear, see (except when used to mean meet), taste (when used to mean have a flavor)
own, possess, belong to, include, contain, involve
seem, appear (when it means seem), resemble, look (like).
In the USA, many people now ignore this distinction, at least with some of these verbs, and they
produce sentences such as I'm hearing what you're saying and even I'm understanding you.
g. We often use the Present Simple to refer to the past when we tell jokes, stories, and anecdotes;
for example: So he goes up to this guy, looks him right in the eye and says... In these contexts,
the use of the Present Simple conveys a feeling of immediacy.
The Present Progressive: Form
Positive Subject + present tense of be + present participle of verb:

Statement / am/'m walking. She is/'s eating. They arefre going.
Negative Subject + present tense of be + not + present participle of verb:

Statement / am/'m not walking. She is notfs notAsn 't eating.
Question (Question word) + present of be + subject + present participle of verb:

Am I walking? What is she eating? Why are they going?
The who subject question form is different: Who is/'s eating?
As you can see, the form of the Present Progressive (also known as Present Continuous) is not very
difficult, and most students have very few problems with it. However, they frequently have problems with
its use. This is partly because the Present Progressive has several different meanings and uses, and partly
because many languages do not have an equivalent; for example, some languages use only one present
tense to express what English expresses through the Present Simple and the Present Progressive.
48
The Present Progressive: Meaning and Use

Most non-communicative grammar books and EFL/ESL coursebooks give the main meaning/use of the
Present Progressive as being to describe actions happening at the moment of speaking: e.g., He's
working at the moment. In fact, the Present Progressive has several other, perhaps more important, uses.
Exercise 4
How many different uses of the Present Progressive can you think of?
(The best way to approach this is to write down perhaps ten sentences in the Present Progressive, and then
to think about the use or meaning of the verb form in each sentence you have written down.)
The main uses or meanings of the Present Progressive (or Continuous) are given below.
1. Describing events/actions/states taking place or existing at the moment of speaking or writing:

He's working at the moment They 're leaving now. I'm living in Miami at present
2. Talking about future events/actions/states (which have usually already been decided on or arranged
by the time of speaking or writing):
/ am seeing her tomorrow. He's starting work next week.
3. Talking about something that may be in the process of happening at any specified time:
He likes to smoke when he's drinking.
4. Talking about irritating or endearing habits or tendencies:

They're always making a noise. He's always giving money to the homeless.
5. Setting the scene in stories, etc. which are being told in the Present Simple (even though they may
have happened in the past):
The wind's howling and I'm standing there freezing. Suddenly, I hear a noise...
49
Exercise 5
What is the use or meaning of the Present Progressive in each sentence below?
a. He's arriving at 3:00.
b. Can't you see that I'm working?
c. She hates being disturbed when she's working.
d. They're always complaining.
e. We're British, but we're living in the USA.
f. So I'm standing there when this guy comes along.
In each case, the number given refers to the outline of Present Progressive uses given in the Commentary on
Exercise 4.
a FUTURE (2)
b. PRESENT ACTION (1)
c. PROCESS (3)
d IRRITATING OR ENDEARING HABITS (4)
Note that this can include actions which are essentially good, but of which we disapprove.
e PRESENT ACTION (1)
This is really the same use as that in b. We often use it when contrasting a temporary state with a
more permanent one: She's an architect but she's working as a clerk at the moment.
f. SCENE-SETTING (5)
Remember that some verbs are not normally used in the Present Progressive. For this, see point f. in
the Commentary on Exercise 3.
50
Unit 10
The Simple Past
This unit examines the Past Simple. As we|l as helping you to understand how the Past Simple operates,
this will remind you of the factors which need to be taken into account when analyzing any verb tense or
aspect.
Past Simple: Form

Students usually have comparatively few problems with the positive statement form of regular verbs in the
Past Simple, but they often find the question and negative statement forms more difficult. Many students
also have great difficulty remembering the Past Simple of irregular verbs.
English verbs can be divided into two groups: regular and irregular. In the Past Simple, the positive
statement form of the two groups is different. The question and negative statement forms are the same for
regular and irregular verbs.
Positive Statement
(Regular Verbs) Subject + base form of verb + -ed
I walked. They talked. She jumped
Note: Verbs ending in e usually add only d: He argued They agreed
Note: Verbs ending in a consonant plus -y usually drop the y and add -ied.
They hurried We worried
Positive Statement
(Irregular Verbs) Subject + past form of verb
/ went He ran. They cut it. We saw them. etc.
Note: Many English verbs are irregular, including many very common verbs.
Fortunately for students, however, the Past Simple form does not vary
according to the subject person: / ran You ran She ran etc.
Also, all English verbs are regular in question and negative statement
forms in the Past Simple.
Negative Statement
(All verbs) Subject + did not / didn't + base form of verb:
&*d&ii
/ did not walk. He didn 't run. They did not speak, etc
Questions
(AH verbs) (Question word) + did + subject + basic form of verb:
Did he go? When did she leave? How did they cut it? etc.
In the following exercise, you will meet an exception to this question pattern.
Exercise 1 tit-
1. Which of the following verbs are irregular? What is their Past Simple form?
put offer start begin think organize teach learn buy leave keep
2. What happens when you use the subject question word who in the Past Simple?
3. What are the Past Simple positive forms of these verbs?

talk study agree give pax cut
4. In the Past Simple form of each of the verbs below, how is the ending pronounced?
haunted climbed rammed started worried agreed
pumped asked worked traveled ordered minded
Can you see any rule governing how the endings are pronounced?
I. put /put begin/began think / thought teach/taught buy/bought
leave I left keep/kept
i"
2. There is no inversion of subject and verb, and no auxiliary did: Who went? Who knew?
3. talked studied agreed gave paid cut

Note: There are many irregular Past Simple verb forms. Students have to learn them by heart!
4. All of these verbs are regular in the Past Simple, and they end in ed. However, the endings are
pronounced in three different ways: IAI, /id/ and Itl. The basic rule is:
- ed is usually pronounced /d/: climbed, rammed, agreed, traveled, ordered
- ed is pronounced /t/ after the letters c,f, k, p, s, sh, ch: pumped, asked, worked
- ed is pronounced /id/ when it follows d or /, or when it follows i in words with two or more
syllables: haunted, started, worried, minded.
Past Simple: Use and Meaning

At a basic level, the Past Simple is apparently straightforward in use: it refers to actions, etc. completed in
the past. However, it is often difficult for students to decide whether, in a given context, they should use the
Past Simple or another verb form or aspect, such as: Past Progressive, Present Perfect Simple or
Progressive, and Past Perfect Simple or Progressive. In the next unit, we will look at how we use these
different tenses and forms when talking about the past.
52
Unit 11
Talking About the Past
This unit will give you practice in identifying the various verb forms which we can use when we talk or
write about past events. It will also help you to see how and why we choose between the various verb forms
when we relate past events or describe past situations.
Exercise 1
Match up each tense or aspect name on the left with the appropriate example sentence on the right.
a. Past Simple 1. She has left.
b. Past Progressive 2. We had seen them before.
c. Present Perfect Simple 3. They went there in May.
d. Present Perfect Progressive 4. It was making a noise.
e. Past Perfect Simple 5. He had been waiting for hours.
f. Past Perfect Progressive 6. I have been working hard.
Check your answers with those given on the next page. Then complete Exercise 2.
Exercise 2
Identify the past tense or aspect which is represented in each sentence on the left below.
Verb Tense Or Aspect
1. Where had he been?
2. I didn't realize that.
3. Have you been working?
4. It wasn't raining then.
5. Haven't you seen it?
6. They hadn't been waiting long.
Check your answers with those given on the next page.
53
,
For American Teachers
A Grammar Development Course
Answers To Exercise 1
a. Past Simple 3. They went there in May.
b. Past Progressive 4. It was making a noise.
c. Present Perfect Simple 1. She has left.
d. Present Perfect Progressive 6. I have been working hard.
e. Past Perfect Simple 2. We had seen them before.
f. Past Perfect Progressive 5. He had been waiting for hours.
Answers To Exercise 2
Verb Tense Or Aspect
1. Where had he been? Past Perfect Simple
2. I didn't realize that. Past Simple
3. Have you been working? Present Perfect Progressive
4. It wasn't raining then. Past Progressive
5. Haven't you seen it? Present Perfect Simple
6. They hadnt been waiting long. Past Perfect Progressive
Exercise 3
Identify the past tense or aspect which is represented by the underlined sections of the following text. Say
why that particular tense or aspect was chosen by the writer.
He was sitting on the deck. It had been a hard day and he was feeling tired. He heard the door slide open
behind him and he knew that Ellen had arrived.
"How long have you been sitting out here?"
From the tone of her voice he realized that she had been worrying about him.
"Not long," he replied.
"Have you eaten yet?"
Past Tense Or Aspect Reason
was sitting
had been
was feeling
heard
knew
had arrived
54
/
^\ Past Tense Or Aspect Reason
have vou been sitting

'
realized
had been worrying
replied
Have vou eaten
Commentary On Exercise 3
Past Tense Or Aspect Reason
was sitting Past Progressive . We often use the Past Progressive when we are
setting the scene for a narrative in the past. Here
it describes what was already happening when
the reader enters the scene.
had been Past Perfect Simple The Past Perfect is often used when we refer to
events which took place at an earlier point in time
than the past events or scene which we are
describing.
was feeling Past Progressive Again the Past Progressive is being used to set
the scene. In this case, the man was already
feeling tired when the scene opened.
heard Past Simple We use the Past Simple to describe the events in
a narrative.
knew Past Simple This is the next "event" in the narrative.
had arrived Past Perfect Simple The woman's arrival took place before the
moment at which the man knew about it.
have vou been sitting Present Perfect Progress The Present Perfect Progressive is used when we
want to refer to an action or state which started
in the past and is continuing now.
realized Past Simple This is the next "event" in the narrative.
had been worrying Past Perfect Progressive The woman's worrying began at some point in
the past before the man's realization of it. It
was still continuing at the time when he became
aware of it.
replied Past Simple This is the next "event" in the narrative.
Have you eaten Present Perfect Simple We use the Present Perfect to refer to periods of
time starting in the past and continuing up to the
moment of speaking.
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V
Exercise 4
Look at the following pairs of sentences. With each pair, underline the sentence which you feel is the more
correct or appropriate. Explain what you think is wrong with the other sentence.
a. Did you visit Laos when you were in Asia?

Have you been to Laos when you were in Asia?
b. She already left when he arrived.

She had already left when he arrived.
c. When he went out, he realized it was snowing.

When he went out, he realized it had snowed.
d. He was jogging when he was killed by a car.

He jogged when he was killed by a car.
e. I left as soon as I had eaten.

I left as soon as I ate.
f. She had read the papers before die meeting.

She had been reading the papers before the meeting.
a. Did vou visit Laos when vou were in Asia?
The other sentence is incorrect because die Present Perfect Simple relates to actions or states which
continue up to the point of speaking. In our example, the person is asking about a period of time (when you
were in Asia) that was over before the point of speaking.
b. She had already left when he arrived.
The word already makes it clear that one action happened at an earlier time than the other. We use the Past
Perfect rather than the Past Simple to emphasize one action took place significantly earlier than another.
c. He realized it was snowing.
He realized it had snowed.
Both sentences are possible. The first sentence means mat snow was still falling when the man went out.
The second sentence means that there had been snow but it was no longer falling when the man went out.
d. He was jogging when he was killed by a car.
The odier sentence is incorrect because it implies that die man jogged after he had been killed by the car.
e. I left as soon as I had eaten.
Theoretically, this sentence is more correct because it uses the Past Perfect Simple for die earlier of die two
actions. However, most people would accept bodi sentences.
f. She had read die papers before die meeting-
She had been reading die papers before die meeting.
Both sentences are possible but die meanings are different. In the first sentence, we know uiat die woman
finished reading die papers before die meeting. From die second sentence, we know uiat she started reading
die papers before die meeting but we do not know if she read all or just part of uiem.
56
\
Unit 12
The Passive Voice
So far, we have looked at verbs only in their active voice. In this unit, we will look at the form and use of
verbs in their passive voice.
Exercise 1
A. What is the grammatical difference between sentences on the left and on the right below?
Van Gogh painted "A Starry Night." "A Starry Night" was painted by Van Gogh.
They built this in 1887 This was built in 1887.
Microsoft produces "Word." "Word" is produced by Microsoft.
They will finish it tomorrow. It will be finished tomorrow.
B. What is the relationship between the object in each sentence on the left and the subject in each sentence
on the right?
C. What happens to the subject in an active voice sentence when that sentence is changed into the passive?
A. All the sentences on the left are in the active voice while all the sentences on the right are in the passive
voice.
B. The direct object of the verb in an active voice sentence becomes the subject of the verb if the sentence
is changed into the passive.
C. If the subject of the active sentence is retained in the passive version, it becomes the agent and is
preceded by the word by.
Note: Not all verbs can have a passive form. It is impossible to construct passive sentences with
intransitive verbs: these verbs do not have a direct object and so there is nothing which could function as
the subject in a passive sentence. So for example, the intransitive verb to blush can be used in an active
sentence (He blushed) but not in a passive one (He was blushed).
57
Exercise 2
In English, every verb tense can be used in eitiier the active or the passive voice.
For each active sentence below, write down name of the verb tense and then turn the sentence into the
passive voice.
Tense Passive Version
I. They're selling the house.
2 They make it in Japan.
3. He'll fix the problem.
4. I'll be writing the letter.
5. Mozart composed that music.
6. They were making coffee.
7. He has cooked the meat.
8. They have been making cars for ages.
9. She will have read that book.
10. I'll have been fixing it for hours by then.
I I . He had stabbed the man.
12. He had been cleaning the car.
13. She's going to paint it.
Before you check your answers to Exercise 2, complete Exercise 3 below.
Exercise 3
1. Do any of the passive versions seem clumsy or unnatural? Which ones? What does this suggest to you
about the use of the passive voice in English?
2. Which voice do you feel is more often used, the active or the passive?
3. Is the passive voice more common in speech or in writing?
58
Tense Passive Version
1. They 're selling the house. Pres. Prog. The house is being
sold by them.
2. They make it in Japan. Pres. Simp. It is made by them in

Japan.
3. He'll fix the problem. Fut. Simp. The problem will be
fixed (by him).
4. I'll be writing the letter. Fut. Prog. The letter will be

being written (by me).
5. Mozart composed that music. Past Simp. That music was

composed by Mozart.
6. They were making coffee. Past Prog. Coffee was being

made by them.
7. He has cooked the meat. Pres. Perf. Simp. The meat has been
cooked by him.
8. They have been making cars for ages. Pres. Perf. Prog. Cars have been being
made by them for ages.
9. She will have read that book. Fut. Perf. Simp. That book will have
been read by her.
10. /'// have been fixing it for hours by then. Fut. Perf. Prog. It will have been
being fixed by me for
hours by then.
11. He had stabbed the man. Past Perf. Simp. The man had been
stabbed by him.
12. He had been cleaning the car. Past Perf. Prog. The car had been
being cleaned by him.
13. She's going to paint it "Going to" Fut. It is going to be

painted by her.
1. Most people would feel that all of the sentences sound somewhat unnatural, except perhaps for #5.
In some of the examples, the passive version would sound much more natural if the agent were omitted: //
is made in Japan sounds better than It is made by them in Japan. This is the case with sentences #1, 2, 3,
Some of the examples just sound too long and stilted: #4, 8, 9, 10 and 12. Most-of us feel particularly
uncomfortable using sentences which contain both been and being.
One conclusion which we might draw is that, in normal English, many verb tenses are rarely if ever used in
the passive voice.
2. The active is much more common than the passive. Most of us tend to avoid even simple passive
sentences: for example, we might say Hey, someone shot Reagan or even Hey, they shot Reagan rather
than Hey, Reagan has been shot.
3. The passive is more often used in writing than in speech. For example, the passive is fairly common in
some types of legal, academic and technical writing.

Exercise 4
A. In each of the following sentences, why do you think the writer/speaker used the passive rather than the
active voice?
B. What does this tell you about some of the main reasons why we use the passive?
1. Ferraris are made in Italy.
2. "Hamlet" wasn't written in 1608; it was written in 1598.
3. The victim had been shot in the head.
4. He's being sued.
5. Mistakes were made.
6. The movie hasn't been well received.

7. It's going to be made into a movie.
A. In # 1, the active version would sound ugly: Ferrari makes Ferraris in Italy.
In #2, the focus is on the play and when it was written rather than on who wrote it.
In #3, 4, 6 and 7, the writer/speaker probably does not know (or does not care) who is performing the
action.
In #5, President Reagan did not want to say who made the mistakes!
B. The passive is often used when:

- we do not know who performs a particular action
- we do not care who performs a particular action
- we do not want to say who performs a particular action
- we want to focus on an action rather than on who does/did/will do it.
Passives are sometimes also used when an active version of a sentence would be too complicated: He was
really upset by your wanting him to go first is easier to understand than Your wanting him to go first
really upset him.
Exercise 5
1. Do you think that foreign students should spend a lot of time learning all the passive forms in English?
2. Do you think that teachers and EFL textbooks pay a lot of attention to the passive?
3. Are there are any ofthe passive tense forms which are so common that they should probably always be
taught to foreign students? Which ones? (You may want to look back at Exercise 2 to remind yourself of
the range of possible tense forms.) How are these passives formed?
1. No. As we have seen, many ofthe forms are never used while most ofthe others are fairly uncommon.
2. Unfortunately, many teachers spend hours and hours of class time explaining and practicing passive
forms. Most EFL textbooks devote a disproportionate amount of space to the passive.
3. Perhaps the most important forms for students to learn are the Present Simple and the Past Simple ones.
Some people would also feel that students at higher levels should also learn the Present Progressive and the
Present Perfect Simple forms. These are formed as shown below:
Present Simple Passive: Subject + is/are + past participle of verb

Example: // is made
Past Simple Passive: Subject + was/were + past participle of verb

Example: They were written
Present Prog. Passive: Subject + is/are being + past participle of verb

Example: They are being changed
Present Perf. Simp. Passive: Subject + has/have been + past participle of verb
Example: He has been shot
61
Unit 13
Verb Forms, Time and Function
In this unit, we will look at the relationship between verb tenses and time. We will also look at how the
various tenses are used to express communicative functions.
Verb Tenses and Time

As was explained in Unit 7, each verb tense/form carries a label which includes a reference to time: Past,
Present or Future. So it would seem that each tense or form has a relationship to a specific time frame: for
example, it would seem that the Present Progressive concerns something which is in progress now.
However, as you will have realized from Units 8 and 9, and as the following exercise will show, the
relationship between each form or tense and any specific time frame is not at all straightforward.
:
Exercise 1
In each of the examples below, name the verb tense or form of the underlined verbs. Then say whether, in
that particular example, the time referred to is the present, the past or the future.
Form or Tense Time Frame
1. I wish I had more money.
2. When he arrives, I'll see him.
3. What are you doing next week?
4. But you said the party was tomorrow.
5. It's time you stopped.
6. If I knew. I'd tell vou.
7. He^s always saving tilings like that.
8. I'd rather we went tomorrow.
9. So he walks into the bar...
10. I didn't know you were Irish.
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11. The sun rises in the east.
12. If it rains, I won't go.

, 1 A 11 1 J 1
13. As you will already know...
14. (Newspaper headline) "Crash Kills Six."
What conclusions can you draw about the relationship between verb forms, their labels, and time frames?
1. The verb is Past Simple, but it clearly refers to present time. In effect, the person is saying: / wish
now that I had more money now.
2. The verb is Present Simple, but it refers to future time. In effect, the person is saying: When he will
arrive, I'll see him.
3. Although the verb is Present Progressive, it refers to future time. In English, wc often use the Present
Progressive to talk about events planned to take place in the future.
4. Here the verb is Past Simple but it refers to future time.
5. The verb is again Past Simple, while the reference is to present time.
6. The verb is Past Simple, but it refers to present time: If I knew now, I'd tell you now.
7 The verb is Present Progressive but the time referred to is certainly more than present time. The
speaker is talking about habitual behavior which has occurred frequently in the past, still occurs now
and will presumably continue to occur in the future. We often use the Present Progressive with
always in this way to criticize someone's habits.
8. The Past Simple verb here refers to future time.
9. The verb is Present Simple, but it refers to an event in the past. The Present Simple is often used in
storytelling, in order to give past events a more immediate impact.
10. This is another example of the Past Simple referring to present time.
11. The verb is Present Simple. The reference is to habitual action which began in the past, continues in
the present and, presumably, will continue in the future.
12. Although the verb is Present Simple, the reference is to future time. In effect, the speaker is saying:
If it will rain tomorrow, I won't go.
13. In this example, a Future Simple verb refers to present time and, by implication, to past time as well.
14. As in sentence 9, and for the same reason, the Present Simple has been used to tell about an action
which occurred in the past.
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Tense and Time

It should be clear from Exercise 1 that each verb tense is not invariably, or perhaps even usually, used with
reference to one particular time frame. A past tense frequently refers to present or future time, a present
tense can relate to past or future time, and so on. An additional complication is that, just as one verb tense
may refer to different time frames, one time frame may be referred to by the use of several different verb
tenses. We will return to this point in Exercise 2, which looks at some of the different verb tenses which we
use when referring to future time.
It should also be clear that, when analyzing, describing or teaching a specific verb tense, we need to
consider very carefully not only how it is constructed and its name, but also the various time frames to
which it can refer in different sentences and contexts. This is because, as Michael Lewis has pointed out (in
"The English Verb"): "Time is not the same thing as tense. The importance of this distinction cannot be
overestimated. Time is an element of our expression of reality. Tense is a purely grammatical idea."
Exercise 2
Think of different verb forms which can be used to refer to future time. For each one, write an simple
sentence incorporating the words He / start / soon. Next to each sentence, write the name of the verb
tense/aspect which you have used.
.HMhawt
'
64
You have probably produced some or all of the following possible sentences:
He's starting soon. Present Progressive
He starts soon. Present Simple
He'll start soon. Future Simple
He'll be starting soon. Future Progressive
He's going to start soon. Going to + base form of verb.
He is to start soon. Present Simple of be + to + base form of verb.
All of the verb forms in these sentences can be used to refer to future time, although the form which
appears in the last example is certainly less widely used than those in the first five examples.
Verb Form and Function

So far, we have looked at verb tenses only in relation to time. However, time is only one part of the
meaning which sentences convey; every sentence also conveys other information: facts, feelings, etc.
Until recently, EFL teachers and writers dealt with verb tenses almost entirely in terms of their form.
Because of its emphasis on form (or "structure"), such an approach is known as a "structural" approach. If
you look at the units in a structurally-organized EFL coursebook, you will see that each unit tends to focus
on a grammatical structure, usually a verb tense/form: Present Simple, Present Continuous, etc. A
structural approach is, at some level or other, based on the assumption that grammatical form is the main
or most useful organizational principle underlying language selection and use.
Many people now look at language from a different angle. They analyze sentences in terms of their
communicative function: the speaker's or writer's purpose in producing an utterance: asking for help, giving
information, etc. This way of analyzing sentences in terms of their purpose is known as a functional
approach. If you look at a functionally-organized coursebook, you will see that each unit tends to focus on
different ways of expressing one function; for example, ways of requesting help. This approach assumes
that communicative function is the most important organizational principle underlying language selection
and use, and that a functional approach relates more closely to normal language use than a structural one.
A simple example may illustrate why many people regard a functional approach to language as being more
appropriate than a structural one. Imagine that you arrive late for a meeting after getting held up in traffic.
When you go into the meeting, you would probably say something like I'm sorry I'm late. I got held up in
traffic. How did you select the sentences to use? Did you really think, consciously or subconsciously, in
terms of the structures to use: I'd better use a present tense and then a past tense? Or did you think in
terms of die functions you needed to express: I'd better apologize, and then explain my late arrival?
Belief in the importance of communicative function as an underlying principle of language use has totally
changed the way in which EFL books and courses are organized. It has also greatly affected TEFL
methodology and has led to the development of communicative approaches to language teaching.
65
Exercise 3
What does could means in each underlined sentence below? What function is expressed through its use?
1. So it was really difficult, was it? But could vou do it?
2. Could you help me with this?
3. It's very hot. Could I open the window?

J v.
4. Could you meet me at six o'clock?
5. Could John do it. perhaps?
What does this suggest about the relationship between form and function in English?
Some possible interpretations of the sentences are as follows.
1. Were you able to do it? Asking for information.
2. Are you willing to help me with this? Asking for assistance.
3. Is it all right with you if I open the window? Asking for permission.
4. Is it possible for you to meet meat six? Making arrangements.
5. / think John might be able to do it Offering a suggestion.
So, just as one time frame may be referred to by the use of different verb forms, one function can be
expressed by using different verb forms (and, of course, different vocabulary items). For example, we can
ask for help by saying: Help, or Could you help me? or Iwonder if you could help me. Each of these
alternative ways of expressing a function is called a "functional exponent."
The various exponents of any one function usually vary in terms of their appropriateness: Give me a hand,
will you? may be appropriate when speaking to a friend, but Would you mind helping me? would be more
appropriate in a formal context. Foreign learners need to acquire familiarity with a range of functional
exponents and to know which exponent is the most appropriate to use in a given situation.
Exercise 4
What function is being expressed in each of the following sentences?
1. Can you give me a hand with this?

2. How old is he?
3. I'm from England.
4. You should go home and rest.
66
5. What would you like to drink?
6. Do you mind if I go now?

7. I wish it hadn't happened.
8. You shouldn't have bought it.
9. Let me do that for you.
10. Hi, how are you?
1. Asking for assistance 6. Asking for permission
2. Asking for information 7. Expressing regret
3. Giving information 8. Criticizing
4. Giving advice 9. Offering assistance
5. Offering 10. Greeting. (This may appear to be asking for information or
expressing interest. However, it is normally no more than a
ritual greeting and does not require a real answer.)
Exercise 5
Imagine that you are going to a concert, and that you have decided to ask a friend to go with you. Write
down as many exponents as you can think of to express the function of inviting.
67
A few of the many possible alternative exponents of inviting are:
Do you want to...?
1.7 I I ...
Would you like to... ?

I'd like you to...
Why don't you...?
/ don't suppose you 'd like to...
J was wondering if you 'd care to...
How about coming... ?
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Unit 14
Discourse
So far, we have looked at language mainly in terms of specific grammatical structures as exemplified in
individual sentences. However, it is important to remember that, in normal speech and writing, individual
sentences are rarely if ever produced in isolation. So, this unit looks at some of the features of "discourse,"
which may be defined as examples of speech or writing involving more than one sentence or utterance.
Exercise la
Look at the spoken exchanges below. All of them contain a question or statement followed by two possible
responses. In each case, which response is the more grammatically correct and complete one? Which
response would be more naturally used in normal speech?
1. How did you get here? a. We got here by driving.

b. We drove.
2. I think we should stop right now. a. I don't agree that we should stop right now.
b. I don't agree.
3. How often do you see John these days? a. We hardly ever see John these days.
b. Hardly ever.
4. So who will bring the drinks? a. I will bring the drinks.

ut n . i.

b. I will.
Exercise lb
Look at each sentence in the following spoken monologue, and decide whether any of them are
ungrammatical. Then read the whole monologue and say what, if anything, is wrong with it.
"I needed some cash. Because I needed some cash, I drove to the bank. When I got to the bank, I went into
the bank. Inside the bank, I saw an old school friend. The old school friend's name is Anne. I had not seen
Anne for several years. As I had not seen Anne for several years, I stopped to speak with Anne."
Exercise 1C
From your answers to the questions above, what conclusions can you draw about the relationship between
the use of grammatical sentences and natural English?
69
With the examples in Exercise la, most people would say that response a. is more grammatical but that
response b. is a more natural response.
With Exercise lb, all of the individual sentences are grammatical. However, most people would feel that
the monologue is unnatural, because it contains too much repetition. It would sound more natural, and be
more effective, if it went something like this: "/ needed some cash and so I drove to the bank. When I
got there, I went in. Inside, I saw an old school friend called Anne, who(m) I hadn 't seen for several
years. So I stopped to speak with her."
You have probably drawn two major conclusions from these exercises:
1. We do not always speak in complete sentences, particularly when we are responding to what someone
has said to us;
2. Speaking effectively at some length involves more than just stringing together a series of grammatical
sentences.
Discourse Analysis
So far in this book, we have looked at language mainly in terms of individual sentences, and this may well
reflect the way you studied foreign languages in school. However, in normal use, individual sentences
rarely occur in isolation. In conversation, one or more sentences said by one person lead to one or more
sentences said by another person, and so on. In many cases, the speakers do not use full grammatical
sentences: they use words or phrases. In the case of writing, we usually write or read a series of connected
sentences: a letter, a magazine article, etc. When we examine language in the context of written texts or
oral interactions, we say we are analyzing "discourse." So discourse analysis is concerned with how
sentences and other utterances are used in context, and with the relationship between individual utterances
and what precedes or follows them.
Discourse analysis is a complex process, because it involves more than simple grammatical and lexical
analysis. It involves the study of subtle linguistic areas, including style, grammatical reference and
connotation. It involves nonlinguistic aspects, such as the physical location of the interaction, the cultural
and social setting, and the relationship between the participants. In many cases, it involves paying as much
attention to what has been omitted as to what has actually been said or written. As native speakers, we
acquire an understanding of the importance of discourse features from an early age, and then gradually
learn how to interpret and use these features. In the case of speech, most of our knowledge is acquired
unconsciously; in the case of writing, much of it comes only through conscious learning and practice.
However we acquire it, our discourse competence is a key element in our ability to use language effectively.
Given the importance of discourse competence in everyday language use, it is clearly essential that foreign
learners of English gain some understanding of, and familiarity with, major discourse features in English.
This is particularly important because discourse features vary a lot from language to language and so we
cannot assume that students can transfer discourse competence from their first language to English.
As teachers, we clearly need to have a general understanding of how discourse operates, and to know about
some major discourse features. However, we do not normally need to know all of the terminology used in
discourse analysis. So you do not really need to try to learn any or all of the technical terms used in the
rest of this unit.
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Cohesion
One of the most important aspects of discourse is "cohesion": the use of grammatical and lexical features to
connect individual utterances. The following three exercises will look at the three major ways by which we
attain or ensure cohesion: by using "references," "ellipsis," and "linkers."
Exercise 2
One way to provide cohesion is by using "references": words or phrases which refer directly to a previous
utterance produced by us or by the person we are talking with. If such reference words are examined in
isolation, they carry no meaning, or their meaning is ambiguous. In each of the following utterances,
underline any words or phrases which clearly refer to a previous utterance.
1. Bill thinks he's really intelligent.
2. She's my sister.
3. I know that is true.
4. Those are his.
5. They aren't the people.
6. Life isn't like that.
7. I've never heard of such a thing.
8. It completely ruined the holiday.
1. he The pronoun he has no meaning unless you know which noun it refers to. In this
sentence, it is not clear whether he refers to Bill himself or to some other person
mentioned in a previous utterance. If the previous sentence had been J think Ed is really
dumb, the meaning of he would be clear.
2. She This must refer to someone the people have already been talking about.
3. that The demonstrative pronoun that here refers to some something said earlier.
4. Those his The demonstrative pronoun those and the possessive pronoun his refer to previous
utterances.
5. They the The pronoun They must refer to previously mentioned people. As is usually the case,
the definite article the is also used here in reference to a previous utterance.
6. that The demonstrative pronoun that must refer to something mentioned previously.
7. such The people must already have been talking about a specific thing.
8. It the The pronoun It presumably refers to something already mentioned. The reference
could be to a single event or noun, or to a series of events: Because it was raining, Joe
drove the car off the road. When we were pushing it back onto the road, Diana cut her
arm. So we had to find a hospital What a series of disasters! It ruined the holiday.
About References
As you can see, one common reference feature is the use of pronouns, including possessive/ demonstrative
pronouns. The definite article is another common reference, as are the expressions such and so.
It is worth mentioning that not all references are to items or matters mentioned in previous utterances;
references can also be to utterances which will follow. For example, this is the case with such in // was
such a hot day that I was exhausted. In some cases, a references may be to something totally outside the
linguistic context. For example, you are discussing crime, and someone says / blame the government.
Even though there has been no previous mention of any government, everyone will understand that you
have used the definite article to specify the government which you blame: probably our government.
Exercise 3
Another way in which utterances are connected is by the use of "ellipsis": the omission of grammatical
items which the speaker or writer feels are so obvious from the context that they do not need to be put into
actual words. Mark any examples of ellipsis which you can find in the following sentences.
1. Kate liked the red wine; I loved the white.
2. He ran and caught the bus.
3. Please finish it by six, if you can.
4. A: Who will do all the cleaning and tidying up?

B: I will.
5. A: Have you read it yet?

B: No, but Im going to.
6. John did the pruning, Barbara the weeding.
1 The noun wine has not been repeated after white.
2. The pronoun he has been omitted before caught.
3. The speaker has omitted finish it by six or do so after the modal auxiliary can.
72
4. The second sentence does not repeat do all the cleaning and tidying up.
5. The verb and object read it have been omitted from the response.
6. The verb did has been omitted after the second subject, Barbara.
About Ellipsis
As the sentences above show, there are many forms of ellipsis in English. Some allow the omission of
nouns or pronouns, as in examples 1 and 2. Others allow verbs to be omitted, as in sentence 6. Yet others
permit us to omit whole phrases, as in examples 3, 4 and 5.
Of course, the use of ellipsis is not exclusive to English; it is a feature of most or all languages. However, it
is probably used more frequently and in more ways in English than in most languages. As a result, learners
of English usually have major problems in both comprehension and production. Many of them react by
avoiding ellipsis almost completely when they speak or write. Unfortunately for them, native speakers of
English do not avoid it when they speak or write.
Ellipsis And Natural English
Many teachers insist that their students speak only in complete grammatical sentences. Unfortunately, this
does not reflect how discourse operates in English, since it is often normal and even desirable for us to use
words or phrases rather than complete sentences. This is particularly true when replying to questions.
Consider the following dialogue between a teacher and a student.
Teacher: What color is the chair, Sergei?

Sergei: Red.
Teacher. Yes, Sergei. The color of the chair is red. What color is the chair?
Sergei: Red.
Teacher: Okay, but say "The color of the chair is red." What color is the chair?
Sergei: Red. In America, question "What color is the chair?" answer "Red."
In this case, the student clearly understood the use of ellipsis in English better than his teacher!
If you want students to understand and use English in a natural way, it is important not to encourage or
force them to use complete sentences in contexts where native speakers of English would not do so.
Linking Words
The exercise on the next page will focus on another aspect of discourse: the use of linking words.
73
Exercise 4
Another way to provide cohesion in speech or writing is by using "linking words," such as conjunctions.
Linking words can be single words or phrases. In the examples below, underline any conjunctions or other
linking words. Then, next to each example, write down other conjunctions or linking words which could
replace the underlined ones.
1. He didn't work very hard. So he failed.
2. He was intelligent. But he was lazy.

4A
3. He tried really hard. However, he couldn't do it.
4. She's Canadian. He's Canadian, too.
5. I went in. Then I sat down.
6. As it was raining, she took her umbrella.
The alternative linking words given below are only some of the possibilities. In each case, the alternatives
are similar to the original linker in terms of grammatical function and approximate meaning. Of course,
some of the possibilities are different as regards appropriateness or style.
1. He didn't work very hard. So he failed. Therefore / As a result / Consequently
2. He was intelligent. But he was lazy. However / On the other hand / Mind you
3. He tried really hard. However, he couldn't do it. But / In spite of that / Nonetheless
4. She's Canadian. He's Canadian, too. Also / As well
5. I went in. Then I sat down. Afterwards / After that / Next
6. As it was raining, she took her umbrella. Since / Because
Coherence
So far in this unit, we have looked at cohesion. Another important aspect of discourse is "coherence," which
concerns the extent to which what we say or write is logically organized. For example, look at the following
sentences, which comprise a set of requests or instructions given by one person to another:
"Could you mail this letter on your way out? Oh, and it needs a stamp. And you '11 need to address it
for me, too. The stamps are in that drawer. The address is on the desk."
The instructions would have been easier to follow if the speaker had given them in a more logical order.
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As the above example shows, there is a sense in which speakers have to take responsibility for organizing
what they say in order to facilitate comprehension by the listener. When speakers do not do this, they put an
unfair burden on their audience. This need to take responsibility for what we say is part of a broader aspect
of coherence, called the "cooperative principle." This basically assumes that effective communication takes
place only if everyone involved makes an effort to express themselves clearly and to avoid irrelevancies.
The cooperative principle applies to listeners as well as to speakers, in that listeners have a responsibility to
make a genuine effort to understand what is said to them. In the following dialogue from "Hamlet," Hamlet
flouts the cooperative principle:
Polonius: What do you read, my lord? (Modern English = What are you reading?)
Hamlet: Words, words, words.
He knows perfectly well what Polonius means, but he chooses deliberately to misunderstand him.
ma vaa ? tad
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Unit 15

Conditionals
Conditional sentences are sentences which contain a clause which expresses a condition; this clause is
usually introduced by the word if. A typical example is: If it rains, she'll stay home. In conditional
sentences, one clause depends on the other: in the example above, whether or not the person stays home
depends on whether or not it rains.
There are many different ways of analyzing and categorizing conditional sentences. In this unit, we will
concentrate on one of the most useful ways.
Exercise la
Look at the form of the verbs in the second clause in each sentence. Is there any major difference between
the forms of these verbs in the first and second groups of sentences?
Group 1
If it rains, she'll stay home.
If he finds out, he's going to be mad.
It you heat water, it boils.
If you knew, why didn't you tell me?
If you don't know anything about karate, you won't understand much of the movie.
If she didn't do history in high school, she'll have problems with that course.
Group 2
If I knew, I would tell you.
If he won the lottery, he would buy a ranch.
If I were you, I would forget it.
If a large meteor hit the Earth, we would all die.
If she had seen you, she would have spoken to you.
Complete Exercise lb before looking at die commentary on the next page.
Exercise lb
Look at the first clause in each sentence in Exercise la.
Which group of sentences relates to situations which are real or possible, and which group refers to
situations which are unreal, imaginary, impossible or highly unlikely?
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Commentary on Exercises la and lb
la. In Group 1, the verb in the second clause of each sentence is in a normal tense (present simple, future
simple, etc.). In Group 2, the second clauses all contain the auxiliary verb would.
lb. The sentences in Group 1 refer to real or possible situations. The sentences in Group 2 concern
situations which are unreal, imaginary, impossible or highly unlikely.
This distinction between real and unreal situations is the major key to understanding the most common use
of conditional sentences in English.
Exercise 2
Decide whether each of the following sentences involves a real or an unreal situation. Remember that
unreal situations include ones which are possible but highly unlikely. Remember also that we are concerned
with the situation expressed in the first clause of each sentence: the clause containing the word If.
Real or Unreal
1. If he had gone, he would have been killed.
2. If I had the money, I would go.
3. It they do it, they II be sorry.
4. If there were an earthquake, this building would collapse.
5. If you go there, you'll probably meet her.
6. If she became President of the USA, she would change the tax system.
7. If you freeze water, it turns into ice.
8. If he turned up, she would be mad.
Sentences 3, 5 and 7 refer to real situations.
Sentences 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 refer to unreal situations. Sentence 1 is entirely hypothetical because it is

impossible to change the past. In sentence 2, the person referred to does not have the money. Sentence 4
relates to earthquakes, which are relatively unlikely events. In Sentence 6, the likelihood of a woman
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becoming President is currently very remote. In. sentence 8, the speaker clearly does not expect the man to
rum up.
Note: As you have probably realized, the distinction between real and unreal situations may be based on
fact, as in sentence 7, or on our perception. (In sentence 8, the man could arrive but the speaker thinks that
this is unlikely. If the speaker really thought the man might arrive, he or she would say: If he turns up,
she'll be mad)
Exercise 3
Look at the following sentences. What rules can you infer in respect of clause order and punctuation with
conditional sentences?
If she knew, she would say something.

I'll be surprised if they win.
If you go, you'll enjoy it.
They would do it if they could.
The if clause can be either the first or the second clause in a conditional sentence.
When the first clause contains if, the clause is often separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
When the if clause is not first, a comma is not usually required.
The Four Major Conditionals

Although there are actually many different kinds of conditionals, most EFL grammar books and
coursebooks concentrate on four major types:
The Zero Conditional
The First Conditional
The Second Conditional
The Third Conditional.
In the rest of this unit, we will look at these four types of conditionals.
78
Exercise 4
Most EFL books and teachers divide conditionals into the four major types outlined below on the left. See
if you can match each example sentence on the right to the relevant conditional type.

This conditional expresses constant or
universal truths. The word ifcan be 1. If I see it, I'll get it for you.
replaced with when or whenever. Both
clauses contain verbs in the Present
Simple tense.
.

This conditional expresses possible or
likely situations. The verb in the if 2. If she had gone, she would have seen them.
clause is in the Present Simple form
but it refers to future time. The verb in
the other clause is often in the Future
Simple tense.

This type refers to the present or the
future but the verb in the if clause has 3. If you heat glass enough, it melts.
a past form. The if clause refers to an
unlikely or impossible situation.
The Third Conditional

This conditional refers to events
which already happened. It relates 4. If I were you, I would do it.
to the past in both meaning and form.
A second example of each type has been added, in parentheses.)
The Zero Conditional 3. If you heat glass enough, it melts.

(If you touch fire, you get burned.)
The First Conditional I. If I see it, I'll get it for you.
(If he turns up, he'll be in trouble.)
The Second Conditional 4. If I were you, I would do it.
(If he knew, he would tell you.)
The Third Conditional 2. If she had gone, she would have seen them.
(If I had known that, I would have stayed home.)
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The Form Of The Conditionals

Form: y + Present Simple, + Present Simple
Example: If you heat water, it boils.

Form: //+Present Simple, + Future Simple
Example: If it rains, I will stay home.
The Future Simple is often replaced by other tenses or auxiliary verbs referring to the future, as below:
Examples: If it rains, I'm staying home. (Present Progressive)
I'm going to stay home. (Future with Going to)
I may stay home. (Modal auxiliary may)

Form: If+ Past Simple, + would + base form of verb
Example. If I won the lottery, I would be really happy.
Theoretically the verb won is in the subjunctive. Luckily, the English subjunctive is identical to the Past
Simple except in the case of the verb be. (This is why in conditional sentences, we should theoretically use
the subjunctive form If I/he/she/it were... rather than the Past Simple form If I/he/she/it was...)
The Third Conditional

Form: If+ Past Perf. Simp., + would have + past participle of verb
Example: If I had known, I would have left.
Exercise 3
Decide which type of conditional is represented by each sentence below.
Conditional Type
1. If we leave now, we'll get there by six.
2. Don't be surprised if it happens!
3. I would be amazed if he got the job.
4. If you put a stone in water, it sinks.
5. He wouldn't have done it if he hadn't been drinking.
6. If that were true, we would all be in trouble.
7. She will pass if she studies hard.
8. If they had taken vitamins, they would not have gotten sick.
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Conditional Type
1. If we leave now, we'll get there by six. First
2. Don't be surprised if it happens! First
3. I would be amazed if he got the job. Second
4. If you put a stone in water, it sinks. Zero
5. He wouldn 't have done it if he hadn 't been drinking. Third
6. If that were true, we would all be in trouble. Second
7. She will pass if she studies hard. First
8. If they had taken vitamins, they would not have gotten sick. Third
Some Final Comments On Conditionals
Mixed Conditionals
In addition to the major conditional forms noted above, native speakers frequently use other types of
conditionals, such as those in the following examples: If you see her, say hello. If I had worked harder, I
would be richer. If you want that one, you have to pay for it
These are sometimes referred to as mixed conditionals.
The American Third Conditional

The grammatical form of the third conditional is so complex that many, perhaps even most, native speakers
have problems with it. In the USA, even educated speakers tend to say If I would have known, I would
have... rather than If I had known, I would have... (In Britain, native speakers often make a similar
'mistake' and say: Ifl'd've known, I'd've...)
Conditionals And //
Not all sentences which contain the word if axe conditionals. In examples of reported (or indirect) speech, if
is used when reporting some questions: He asked if he could help.
Not all conditionals contain if We sometimes drop the if, particularly in informal speech: You want it, you
pay for it
In some negative conditional sentences, if... not can be replaced by unless: so I'll go if it doesn't rain can
be changed to I'll go unless it rains. However, there is often a slight change in meaning.
In some sentences, particularly in formal English, if 'can be replaced by provided (that), as in: You will do
well provided that you work hard.
Unit 16 ^
Reported Speech
There are two common ways of reporting what someone said or wrote:
1) We can use "direct speech" and give the words that the person actually said or wrote; for example, She
said, "I agree." In writing, the direct speech words are usually enclosed in speech marks to show that they
were the words used. When a section of dialogue is being reported (see Exercise 2), the speech marks may
be omitted.
2) We can use "reported speech" (sometimes called "indirect speech") and incorporate what the other
person said or wrote into a sentence of our own: for example, She said that she agreed or She told me
that she agreed. When we use reported speech, we do not use speech marks.
In this unit we will look at some of the main features of reported speech. In particular, we will examine
some of the major grammatical changes which take place when we transfer direct speech into reported
speech.
Exercise 1
Look at each sentence on the left below and decide whether it represents an example of direct or reported
speech.
Direct or reported speech?
1. He said, "I'm tired."
2. He said that he was tired.
3. She told him to get out.
4. She said to him, "Get out."
:>. tasked, Can I go'
6. I asked if I could go.
7. She said, "Please leave."
8. She asked him to leave.
9. She asked him if it mattered
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Direct or reported speech?
1 He said, "I'm tired" Direct

2. He said that he was tired Reported
3. She told him to get out. Reported
4 She said to him, "Get out " Direct
5. I asked, "Can I go?" Direct
6. I asked if I could go. Reported
1. She said, "Please leave." Direct
8. She asked him to leave. Reported
9. She asked him if it mattered Reported
A Note On Reporting Verbs:

The sentences in Exercise 1 used three common reporting verbs: said, told and asked. As you will already
know, both direct and reported speech can be introduced using a wide range of reporting verbs: said,
replied, ordered, argued, suggested, complained, shouted, etc. If the original words were written or
thought rather than spoken, we can use reporting words such as thought, wondered, wrote or scribbled.
For the sake of simplicity, the only reporting verbs which we will use in this unit are said, told and asked.
Exercise 2
Ann and Bill planned to spend several days in a hotel in Istanbul. They arrived there late in the evening
after a tiring flight. When they got to the hotel where they had reservations, they found that their room was
dirty and depressing. The following lines are part of their conversation:
Ann: I'm not staying here.
Bill: // 's not that bad.
Ann: / want to leave right now.
Bill: //'// be fine for one night We can find a better place tomorrow.
Change the dialogue into reported speech using the reporting verb said and told:
Ann said
BUI said
Ann told
Bill said and

When you transferred the conversation into reported speech, you probably produced something like this:
Ann said (that) she was not going to stay there.
Bill said (that) it wasn 't too bad
Ann told him (that) she wanted to leave right away.
Bill said that it would be fine for one night and that they could find a better place the next day.
-
Exercise 3
The lines of reported speech which you produced in Exercise 2 are different in several ways from the
original direct speech dialogue. The differences, which are essentially grammatical in nature, are necessary
because what was said by certain people in a specific place at a particular time was being reported by a
third person at a different time and in another place. Luckily, the rules which govern the grammatical
differences between direct and reported speech are generally both logical and straightforward.
Using the examples of reported speech shown in Exercise 2, what rules can you deduce about what changes
take place in the following areas when we transfer direct speech into reported speech?
Pronouns
Verb tenses
Time and place indicators (here, now, today, this, etc.)
The use of the conjunction that
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Pronouns
When someone reports what someone else said, pronouns naturally need to be changed. We talk about
ourselves using / and we, we report what other people say using he, she and they.
Verb tenses
When we report past speech using verbs such as said, we have to change the tense of the verbs which were
originally spoken to reflect the fact that the conversation took place at an earlier point in time. (In our
dialogue, It isn't too bad becomes Bill said that it wasn't too bad.) So the verbs used in direct speech
usually move one stage further back into the past when they are reported: is becomes was, agreed becomes
had agreed, will becomes would, etc.
Note: Most native speakers of English now avoid using the Past Perfect Simple and Progressive at least in
normal speech. So they tend to leave Past Simple verbs in the Past Simple when they change direct speech
to reported speech. For example. He said "I did it" should theoretically be reported as He said (that) he
had done it, most people would probably report it as He said (that) he did it.
Note: When we report what someone said immediately after they said it, we sometimes use reporting verbs
in a present tense. He says..., She's asking..., etc. In such cases, we do not normally change the verbs in
the original speech: for example, we may report a man's statement I'm in a hurry as He says (that) he's in
a hurry. We often make similar use of present tense verbs in reporting a dialogue when we want to add
dramatic effect: So I go in and tell him that I'm late...
Time and place indicators (here, now, today, this, etc.)

When changing direct speech into reported speech, it is logical and necessary to change words such as
here, now, today and this to there, then, the next day and that.
The use of the conjunction that

The conjunction that is often omitted from reported speech, particularly when we use common reporting
verbs such as said and told.
Exercise 4a
So far in this unit, we have concentrated on the reporting of statements. However, we also report questions,
promises, commands, requests, suggestions, etc. In this exercise, we look at ways of reporting questions. In
the next exercise, we will look at ways of reporting promises, offers, requests and commands.
Change the following sentences into reported speech using the reporting words which are given.
1. I sa.d, "Is the bank open?" I asked
2. She said (to him), "Do you have a light?" She asked him
3. He said (to me), "Did you see them?" He asked

85
4 She said, "Will it be expensive?" She asked
5. He said (to her), "Can you help me?" He asked her
6. I said (to her), "Can I help you?" I asked her
7. He said, "When do the banks open?" He asked
8. She said (to him), "How do you know?" She asked him
9. She said (to him), "How did you know?" She asked him
Commentary On Exercise 4a
1. I said, "Is the bank open?" / asked if the bank was open.
2. She said (to him), "Do you have a light?" She asked him if he had a light
3. He said (to me), "Did you see them?" He asked me if I had seen them. I He asked
me if I saw them.
4. She said, "Will it be expensive?" She asked if it would be expensive.
5. He said (to her), "Can you help?" He asked her if she could help.
6. I said (to her), "Can I help you?" I asked her if I could help her.
All of the questions above are questions asking for a Yes/No answer. We report such inverted questions
using if. The words following if are in statement form and so there is no question mark and no inversion of
subject and verb.
Note: Depending upon the context, the person in 5 could be a request for help rather than a question about
the woman's ability or availability to give help. In this case, as we will see later, it could be reported as: He
asked her to help him.
Note: In 6, the person is clearly offering to help the woman. So, as we will see later, the question could
equally well be reported as an offer: / offered to help her.
7. He said, "When do the banks open?" He asked when the banks opened.
8. She said (to him), "How do you know?" She asked him how he knew.
9. She said (to him), "How did you know?" She asked him how he had known. I She asked
him how he knew.
The questions in 7, 8 and 9 cannot be answered using Yes or No and so the reported speech version
includes the appropriate question word (when, how, where, why, etc.) rather than if. Again, the reported
speech sentence is in statement form and so there is no question mark and no inversion of subject and verb.
86
Exercise 4b
In this exercise we look at how promises, offers, requests and commands are reported.
Transfer each sentence on the left into reported speech, starting your sentences with the phrases given on
the right.
1. He said (to her), "Get out!" He told her
2. They said (to me), "Please go." They asked me
3. He said, "Let me help." . He offered
4. The policeman said (to him), "Don't move!" The policeman ordered him
5. I said (to them), "Please don't go." I asked them
6. I said, "111 do it later." I promised
From the sentences which you have produced, what grammatical rules can you deduce?
Commentary On Exercise 4b
1. He said (to her), "Get out!" He told her to get out
2. They said (to me), "Please go." They asked me to go.
3. He said, "Let me help." He offered to help
4. The policeman said (to him), "Don't move!" The policeman ordered him not to move.
5. I said (to them), "Please don't go." / asked them not to go.
6. I said, "I'll do it later." I promised to do it later.
Commands, offers, etc. are usually reported using the infinitive form of the verb with to, as in They asked
me to go. When the original sentence contains a negative command, offer, etc. the reported version places
not before the infinitive with to, as in The policeman ordered him not to move.
87
Unit 17
Phrasal and Multi-Word Verbs
The aim this unit is to make you aware of a special class of verbs, known as "phrasal verbs" or
"multi-word verbs," and to familiarize you with some of their characteristics.
Exercise 1
A multi-word verb is essentially just a main verb which has a particle (a preposition or adverb) attached to
it: e.g., to look after and to run away. In some cases, a multi-word verb may have both an adverb and a
preposition attached to it: e.g., to put up with and to look out for. Some multi-word verbs are easy for
students to understand because both the verb and its particle are used in a literal sense: e.g., to put down in
He put down his pen. However, some are difficult to understand because the verb and particle together
mean something different than they mean separately: e.g., in He's always putting people down, neither put
nor down carries its normal literal meaning. You should note that some multi-verb verbs can be used
literally in some contexts and non-literally in others.
As you will appreciate, the fact that many verbs and particles can mean one thing in one context and
something quite different in another is a source of great confusion for many students. The problem is
exacerbated by the fact that in everyday speech Americans use a multitude of multi-word verbs.
Look at the underlined multi-word verbs in the sentences below and decide whether each one has a literal or
a special meaning. The first sentence has been identified for you as an example.
Meaning
a He sat down. Literal

--i*
b. She has given up her job.
c Thev put out the cat at nights.
d. He put his cigarette out.
e. Thev flew over the citv.
f. Shut up!
g. They took over another company,
h. Will you look after them for me?
i. I won't put up with his excuses any more,
j. Why don't you put on your coat?
88
Meaning
'
a. He sat down. Literal
b. She has given up her job. Special
c. They put out the cat at nights. Literal
d. He put his cigarette out. Special
e. They flew over the city. Literal
f. Shut up! Special
g. They took over another company, Special

h. Will you look after them for me? Special
i. I won't put up with his excuses any more, Special
j. Why don't you put on your coat? Literal
Unfortunately for students, there is no simple or regular pattern to the range of meanings of the different
particles. For example, the particles up and down in multi-word verbs often denote some kind of increase
or decrease, as in the sentences Sales have picked up and Turn down the radio. However, there is no
suggestion of increase or decrease in You should look him up or Write it down.
Exercise 2
Most multi-word verbs can be replaced by an equivalent verb: for example, He gave up smoking can be
changed to He stopped smoking or He quit smoking. However, many of the equivalent verbs come from
Latin and are too formal to replace multi-word verbs without totally changing the style of a sentence: Few
native speakers would feel comfortable saying, for example, You have to extinguish your cigarette in
place of You have to put out your cigarette.
In each sentence below, give one or more equivalent verbs for the underlined multi-word verb.
Equivalent Verb(s)

1. They had to call off the party.
2. She had to give up the idea.
3. You can always make up an excuse.
4. He takes after his father.
5. Keep on playing.
6. Don't let them put you off.
7. You shouldn't pick on him.
8. He's going to drop out.
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Commentary On Exercise 2 !
Equivalent Verb(s)
1. They had to call off the party. cancel ;
2. She had to give up the idea. abandon, drop

3. You can always makeup an excuse. fabricate, invent
4. He takes after his father. resembles .
5. Keep on playing. continue
6. Don't let them put you off. discourage
7. You shouldn't pick on him. victimize -
8. He's going to drop out. withdraw
As you can see, many of the verbs which can be used to replace multi-verb words are much more formal
than the original verbs.
Exercise 3
It would be difficult enough for students to leam multi-verb words if the only problems were those
concerning meaning. Unfortunately, multi-word verbs are also complicated in terms of their grammatical
operation, and specifically in terms of word order.
In each sentence below, decide whether the underlined object can be moved in front of the particle without
changing the meaning of the multi-word verb or the sentence. The first two sentences have been completed
for you.
Can Be Changed?
a. She took off her coat. Yes. "She took her coat off."
b. They flew over die city. No. (You cannot say "They flew the city over")
c. We have to put off the meeting.
d. They tried to put out me fire.
e. He always looked up to his brother.
f. They got away with the robberv-
g. He made up that story.
h. Can you turn on the light?
i. You should look after your things.
j. Write down these sentences.
k. They just took on some new employees.
90
Can Be Changed?
a. She took off her coat. Yes. "She took her coat off."
b. They flew over the city. No. (You cannot say "They flew the city over")
c. We have to put off the meeting. Yes. "We have to put the meeting off."
d. Thev tried to put out the fire. Yes. "They tried to put the fire out."
e. He always looked up to his brother. No.
f. They got away with the robbery. No.
g. He made up that story. Yes. "He made that story up."
h. Can you turn on the light? Yes. "Can you turn the light on?"
i. You should look after your things. No.
j. Write down these sentences. Yes. "Write these sentences down."
k. They just took on some new employees. Yes. "They just took some new employees on."
Some Final Comments on Multi-Word Verbs

Some phrasal verbs are easy to manipulate because they are intransitive and so have no object: for
example, break down in This car is going to break down one of these days.
When it comes to dealing with transitive multi-word verbs, the rules which govern their operation are
apparently simple and depend upon whether the relevant particle is an adverb or a preposition. For
example, when the particle (or the second particle in the case of multi-word words followed by two
particles) is a preposition, the object has to follow the particle: So because after is a preposition, you can
say He takes after his father and He put up with it but not He takes his father after or He put it up
with. Unfortunately, this rule is not much help to students because many particles in English can function
as either prepositions or adverbs depending upon the context. So, for example, over is a preposition in The
plane flew over the city but an adverb in They took over another company. (This is why you can say
They took another company over but not The plane over the city flew)
In practice, students have to leam each multi-verb as a separate vocabulary item with its own distinct
meaning and specific word order rule. If a teacher explains to her students the word order rules which apply
with the different types of multi-word verbs, this may reassure the students that English is not totally
illogical. However, it will not really help them to use individual multi-word verbs accurately and
appropriately.
Unit 18
.
Some Other Grammatical Structures
In earlier units we looked at some of the most important aspects of Enghsh grammar, including the
language's basic grammatical characteristics, how sentences are formed and the verb tense system.
However, as you may remember from Unit 3, there are numerous other grammatical structures in English.
Some involve verbs but not tense/aspect, and some do not involve verbs at all. For example, some involve
word order patterns or how the form of words varies according to the different grammatical contexts in
which they are used. Each of these structures has to be clarified and practiced in the EFL classroom.
Exercises 1 and 2 below contains only a small selection of structures. Any good' EFL grammar book will
describe and explain others.
.- . -
Exercise 1
Each section below contains a set of sentences which exemplify a grammatical structure or pattern, or
which contrast two or more related structures. With each section:
a) identify the relevant structure or structures,
b) briefly outline the main rule or pattern which the examples reveal.
Sample Answer
He's taller than John. Comparative adjectives

Green would be nicer. Short adjectives have -er or -ier attached. (Exceptions
Madrid is noisier uian Paris. are good and bad.) Longer adjectives are preceded by
Cheetahs are faster than lions. more. When both of the people or objects compared
Wasnt that one more expensive? appear in a sentence, than follows the adjective.
He's the youngest son. Superlative adjectives

It's the longest river in the world.
That's the heaviest of them all.
It was the most exciting ride.
3. It's a big red plastic box. Adjective order

He got a black leather wallet.
Isn't it a small blue bird?
I like the little metal one.
4. It was so big I couldn't lift it. So/Such wilh adjectives

It's such a beautiful day.
He was so impolite.
She's such a kind person.
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5. Ed's door was locked. The Genitive

My mother's car is green.
Your parents' house is lovely.
The children's room is cold.
6. We have some eggs and some bacon. Some and Any

Do we have any tomatoes?
They don't have any children.
I dont have any energy-
Can you lend me some eggs?
7. She's an interesting person. Adjectives ending with -ing and -ed

It's a really exciting movie.
The book was boring.
He's interested in archeology.
I was totally bored.
The meal was very good. Modifying adjectives

The wine was very expensive.
The desserts were really good.
The service was really terrible.
It was a really wonderful evening.
9. There was a lot of snow. Count and non-count nouns

There isn't much wine left.
He bought several books.
I'd like some coffee.
I'll have two coffees.
10. It's a war movie. Nouns modifying nouns

I prefer milk chocolate.
There's a beautiful rose garden.
Where's the bus station?
He's a police officer.
We have given only a very brief outline of each structure. We have also limited this to elements specifically
illustrated in the given examples. If you would like to investigate these and other structures more
thoroughly, you should look in a grammar book such as "Practical English Usage" by M. Swan (OUP).
2. He's the youngest son. Superlative adjectives

It's the longest river in the world. Short adjectives are preceded by the and have -est or
That's the heaviest of them all. -iest attached. (Exceptions are good and bad.) Longer
It was the most exciting ride. adjectives are preceded by the most.
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It's a big red plastic box. Adjective order

He got a black leather wallet. If two or more adjectives precfcde a noun, they usually
Isn"t it a small blue bird? follow a specific order, such a|s: size, color, material.
It was so big I couldn't lift it. So/Such with adjectives

It's such a beautiful day. So and such mean the same when they are used to
He was so impolite. modify adjectives, but they operate differently:
She's such a kind person. so + adjective (without a noun)
such (+ a/an) + adjective + noun
Ed's door was locked. The Genitive

My mother's car is green. To make the genitive (or possessive) case of nouns
Your parents' house is lovely. relating to people, we can usually attach 's to a singular
The children's room is cold. noun and ' to a plural noun (Ed's, parents').
We have some eggs and some bacon. Some and Any

Do we have any tomatoes? Some is used in positive statements. Any is used in
They don't have any children. negative statements and in most questions. When a
He doesn't have any energy. question is really a request, some is usually used.
Can you lend me some eggs?
7 She's an interesting person. Adjectives ending with -ing and -ed

It's a really exciting movie. These adjectives derive from the present and past
The book was boring- participles of the relevant verbs. The -ing adjectives
He's interested in archeology. are used for the person or thing which cause a feeling
I was totally bored. or reaction. The -ed adjectives are used to describe the
person or thing which is affected.
The meal was very good. Modifying adjectives

The wine was very expensive. Most adjectives (e.g., good) can be modified by using
The desserts were really good. very or extremely. Extreme adjectives (e.g., terrible)
The service was really terrible. cannot usually be modified this way; instead, .we
It was a really wonderful evening. modify them using e.g., really or absolutely. The
modifier really can be used with both types of adjective.
9. There was a lot of snow. Count and non-count nouns'

There isn't much wine left. Count nouns are those which have both singular and
He bought several books. plural forms e.g., book, books). Non-count nouns do
I'd like some coffee. not have a plural form (e.g., imagination). Some non-
I'll have two coffees. count nouns can be used as count nouns in certain
contexts (e.g., two coffees, Spanish wines).
10. It's a war movie. Nouns modifying nouns

I prefer milk chocolate. Nouns are usually modified by adding adjectives.
There's a beautiful rose garden. However, we sometimes modify them by putting
Where's the bus station? another noun in front of them: station for buses
He's a police officer. becomes bus station and the door of the car becomes
the car door
Exercise 2

1. I used to like living here. Used to (past habits)

He used to speak French well
Did you use to eat a lot?
He didn't use to be so rich.
2. I am used to working hard. To be/get used to

She was used to riding the bus.
They're used to San Francisco.
Are you getting used to the heat?
3. Can't you get it fixed? To get/have something done

When did you have it cleaned?
You got your hair cut.
She had it written for her.
4. She often walks to work. Position of adverbs of frequency

I always buy food there.
He's always complaining.
They never arrived on time.
We have hardly ever seen him.
Have you always lived here?
5. He likes opera. So do I. So/Neither... (with positive/negative statements)

They're English. So are we.
He won't go. Neither will Jane.
They can't swim. Neither can I.
6. He lived there for ten years. For and Since + time expressions
They'll last for months.
They were talking for ages.
He's had them for a week.
She's known them since 1995
She's been playing since June
7. I already did the dishes. Already/Yet

He's finished it already.
She already finished it.
Did you see that movie yet?
I haven't eaten yet.
8 Stand up Imperatives
Be quiet.
Put the box down here.
Don't worry.
Don't make so much noise.
Please be quiet.
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9. You saw it, didn't you? Question tags

He's Irish, isn't he?
He'll stop soon, won't he?
It works, doesn't it?
That isn't the end, is it?
She can't swim, can she?
It wasn't very warm, was it?
They didn't win, did they?
10. He always walks to work. Always + progressive verb tenses/forms

She always eats at home.
They always helped me.
He's always arguing.
She's always complaining.
They were always losing things.
Again we have given only a brief outline of each structure and have limited this to elements specifically
illustrated in the given examples. If you would like to investigate these and other structures more
thoroughly, you should look in a grammar book such as "Practical English Usage" by M. Swan (OUP).
1. I used to like living here. Used to (past habits)

He used to speak French well. This is used to refer to actions, events or states which
Did you use to eat a lot? were habitual or long-lasting at some past time, but
He didn't use to be so rich. which are not now.
The form is: subject + used to + basic form of verb
The negative and question forms include use to...
2. I am used to working hard. To be/get used to

She was used to riding the bus. This form of used to is simply a less formal version of
They're used to San Francisco. accustomed to and operates in the same way: any form
Are you getting used to the heat? of be/get + used to + noun or the -ing form of a verb.
3. Can't you get it fixed? To get/have something done

When did you have it cleaned? We use these structures to talk about something which
You got your hair cut. is done for us by someone else. The form is simple,
She had it written for her. any form of get/have + object + past participle of verb
4. She often walks to work. Position of adverbs of frequency

I always buy food there. When we use adverbs of frequency, we usually put them
He's always complaining. immediately before the verb. In positive statements
They never arrived on time. or questions containing the auxiliary verbs have or do,
We have hardly ever seen him. the adverb usually goes immediately before the main
Have you always lived here? verb.
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So/Neither... (with positive/negative statements)

So is used in response to positive statements
Neither is used in response to negative statements
In these uses, the subject and verb/auxiliary which
follow so and neither are always inverted.
For and Since + time expressions

We use for to talk about periods of time and since to
talk about points in time. With non-perfect verbsAenses
we can only use for. With perfect aspect verbs we can
use either for or since depending upon whether we
relate actions to a period of time or a point in time.
Already/Yet
We use already in positive statements and yet in negative
statements. In questions, we normally use yet. However,
already can be used, with a slightly different meaning, in
some questions (e.g., Have you already seen it?).
Imperatives
The imperative, used mainly for commands and orders,
is taken from the base form of the verb. Negative
imperatives are formed by placing don't before the base
form. Using please with imperative statements turns them
into requests.
Question tags
We add question tags to statements to check whether
something is true or to ask for agreement. A positive
statement normally takes a negative tag, while a negative
statement is normally followed by a positive tag. (A
positive tag is sometimes used with a positive statement
to convey irony: You really think so, do you ?)
Always + progressive verb tenses/forms

We normally use simple (rather than progressive) verb
tenses/forms to talk about repeated actions. However,
we can use always with a progressive verb tense to talk
about repeated actions which we object to or want to
criticize.
He likes opera. So do 1.
They're English. So are we.
He won't go. Neither will Jane.
They can't swim. Neither can I.
He lived there for ten years.

They'll last for months.
They were talking for ages.
He's had them for a week.
She's known them since 1995.
She's been playing since June.
I already did the dishes.

He's finished it already.
She already finished it.
Did you see that movie yet?
I haven't eaten yet
Stand up.
Be quiet.
Put the box down here.
Don't worry.
Don't make so much noise.
Please be quiet.
You saw it, didn't you?

He's Irish, isnt he?
He'll stop soon, won't he?
It works, doesn't it?
That isn't the end, is it?
She can't swim, can she?
It wasn't very warm, was it?
They didn't win, did they?
He always walks to work.

She always eats at home.
They always helped me.
He's always arguing.
She's always complaining.
They were always losing things.
Unit 19 ^V
The Grammar of Vocabulary
The aim of this unit is to remind you that even simple vocabulary items have a grammatical dimension and
that this needs to be taken into account when you analyze or teach such items. The unit will also give more
practice with many of the terms covered in Units 1-3.
Exercise 1
The sentences below were produced during vocabulary practice activities by foreign students and they all
contain errors. Identify and explain the error in each sentence.
1. He's going to wife that woman.
2. It was a very slowly car.
3. I want to buy a give for you.
4. Could you give me an advice about this?
5. In my country there are many sheeps.
6. She buyed new clothes.
7. He has went to the store.
Check your answers with those on the next page before completing Exercise 2.
Exercise 2
From your answers to Exercise 1, what can you deduce about what should be included in all vocabulary
lessons?
98
In sentences 1-3, the students mistook the part of speech of the words which they chose: they thought wife
was a verb, slowly was an adjective and give was a noun. In sentence 4, the students thought advice was a
count noun rather than a non-count In sentence 5, the student assumed sheep had a regular plural form. In
sentence 6, the students assumed buy was a regular verb rather than an irregular one. In sentence 7, the
students thought that went was the Past Simple rather than the past participle form of go.
Students cannot be expected to use new vocabulary items effectively if the teacher does not point out some
of their key attributes such as: their part of speech; whether nouns are count or non-count; the plural form
of irregular nouns; the past simple and past participle form of irregular verbs.
H.xercise J
a) Identify and explain the errors in the following sentences produced by students.
1. It depends of how hungry vou are

-N
2. She insisted in leaving.
3. I insist on her leave.
4. They persuaded him stay.
5. They made her to eat.
b) When the students learned the underlined items, what important point had they not learned about them?
In sentences 1 and 2, the student did not know which preposition follows insist. In 3, he/she knew which
preposition to use but did not realize that insist on is followed by the -ing form of the verb. In sentence 4,
the student assumed that persuade is followed by the base form of a verb rather than by the infinitive with
to. In sentence 5, the student has made the opposite assumption about make.
In each case, the student had learned the correct verb and used its correct form. However, he/she had not
learned which preposition or structure has to follow the chosen verb.
Many of the errors shown in Exercises 1 and 3 would probably not have occurred if the teacher had used
them in a model sentence when introducing them. Teaching It's a book (rather than book) shows students
at once that book is a count noun. Teaching They make me work (rather than make or they make) shows
students immediately that make is a verb and is followed by an object plus the base form of the verb.
99
Unit 20
A Basic Approach to Teaching Grammar
As you probably know, there are many different ways to teach grammar. In some EFL/ESL classes,
teachers ignore grammar altogether, assuming that students will gradually acquire grammatical rules and
patterns by simply being exposed to a lot of English. In other classes, where the teacher and students both
share a language other than English, the teacher often chooses to teach grammar by translation. (This may
be how you learned grammar when you studied a foreign language in high school.) In other cases, in classes
where the students already know a lot of English, the teacher may choose to use a lecture-based approach:
the teacher explains in English how the target grammar structure works. (This may be how you learned
more advanced grammar items if you took a college course in a foreign language.)
The approach which we are going to outline below is different from all of these approaches. It assumes that
grammar is an important aspect of language and needs to be dealt with explicitly in class. At the same time,
it allows grammar lessons to be carried out entirely in English even with students who have little or no
previous knowledge of the language. It does not require the teacher to have knowledge of the students'
native language and it can be used with classes at any level of English, including complete beginners.
The approach is usually referred to as PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production). This is because it involves
three distinct stages:
Presentation: In this stage, the teacher introduces or "presents" the grammar structure, working from
examples of the grammar in use. The teacher clarifies the meaning of the structure and shows the pattern
which it involves.
Practice: Here the students complete a number of oral and written "practice" activities which focus on
using the grammar accurately in sentences, often in oral drills and written exercises.
Production: In the third stage, the students "produce" the grammar in more natural and more complex
contexts, such in role plays and in discussions.
The PPP approach has been in existence for over twenty years and it is very popular with students and
schools overseas, as well as with many teachers. The approach also underlies many of the most successful
EFL and ESL coursebooks on the market today. The main reason for its popularity is that it is based on an
assumption which many people can relate to: that practicing grammar rules and patterns in class helps you
to remember and use them outside of class. (In other words, practice turns knowledge into skill.) The
popularity of PPP is probably also due to the fact that the approach is inherently flexible and is constantly
evolving to reflect changing ideas about how languages are learned and should be taught.
In the next unit, we will describe several lessons which show how PPP can be used or adapted for the
teaching of a variety of grammar structures and functional exponents to students at many different levels.
After that, we will describe lessons which use two very different approaches to teaching grammar:
Test-Teach-Test and Problem Solving.
On the next page, we will start by giving an example of a PPP lesson and analyzing the different
components of the approach.
100
Exercise 1
On the left below we describe a PPP lesson (set in Mexico) which aims to help elementary level students to
understand and use comparative adjectives. The lesson deals with the simplest comparative forms:
adjectives with one syllable and adjectives with two syllables ending with -j;.
Read through the stages of the lesson and try to identify the aim or purpose of each stage.
The Lesson Stages Aim or Purpose
1) The teacher asks two students of different heights

to stand in front of the class. He/She gestures at their
heights and says: Tell me about Ana and Lisa.
2) The teacher elicits or gives the sentence Ana is

taller than Lisa.
.:-.-....
3) The teacher asks: Who is tall, Ana or Lisa?
4) The teacher repeats Ana is taller than Lisa three

or four times.
5) The students repeat Ana is taller than Lisa

several times. The teacher helps them with any
pronunciation or other problems.
6) Stages 1) through 5) are repeated using short . : . . - .
and two other students: Isella is shorter than Maria.
7) The teacher asks two different students to stand

up and asks their weights: e.g., Juan/Carlos, 180/150
pounds. The teacher elicits the sentence: Juan is
heavier than Carlos. Stages 4) and 5) are repeated
using the new sentence.
8) The teacher writes on the board:

Ana taller Lisa.
Isella is shorter than Maria.
Juan heavier Carlos.
The teacher points out that tall/short have added -er
while heavy has dropped -y and added -ier. He/She
also points out the position of than. (He/She may elicit
a few other examples and add them to the table: e.g.,
Fernando is younger than Paco)
9) The students copy down the table.
10) The teacher holds up cards, each of which has two

countries' names: e.g., Ecuador / Mexico. He/She elicits
sentences such as Ecuador is smaller than Mexico and
Ecuador is higher than Mexico.
101
-
Aim or Purpose
Here the teacher is illustrating a context

in which we might use comparative
adjectives.
This stage produces a simple example

of the grammar in use.
The teacher is checking the students

have understood the sentence's meaning.
The teacher is modeling the sentence and )

how it is normally pronounced.
The students are practicing how to say

the sentence accurately and naturally.
The teacher is using a second sentence

to consolidate the grammar.
The teacher is using a third sentence to

consolidate the grammar and to show
the same structure can be used in
different contexts and with different
adjectives.
The teacher is showing in a simple

visual way how the grammar partem
operates. (It is important not to move
into a long verbal explanation here: it
is not necessary, it will probably
confuse the students, and it will take up
class time which is better used for
student practice.
11) The teacher asks students to work in pairs to

discuss differences between the USA and Mexico.
The teacher monitors the pairwork and helps with
any problems which occur during it. At the end,
in open class, the teacher elicits some example
sentences produced by the pairs: e.g., The USA
is richer than Mexico. He/She elicits from the class
the correction of any mistakes in the sentences.
The Lesson Stages
1) The teacher asks two students of different heights

to stand in front of the class. He/She gestures at their
heights and says: Tell me about Ana and Lisa.
2) The teacher elicits or gives the sentence Ana is

taller than Lisa.
3) The teacher asks: Who is tall, Ana or Lisa?
4) The teacher repeats Ana is taller than Lisa three

or four times.
5) The students repeat Ana is taller than Lisa

several times. The teacher helps them with any
pronunciation or other problems.
6) Stages 1) through 5) are repeated using short

and two other students: Isella is shorter than Maria.
7) The teacher asks two different students to stand

up and asks their weights, e.g., Juan/Carlos, 180/150
pounds. The teacher elicits the sentence: Juan is
heavier than Carlos. Stages 4) and 5) are repeated
using the new sentence.
8) The teacher writes on the board:

Ana taller Lisa.
Isella is shorter than Maria.
Juan heavier Carlos.
The teacher points out that tall/short have added -er
while heavy has dropped -y and added -ier. He/She
also points out the position of than. (He/She may elicit
a few other examples and add them to the table: e.g.,
Fernando is younger than Paco.)
102
9) The students copy down the table. The students are practicing the written
form of the grammar and will also have
an accurate record to take away and
review at home.
10) The teacher holds up cards, each of which has two This provides more practice using
countries' names: e.g., Ecuador / Mexico. He/She elicits the new grammar structure in different
sentences such as Ecuador is smaller than Mexico. contexts and sentences.
11) The teacher asks students to work in pairs to discuss The students can experiment with
differences between the USA and Mexico. The teacher grammar in a more natural way and in a
monitors the pairwork and helps with any problems less limited or "controlled" context.
which occur during it. At the end, in open class, the
teacher elicits some example sentences produced by the
pairs: e.g., The USA is richer than Mexico. He/She
elicits from the class the correction of any mistakes in
the sentences.
In terms of the PPP paradigm, the lesson is organized as follows: -horti

- Sections 1) through 9) represent the Presentation stage;
- Section 10) is a Practice stage,
- Section 11) is a Production stage.
Additional Comments
A. The Presentation stage involves very little talking by the teacher and includes some basic imitative
practice by the students. As we will see below, this is typical of lessons using a PPP approach.
B. This lesson shows only one Practice and one Production activity. In reality, because most grammar
items are comparatively complex, it takes students some time to learn them: that is, to recall and use them
easily. So the teaching of a particular grammar item will normally require the use of several Practice and
Production activities. This point will be further clarified below.
Important Features of the PPP Approach

As was mentioned earlier, one of the advantages of PPP is that it is a very flexible approach: Individual
PPP lessons vary considerably depending upon the target grammar item, the needs and interests of the
students, and the preferences of the teacher. (This will be apparent in the next unit, where we look at a
range of different PPP lessons.) However, there are some features which remain constant and which can be
found in all effective PPP lessons. These key features are outlined below.
1. The Presentation stage is based on the clarification and analysis of one or more specific sentences, often
called "Model Sentences" or "Marker Sentences" which exemplify the target item. This is because most
students find it easier to understand grammar if they work from concrete examples than from purely
abstract rules and explanations.
103
2. At a very early stage in the Presentation, the teachers makes sure that the students understand the
meaning of the model sentences. If this is not done, there is a danger that the students may end up
mechanically repeating and practicing grammar items which they do not really Understand.
3. The Presentation stage does not involve lengthy explanations given by the teacher. If handled effectively,
it should involve very little talking by the teacher. The teacher's role is essentially to elicit or give one or
two examples of the grammar in use and to help the students to see from these how the grammar operates.
It is very important not to allow the Presentation to become a lecture about grammar.
4. It is important that the students be actively involved in the Presentation. So the teacher tries to elicit the
model sentences and the grammar "rules" from the students rather than to give them. Also, the Presentation
stage includes some imitative practice by the students: they repeat the model sentences orally and copy item
down from the board.
5. In the lesson which we outlined above, the Presentation stage appeared to take longer than the Practice
and Production stages. In reality, the exact opposite is the case. Even when very complex grammar items
are being taught, the Presentation stage should take only a few minutes. An effective Presentation rarely
takes more than 10-15 minutes, including the time needed for the initial repetition and copying down of
model sentences by students.
6. One Practice and one Production activity will rarely if ever be adequate. To really master the operation
of even the simplest grammar item, students will usually need to complete several Practice and Production
activities. These will normally include both oral and written activities. (Luckily,.most modern EFL
coursebooks contain a variety of Practice and Production activities for each grammar item which students
have to learn.)
7. Because the students will need to undertake a number of Practice and Production activities, a grammar
item can rarely if ever be dealt with adequately in a single lesson. So the PPP of one item often involves
the following type of process:
Lesson 1: Presentation and two or three Practice activities, followed by perhaps one Production activity.
Lesson 2: A brief review followed by one or two Practice activities and some Production activities.
Lesson 3: One or more additional Production activities.
Later: If students are not to forget the new grammar, it is important that it be recycled. So one or more
additional Production activities should be included in lessons over the next month or so.
Note: Depending upon the course schedule, Lesson 1 may take up the whole of one lesson. However, the
Practice and Production activities in Lessons 2 and 3 will probably only form a part of these lessons. The
rest of the class time will probably be spent on unrelated activities: reading and listening practice, free
speaking, the PPP of vocabulary items, etc.
8. Most students are not very interested in or motivated by artificial, mechanical drills and exercises. So it
is important to include Practice and Production activities which use language in a meaningful way and
involve some real communication between students. If at all possible, these activities should involve
personalized elements: the students should use the grammar items to talk and write about themselves, about
their lives, their countries, etc. The better modern EFL coursebooks help here by including Practice and
Production activities which are both communicative and personalized.)
104
A Grammar Development Course for American Teachers
Unit 21
More Examples of PPP Lessons
In this unit, you will see three more examples of lessons which use a PPP approach to the teaching of
grammar. The first lesson deals with the grammar structure "should have + past participle," presented by
means of a situation established by the teacher. The second lesson deals with the structure "used to +
base form of verb," presented through a reading text. The third lesson involves the teaching of different
exponents for making suggestions, with the exponents being presented through a recorded dialogue.
Lesson 1: "should have + past participle"
Stage 1: Setting the scene

The teacher shows the class a picture of a dirty and badly dressed man that he says is one of his friends.
He elicits from the class some examples of what is wrong with the friend's appearance: He hasn't
combed his hair, he hasn't shaved, he's wearing a dirty shirt, etc. He tells the class that the friend, who is
unemployed, just went for a job interview in a bank. When he went for the interview, he looked like he
does in the picture. The teacher elicits that his friend did not get the job because of his appearance.
Stage 2: Eliciting/Supplying and Checking a Model Sentence
The teacher points to his friend's shirt in the picture and says: "Give me a sentence about my friend and
his shirt. He .... a clean shirt." The teacher elicits the Model Sentence: "He should have worn a clean
shirt." (If the students cannot provide the sentence, the teacher provides it.)
The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of the sentence by asking: "Did he wear a
clean shirt?" (No.) "Was that good?" (No.) "Why?" (Because he didn't get the job.)
Stage 3: Imitative Oral Practice with the Model Sentence
The teacher repeats several times: "He should have worn a clean shirt." Then he asks the students to
repeat it, first as a group and then individually. He helps the students to correct any mistakes which they
make when repeating the sentence.
Stage 4: Oral Practice
The teacher points to different parts of the picture and asks the students to produce similar sentences
about his friend. With the teacher's help, the students produce sentences such as: "He should have
shaved," "He should have combed his hair" and "He should have shined his shoes."
The teacher asks several students to repeat each of the sentences individually.
He then writes the sentences in the form of a table on the board.
A Grammar Development Course for American Teachers
He should have worn a clean shirt.

shaved.
combed his hair,
washed.
The teacher elicits from the students that the sentences are formed by using should have and the past
participle of a verb. He elicits that the verb forms do not change if the subject changes: e.g., if He
changes to My friend or / or You. The teacher expands the table on the board to show these points. The
table then looks like this:
Subject + should have + past participle
He should have worn a clean shirt.

I shaved.
My friend combed his hair.
You , washed.
The students write down the table in their notebooks and the teacher checks that they have copied it
accurately. It is very important that any errors are corrected at this stage, because what the students are
writing will form the record of the lesson and of this important new grammar structure.
Stage 6: Practice
The teacher puts the students into pairs and gives each pair the following worksheet.
"John opened a car rental company. He bought only old cars. He never cleaned the cars. He charged
customers more than other rental companies. He didn 7 open on weekends or holidays. He often didn 7 " >
answer the office phone. He didn't advertise. The company lost money and John had to close it.".
The teacher tells the students to produce orally six sentences saying what John should have done.
When the pairs have produced and practiced their sentences, the teacher asks the class to tell him their
sentences. They produce sentences such as "He should have bought new cars" and "He should have
cleaned the cars." The teacher helps the students to correct any mistakes which they make.
Stage 7: Production
The teacher puts the students into pairs and tells them to find out about each other's school days. They
should tell each other some things they did and some things they didn't do but should have done.
When the pairs have finished, the teacher asks some students to tell him about their partners. He helps
them to correct any mistakes they make when producing their sentences. He pays particular attention to
any sentences which contain the target grammar structure.
Note:
How long the above stages take will depend on several factors: the level of the class, the language
aptitude of the students, how much difficulty students have with the grammar, etc. The stages might be
completed in one lesson or may be spread over two or more lessons.
If the teacher feels it is necessary, he may include more oral and/or written Practice and Production
activities, carried out in class or as homework. These activities will often be taken from the EFL/ESL
coursebook that he is using with the class. ^
106
Lesson 2: "used to + base form of verb"

Stage 1: Setting The Scene
The teacher provides a context for the introduction of the structure by getting the students to read, and
checking they have understood the main points of, a reading text. The text, which is shown below, is similar
to those which appear in most modem EFL coursebooks.
"The Way Things Were
When I was young, life was very different from the way it is today. My family lived on a
small farm in the midwest. We had electricity, of course, and we had a radio and a record
player, but we didn't have TV or a VCR or a computer. So when we came home from school,
we usually sat down and did our homework in the kitchen. Then we listened to the radio. When
we wanted to hear music, we either listened to the radio or played some records. We only had
a few records and we used to listen to them again and again.
We often went into town on Saturdays, to go shopping or sometimes to go to a dance or to
see a movie. We loved going to the movies. There was only one movie theater and most of
the movies were pretty old but we always enjoyed them. We used to bring popcorn from home.
We didn't buy it at the theater like we do now because it was too expensive.
So we didn't have as much as most people have now. But we were really happy. Sometimes
I think maybe we were happy because we didn't have so much."
Stage 2: Eliciting And Checking The Model Sentence

The teacher asks the students to tell her some of the things which the family did. When they mention the
movie theater, she asks them if they remember what was said about popcom. This elicits the model
sentence "We used to bring popcorn from home."
The teacher checks that the students have understood the meaning of the sentence by asking: "Did they
bring popcorn from home?" (Yes.) "Did they bring popcorn once or many times?" (Many times.) "Do they
bring popcom from home now?" (No.)
Note: We employ the "used to + base form" structure to talk about past habits or states which no longer
apply.
Stage 3: Imitative Oral Practice With The Model Sentence

The teacher repeats "We used to bring popcom" several times. Then she asks the students to repeat it, first
together and then individually. She helps the students to correct any mistakes which they make when
repeating the sentence.

The teacher asks the students to tell her some other things which the people in the story used to do. With
some help from the teacher, the students produce sentences such as "They used to live on a small farm"
"They used to listen to the radio" and "They used to play records. "
Stage 5: Clarifying The Grammar Form

The teacher asks die students to repeat some of the sentences which they have produced. As they do so, she
writes the sentences in the form of a table on the board:
107
They used to bring popcorn.

live on a small farm,
listen to the radio,
play records.
The teacher shows the students that the sentences are formed by using used to and the base form of
different verbs. She elicits that the verb forms do not change if the subject changes; e.g., if They changes to
My family. She or /. The teacher expands the table on the board to show these points. The table now looks
like this:
Subject + used to + Verb
They used to brine popcorn.
My family live on a small farm.
She listen to the radio.
I play records.
The students write down the table in their notebooks and the teacher checks that they have copied it
accurately.
Stage 6: Practice
The teacher puts the students into pairs and tells each pair to find and say six other sentences about things
the family in the story used to do.
When the pairs have practiced their sentences, the teacher asks the class to tell her the sentences. The
students produce sentences such as They used to have a radio and They used to do their homework in the
kitchen. The teachers helps the students to correct any mistakes which they made when creating their
sentences in pairs.
Stage 7: More Practice

In open class, the teacher asks the students to produce sentences about how people lived in the past. Each
sentence is prompted by a card carrying words such as No cars or No email. With the teacher's help, the
students produce People used to ride horses, People used to write letters, etc.
Stage 8: Production
The teacher puts the students into pairs and tell each other about things they did when they were young:
what they did at school, what hobbies they had. etc.
When the pairs have finished talking, the teacher asks some students to tell her what they found out about
their partners. She helps them to correct any mistakes they make when producing their sentences. She pays
particular attention to any sentences which contain the target grammar structure.
Notes:
After completing the table in Stage 5, the teacher could easily elicit that the negative form of the structure
is very simple: Subject + didn't use to + verb. She could give the students practice in repeating one
model sentence using this form: e.g.. They didn't use to watch TV. In the Practice and Production stages,
the students could then produce both positive and negative sentences.
Any good EFL coursebook will contain several other good activities for more Practice and Production
stages, if these are necessary.
108
Lesson 2: functional exponents for making suggestions

Stage 1: Setting The Scene
The teacher provides a context for the introduction of the exponents by playing a recording of a short
dialogue and checking the students have understood it. The dialogue, which is shown below, is similar to
those which appear in most modern EFL coursebooks. The people who are speaking are two friends who
are looking at clothes in a store.
"Liz: I really like this blue sweater.
Anne: Yes, it's beautiful. You should buy it.
Liz: But I like this green shirt also.
Anne: Why don't you buy the sweater and the shirt?
Liz: Oh, I can't do that. They're quite expensive. And I have a lot of sweaters.
Anne: Okay. So how about buying just the shirt?
Liz: But I really like the sweater!"
Stage 2: Eliciting And Checking The Model Sentences

The teacher asks the students to tell her what Anne was doing and elicits that she was making suggestions.
Then the teacher tells the students to listen to the tape again to hear exactly how Anne made the
suggestions. The teacher stops the tape after each exponent. This elicits the three model sentence: ('You
should buy it." "Why don't you buy them both?" and "So how about buying just the shirt?".
The teacher checks that the students have understood the meaning of the sentences by asking: "Is she saying
Liz must buy the clothes?" (No.) "Is she suggesting she should buy them? (Yes.)
Stage 3: Imitative Oral Practice With The Model Sentences

The teacher repeats the first model sentence several times. Then she asks the students to repeat it, first
together and then individually. She helps the students to correct any mistakes which they make when
repeating the sentence. The same procedure is followed with the other two model sentences.

In open class, the teacher tells the students to make suggestions based on cards she will show them. The
cards contain word prompts showing a problem and a possible suggestion of how to deal with it: e.g..
Headache / Aspirin or Tired/Bed or Thirsty/Water. The students produce sentences such as You
should take some aspirin and Why don 'tyou go to bed? and How about drinking some water?
Stage 5: Clarifying The Grammar Form

The teacher asks the students to repeat some of the sentences which they have produced. As they do so, she
writes the sentences in the form of a table on the board:
You should take some aspirin,
go to bed
drink some water.
Why don't you go to bed?
take some aspirin?
How about drinking some water?
taking some aspirin?
109
The teacher points out or elicits that You should is followed by the base form of the verb and is not a
question. She elicits that the other two forms are questions but that one takes the base form of the verb
while the other takes the -ing form.
The students write down the table in their notebooks and the teacher checks that'they have copied it
accurately.
Stage 6: Practice
The teacher puts the students into pairs and gives each pair a list of problems which one of her friends has
She hates her job, she doesn't have any friends, she spends all her money on eating in restaurants. The
teacher tells each pair to make at least two suggestions for every problem: e.g., You should leave your job
or Why don't you get another job?
When the pairs have practiced their sentences, the teacher asks each pair to tell her two of their
suggestions. The teachers helps the students to correct any mistakes which they made when creating their
sentences in pairs.
Stage 7: Production
The teacher puts the students into different pairs and tell each other about problems which they have. Each
person should suggest solutions to their partner.
When the pairs have finished talking, the teacher asks some students to tell her one of their partner's
problems and one suggestion which they made. She helps them to correct any mistakes they make when
giving their suggestions.
"
unit LL
an
Test-Teach-Test and Discovery Approaches
Some people argue that the PPP approach suffers from one major drawback: it is very teacher-centered. So
teachers have developed other approaches which are more student-centered in that they take more account
of students' existing knowledge and of their reasoning ability. Two of these approaches are shown below.
As you will see, they involve a modification of the PPP approach rather than a total rejection of it.
The Test-Teach-Test Approach

The basis of Test-Teach-Test is: Before launching into a PPP lesson, find out what students know about
the target structure and then adjust your lesson so that most of the clarification and practice time is spent
on aspects of the structure which cause the students problems.
In specific terms, you start a Test-Teach-Test lesson by giving the students a practice activity which serves
as an initial Test of what the students know about the target structure. Then, in the Teach stage, you clarify
any aspects of the structure which the students are having problems with. After that, in the final Test
stages, you provide the students with a series of Practice and Production activities.
A Test-Teach-Test Lesson: "used to + base form of verb"

Stage 1: Test The Students' Existing Knowledge
Put the students into pairs or groups and ask them to tell each other about things they did when they were in
elementary school. Emphasize that you want them to talk about things which they did often or regularly.
Listen to what the pairs/groups are saying and particularly to whether they are using the used to structure.
If nobody is using it, you can assume it is unknown to them and can go on to use the PPP approach shown
on pages 107-108. If the students are using the structure, listen for any problems which they are having
with it. Let us assume, for example, that some of them are pronouncing used as two syllables while others
are following it with the -ing form rather than the base form of the verb and are producing sentences such
as / used to playing with toys.
Stage 2: Clarify Problem Areas

In open class, tell the students one of the incorrect sentences which you hear (/ us-ed to playing with toys)
and ask them to correct the sentence. Help them as much as is necessary. When they have produced the
correct version of the sentence (/ used to play with toys), this becomes your model sentence.
Check that they all understand the sentence by asking: "Did I play with toys?" (yes.) "Once or often?"
(Often) "Do I play with toys now?" (No.) Then check that they all realize the correct version is I used to
play and that / used to playing is incorrect.
111
Next, help the students to pronounce the model sentence well by repeating it several times and then asking
the students to repeat it, first together and then individually.
Using sentences which you heard while monitoring the initial pair/group task, elicit the form of the
structure into a table on the board. Check the students realize that the verb forms do not change if the
subject changes; e.g., if/ changes to He, They or You. Expand the table so that it now looks like the
second table on page 108. The students write it down and you check that they have copied it accurately.
Further Stages: Use the Practice And Production activities shown in Stages 7 and 8 on page 108.
The Discovery Approach

The basis of the Discover.' Approach is that students can often work out for themselves what a structure
means and how it is formed and used. If they do this, it is argued, they will understand and remember the
structure better than if mey have it explained to them by a teacher.
A typical lesson would start with you giving the students (usually in pairs or small groups) a task which
involves working out the meaning of several sentences which contain a particular structure and how the
target structure is formed.
A Discovery Lesson: "used to + base form of verb"

Stage 1: Set A Task
Give each pair or group of students a sheet with six or seven sentences such as: "When they were young,
they used to play with toys." " She used to smoke but now she doesn't." "He used to live in Dallas but now
he lives in New York." "Before there were cars, people used to walk." Ask the students to work out the
meaning of used to and to write two new sentences containing used to.
Stage 2: Clarify Problem Areas

In open class, elicit the meaning of used to. Elicit the new sentences which they have written and help them
to correct any errors' in these sentences.
Take one of their sentences and use it as a model sentence Help the students to pronounce the sentence well
by repeating it several times and then asking the students to repeat it, first together and then individually.
Using sentences produced by the students, elicit the form of the structure into a table on the board. Check
the students realize that the verb forms do not change if the subject changes; e.g., if/ changes to He, They
or You. Expand the table so that it now looks like the second table on page 108. The students write it down
and you check that they have copied it accurately.
Further Stages: Use the Practice And Production activities shown in Stages 7 and 8 on page 108.
112
Postscript
I hope that you have enjoyed working through this grammar course and that you feel it has helped you to
understand some of the complexities of American English grammar. I hope, too, that you now feel more
confident about your ability to teach or clarify grammar items to foreign students.
As you have probably realized, having completed this course does not make you an expert in English
grammar! I personally have been studying and teaching grammar for over thirty years and I still struggle
with some aspects of it. If you are like most people, including myself, you will only feel really confident
about teaching specific grammatical items after you have already taught them to students at least once or
twice.
Before you set out to teach any grammar item, it is important to research it in a comprehensive EFL/ESL
grammar reference. If you are an experienced teacher, you probably already have a suitable reference. If
you are just starting out as a teacher, I would recommend that you buy a copy of "Practical English
Usage" by Michael Swan (ISBN: 0 19 431197 X, Oxford University Press). I have used many different
grammar references over the years but this is the one which I find by far the most accessible and the
most useful.
If you have any comments or suggestions about "A Grammar Development Course For American
Teachers Of EFL/ESL," please feel free to email me (EngIntSF@aol.com).
Good luck with your grammar lessons!
Jeff Mohamed
113
I>
To find out about other English International

publications, please go to:
www.engIish-internationaI.com
114

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A Grammar Development Course

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Copyright. 2000 Jeff Mohamed

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Printed in the United States of America

Unit 2 Terminology. Sentences and Verbs

Unit 3 Basic Grammatical Characteristics of English 10

Unit 4 The Concept of "Grammaticality" 17

Unit 5 Varieties, Dialects and "Standard English" 20

Unit 6 Sentences and Utterances 26

Unit 7 Compound Sentences and Clauses 31

Unit 8 Verb Tenses and Aspects 38

Unit 9 The Present Simple and the Present Progressive 45

Unit 10 The Past Simple 51

Unit 11 Talking About the Past 53

Unit 12 The Passive Voice 57

Unit 13 Verb Forms, Tense and Function 62

Unit 16 Reported Speech 82

Unit 17 Phrasal and Multi-Word Verbs 88

Unit 18 Some Other Grammatical Structures . 92

Unit 19 The Grammar of Vocabulary 98

Unit 20 A Basic Approach to Teaching Grammar 100

Unit 21 More Examples of PPP Lessons 105

Unit 22 Test-Teach-Test and Discovery Approaches 111

verb Word indicating an action or state. go, be, live, work

preposition Word or words used before a noun or pronoun to

conjunction Word joining words, phrases, etc. and, although

demonstrative When a demonstrative adjective replaces this, that, these, those

1. noun (common) a. She saw the man arrive.

2. article (definite) b. I want one of those.

3. verb c. It was her book.

4. preposition d. He was a tall man.

5. demonstrative pronoun e. After sleeping, they went out.

6. possessive adjective f. It was hot.

7. article (indefinite) g. Where did you see it?

8. pronoun h. She drove really carefully,

9. adverb i. Are you sure it was hers?

10. possessive pronoun j. It happened quickly,

11. conjunction k. He sat on the table.

12. adjective 1. It was a large cat.

tonight, unfortunately.) She hesitated, and then turned into a side-street.

1. pronoun his she to was

2. adverb thai me is badly

3. possessive adjective your an her my

4. preposition up also of her

5. possessive pronoun her it yours mine

Terminology: Sentences and Verbs

Subject Direct Object Indirect Object

1. The food looked good.

2. Bill bought a car.

3. They offered him a drink.

4. Later, he told them a joke.

5. Where did you get it?

6. I'll see them tomorrow.

1. The subject is The food. There is no object.

2. The subject is Bill. There is a direct object, a car.

5. The subject is you and the direct object is it.

6. The subject is J and the direct object is them.

e. modal auxiliary verb

3. She likes fruit.

4. That place smells.

5. She drives a Maserati.