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Indian Journal of History of Science, 50.3 (2015) 361-409 DOI: 10.

16943/ijhs/2015/v50i4/48312

Ideas and Researches on Physical Concepts in India*


A K Bag**
(Received 01 May 2015)

Abstract
The ideas on physical concepts in India have changed through the centuries initiated first by
guru-iya parampar (teacher- student relationship), and later extended further based on varieties of
quests & experiments. The Vedic & Upaniadic schools (c.6500 BC - 500 BC) first expressed anguish as
to how the universe was created by Gods, later on giving importance to nature, natural order and the
cosmic creation. The Buddhist, Jain, Smkhya & Nyyavaieika schools (c.501 BC - 1000 AD) gave
central focus to Nature (prakti), in place of Gods, as a limitless entity which is self-existent. The Smkhya
recognized five elements in nature: kiti (earth), pa (water), tejas (fire), vyu (air) and ka (space)
both at the atomic (paramu) and molecular (au) level with guas [sattva, rajas, tamas] as attributes
existing in equilibrium. Emphasis on duality concept (purua and prakti, iva and akti, hara and prvati,
mercury and sulfur) by the Tantrik and Alchemical traditions was held responsible for equilibrium state.
The metaphysical explanation of how the sthula-bhta paramus like solid, liquid,, gases, heat & light,
ether etc are constituted based on tanmtrs (physical energies represented by sound, touch, colour, taste
and smell) together with likeness, cause and effect relationship of the combination of the atoms is also
explained. The Greek and Islamic thoughts during the period (c.1001-1800) accepted also similar atomic
concepts of matter which are no better than those of the Indians. The European knowledge in physical
science in the Colonial phase in India (1801-1900) opened up after great initial reluctance, and the
knowledge of great stalwarts like, Copernicus (on heliocentric theory), Kepler (elliptical path of planets
& planetary laws), Huygens (polarization of light), Newton ( motion of body in Cartesian and Polar co-
ordinates, periodic motion, law of universal gravitation, sound and its propagation, light), Galileo
(telescopic observation of heavenly bodies), Oersted, Faraday & Maxwell (magnetic properties of materials,
electricity, charge), Kirchhoff & Planck (radiation), Mendeleyev (periodic table) and others, infiltrated
through the local initiatives influencing Indian minds. These helped to establish a Golden phase of science
in India (1901-1960) with J C Bose, C V Raman, Meghnad Saha, Satyendranath Bose, S K Mitra, H J
Bhabha, S Chandrasekhar and others extending the knowledge in diversified field of physical science.
The work was of great order, some of which brought great international fame in global perspectives. The
phase (19612000) was indeed a period of consolidation in India which led continued emphasis on
cosmic ray research, atmospheric studies, search for sub-atomic elementary particles in the formation of
building blocks of the universe, classification of forces and of elementary particles imparting importance
to Model of Expanding universe with radiation against the Steady state of Big-Bang Model. The observer
and observed have however created many a dilemma in present ideas and thoughts in establishing an
order between the physical and biological world.
Key words: Bhabha scattering, Big Bang model, Black hole, Boson, Buddhist schools, Diode
detector, European knowledge, Cosmic evolution of matter, C V Raman, Electro-magnetic spectrum,
Elementary particles, Golden phase of science in India, Greek schools, H J Bhabha, Ionization theory,
Islamic schools, Jaina schools, Laws of gravitation, J C Bose, M N Saha, Nyya-Vaieika school, Motion
of bodies, Nuclear program, Origin of Universe, Periodic table, Physical concepts, Quantum mechanics,
Raman effect, Response in plants, Smkhya school, S Chandrasekhar, S N Bose, S K Mitra, Spectroscopic
observation, Expanding universe & Steady state models, Telescopic observation, Upper atmosphere.

*Co-published with Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA).


**Editor, Indian Journal of History of Science, INSA, New Delhi; Email: akbag99@gmail.com
362 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

1. INTRODUCTION Its Lord in heaven alone can tell, if even


he can show.
India in its more than six thousand years
history has produced many great theoreticians and The gvedic sukta (RV.X, 90) has also
practitioners of arts and science. The physical sixteen mantras which provided the story of
concepts are generally recognized as the creation giving it a highly philosophical
knowledge or perception about origin of universe orientation, and indeed constitute a most difficult
including knowledge of its evolution, structure, and complex thought to appreciate. In short, it
motion, and properties of body or substance or conceived an idea of a purua (Cosmic Being);
energy, how they are related, and how the ideas in the derivative, pu meaning purity, purua is one
these concepts have changed through the who is pure and untouched. In Brhmanic and
centuries. The subject, though appear to sound Upaniadic literature, the personification of
vast, bold and imaginative, there are practically Supreme Being has profound influence, and in
no specialized texts in the early Indian traditions major Upaniads, purua has been emphasized as
except in the later periods which exclusively deal inner consciousness, the essence of man, the
with them. Each school of thoughts has developed tman. This type of metaphysical discussion is also
its own physical and metaphysical views. To followed in Smkhya and Vednta. A few other
appreciate the subject, I have discussed the concepts in the period merit attention:
evolution of these concepts in phases. The concept of universe of the Rgvedic
people was equally interesting. They first made
2. VEDIC & UPANIS. ADIC SCHOOLS an effort to develop this concept to establish an
(C. 6500 BC500 BC) order between the outer world and the inner urge
of human spirit. The Fire (agni), as representative
The Vedic schools of Sahits,
of the Sun in the heaven, was conceived as a great
Brhmaas, rayakas, Upaniads and of the
well-wisher, wealth-giver, illuminator and
Vedgas flourished during this period c. 6500
associated him with his own activities through
BC500 BC. The antiquity of this prehistoric
worships and sacrifices. The gveda describes
phase is based on astronomical facts verified by
pthiv (earth), antarika (sky, literary meaning
many recent sky-maps (Bag, 2015, pp.3-12, 21-
the region between the earth and the stars), and
22). The gveda is the earliest of the four Sahits
div or dyaus (heaven), as parts of his universe
(g, Sm, Yajur and Atharva) which, in its well-
(RV.I.115.1; II.40.4). It has even been tried to
known hymns (RV.X.129.6-7), speaks with wonder
estimate the distance of the heaven from the earth,
about the creation of the universe1. The English of course the values being estimated as ten times
translation of the verse (Wendy, 1981, pp.25-26; of the extent of the earth (RV.I.52.11); a thousand
also quoted in Lahiri, 2013, p.142) runs thus, days journey for the sun-bird (AV.X.8.18);
Who knows, who ever told, from whence thousand days journey for a horse (Ait.Br.
this vast creation rose? II.17.8); and so on. All these of course are
No gods had then been bornwho then figurative expressions indicating that the extent
eer the truth disclose? of the universe is somewhat infinite. The three
Whence sprang this world, and whether primary altarsGrhapatya (circular), havanya
framed by hand devine or no (square) and Daki-vedi (hemi-spherical or
1
ko andh veda ka iha pravocatkuta jt kuta iyam visi / arhgdev asya visarjanenth ko veda yata vabhva // iyam
visiryata vabhva yadi v dadhe yadi v na / yo asydhyaka parame vyomant so anga veda yadi v na veda // (RV.X.129.
6-7)
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 363

semi-circular), on which the house-holder placed The famous Nsadya skta of the gveda
their fires (agnis) for daily sacrifice, representing (RV.X.129) first conceived primeval water as the
earth, heaven and antarika respectively had same first element, and associated it with the process of
ground areas. The shapes of the altars were so creation. Later on, the Bhadrayaka Upaniad
designed, for it appeared to them the earth as (Bh.Up.V.5) speculated, In the beginning, this
spherical, heaven as cube (used to indicate four world was just water. Chndogya Upaniad
cardinal directionseast, west, north & south), (Chand. Up. VII. 10) says, It (world-stuff) is just
and antarika as hemispherical. The same area water solidified, that the earth... the atmosphere....
suggests that they conceived it as obligatory to the sky.... the gods and men... beasts and birds...
establish a coordination among these three entities. grass and trees... animals together with worms...
The perception of three gods Agni in earth, flies and ants, all these are just water solidified.
Indra (or Vyu) in aerial region (antarika), and It also accepted the three elements, water, fire and
Savit (Sun) in the heaven in the niruktas appears ka as the basis for understanding of brahma
to be quite interesting. They had a feeling that Agni as the universal soul. The idea of five elements is
is protected by Sun and Indra, and all three were also found in the Maitri Upaniad (Mait.Up. III.1
always given a prominent place in the worship. & 2; VI.4). The philosophical conception of five
tam, a cosmic order or a law, which elements has found elaborate extension in the
guides the course of things, is also formalized in Smkhya school discussed in the next section.
the gveda (RV.IV.40.5). Winternitz in his History
of Indian Literature (Vol.1, 1927, p.154) used it 3. BUDDHIST, JAIN, SAM KHYA
in the sense of the order of the universe. Keith & NYAYAVAIES. IKA SCHOOLS
in his Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and (C. 501 BC1000 AD)
Upanishads (Indian reprint, 1970, pp. 83,248) says The period is synchronized with the rise
that tam means cosmic order as well as moral of Buddha (b. 563 BC) and Buddhism, Mahvra
order. Or in other words, he clarifies that it is the (contemporary of Buddha) and Jainism, and the
primal principle which not only guides human extent of influence and vast amount of literature
activities for his sat and asat karmas, but also produced by their followers in India. Six
decides purpose of Sun, his all-pervading lights philosophical schools (Sadaranas), the epics
and other external objects, and even the flow of Rmyana & Mahbhrata, the schools of
the streams (RV.VI.2). Gods are often described Ayurveda (medicine) and Jyotia (Siddhntic
in the Vedas as Guardians of tam, for gods like astronomy) came out with many basic knowledge
Mitra and Varua are often invited by the Vedic about the universe. Buddhist notion of another life
people to increase the size of yajas and preserve or life after death (parajanma) and attainment of
it by following the path of truth (RV.I.23.5). The nirvna (free from the life cycle for good work)
apparent movements of sun and moon as seen from have made the concept of time as continuous and
the earth is likewise comes under this law. infinite. The introduction of Yuga as time unit
However, Vedic schools are silent as far as the consisting of Kta (Golden Age of 1,728,000 solar
concept of time is concerned, as to when and how years), Tret (Silver Age of 1,296,000 solar years),
the movements of these heavenly bodies began. Dvpara (864,000 solar years), and Kali (Iron Age
gveda only says, ditya lights up and creates of 432,000 solar years) maintaining a ratio 4:3:2:1
energy, and the appearances of Uas and had a considerable effect on the epics, puras as
illumination of the universe are in conformity well in astronomical texts. The concept of space,
with tam (RV.III.61.7). direction and time also got concretized with the
364 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

recognition of the planets, viz., mercury (budha), impression confirmed by Needhams work, which
venus (ukra), sun (srya), mars (magala), jupiter does not only deal with China but abounds in
(bhaspati), saturn (ani) lying in the same references to western (including Islamic) and
concentric plane, and their revolution with uniform Indian sciences. According to him, Pini
circular motion round the earth (geometric developed Sanskrit grammar as derivational
concept). All astronomical texts have a section system in some respects more sophisticated than
(Triprandhikra) dealing with dik (direction), the deductive system of Euclid, and further
dea (position), and kla (time) with methodology emphasized, India is richer than China in abstract
how to find them for a particular position of and theoretical sciences such as mathematics and
celestial bodies. Local time was considered as a logic. The philosophical schools of this period
function of suns shadow-length and measured by accepted atom as the basic unit and gave a logical
a anku (pole of height 12 agulas or roughly 9 structure which attained a unique place.
inches) from suns position at different latitudes
of the earth. The Smkhya school extended the
Upaniadic idea of the concept of element to
The Buddhist metaphysical tenets also atomic and molecular level. Prakti, according to
have avoided God as a creator, rather it developed Smkhya view of cosmogenesis, is formless,
the postulates that the universe is self-existent, limitless, ubiquitous, undifferentiated, indestructi-
having no beginning in time, rather limitless in ble, indeterminate, and incomprehensible infinite
both directions, past and present. Buddhist continuum without beginning and without end, in
influence in Central and South Asia, Alexanders which and out of which the un-manifested and
invasion, trades and cultural contacts created a differentiated cosmic universe has been evolved
situation ( though in a restricted manner because through successive stages (Ray, 1966 pp.1-3). It
of the various barriers including language), which is also an amalgam of three guas existing in
was fit for free thinking and exchange of equilibrium. These are: sattva (essence of
knowledge with scholars in India and outside intelligence staff), rajas (energy) and tamas (mass-
world. stuff or inertia), which according to Seal (1915),
Every age has its own science, beset with are diverse moments with diverse tendencies
new issues, problems and solutions. The spirit of inherent in Prakti. The successive stages of
enquiry and skepticism which characterized the cosmic evolution of matter according to Smkhya-
growth of Buddhism favored the development of Ptanjala system ( Vysa-bhya, stra 2, pada
science. New thoughts could be found in the 2) as described by Seal (1915), Ray (1956 &
teaching of philosophical schools of Smkhyas, 1966), Subbarayappa (1966) and others, may be
Nyya, and Vaieikas. The Buddhist Vihras summed up as follows:
continued to be centres of learning. So is Jaina Prakti evolves Mahat (cosmic matter,
and other schools which followed materialistic or stuff of consciousness);
traditions and believed in the sense perception as Mahat Ahamkra (ego, both objective
a valid source of knowledge as well as the basis and subjective);
for the reality of natural law. Frits Staal, a well-
Ahamkra Tmasik-ahankra
known historian of science, in his lecture on (objective modification) + Rjasik-
Concept of Science in Europe and Asia at the ahamkra (subjective modification);
Institute of International Institute for Asian Studies Tmasik-ahamkra Ska-bhta-
in 1993 says, My impression is that Indian tanmtra (subtle material potencies or
scientific tradition is as rich as the Chinese, an matter-stuff) Sthla-bhta-paramu
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 365

(atomic and molecular constituents of and the Alchemical traditions developed a duality
gross matter) finally, Dravya concept like purua and prakti, iva and akti,
(individual substances composed of
atoms and molecules);
hara and prvat, mercury and sulfur to neutralize
or contain the two opposite forces, and considered
Rjasik-ahamkra Asmit (empirical
them as inherent part of natural process. This
ego) Manas and Indriyas (Mind-stuff,
sensory and motor stuff). concept is comparable with Diracs hypothesis of
anti-matter, which fills the space and from which
This theoretical frame-work shows the the matter is continuously created. The concept
cosmic evolution of both matter-stuff and mind- of non-atomic ka as a starting point of material
stuff. Bhutdi has been conceived as matter in the creation reminds one of Fred Hoyles theory of
supr-subtle state which is absolutely material creation.
homogeneous and inert, without any chemical or
physical property excepting that of quantum or The Nyya-Vaieika school of Indian
mass. Tanmtras likewise was viewed as infra- philosophy have also propounded atomic concepts
atomic particles of matter which possesses specific and allied properties (paramu-vda). Kada,
potential energies represented by sound, touch, the founder of Vaieika school, developed in his
colour, taste and smell. The abda-tanmtra Kada-stra a system which recognized four
(sound) has the physical energy of vibration types of atomskiti, pa, tejas and vyu, has
(parispanda); the spara-tanmtra (touch) has the many points in common with that of Greek
physical energies of impact besides that of philosopher Democritus (4th century BC). It is
vibration; rpa-tanmtra (colour) has the energy somewhat different from the Smkhya system
of radiant heat and light beside those of impact which recommended five including ka atom.
and vibration; rasa-tanmtra (taste) the energy of According to Kada, ka has no atomic
viscous attraction together with heat, impact and structure, serving merely as an inert and ubiquitous
vibration; and gandha-tanmtra (smell) the energy substratum of sound, which is supposed to travel
of cohesive attraction together with those of in the form of waves in the manifesting medium
viscous attraction, heat, impact and vibration. of vyu. Kadas view about the propagation of
From tanmtras arise the sthla-bhta- sound, though purely speculative, is surprisingly
paramuska (mono-), vyu (dvi-), teja similar to that of modern science. The
(tri-), ap (tetra-), and kiti (penta tanmtrik) atoms. Praastapda-bhya, which is an exposition of
Then these atomic bhtas gives rise to five Kada-stra, and Nyya-kandal, described atom
as a logical necessity and added epistemological
different types of substanceskiti atoms give
significance. According to Vaieikas, atoms are
solid, ap atoms liquids, vyu atoms gases, tejas
eternal, part-less, spherical, and the gross world
atoms heat and light, and ka atoms ether.
is formed out of atoms. They also believed in four
Different properties of different substances are
distinct types of atoms corresponding to four
responsible from the difference in tanmtrik
substances viz. prthv (earth), ap (water), tejas
compositions and collation in their atoms. In
(fire) and vyu (air). Each type has some specific
Smkhya view, ka is conceived in two fold
qualities, which sometimes change with the
aspects, viz., non-atomic ka (kraka) and
influence of heat (pilupka). As regards
atomic ka (kryka) related to each other as
combination of atoms to formation of gross bodies,
cause and effect. The atomic ka is charged with
the Vaieika theory prescribes as follows:
vibration potential residing in a non-atomic ka,
known as space (avaka), and serves as a building Two atomsone dyad (dvyauka);
stone of all other material atoms. The Tantrik cult Three atomsone triad (tryauka);
366 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

One atom combines with another atom The Indian philosophers also observed the
under an inherent impulse to form a binary properties of reflection and refraction of light, and
molecule of two atoms (dvyauka). The atoms of rarefaction and condensation of air particles
possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion during the propagation of sound [Nyyabhya,
(parispanda). Atoms of same bhta class will unite (III. 47. 1) of Vtsyana; vide also the commentary
in pairs and give rise to molecules. The of Udyotkara (2nd century AD); propagation of
homogeneous qualities of binary molecules is sound has been discussed by Bhatrihari in his
retained corresponding to the original quality of Vkyapadya (Mimms)]. An elaborate account
the atoms, provided that no chemical changes take of various types of motion (gamana), rectilinear
place under the heat corpuscles. The binary and curvilinear (vibratory or rotatory), momentum
molecules then combine among themselves by or impressed motion (vega or samskra), gravity
groups of three (triad or trasareu or trui, which (motion of a falling body), motion due to magnetic
is visible in sunbeam), four, five and so on to form attraction, motion due to contact etc is found in
larger agreegates. The Nyya Vaieika school the Nyya Vaieika Praastapda-bhya (3-4th
assumed that the combination of two atoms is century AD). Even the attraction of a straw by
performed by invisible force (adanot visible). amber (electrical attraction) has not escaped the
However, it was suggested by later commentators notice of the scholars of Nyya Vaieika. The
(Nyyavrtika-ttparyak of Vcaspati Mira, ancient Indians do not believe in the theory of
III, 1. 28) that two atoms of pthv combine under vacuum as in the Greeks. They say that when an
the influence of a different atom say, atoms of tej atmospheric content of a glass jar is exhausted,
or ap. Two unlike atoms e.g., one atom of earth what remains is not vacuum, but ka or vyoman.
and one atom of water cannot under any It recognized ka as an element which goes as
circumstances combine to produce a dyad. Since a constituent into the composition of every object.
dyads form the basis for all triads. The Vaieika The Buddhist schools had also batted for
system argues that the structural arrangement of atomic concept having subtle differences from that
dyads (vyha) determine the specific character of of Kada, and recognized four atoms vyu,
gross substances.. Atoms are neither created nor tejas, ap and kiti. Four essential properties
destroyed, and are therefore permanent. They are extension (with hardness), cohesion (with
spherical, occupying definite positions inside fluidity), heat and pressure (with motion), along
matter. When matter is destroyed it breaks up into with four subtle sensible of colour, taste, smell
atoms. Atoms and molecules are always vibrating and touch were also accepted. So, vyu atoms are
and rotating, and all work and movement can be touch-sensible having impact or pressure as the
ultimately traced to the motion of atoms. characteristic property, tejas atoms are colour- and
Kada also recognized light and heat as touch- sensible having heat property, ap atoms are
only different forms of one and the same essential taste-, colour- and touch- sensible with viscosity
entity, tejas (radiant energy). He held the view that as the property, and kiti atoms are smell-, taste-,
sound travels in the manifesting medium of vyu colour-, and touch- sensible with dryness or
(air) in the substratum of ka (space). In Nyya- roughness as the property. The four elements
Vaieika system, the transmission of sound was (bhtas) formed out of these atoms combine to
explained by the motion of waves, while in Greek form aggregates and give rise to organic and
system it was explained by the particles of sound inorganic substances. According to Sarvstivdin
radiating in all directions in straight lines with a school, a material atom is composed of seven
sort of conical dispersion (Latham, pp.146-47). characteristic atoms, viz., solid (earth), liquid
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 367

(water), heat (fire), moving (air), colour, taste and change. A detaled description of the atomic theory
odor with sense of touch. How a material object and theory of chemical combination is found in
is composed of characteristic atoms is not clear. the Tattvrthadhigama-stra (Chap. 5) of
The later work says that the seven characteristic Umsvt (2nd century AD).
atoms are set with their apices and centre, and form The chemical change and heat had been
an octahedron. closely associated in the Nyya-Vaieika system.
The Jaina schools, in general, also Vtsyyana (first century AD) also says that
accepted the atomic theory and based it on the chemical changes may occur either by external
concept of pudgala which acts as the vehicle of heat or may result from the operation of the
energy in the form of motion. Pudgala, according internal heat ( Vtsyyana-bhya, IV.1.47). The
to them, can exist in two forms, as au (atom) and heat evolved which has undergone changes by
skandha (aggregates or molecule), the latter being combination is believed to exist in a latent form
formed from the former. An au has no parts, no in the fuel for combination. Udayana in his
beginning, middle or end, and therefore it is an Kiraval (comm on the Praaspada-bhya of
infinitesimal, eternal and ultimate particle of Nyyastra) considers solar heat as the ultimate
matter. A skandha has many forms, diad source of all heat required for chemical changes.
(dvyuka), triad (tryauka), or an infinitum This invisible heat was also believed to be
(anantka). A skanda (aggregate) is therefore responsible for the change of colour in the grass,
made of large number of aus of first, second, third for the ripening of mangoes including its change
order and so on. An atom possesses an infra- in colour, smell and taste, for conversion of food
sensible or potential taste, smell and colour, and into blood and so on (Nyyabodhin commentary
two infra-sensible tactile qualities roughness or on Annambhattas Tarkasamgraha, 8th century
smoothness, dryness or moistness, hardness or AD). Heat and light rays were also thought to be
softness, heaviness or lightness, heat or cold. A consisting of small particles radiating in straight
skandha, however, possesses in addition the lines in all directions with high velocity forming
physical characteristics of sound, atomic linking, a somewhat conical dispersion. On striking the
dimension, shape and configuration, divisibility, atom they may break the up their groupings, and
opacity, radiant heat and light. For chemical transform as per their physical and chemical
combination between two atoms, they must be character (Nyyamanjar of Jayadatta, eleventh
unlike in character, being endowed with opposite century AD).
qualities meaning roughness and smoothness, or Greek schools, like Indian
dryness and moistness. The atomic linking metaphysicians, gave the impression that basic
between two atoms is also important in this elements (or stuffs) were four, and they are
context, for it says that linking will not occur or responsible for making all substances in the
will be very weak, if the opposite qualities universe earth, water, air, and fire. However, the
(strength or intensity) be very feeble. The particles space as a medium of energy was not included
of like character or similar qualities will not like that of the Indians in their scheme. Aristotle
generally unite if they are of equal intensity. The (384322 BC) assigned the properties : Earth as
strength and intensity of qualities, although alike, cold & dry, Water as cold & moist, Air as hot &
two atoms may differ widely in character. Even moist, and Fire as hot & dry, and said that
atoms of similar qualities may enter into chemical everything on Earth was made of combination of
combination. As a result of linking or chemical these elements and all changes other than motion
combination, the properties of atoms suffer a take place on the alteration of these proportions
368 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

(Taylor, 1964, p.17). The whole concept is based in the west, through middle-east to Turkistan, Iran,
on daily experience. In Greek atomism, atoms and up to the border of China came closer to India.
void constitute the universe, and the atoms are in The area of Islamic science also grew. To cite a
perpetual motion. All physical phenomena have few examples, the astronomical works of
been explained by the use of both atom and void ryabhaa, Brahmagupta, Ptolemy, and of Plato
and developed on the basis of mechanical way of and Democritus were translated into Arabic by
thinking. The Nyya Vaieika atomism has Baghdad scholars. Al-Khwrizm (c. 850)
explained a few phenomena from the atomic point translated Indian works on arithmetic and algebra.
of view, and various others by means of ada The central Asian scholar al-Kindi (c. 800-873)
(invisible force), wave motions and so on. Indian of Basra (Baghdad) had interest on physical
atomism is not completely built on a mechanical concepts and wrote on the refraction of light. Al-
way, rather characterized by the atomism of sense Hazen (965-1038), a century later, also focussed
which explains epistemology of sensation in the his attention on reflection & refraction of light on
human body. Science in both these regions had spherical and paraboidal mirrors and the
unique achievements in isolated manner but had magnification by lenses. Al-Brn (973-1048)
no connection with any experiments or social who came to India, stayed here for about fourteen
needs. The novelty in atomic concept of matter years and spent his time in collecting information
could not sustain and develop further because of on Indian mathematics, astronomy etc and
varieties of pressures resulting from classes determined the specific gravities of number of
between higher-caste- minority and lower-class- metals and precious stones by the method of
majority, and also attack from foreign power in Archimedes. Ibn Sn (980-1077), a cotemporary
of al-Brn and a well-known medical practitioner
spite of brilliant metaphysical ideas.
had all pervading interest in philosophy,
mathematics, metaphysics and sufism, learnt both
4. SULTANATE AND MUGHAL PERIODS
Indian methods of calculations (Hisb al-Hindi)
(C. 10011800)
and Euclidean geometry, used mathematical
This period under the Sultanate and principles in all his explanations creating lot of
Mughal rulers in India were mostly busy in confusion among Indian scholars. His Dnish
mundane affairs. The study of physical aspects of Nma-Ill, an encyclopaedia of Islm in
matter had almost no patronization, as a result, Persian discussed on the question of matter and
the interest weakened further. As to academic creation. In fact, Islamic sciences reached India
contacts between India and the Islamic world, and Europe through Ibn Sns writings. Ibn Sn
Gzli (1058-1111), the well known Islamic believed in the Qurnic doctrine and accepted God
historian of Central Asia, in his al-Munqidh min as a creator. He however believed in the theory of
al-dal says that out of four types of Islamic continuous creation and atomic concept of matter.
thoughts, viz., btiniyya (Ismlyya movement), His argument was that even the minutest portion
mutakallimn (followers of atomic concepts), of matter could be divided into two. The division
falsif (rationalists and scientists), and suffiyy may not be possible physically or in practice, but
(eclectic and esoteric trends), the first had not in imagination it can always be done, as is done
much influence on India and went underground in mathematics. To cite an example he says, if
during the Sultanate period. The last three groups we take a small number, its half can also be
had of course no clash with the Indian rulers and imagined and the nature of existence of divided
intellectuals. Islamic Caliphate in central Asia and undivided numbers remain the same. He
which expanded their area of influence from Spain demonstrated that between any two jawhars
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 369

(atoms) another jawhar can also be inserted, and 1655) and Descarte (1596-1650), which created
jawhar can also be subdivided. With this analogy lot of heart-burn among his colleagues. Ibn Sns
he says, it is impossible for a straight line to works are still taught in Madrassas on India,
intersect another straight line at more than one without assessment. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh
point. Though the analogy is wrong, he succeeded (c.1688-1743) of Amber (Rajasthan) somehow got
in demolishing the atomic concept of matter to a interested in the stone observatories of Nasr al-
great extent. Al-Hazen had the idea that the Din al-s (1271) of Maragha and Ulugh Beg
incident and reflected rays of light make equal (1424) of Samarkand, and built up five
angles with the reflecting surface, and his observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura
interpretation regarding relation between the and Ujjain to study observational astronomy in
position of the source of light and its image formed India. To accomplish the task, he commissioned a
by a lens is known as al-Hazens problem. He had large number of scholars to compile astronomical
possibly some fair idea how to make mirrors and texts and collect relevant information from other
lenses and how these could be used to adjust the observatories. In addition, he made effort to
convergence or divergence of beams of light and manufacture replica of the novel movable
bring its rays to a focus during war with instrument, astrolabe (well known for its use in
opposition. On act of vision he also said, We see Central Asia) for determining solar time and
something from the seen object passing into the observation of a few stars in cosmos suitable for
eye. Spain, specially Cordoba and Toledo, local latitude. The stone observatories of course
became active academic centres which compiled had a limited scope and became a place of
important Indian and other sources under the historical interest with the advent of telescope.
encouragement of Califs Abdar-Rahman and al- In Indian and Central Asian science, the
Hakam II and others, became an active centre for concept of geocentric universe and the uniform
Arabic ideas and learning. Islamic science circular motion of heavenly bodies has been still
flourished but perished within a short time. the major focus. From seventeenth century
However, during the sixteenth and seventeenth onwards, steel, steam, cannon, maxim gun,
centuries, European glassware started coming to printing, etc brought Europe to the peak of
India which included looking glasses, window- dominance. Most clear and sharp expression of
panes, spectacles, telescopes, burning and scientific revolution is found to blossom in Italy
multiplying glasses, sand- or hour- glasses etc. It (mainly in the north), France, Holland and in
is reported that the Portuguese presented a pair of England.
(European) spectacles to an old scholar in the
Vijaynagar Empire for reading Sanskrit 5. EUROPEAN SCIENCE IN COLONIAL INDIA
manuscripts, and Rudolfus, a member of first (18011900)
Jesuit mission in Akbars court had used spectacles
The nineteenth century brought a new
(Qaiser, 1982, pp.71,75). Dnishmand Khan
phase in scientific activities in India. It was the
(original name Mull Shfi), a native of Yazd
period of Colonial rule in India, but no concrete
(Iran) an educated Iranian, who came to India to
effort was being made to introduce British science
build up his career and became Governor in Delhi
in its curriculum.
during the reign of Shejehn (1652), had a great
liberal attitude towards science of Ibn Sn, works 5.1. Urge for European Science: It is the national
of Sanskrit scholars and of European experts. He movement which urged for fresh inputs of
even engaged Bernier, the French traveler to European science. Rammohan Roy (1823), in his
translate European works of Gassendi (1592- letter to Lord Amherst, wished to have Baconian
370 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

philosophy, which by that time became accepted navigational data. The remaining three were at
as a pillar of modern science. Akhshay Kumar Lucknow (1832), Poona (1842) and another at
Datta, an editor of the Tattvabodhin Patrik Poona College of Science (1882) established by
(1843-55), established by Devendranath Tagore, the Indian monarchs for education in astronomical
who had working knowledge in French, German, knowledge.
Latin besides Sanskrit, expressed openly for the The colonial period also brought a
new European science. His study room was found significant turn when the Idea of a national
to have been decorated with the portraits of Isaac scientific research institution came through the
Newton, Charles Darwin, T.H. Huxley and John effort of Dr Mahendralal Sircar (1833-1904),
Stuart Mill, besides Rammohan Roy and others. which resulted in the establishment of Indian
He wrote many tracts on physics, astronomy and Association for Cultivation of Science (IACS) in
other subjects. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838- Calcutta in 1876 to organize research in different
94) said, Hindu method was almost solely and fields of European science including lecture
purely deductive; observation and experiment program through his initiative. On a regular basis
were considered beneath the dignity of philosophy lectures were delivered on, Thermo-Elasticity by
and science. In this context he refers to the Mahendralal Sircar; Practical Class in Physics
importance of experiments made by Torriceli & by Jagadish Chanra Bose; Optical Study of
Pascal, heliocentric theory (sun is at the centre in Musical Sound by Father Lafont; Iron Class of
stead of earth) of Copernicus, laws of Kepler, law Metals by Rajani Kanta Sen; Practical Class in
of Universal Gravitation of Newton and many Chemistry by Ram Chandra Datta; and so on
others (Lahiri, pp.48-49). A large number of [Vide Indo-European Correspondence, February
indologists, and social scientists took great 17, 1886]. Father Lafont gave a demonstration
initiatives in favour of western science. lecture on Telegraphy without wire and said it
Vidyasagar, a great Sanskrit scholar, who served was the discovery of his student, Jagadis Chandra
Sanskrit College both as Principal and Secretary, Bose some years back (Indo-European
was an ardent votary of western science in India Correspondence, Sept 22, 1897). Jagadish
and wished to have a body of men to have western Chandras demonstration lecture on electric light,
science in mother tongue. In his Jiban Carit sewing machine driven by electric motor and X-
(1849), he summarized the lives of Copernicus, ray passing through hand and many other topics
Galileo, Herschel and Newton, and summarized are also reported (Indo-European Correspon-
the European knowledge in science in his dence, 17 August 1888; see also Biswas, 2001,
Bodhadaya (Dawning of Sense, 1851). pp.256-331).
There is no end to the list. With the Slowly the craze for European science
establishment of three Universities in Calcutta, began to grow. Balaji Prabhakar Modak of
Madras, Bombay in 1857, many schools and Ratnagiri district of Bombay Presidency organized
colleges were started, and leaders took interest in annual science exhibition at Rajaram College
European science, and extracted interesting during Christmas vacation from 1893-96 in order
information which is of great historical interest. to acquaint public with west scientific inventions,
Five observatories were also established of which as reported in ilpa Kal Vijn, a science journal
the Madras observatory (1792) and Calcutta of 1886 and Karmnuk ( a Poona based monthly)
Observatory (1825) were founded by the East of January 1897 specially with the grand
India Company for observing heavenly exhibition of 1896. In another exhibition of 1896
phenomena and upgrading geographical and Modok displayed X-ray machine, camera,
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 371

telescope, microscope, coil illustrating Faradays to chemical analysis successfully discovering the
law, Morses telegraphy, Edisons phonogram, elements Caesium and Rubidium. The
water mills, automobiles, engines, along with photographic plate and camera played equally a
practical demonstration on electricity, sound and significant place in the analysis of the observation.
light by volunteers. An image of the object as seen by means of a
system of lenses thrown for a definite length of
5.2. Features of Input: The scientific knowledge
time on in a plate or film made of glass, celluloid
in Europe made a gigantic leap forward with the
or other transparent material is important for
foundation of scientific academies 2 for free
photography. A steady effort was also made to
discussion and introduction of telescope,
spectroscope photographic plate & camera as the collect the basic texts and articles for knowledge
based on the works of stalwarts in European
instruments for examining observations. The
science. In addition, a number of concepts in
scholars like Galileo Galelei (1564-1642) in Padua
physical science enriched and influenced Indian
and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) in Tubingen
both supported the heliocentric concept of the perception towards the end of 19th and beginning
universe propounded by Nicholaus Copernicus of 20th century, a summary of which as developed
(Brennan, 1997; Rao, 1999; Pal, 2008) will be of
(1473-1543) by using a telescope of refracting type
interest:
with a lens (concave or convex) at one end of a
tube and an eyepiece at the other end for Motion of body or bodies was of great
observation. The telescope of course was not free interest to Newton (1642-1727). To explain, he
from problems of spherical and chromatic introduced definitions and axioms in the same way
aberrations diffusing images surrounded by Euclid did. His axioms were interpreted as
colored halos. This problem was solved later with assumptions by scholar like Ernest Mach.
the use of a reflecting type of telescope by using a Newton defines mass, momentum, rest, uniform
mirror (speculum or parabolic) by James Gregory motion and others. In his Principia (full title:
(1638-1675), Newton (1642-1727) and later by Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica),
John Hadley (1682 -1744). It was known that he attempted how inanimately nature could be
white light passing through a prism breaks into explained in mechanical terms. He enunciated
its component colors. Similar spectrum crossed three laws of motion, viz., (i) Every body preserves
by lines often dark, more rarely bright, was also in its state of rest (velocity zero), or of uniform
found by astronomers when a light is passed motion (moving with constant velocity) in a
through a slit. Each line of this spectrum is straight line unless it is compelled to change that
identified with a given element. This led to the state by impressed forces; (ii) Change of motion
basis for the discovery of Spectroscope, an (i.e. the rate of change of momentum) is
instrument which helps to see the colored spectrum proportional to impressed force, and takes place
crossed by thousands of lines, each having in the direction in which such force is impressed;
different wavelengths throwing light on the and (iii) To every action there is equal and opposite
physical composition of an individual star. Gustav reaction. To explain his first law in a plane or space
Kirchhoff (1824-1887) and Robert Bunsen (1811- of 2-dimensions, he developed the definitions of
1899) discovered the application of spectroscope Distance as OP = r = (x2 + y2), where r is the
2
Accademia Secretorum Naturae founded in Naples (1560); Accademia dei Lincei in Rome worked from 1603 to 1630; Academia
del Cimento in Florence (1657) survived for ten years; Royal Society for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge in Gresham
College of London (1662); Academie des Sciences in France (1666); Berlin Academy in Germany (1700), and so on. Italian
academies were involved in the conflicts between science and orthodoxy, while the English, German and French Academies in
the development of utilitarian science arts & technical processes etc.
372 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

distance between O (0,0) and P (x,y); were derived from that of Galileo (1564-1642).
Displacement PQ = s = [(x)2 + (y)2] if the point Newtons third law of course appears somewhat
P (x,y) moves to another point Q(x, y) in time t ; new which talks about forces exerted by two
both distance OP and displacement PQ have objects to one another are equal and opposite, or
magnitude and direction ( known as vector in short, when a body is dragged on a surface with
quantities, also as position vector and a force, say x, then the surface exerts a backward
displacement vector respectively), though the force x to the body.
position vector OP and displacement vector PQ Periodic Motion in a pendulum, as
have different directions. Velocity (v), is defined
observed by Galileo, is a regular to and fro motion,
as v = d/dt (s), or v = d/dt (x) and d/dt (y) when t
which is termed as periodic motion, repeating itself
tends to zero along either X and Y axis respectively
over an interval of time. Or in other words, when
in a one or two-dimensional situation. Velocity is
a pendulum bob starts moving from one end point
also a vector quantity, and has the direction of
reaches to the end point of the other side passing
displacement vector. Acceleration (f) is defined
through a position of rest (known as amplitude),
as the rate of change of velocity, f = d/dt (v) or
and swings back to the original point moving
dv/dt, when dt 0 in notation. Momentum = mass
through the position of rest, time taken is known
x velocity = m.v; and so on. In case of 3-
as time period. Then he introduced a term,
dimensional space of three mutually perpendicular
frequency as the number of such cycles completed
axes, the position vector OP [O (0,0,0) and P (x,
in one second ( i.e. T = 1, or, = frequency =
y, z) are the coordinates] satisfies the distance of
1/T, where T is the time period for one oscillation).
OP= d = [(x) 2+ (y)2 + (z)2] (in Cartesian
The harmonic motion is likewise defined by water-
coordinates]. However, in Polar coordinates of 2-
waves at a given point on its surface, with its two
dimension, the length OP [where O (0,0 and P (r,
consecutive position of crests up and down having
) the position vector, r being the radius of a circle,
amplitude is A or A along a particular direction,
and is the angle with reference to an axis, say
when the time ( t = T) changes. The motion of
OX] = magnitude r; if it moves to Q ( r + r, +
the pendulum is almost closer to wave-motion or
), then the distance PQ = s = [(r)2+(r)2], for
an oscillatory (vibrational) motion along a straight
the arc length arc (= r), angle is measured in
line, known as simple harmonic motion. In a water-
radian, and r being considered perpendicular to
wave motion, the displacement of water particles
each other, when the change of position is small
is found moving in a direction perpendicular to
and is taken as good as straight. so is in polar
the direction of the motion, known as transverse
coordinates of 3-dimension. Newtons second law
motion. The distance covered between two
introduces the new conception of force which was
not very clear during his time in view of his consecutive crests or troughs is known as wave
assumptions of absolute space and absolute time length (). If number of crests () pass through a
invalidating his mechanics for moving objects, point per second, then the distance through which
including rays of light, although not for the more a crest moves in one second is known as the
slowly moving objects to which Newton applied velocity of the propagation (V = , V= velocity
it. The second law at best could be defined as of propagation, = frequency and =
amount of force, given by F = m.f, where F is wave-length).
the force applied which induces a change in the Another key concept, Law of universal
velocity due to mass (quantity of matter in a body, gravitation existing between any two material
and f is the acceleration defined as the rate of bodies, which Newton postulated in his Principia,
change of velocity. The first two laws of Newton was known. He made a basic postulate that two
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 373

material bodies have always an attractive towards or opposite to the direction of the force,
gravitational force (F) just because of their masses, where F = force applied, and s = displacement).
and the force on each other is, F = G.Mm/R2, where This is based on the hypothesis that there is
M and m are the masses of two bodies separated transformation of energy taking place from one
by distance R between them and G is the stage to another, but total energy is constant.
gravitational constant. Comparing with Newtons Newtons law of gravitation, however, was finally
second law and replacing f by g, which gives g = modified by Einstein, which recognized the
GM/R2 as the acceleration due to gravity. The impossibility of determining absolute motion and
value of g remains same for all bodies situated suggested the concept of space-time continuum.
close to each other on the earths surface. This The special theory is limited to the description of
gravitation theory of Newton is derived from events as they appear to observers in a state of
Keplers law of inverse square and he suggested uniform motion relative to one another and is
that the planets move exactly in accordance with based on two axioms, viz., the laws of natural
Keplers three laws, viz., (i) The planet moves in phenomena are the same for all observers, and the
an ellipse which has the Sun at one of its foci; (ii) velocity of light is the same for all observers
The line joining the Sun to the planet sweeps out irrespective of their own velocity. The important
equal areas in equal times; and (iii) The square of consequences of this theory are the mass of a
the time which any planet takes to complete its body is a function of its velocity; the mass-energy
orbit is proportional to the cube of its distance from equation may be meaningful for the inter-
the Sun. The first two laws was enunciated by conversion of mass and energy ( = mc2).
Kepler in his book, Astronomia nova (1609) and Fitzgerald-Lorentz combination accordingly
the third law in his Epitome Astronomiae appeared as a natural consequence of the theory.
Copernicae (1618). The argument was based on His general theory which is applicable to observers
that the earth is not exactly spherical, in which R not in uniform relative motion, has propounded
slightly varies from equator to the poles. For a that the presence of matter in space causes space
body taken to a height h, R also is changed to to curve in such a manner that the gravitation field
(R+h). On this basis, Newton tried to generalize is set up. The gravitation becomes a property of
the motion of two or three bodies (Earth and Sun, the space itself. The validity of the theory of
or Sun, Moon and Earth) when they attract relativity has been confirmed by modern
mutually under gravitational attraction. The last experiments.
problem is known as problem of three bodies,
the solution of which attracted lot of attention from Sound and its propagation, according to
the later scholars. The law of falling bodies of Newton, is produced when there is movement of
Galileo that two bodies of different masses are the particles (in the medium, say air). It generates
allowed to fall from rest they reach the ground at a vibration which produces periodic compression
the same time (only air is the hindrance), which and rarefaction in the material medium. The
showed weight (W= mg) as product of its mass propagation takes place from one layer to the next
and gravity. The kinetic energy is achieved due to in the same direction of the direction of the
motion when mass and velocity are known particles generating the vibration. Sound waves
[ m v2]. Work done by a body when it falls from a bell moves as longitudinal waves, as each
through is found by the product of its weight and particle of air moves alternately towards and away
height through it has fallen (i.e. mgh). Work done from the bell. The waves of water on a pond is
when a force makes a displacement by product of little different, the individual particle of water
the force by its displacement (i.e. F. s or F. s moves up and down and at right angles to the
374 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

surface, i.e. the direction of vibration and maintaining precisely the same amount of
propagation are at right-angles, called transverse refraction as before. As to light, Newton had no
direction.. In empty space, there is no material clear idea, in his Opticks, he however expressed
medium, so no sound is produced in empty space. it as a strange mixture of corpuscular and
The intensity or loudness of sound is proportional undulatory theories, which was just a conjecture.
to the square of the amplitude of vibration, its pitch Christian Huygens in his Traite de la Lumiere
is determined from the frequency of the vibration. (1890) described space as a very subtle and elastic
Octave is the scales of the musical notes when medium and thought that a luminous object set
they are spaced by frequencies differing by a factor up disturbances at this medium at perfectly regular
of 2. Two notes of similar frequencies (differing intervals of time. These regular impulses produced
in pitch only, e.g. frequency and n , where n is regular undulations in the medium and propagated
an integer) form harmonics; when two notes in all directions in the form of spherical waves.
produced from two sources are close to each other Hooke suggested that light might consist of
producing the same frequency, they are in tranverse waves, and each particle of ether moved
resonance producing a sound easily detected by a at right angles to the direction in which the light
trained year. The quality of the note is understood was traveling. He implied that a ray of light had
from quality of mixture of notes produced by sides in the Newtonian sense, one in the direction
different instruments, for notes of each instrument in which the particle moves, and the other in the
depends on a strong component together with a direction of the wave, which is at right angles to
small admixture of the higher harmonics, which the direction. Newton was aware how the use of
is somewhat impure. lenses, their properties and geometrical knowledge
have brought forth the use of telescope at the hands
Light, Newton believed, is nothing but of Kepler and Huygen for viewing distant objects.
corpuscles. It moves in straightline and satisfies The correct law of refraction discovered by W.
the law of reflection. Newton, after succeeding Snell (1621) of the Leiden university emphasized
Burrow as professor in chair of mathematics in by Descarte was also known to him. That the light
Cambridge published a paper, On the theory of moves in waves, and its properties were
light and colour (1801), which revealed the true propounded by Grimaldi (a Jesuit professor at
meaning of colour. He had made a small hole in Bologna), Huygens, Franhaufer and Fresnel.
the shutter of his room through which a beam of Grimaldi, in his book, Physico de Lumine,
sunlight could enter the room and is made to pass Coloribus, et Iride, first used three screens holding
through a prism. He found that the beam had parallel to each other, first having one hole, second
spread out into a coloured band of light called, a having two holes, and the third having no hole
spectrum, in which all the colours of rainbow, from When a source of light is hold before the hole of
red to violet, could be seen in the same order as in first screen, the light passing through the holes of
the rainbow. He understood and explained that the first two screens is projected on third screen,
different colours meant different degrees of it was found that the light at the two points in the
refrangibility, i.e., a ray of violet light had refracted third screen is well lighted, but the intermediate
through a greater angle than one of red light at a areas also showed rhythmical alteration of light
refracting surface. He arranged for a second and darkness, having the same origin as rainbow.
refraction in a direction at a right angles to the It provided a satisfactory understanding that the
first, and found that different colours of light light moves in waves. There were experiments
retained their identities after the second refraction, made by other scholars justifying the phenomena.
red remained red, and violet remained violet, each By the same time Young supported this
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 375

interference pattern in light and said that it is vibrations which are confined to the plane at right
possible for monochromatic life., i.e., with light angle, is known as the plane of polarization. The
of one single spectral colour. If white light is used, polarization to a vibration is strictly confined to a
the different constituent colours of light are of particular direction. It is done through passage of
different wavelengths, and produce different un-polarized light through thin plates of
patterns on the screen, the result being complicated Tourmaline crystals. However, polarization
patterns of vivid colours. From the dimensions of through solid crystalline bodies, because of their
the pattern formed by any single colour of light, it special crystal structures, can be adjusted to
was possible to deduce the wavelengths of light. preferred directions.
Fresnel found in 1821 that red light has about 4000
Magnetic properties, as described in
waves to the inch, and violet light about 80,000,
Gilberts publication of De Magnete (1600), dealt
the intermediate colours being of course
mainly with magnetic materials and magnetic
intermediate in wavelength. The undulatory theory
properties. Only one small chapter dealt with
had intimate connections that the time of travel of
electricity. Magnetic materials had a practical
a ray of light attains its minimum value along the
value in the science of navigation. The mariners
path actually travelled by the ray. H.L. Fizeau
compassa small pivoted magnet had been
measured the velocity of light in air and found a
invented by the Chinese in the eleventh century
speed of light about 315,300 km per second in
which was introduced into Europe by the
1849, while J.L. Foucault, his compatriot,
Mohammedan sailors. Among the magnetism
performed a series of experiments by a number of
materials Lodestone (an oxide of iron),
different methods, and obtained a more accurate
Ferromagnets (Iron & Nickel), Bar magnet
value of 298600 km per second. Michelson has
(suspended by a thread points towards north-south,
measured the velocity as about 299,770 km
aligning along a direction towards geographical
(186,300 miles per second). Of course it was found
north-south axis of the earth) were quite known.
less rapid in a denser medium as per Fermats
Two poles of a bar magnet near its two ends
theorem. This fixed a final nail in the coffin of the
indicate charges equal in strength but opposite in
corpuscular theory of light of Newton.
character. Magnetic moment of a bar magnet is
Polarization is an important property of calculated by multiplying strength or magnitude
light. Huygens observed that when a slab of glass each pole by its distance between the two poles.
is laid on a page of print, letters could be seen Magnetic moment is a vector quantity, and its
clearly, although a little displaced on account of direction is conventionally taken from south to
refraction in passing through the glass. But if a north pole, The north (north-seeking) pole of one
slab of calcite (Iceland spar) is laid on the page, magnet always attract south (south-seeking) pole
each letter gets double, since calcite has of the other magnet, where as two like poles repel
remarkable property of breaking light into two each other. Earth is a huge bar magnet as it contains
distinct rays travelling in different directions, and huge magnetic materials. But the magnetic
it is a case of double refraction. Light is a compass indicating north of earth means that the
transverse wave, the vibrations themselves being geographical north of earth has the same magnetic
at right angles to the direction of the light path. In character as the south pole of a bar magnet. The
its isotropic property of vibration it is known as magnetic are actually the impact of electric
un-polarized, as it moves in all direction. In plane- currents passing through the materials, i.e. atoms
polarized light, the vibrations confined to one and molecules of the material carry current on a
plane, known as plane of vibrations, and the microscopic scale, and the magnetic moment is
376 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

the fundamental property of these subatomic breaking the circuit hundreds of miles away). The
particles. In a ferromagnetic substance, the same observation made it possible also to discover
magnetic moments are usually forced to align in an instrument called, Galvanometer, for measuring
a certain direction by suitable physical methods. intensity of an electric current from its amount of
deflection. The French physicist Andre Marie
Electric property or electricity in the
Ampere immediately understood the importance
rubbed object, Gilbert explained, that when a piece
of Oersteds experiment and changed two
of amber is rubbed in the proper way it acquires
magnets, which deflect one another in proximity,
the power of attracting light objects. C.F. du Fay
replaced one magnet, also the other magnet with
(1733) tried to explain the phenomena of attraction
wire carrying currents, the effect remaining the
and repulsions on the supposition that all
same. He obtained the result what he anticipated
substances contained two kinds of electric fluids,
that two currents attract or repel one another just
usually present in equal quantity, and then
like two magnets. Michael Faraday (1791-1867),
neutralize one another. Benjamin Frankin (1752)
an assistant to Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal
suggested that lightning was an effect of electric
Institution, London, wondered whether a current
conduction and confirmed this in his famous kite
flowing in a circuit might not in the same way
experiment. In 1773 physicists became also
induce another current in a nearby circuit. He tried
interested in the shocks produced by so-called
many ways but without success, but soon found
electric fishes, the Torpedo and the Gymnotus.
that the motion of a magnet in the proximity of a
George Simon Ohm (1827) replaced the vague
circuit induced a current in the latter. In this way
descriptions by a more exact scientific
the mechanical work of moving a magnet could
terminology, and introduced precision into ideas
be used for producing electric current. This made
of quantity of electricity, current strength and
the basis of the structure and operation of dynamo
electromotive force. Faraday by 1800 introduced
(mechanical production of electric power), and all
most of the present day terminology of
forms of electric transporttrains, trams,
electrochemistry, the process of decomposing a
elevators and so on (by following a converse
substance (electrolysis) into its simpler
procedure of transforming the energy of an electric
constituents by a flow of electricity, the resolved
current into mechanical energy). In this
substance he called electrolyte. Electricity thus
experiment Faraday hinted but not clear about the
far linked with light and heat, and the foundations
line of force which the magnet or electric charges
were laid on electric lightning and heating. But a
are acting in case of ether which was imagined to
far more interesting is the connection between
fill all space. Clark Maxwell (1831-1879) followed
electricity and magnetism.
the line of Faraday and published a paper in 1864
Electromagnetism, by 1800, is believed in mathematical language, by attributing electric
by the physicists that there must be some and magnetic action to pressures and tensions in
connections between electricity and magnetism. the ether showed that any disturbance created in
H, C. Oersted (1820) of Copenhagen found that a the ether by electric and magnetic changes would
magnetic needle which was balanced on a pivot be propagated through it in the form of waves.
or hung by a thread is deflected from its position The speed with which these electromagnetic
when an electric current flows in its vicinity. This waves would travel in space is the same as the
single observation prompted the discovery of speed of light. In such waves the electric and
telegraph, the tapping of telegraph key (at one magnetic forces would be at right angles to one
point in an electric circuit alternately making and another, and move also to the direction in which
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 377

the wave was travelling. These waves would be the electromagnetic spectrum. The radio waves
propagated at a uniform speed which could be have very long wavelength (very low frequencies)
calculated and proved, to within the limits of followed by infrared heat radiation, visible light,
experimental error, to be precisely equal to the ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, gamma and cosmic
speed of light (Maxwells Electromagnetic theory). rays with very shorter wavelength (very high
Further, Maxwell pointed out that these frequencies). Ordinary sunlight being a mixture
electromagnetic waves would extend over a wide of waves of seven colours (seen sometimes as a
band of wave lengths and exhibit properties of heat rainbow) have continuous range of frequencies.
(infrared), light, ultraviolet, x-rays, -rays. The smallest frequency (having the largest
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) in 1887 succeeded wavelength) produce a sensation or radiation of
in making electrical sources emit waves and were red colour in our eye, and the largest frequency
shown to possess all properties which Maxwells (having the smallest wavelength) violet in the eye
theory required of them, as well as known in the normal visible range (wavelength varying
properties of light-waves, except that they were from 10-7 to 10-6 meters, roughly 10-5 cm). But the
of much greater wavelength. They were in fact number of different frequencies in the high
what is now known as radio-waves of very short frequency range is greater than the number in the
wavelength. low frequency range.
Radiation, Wavelength, Frequency and It was argued that if a blackbody radiates
Charge have important relationship with matter. all frequencies of electromagnetic radiations
It was observed by some experimenters by end of equally, then virtually all the energy would be
19 th century that their electric instruments radiated in the high frequency range. Infrared has
discharged themselves with out any apparent higher wavelength (0.8 m to 10-4 metres) than
reason and conjectured that there must be some immediately following red, and ultraviolet has
kind of radiation (the invisible rays that is emitted wavelength smaller than violet (410-7 to 510-9
from a source). They were of the same intensity meters), both are invisible to human eye. Above
by night and by day, could arrive at the southern the infrared, the spectrum of wavelengths
hemisphere when the Milky way was not visible, increases through the waves of micro and
it was thought it might be extra-terrestrial and the millimeter wavelengths and radiowaves in the
result of some cosmic process, and became known range of metre wavelengths. Beyond ultraviolet
as Cosmic radiation. Following Kirchhoff, the on the other side, x-rays (510-9 to 610-12 metres
inventor of Spectroscope by 1869, Max Planck in approximately) and - rays (10-12 to 10-13 metres)
1900 first noted that all objects radiate energy. A which is emitted by atomic nuclei, have extremely
short wavelengths. X-ray is also measured in
black body (a theoretical object) absorbs all
Angstrom unit (1 Angstrom = 10-8 cm or 10-10
frequencies of light of various intensities of wave
metres). The frequencies are measured in Hertz
lenghts, and when it is heated it radiates all
(Hz) after the name of Heinrich Hertz, who first
frequencies of light.
succeeded in making electrical sources in the
Radiation is described in terms of its laboratory emit waves. Hertz, SI unit of frequency
wavelength (distance between the successive wave of a periodic phenomenon is so named and derived
crests). So is frequency as number of crests that in which the periodic time is one cycle per second.
arrive per second. It was also noticed that when Other bigger units are kilohertz (1 kHz = 103 cycles
the wavelength is short, the frequency is high and per second), and megahertz (1 MHz = 106 cycles
vice versa. Various forms of radiation compose per second) [Fig. 1].
378 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Frequency in kilohertz
Wavelength in metres

Fig. 1. Electromagnetic Spectrum Radiated energy in terms of wavelength and frequency; when the wavelength is
short, the frequency is high and vice versa

Periodic table of element, structure of identified by various countries.. Robert Boyle


atom, atomic number, mass, and charge opened described them as simple, unique, unmixed
up as another very important area for study of material bodies and were made up of other similar
matter in this context. From the position of an and dissimilar bodies. Lavoisier (1743-1794) of
element in the periodic table its properties may France in 1789 first published a list of 23 elements,
be predicted with a fair measure of success. By following a method of chemical decomposition,
seventeenth century almost twenty elements and adopting a method of weighing reactants and
Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), products in chemical reactions. He for the first
Mercury (Hg), Carbon (C ), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb), time explained the nature of combustion, and that
Antimony (Sb), and Sulfur (S), Zinc (Zn), Cobalt water is a chemical compound of two gases
(Co), Nickel (Ni), Platinum (Pt), Arsenic (As), hydrogen and oxygen, and air consists of
Bismuth (Bi), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), molecules of two gases nitrogen and oxygen.
Phosphorus (P) and Hydrogen (H), were roughly The word gas was commonly used in place of
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 379

element. Priestley discovered nitric and nitrous around nucleus in orbits, and each orbit has a
oxides, hydrochloric acid gas, sulfur dioxide and quantum number having a specific energy.
several other gases. With more and more Electron can jump from one orbit to another, and
understanding of the properties of elements, an in such a case energy change occurs accompanied
urge was felt to arrange them in an order according by absorption of radiation (or, 2 1 = h f, i.e. h f
to their properties. By 1869, Mendeleyev (1834- is the energy changes from 1st orbit 1 to 2nd orbit
1907), the great Russian chemist, published a 2, where f = frequency of radiation, h = Plank
periodic table, but his table had many gaps and he constant, an extremely small number and
had no idea of inert gases (or noble gases) Helium recognized as one of the fundamental constants
(He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon of the universe = 6.626 10-34). Spectrometers
(Xe), Radon (Rn). These inert gases have no are often used to measure absorption and emission
colour, odour, taste, and also do not react of light for electron jump. The frequency of
chemically with other elements. In 1896 Becquerel radiation is again related to wavelength ( i.e f =
discovered Uranium as radioactive material c/, where = wavelength, c = velocity of light =
(radioactivity) and Madam Curie Polonium (Po). 3 x 108 ms-1). Electron, just like light, has wave
For an over all idea of elements, the concept of properties, known as orbitals, and rules have been
the structure of atom was a necessity. J.J. formulated for calculating energies of different
Thompson (1904) discovered electron as an electron orbitals. The systematic classification in
important constituent of atom of all elements, and the Periodic table with their physical properties
proposed that it has negligible mass, and negative along other seminal ideas helped the physicts
charge too. Thompson and Rutherford of the greatly. Thousands of compounds were identified
Cambridge University (UK) described atom from naturally occurring substances and many
having nucleus at the core consisting of neutron have been discovered in the laboratory. As many
(neutral charge) and protons (positively charged), as 110 elements are known, vide Periodic Table
surrounded by electrons (negatively charged). [Fig. 2].
They assigned mass number (sum of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus), atomic number (equal to The knowledge confined to various
the number of protons in the nucleus). Atoms are elements with atoms as basic units was initially
neutral because they have the same number of thought to be highly empirical, until Mendeleyev
protons and electrons. Isotopes of element having could put them into a profound order and forecast
atomic number but different mass numbers were the existence and properties of the then
also recognized. By 1900 Max Plank believed that undiscovered elements by means of his original
atoms were the basic building blocks of nature, table, supported by vast array of spectroscopic
and energy is continuous, radiated in waves, data, and to arrange them in the Periodic Table. It
irrespective of heat, sound and light waves. He was also understood that atom, within the
introduced the word, quantum (plural quanta) framework of quantum mechanics, was not an
as the unit of energy radiation, and formulated a elementary particle, rather a composite object,
relationship ( = hf, where is the unit energy with electrons orbiting around a central heavy
radiation, f = frequency of vibration, h = Planks nucleus (with linear dimension 10-4 or 10,000
constant) by saying that if quantums energy and times smaller than the size of the atom) in a
frequency of radiation times are inversely shells, defined by four elements atomic
proportional to the wavelength, then both were number, mass number, periodicity, and similarities,
directly proportional, as accepted later on by Neil in accordance with the Pauli Exclusion principle.
Bohr. In 1913 he proposed that electrons move The same theoretical framework provided a
380 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Fig. 2. Periodic table : Elements display similar properties at regular periods and elements in a group are similar

natural understanding of molecular bonds having many papers left out from this list, for which INSA
diverse chemical properties of matter in an Biographical M emoi res of well-known scientists
integrated fashion. This is specially important, for and similar publications may be consulted.
it introduces for the first time an idea of group A few prominent names in this list, are
concept in the understanding of matter.
Jagadish Chandra Bose, C.V. Raman, Megnad
Saha, S.N. Bose, S.K. Mitra, Homi Bhava, S.
6. GOLDEN PERIOD OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN
Chandrasekhar, and others. The European science
INDIA (19011960) paved the way but Indian physical scientists raised
By the University Act of 1904 the three the boundaries of knowledge in the field to a great
universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were height. Publications were mostly done in top
allowed to conduct teaching and research on international journals like Transaction of the Royal
physical science and other subjects. A large Society (Edinburg), Transaction of the Optical
number of qualified teachers and research students Society (London), Transaction of the Faraday
went to Europe for various expertise and higher Society (London), Transactions of the Chemical
degrees. Research in physical science started with Society (London), Nature (London), and many
great vigour in all these universities. A survey of other Journals abroad, besides Journals in India,
research output made by S.N. Sen and Santimoy like the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of
Chatterjee (IJHS, 1992-93) in the field of physical Bengal (1776), Bulletin of the Calcutta
science made during 1800-1950 will be of interest. Mathematical Society (1908) etc. All contributors
In this context, it may also be noted that there are were extremely motivated and took research as a
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 381

Research Output during 1901-1960

Electricity, Conduction, 19 papers in 19th & 204 Jagadish Bose (109 papers), P.C. Mohanti (15), S.K.
Discharge & Biophysics in 20th century (first half ) Kulkarni Jatkar (14) and others

Acoustics 2 papers in 19th & 258 in C.V. Raman (58 papers), R.N. Ghosh (29), M. Ghosh
20th century (first half) (15), S. Parthasarathy (13) and others

Heat & Thermodynamics 8 papers in 19th & 204 in M.N. Saha (17 papers), D.S. Kothari (16) and others
29th (first half)

Magnetism & 12 papers in 19th & 302 in D.M. Bose (12 papers), A. Bose (11), S.S. Bhatnagar
Electromagnetism 20th century (first half) (32), K.S. Krishnan (20) and others

Optics & Radiation 5 papers in 19th & 659 in C.V.Raman (113papers), K.S.Krishnan (28), R.S.
20th (first half) Krishnan (24), S. Bhagavantam (19), G.N.
Ramachandran (16), K.R. Ramanathan (15) and others

Atomic & Molecular 104 papers (1920-1950) D.M. Bose, C.V. Raman, K.R. Ramanathan and others
Structure

Crystal Structure & 313 papers (1920-1950) C.V. Raman (35 papers), K.S. Krishnan (45), S.
Properties Bhagavantam (16), K. Banerjee (15) and others

Radioactivity, Nuclear 417 papers (1910-1950) D.M. Bose (16 papers), M.N. Saha (14), R.S. Krishnan
physics & -,-,-rays, (12), H.J. Bhabha (53), K.C. Kar(18), Vikram Sarabhai
Cosmic rays (12) and others

X-rays 236 papers (1920-1950) C.V. Raman (19 papers), B.B. Ray (25), G.N.
Ramachandran (10), S.R. Das (13), P. Krishnamurti (12)
and others

Astronomy & 80 in 19th & 431 in 20th M.N. Saha (26 papers), N.R.Sen (26), A.C. Banerjee
Astrophysics century (first half) (14), D.S. Kothari (20), V.V. Narlikar (11), S.
Chandrasekhar (78),P.L.Bhatnagar (10) and others

Geophysics 200 papers in 19th & S.K. Mitra (72 ), M.N. Saha (11 papers), K.R.
617 in 20th century Ramanathan (28), S.K. Banerjee (27), S.R. Khastagir
(first half) (12) and others

Statistical mechanics, S.N. Bose, K.C. Kar, K.K. Mukherjee and others.
Wavemechanics &
Wave statistics

way out in their national movement and wanted the effort taken by IACS at Calcutta. Sir Jagadish
to assert that they are no less competent than Chandra Bose of Presidency College, Calcutta,
European scholars. A few of these scholars, as gave regular lectures at IACS and conducted
identified, will be taken here to have an idea of research in short electromagnetic waves and other
their contributions in the field. topics which achieved international fame in spite
of various limitations in space, instruments, funds
In nineteenth century there was practically and so on. His biography and contribution along
no research in physical science in India other than with others in applied research are considered here
382 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

as a case study and will be of interest. It is known The Bose Institute carries his touch, paintings,
that most of his instruments were locally frescoes, beaten metal works, portraits of great
manufactured with great novelty. savants of his time like Nandalal Bose,
Abanindranath Tagore, Gaganendranath Tagore,
6.1. Jagadish Chandra Bose Rabindranath Tagore and others.
Jagadish Chandra was Jagadish Chandra published 128 research
born on 30 November 1858 in articles besides 11 monographs (vide his list of
the town of Mymensigh in publications in the Biographical Memoires, Vol I,
Bengal, where his father, pp.7-21, published by INSA). His scientific
Bhagwan Chandra Bose was pursuits may be classified in three phases:
then posted as Deputy
1894-1900: Articles include his work on
Magistrate. He had his school Fig. 3. Sir Jagadish
Chandra Bose polarization of electric rays by double refracting
education in Faridpur, and
(1858-1937) crystals, construction of electro-polariscope,
obtained his BA degree in
determination of wavelength of electric radiation,
Physical Sciences from St Xaviers College,
construction of apparatus for the study of electric
Calcutta. He went to Cambridge for Tripose
waves, construction of a compact apparatus for
examination. For this examination he had to take
generation of electromagnetic waves of
training both in physical and biological sciences
wavelength 25 mm to 5 mm, and analysis of their
when he came under the influences of well known
quasi-optical properties; rotation of the plane of
teachers (Lord Rayleigh, Sir James Dewar, Sir
polarization of electric waves, self-recovering
Michael Foster and Francis Darwin). In 1884 he
obtained his degrees in BA (Cambridge coherer and the study of cohering action of
University) and BSc (London University), and different metals; electric touch and the molecular
came back to India and joined Presidency College, changes produced in matter by electric waves;
Calcutta in 1885 as Assistant Professor of Physics. 1901-1907: Investigation concerned with behavior
He obtained his D.Sc. from London University in of plant tissues under different modes of
1896, and made a number of visits for lecture tours stimulation, construction of delicate and accurate
to Europe and USA between1896 to 1930. He was instruments for automatic recording of plant
recognized as Jagadish Chunder Bose during his responses; preparation of inorganic models of bio-
life time. He retired as professor of Physics from physical phenomena underlying electrical and
the college after 30 years service. He was knighted mechanical responses to stimulation, the
in 1917 and elected Fellow of the Royal Society transmission of excitation in plant and animal
in 1920. After his retirement from Presidency tissues, and of vision and memory; results are
College in 1915, he was offered the post of Palit published in his book, Comparative
Professorship in Physics of the Calcutta Electrophysiology (1907);
University, but he regretted his inability to accept
1907-1933: Investigation of response phenomena
it in order to fulfil his dream to build up a research
in plants the complexity of which lies intermediate
institute on the model of the Royal Institution, now
between those of inorganic matter and of animals.
known as Bose Institute (Bose & Ray, p.274). He
collected all his personal savings and public Jagadish Chandra first focused his research
donations for this institute which was build up at attention in the construction of a compact
Upper Circular Road, Calcutta, and inaugurated instrument for the generation of short
in 1917. He became its first Director and continued electromagnetic waves and to study their optical
his investigations here till to his death in 1937. properties. Most of the scholars believe that he
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 383

was possibly influenced by Oliver Lodges paper apparatus for better electric radiation. This was
on Heinrich Hertz and his successors, published possible by selected metals, by adjustment of
in 1894. However, immediately after joining pressure and applied e.m.f. In the process he
Presidency college in 1895, he started his classified two groups of metals for his detector,
experiments in a small enclosure (laboratory) i.e. in positive groupgalena, iron, nickel,
adjoining a bath room at the College, on refraction, magnesium, tellurium, in which current increased
diffraction, polarization and transmission of in the circuit with absorption of radiation, and in
millimeter waves. He was a great innovator. To negative grouppotassium and specially
receive the radiation, he used a variety of different precipitated silver powder in which galvanometer
junctions connected to a highly sensitive current is decreased on absorption of electric
galvanometer. He plotted in detail the voltage- radiation. The current voltage curves with the
current (non-linear) characteristics of his current axis were found to be concave with the
junctions, and devised ingeniously diffraction- positive groups, and convex with the negative
grating for millimeter waves by using polarizers, groups. Bose found galena crystal as a perfect
made of cut-off metal gratings of a book Railway detector not only for absorption of perfect
timetable with sheets of tinfoil interleaved in the radiation, but also for absorption of light radiation,
pages, and inserting these plates at regular from ultraviolet to infrared. He also explained the
intervals. He even used twisted jute bundles in construction of a reflecting metal strip concave
order to rotate polarization of millimeter waves. grating with which he measured the wavelengths
In 1895 he demonstrated wireless communication, of the electric radiation given out by one of his
rang a bell and exploded some gunpowder (placed radiators. These he found to be of the order of 20
in room at a distance and separated by more than mm wavelength. On invitation from Rayleigh,
one wall) using millimeter waves in Calcutta.This Jagadish Chandra reported about his microwave
achievement was reported in 1896 in Daily (millimeter-wave) experiments to the Royal
Chronicle of England thus: The inventor (J. C. Institution and other societies in England with
Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of wavelength ranging between 2.5 cm to 5 mm
nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious (Emerson, p.33). Patent rights for the use of galena
and exceedingly valuable application of this new crystals for making receivers both for short
theoretical marvel (Emerson, p.33; wavelength radio waves, for white and ultraviolet
Bhattacharyya, p.46). In December 1895 Russian light were granted to him in 1904. K. F. Braun
scholar Popov who was doing similar work and G. Marconi (joint Nobel Prize winner of 1909)
in their Nobel lecture referred initial problem of
expressed that he was still hoping to achieve
increasing the range of spark gap in wireless
remote signaling. However, in May 1897 Marconi
transmitter, how after 1901 they have sorted out
obtained patent right on wireless signaling, which
the problem by using galena (lead sulphide) based
was already reported a public demonstration of
contact detector discovered by Jagadish Chandra
wireless signaling in 1895 in Calcutta.
(Bondyopadhyay and Banerjee, pp. 28-29) is not
Bose invented a diode detector of clear. Pearson and Brattain in their report on
wireless waves, then known as self-recovering History of Semiconductor Research, 1794-1955
coherer. He fixed an emitter and a detector, (Proceedings of I.R.E., Vol. 43) gave priority to
attaching his emitter of microwaves in a Bose for the use of semiconducting crystals as
cylindrical or rectangular metal tube, a precursor detector of radio-waves. Sir Neville Mott, Nobel
of wave guides, and used an antenna pyramidal Laureate in 1977and expert on solid-state
electromagnetic horn in his compact electric electronics remarked on this discovery of Bose
384 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

that J.C. Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his which result in transmission of excitation. He also
time (Emerson, p.33). In the Royal Society lecture devised special models to illustrate the physical
Bose also speculated on the electromagnetic basis of memory. His query was, how the memory
radiation from the sun, so-called solar emission is storing information? If the information is stored
or radiation for which solar or terrestrial in a location in a living or a mechanical system,
atmosphere might be responsible. how it could be made use of ? If it is stored in the
By the end of 19 th century, Jagadish brain, in which side of the brain it is stored?
Chandra turned his interest from electromagnetic Nothing was known during his time. What Bose
waves to response phenomena in plants did he used ferromagnetic properties of matter to
including studies of the effects of electromagnetic provide as a model for storage of information as
radiation on plants. His studies produced by memory. He prepared a surface coated with a
electricity on living and non-living substances was phosphorescent paint, in which a pattern had been
presented at the International Congress in cut out, is covered with a cardboard. Then this
Physics in Paris (1900). For further investigation, covered screen is illuminated for sometime and
he stayed in DavyFaraday Laboratory of the Royal light is extinguished. The cover is then removed
Institution and in about two years time, he and it was found that the illuminated portion under
published eight papers, compiled in a monograph, the cover glows brightly for some time. The
Response in the Living and Non-living on the basis phosphorescent screen is again exposed to diffuse
of extensive experiments on the animal tissues like illumination, it was found that the area which had
muscles, and electrical excitation in other tissues been previously exposed to light begins to glow
like nerves or retina, stimulation by light (in retina) much earlier than the unexposed portion of the
producing changes. He found that not only animal screen. This, according to Bose, can be used as
tissues, but vegetable tissues also make similar model of revival of latent memory by an act of
electric responses under various kinds of stimuli will. Bose has also given other models of memory.
(mechanical, application of heat, electric shock, This has been reported by Moss (Proceedings of
chemicals or drugs). As regards response to I.R.E., vol.43, p.1869 in his review of
inorganic systems, he observed that certain Photoconductors.
chemical dissolved in the water can increase the Jagadish Chandra used local materials for
electric current while other chemicals can depress his research and was far ahead of his time. Bose
the flow of electricity. This is somewhat analogous Institute was the epitome of his dreams. D.M.Bose,
to the effect of stimulants and depressants on living the second Director was the torch-bearer of the
tissues. institute along with others. Besides being a great
In the third phase, he concentrated on scientist, his scientific articles in Bengali
Biophysical Studies results of which are published rejuvenated great spirit in Bengali mind.
and compiled in his book, Comparative
6.2. C V Raman
Electrophysiology (1907). It shows that he devised
a number of inorganic models providing analogous Chandrasekhara Vekata
response effect in metals to varieties of stimuli. Raman, the second son of R.
He has also attempted to group together the Chandrasekhara Iyer (a
response effects in living and non-living matter, graduate in Physical science
which are mechanical (i.e. the response for change and teacher of physics and
of length); electrical (like change in conductivity, mathematics in a local college)
Fig. 4. C.V. Raman
production of galvanometric current); and those of Trichinopoly in South India, (1888- 1970)
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 385

was born on November 7, 1888, and died on 22 distinct phases and was mainly focused to clear
November, 1970 at age of 82. He had acquired a some of the doubts and mysteries of the universe.
remarkable mastery in English language and Ramans scientific work is varied in its range and
developed a test for science studies at a very early depth (vide, list of his paper in C.V. Raman
age. He had his graduation from Presidency Centenary Supplement published in Science and
College, Madras, in 1904 with first class and Culture, pp. 41-51), even though the number of
obtained Gold Medal in Physics, besides a college published papers may be more. However, the work
prize for English essay writing. During his M.A. areas may be listed in phases thus:
course, he had no regular classes in the first year 1906-1920: Worked on Newtons rings in
and prepared himself for exam in mathematics, polarized light, Huygens secondary
and also in physics by reading classical books of waves,acoustical observations, Doppler effect and
physics, like Helmholtzs Sensations of Tone, molecular scattering of radiation; [papers
Rayleighs Theory of Sound, Ewings Magnetic published from IACS independently and/or with
Induction in Iron and other Metals, and so on. In collaborators S. Appaswamiyer, A. Dey, P.N.
the second year he took literature, history, Ghosh];
economics, and other allied subjects, and cleared
M.A. in first class obtaining record marks. 1921-1932 (at Calcutta): Study included sounds
of musical instruments, of splashes, vowel sounds,
He passed also the Finance exam in 1907 whispering galleries, colours of mixed plates,
in which he stood first and got busy for the next visibility of distant objects, colour of the sea,
ten years with his appointment in Indian Finance molecular scattering of light in liquids & liquid
Department with postings in Calcutta, Rangoon, mixtures, solids & amorphous solids, and dense
Nagpur and again in Calcutta. Here in Calcutta he vapours & gases, by liquid and solid surfaces, by
came to know about IACS founded by liquid boundaries and its relation to surface
Mahendralal Sircar in 210 Bowbazar Street tension, by anisotropic molecules; molecular
(central Calcutta) and started his research work structure of amorphous solids, molecular
in physical science in his spare time beyond office diffraction of light, molecular scattering of light
hours and on holidays. From his last posting in in water and colour of the sea, ice in glaciers,
Calcutta in 1911, he became a sensitive and serious spectrum of neutral helium, diffraction of light by
in his research work and got involved for spherical obstacles, by metallic screens, by
systematic publications from this centre, and transparent laminated screen, X-ray diffraction in
remained attached with it for the next 20 years. In liquids, Compton effect, magnetic double
1917 he joined Calcutta University as Palit refraction in liquids, electrical double refraction
Professor on the invitation of Sir Asutosh relating to polarity and optical anisotropy of
Mookherjee, the then vice-Chancellor of the molecules, Maxwell effect in liquid, Compton
University. Raman was elected FRS by the Royal effect & Kerr effect verification, secondary
Society of London in 1924, knighted by British radiation & new class of spectra, change of
Government in 1929, Hughes Medal of the Royal wavelength in light scattering, polarization of
Society in 1930, and became Noble Laureate in scattered light, molecular spectra in infrared, new
Physics the same year. He also received honoris radiations by light scattering, molecular scattering
causa the D.Sc. degree from many universities of light (Noble Lecture, 1930), photon spin from
outside and in India. He was a brilliant scientist light scattering, Doppler effect in light-scattering;
and had an electrifying personality and a great [papers published independently from IACS &
leader in science. His scientific work has several Calcutta University and/ or with collaborators
386 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

B Banerjee, S Kumar, A Dey, G Sutherland, stringed instrumentstanpura and veena, and


K Seshagiri Rao, K R Ramanathan, A S Ganesan, musical drums). After becoming Palit Professor
K S Krishnan, L A Ramdas, S K Datta, of Physics in the University of Calcutta in 1917,
I Ramakrishna Rao, C M Sogani, S Krishnamurti, he continued his research in IACS. During tour to
S Bhagavantam, S W Chinchalkar]. England in 1921 as a delegate to the Universities
Congress at Oxford, he visited St Paul Church and
1933-1948 (at IIS, Bangalore): Colours in birds,
was struck by the well-known whispering gallery
shells, diffraction of light by high frequency sound
of the dome and made a study of the phenomenon.
waves, ultrasonic waves, acoustic spectrum of
After returning to India he made a thorough study
light, Haidingers rings in soap bubbles, new X-
of a number of whispering galleries, e.g., the Gol
ray effect with change of frequency, quantum
Gumbaz at Bijapur, the Victoria Memorial at
theory of X-ray reflection, spectroscopic
Calcutta, the Granary at Bankipur, Patna and the
investigations of solid and liquid states, physics
Calcutta General Post Office. During his return
including nature, origin, structure, properties and
journey from England in ship he got struck with
vibration spectrum of crystal lattice of diamond,
blue colour of the sea and focused his research
infrared spectrum and vibration spectra of crystals,
also on scattering of light. His research, known as
and X-ray reflection of crystals; [papers published
Raman Effect, earned him Noble Prize in 1930
independently and/or with collaboratorsB V
during his work in Calcutta. From 1933 onwards
Raghunatha Rao, N S Nagendranath,
he concentrated mostly on the studies of spectra
K Subbaramiah, V S Rajagopalan, P Nilakantan,
and diamonds through the diffraction and
G R Rendall, S Ramaseshan, S Bhagavantam].
reflection of light in crystal beside others. A few
1949-1970 (at Raman Research Institute, of his contribution will be of interest.
Bangalore): Diffraction of light by transparent
The Raman effect, the most pioneering
spheres and spheroids, luminescence of diamonds,
result for which C.V. Raman was awarded the
vibration spectra of crystals and specific heats,
Noble Prize in 1930 was discovered in 1928.
origin of iridescent crystals ( potassium chlorate,
Interestingly three independent reports on this
agate, opal, labradorite, moonstones, shells)
phenomenon were published by Seshagiri Rao and
their structure & behaviour, X-ray studies of C.V. Raman (1923), by K.R. Ramnath (1923), and
polycrystalline gypsum, fibrous quartz & crystals, by K.S. Krishnan (1925). A New type of
thermal energy and elasticity, specific heat of secondary radiation by Raman and Krishnan
crystals & alkali halides, quantum theory and (Raman effect) came out as a note in Nature, dated
crystal physics, diffraction of X-rays by diamond, 31 March 1928, followed by another
infrared behaviour of diamond, sodium fluoride communication by Raman to the same journal
and their structure and behaviour, light, colour and under the title, A change of wavelength in light
vision, floral colours and physiology of vision, scattering. Raman and his students succeeded in
colours of roses, varied colours of verbena; [major superposing two light scatterings in transparent
areas, papers published independently and/or with liquids and solids on which a new type of
collaboratorsS Ramaseshan, J Jayaraman, A modified, rather very weak, florescence
Jayaraman, D Krishnamurti, M R Bhat, A K (scattering) was observed. Compton in 1927 was
Ramdas, K S Viswanathan, and S Pancharatnam]. given the Nobel Prize for the inelastic scattering
Raman concentrated in the first phase of X-ray photons (known as Compton effect).
mainly on vibrations, sound and musical Towards the end of 1927 it suddenly appeared to
instruments (bowed strings, violin, pianoforte, Raman that their observation of moderate
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 387

scattering may be an optical analogue of the of symmetry of the crystal on the polarization
Compton effect, and is actually due to the rotation characters of the Raman lines have also been
and vibration spectra of liquids and solids widely investigated by others.
occurring in regions which could be visually
The Theory of Diffraction of Light by
observed, or more comfortably with
ultrasonic waves is another very important area
spectrographs, sensitive to the visible and
investigated by Raman and his colleagues.
ultraviolet regions. He was convinced and sent
According to them, the light in passing through
immediately the paper in his individual name to
the field of ultrasonic waves suffers changes of
Nature, and announced his discovery (which earn
phase in proportion to the amplitudes of the sound
him the Noble Prize) through a Press Conference
waves. Various results like, effect of oblique
in 1928 held on February 28 to avoid any other
incidence, diffraction by superimposed waves,
claim. This is the reason that February 28 is
periodic visibility of the diffraction effects and so
recognized as National Science Day in India.
on, have been worked out, and effort was made
Raman spectra of organic and inorganic for quantitative explanations. Attempt was made
substances was more clearly known from the study to determine the ultrasonic velocities in hundreds
of Raman and Krishnan. When the intense of organic liquids, and to study the dispersion of
mercury lines in the region of 3650 to 4358 A velocities in the acoustic spectrum. It was also
were used as incident ray, the spectogrums of observed that the diffracted light has a frequency
scattered radiations from benzene, toluene, different from the incident light, and the frequency
pentane, ethyl & mythyl alcohols, water and difference being equal to that sound waves. This
carbon tetrechloridem the result clearly established effect, though remains undetected with ultrasonic
that the frequency difference between the waves, could be demonstrated with hypersonic
unmodified and modified lines is independent of waves. These waves reflect the light waves,
the wavelength of the incident line. It also resulting in a change of frequency as in the
observed that there is some agreement between Doppler effect. When two frequencies are
the shift of frequency of the modified lines with symmetrically displaced on either side of the
certain characteristics of infrared frequencies of incident frequency, the unmodified central line
the molecule. With a single Raman spectrograms indicate the presence of molecular cluster. Studies
it became possible to get all the infrared made on the frequency shifts have made it possible
frequencies of the molecule much more accurately to calculate the velocities of the supersonic waves.
than the infrared spectrometer. The study of the It was also observed that the hypersonic velocity
Raman spectra in liquids was far extended by
in case of highly viscous liquids such as glycerine
Ramans colleaguesS. Bagavantam, S.
is appreciably higher than the sonic and ultrasonic
Vekateswaran, P. Krishnamurthi and others. It put
velocities, showing that such liquids exhibit
the theory of Raman effect to see deeper for its
appreciable rigidity at these high frequencies and
further use in physical studies. Origin of wings in
pass over into solid state.
the spectrum of the scattered light in liquids and
also of very low frequency lines found in crystals Crystal physics is related to the physical
are attributed to the hindered rotation of the and magnetic properties of crystals. Raman along
molecules in the liquid and to the flexural with Krishnan studied the magnetic anisotropy of
oscillation in the solid. The discrete lines when crystalline nitrate and carbonates, magnetic
melted are changed into wings which become behavior of organic crystals relating to crystal
broader with the rising temperature. The influence structure. Atomic vibrations in crystals was
388 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

considered another very important area. The initiated a general discussion on the structure and
vibration spectrum of a crystal lattice consists of properties of diamond and dwelt on the crystal
a finite number of discrete frequencies, the modes symmetry and structure of diamond. Bagavantam
of vibrations corresponding to these frequencies studied the normal oscillation of diamond-
being such that equivalent atoms in neighbouring structure and calculated the elastic constant,
cells in the lattice vibrate either in the same or in G.N.Ramachandran took the X-ray topographs,
opposite phases. The results have been worked determined the crystal structure and explained the
out for a number of crystals having simple nature of origin of laminations in diamond crystals.
structures and as to their number of characteristic Raman and his other collaborators studied the
frequencies. These are verified by Raman spectra lattice structure which gave the correct
by using a technique of special radiations of the interpretation of the vibration frequency 1332
quartz mercury lamp. This has resulted in the cm-1. Raman had a huge collection of diamonds,
studies of large number of crystals thoroughly like, and from investigations it was found that the
calcite, quartz, barites, gypsum, topaz, diamond
diamonds show large variations in its properties
and so on. The results on diamond deserve special
from one specimen to another, which was
mention, since the lines in this case have shown
attributed to inherent variations in its structure and
to remain sharp even under very high dispersion
not due to the presence of any extraneous
because of vibration frequencies being highly
impurities. He found that the internal structure of
monochromatic. The atomic vibration technique
in crystals has also been used to calculate the diamond is based on two interpenetrating face
specific heat and thermal expansion of a number centered lattices of carbon atoms. According to
of crystals. him, these tetrahedral (solid figure enclosed by
four triangles) can point either way, so that there
For obtaining dynamic of reflections in are 22 or four possible forms of diamond, two of
crystals, interesting technique was applied by which have tetrahedral and the other two
Raman and his colleagues. Change of frequency octahedral symmetry. In actual specimen, these
was noticed when the infra-red vibrations in
four structures can occur side by side or
crystal interacts with visible or ultraviolet light in
intermingled with each other. It is the variations
the scattered light. Change of frequency was also
in the nature and extent of the interpenetrations
noticed for lattice vibrations in X-rays. The change
of the different structures that gives rise to the
of frequency of the X-rays, though found very
variations in the physical properties of diamonds.
small to be determined, but the interaction of X-
rays with crystal lattice results in a tilting of the Experimental verifications are now being put
reflecting planes of the crystal, and helped to get forward that there are actually four varieties of
a new dynamic reflections in directions away from diamonds.
the Laue reflections. Such dynamic reflections Raman left a permanent stamp in the
were obtained for large variety of crystals. The history of science in India as a great experimental
investigations with diamond support the theory scientist a theorist of great order, and a man of
well. Whether the extra reflections are due to the magnified personality with full of vanity. He made
infra-red vibrations causing sharpness and a world of his own, and could be compared to the
spectacular nature and position of the reflections nucleus of an atom around which his collaborators
has been partly verified and accounted for. used to move like electrons in specified orbits.
Structure of Diamond was another area He was possibly one of the best scientists that India
in which Raman took active interest. Raman has ever produced.
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 389

6.3. Meghnad Saha 1917-1922: Focussed on Maxwells stresses,


Meghnad Saha was pressure of light, dynamics of electron, radiation
born on 6 October 1893 in pressure and problems of the solar atmosphere,
a village Seoratali in spectrum of hydrogen, ionization in the stellar
district Dacca, now in East atmosphere, elements in the sun, problems of nova
Pakistan. He was the fifth acquila III, Ionization in the stellar atmosphere,
stellar spectra, H- and K- lines of calcium in stellar
son of his father who had a
atmosphere, Ionization of gases by heat; [major
small shop, M eghnad had
areas, papers published independently or with
his Entrane & Intermediate Fig. 5. Meghnad Saha collaborators, S. Chakravarty, S.N.Bose & P.
from Dacca, B.Sc (Math (1893-1956)
Gunther];
Hons) and MSc (Applied
Mathematics) from Presidency College, Calcutta. 1923-1938 (at Allahabad): Worked on physical
He had a brilliant career standing second in order properties of elements at higher temperatures,
of merit while the first position was to his lifelong thermal ionization, Influence of radiation on
friend S N Bose. In 1917, he, along with S N Bose, ionization equilibrium, phase rule and its
joined Department of Physics, Calcutta University, application to problems of luminescence and
as lecturer. (About a year later C.V. Raman joined ionization of gases, spectrum of Si+ (once ionized
the Department as Palit Professor of Physics). Saha silicon), absolute value of entropy, entropy of
worked in the field of electromagnetic theory and radiation, radiation on ionization equilibrium,
radiation pressure for which he was awarded D.Sc nitrogen in the sun, spectrum of neon & nebulium,
degree in 2018 from the same university. In 1920 spectrum of solar corona, negatively modified
he went to England, came back in to join the scattering, statistical mechanics, spin of proton,
Calcutta University as Khaira Professor of absorption spectra of saturated chlorides, complex
Physics, but took up the Professorship of Physics X-ray characteristics spectra, -ray activities of
along with headship in the university of Allahabad radioactive bodies, upper atmosphere, stratosphere
in 1923 and remained there for 15 years. In 1927 solar observatory, ultraviolet sunlight on the upper
he was elected FRS by the Royal Society of atmosphere, ionization of upper atmosphere;
London. In 1938 he came back to Calcutta [papers published independently and/ or with
University as Palit Professor of Physics and collaboratorsN K Sur, R K Sur, K Majumder,
remained there till his retirement in 1952. B B Ray, P K Kichlu, D S Kothari, R C Majumder,
A C Banerjee, S C Deb, A K Datta, S Bhargava,
From 1953 he served as Director of the L S Mathur, R N Rai and others);
Laboratories of Associations of the Institute of
Nuclear Physics till to the time of his death in 1939- 1956 (at Calcutta): Electromagnetic waves
1956. His service to society as General President in the atmosphere, structure of atomic nuclei,
of the Indian Science Congress Association, theory of solar corona, nuclear energetic and -
activity, radio waves from sun and stars,
President of the Asiatic Society (Bengal),
micro-waves of radio frequency range from sun,
President of the Asiatic Society, Science & Culture
vertical propagation of electromagnetic waves;
as editor, CSIR, University Education
[papers published independently, or with
Commission, Member of Indian Parliament (1951)
collaboratorsS C Sircar, D Basu, A K Saha,
and to many other positions made him very special
B D Nagchaudhury, B K Banerjee].
in the planning of Indian Science. However, his
research contributions in the area of physical In the first phase of his research Saha took
science may be considered in phases. interest on Harvard classification of stellar
390 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

spectra and theory of ionization, He went to and temperature, the quantity of the Ca atom
England by the end 1919 spent considerable time ionized, and the classical constant as per
with A. Fowler of the Imperial College whom he Sackur-Tetrode-Stern relation. On his ionization
accepted as his mentor. Then he went to Germany, formula, Saha and his students (N.K. Sur, K.
Switzerland, and tried to contact Mount Wilson Majumdar) carried out several experimental
and other observatories for spectroscopic data. His investigations at Allahabad later. This resulted
work on ionization of course was recognized by verification of ionization of gases by heat, physical
the Americal astrophysicists, H.N. Russel and properties of elements at high temperature,
others. After his return he joined Allahabad experimental test of thermal ionization of
University as professor and focused his attention elements.
to entropy and other problems, including nuclear Entropy of the law of classical
physics. In the third phase his interest was devoted thermodynamics was of interest to Saha and his
to installation of cyclotron, institute of nuclear colleagues. Of the two laws, first speaking on the
physics and other projects in Calcutta. A few of conservation of energy, and the second
his contributions will be of interest. establishing a direction in time by defining a
Thermal Ionization is Sahas one of the quantity, called entropy, that increases in all real
greatest contributions. The theory of high- physical processes. In fact, entropy was defined
temperature ionization and its application to stellar as a measure of the degree of disorder or as the
spectra has been well accepted and recognized. tendency in any physical system towards
The ionization theory was formulated by Saha breakdown. The effect of increased entropy
working by himself in Calcutta (as reported by indicates that a physical system evolves from a
Professor D.S. Kothari). During his work with the state of relative order to one of disorder, and with
spectra in the sun and stellar bodies, Saha could this disorder there is increased complexity. It was
not identify the spectra of elements known in the noted that the changes of entropy can only be
earth, and also not otherwise. In the spectrum of calculated for a reversible process. For this system
the suns chromospheres, as well as during total it was defined as the ratio of the amount of heat
solar eclipses, certain puzzling facts were taken up to the absolute temperature at which the
heat is absorbed. The total entropy of a system
observed, i.e. the H- and K- lines of calcium were
must either increase (irreversible process) or
found much higher in the suns atmosphere than
remain constant (reversible process).The total
the corresponding lines of the lighter elements like
entropy of the universe is therefore increasing
hydrogen, helium or sodium. This fact was
towards a maximum, corresponding to complete
puzzling and created confusion. Saha estimated
disorder of the particles in it (isolated system). In
the quantity of energy liberated when the normal
collaboration with N K Sur, he worked not only
calcium atom (in vapour state) has lost an electron
the absolute value of entropy but also tried to
in ionized state, for he knew :
calculate the entropy of radiation. F C Auluck of
Ca = Ca+ + e , where Ca= normal atom Delhi University worked on the entropy of Fermi-
of calcium in vapour state (1 gm of atom Dirac gas.
is considered), Ca + = an atom which has Nuclear physics is another area Saha got
lost one electron, = quantity of energy interested in Allahabad. After Chadwicks
liberated; discovery of neutron in 1932, Saha along with his
He calculated the reaction isobar student D.S.Kothari thought that neutrons could
equation, taking into account the total pressure be smuggled more easily into the nucleus of the
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 391

atom than the proton or alpha particle to induce estimated from classical consideration the mass
nuclear reactions in all atoms. They vehemently of magnetic monopole to be 2.54 times that of a
tried for a donor who could gift a small amount (1 neutron (approx. 2.5 Gev). The verification of this
gm) of radium for research work but remained result will be tested when magnetic poles are
unsuccessful. At the same time Fermis work on detected.
neutron-induced-reactions came out, for he
S. Rosseland, in Theoretical Astrophysics
received about a gram of radium from the Italian
(Oxford University Press, 1939, Introduction)
Government for their successful experiment. From
writes about Sahas contribution thus, It was the
the time of his visit to Europe and USA in 1936, Indian physicist Meghnad Saha who (1920) first
he developed an idea of having an Atomic Energy
attempted to develop a consistent theory of the
Program for peaceful utilization and welfare of spectral sequence of the stars from the point of
the society. After his return to Calcutta University,
view of the atomic theory. The impetus given to
he wanted to establish a Cyclotron at the Calcutta
astrophysics by Sahas work can scarcely be
University, for which his student B.D. Nag
overestimated, as nearly all later progress in this
Chaudhuri was deputed to Berkeley University for
field has been influenced by it and much of the
proper training. A Cyclotron was installed at the
substantial work has the character of refinements
University and Saha felt very happy when nuclear
of Sahas ideas. J V Narlikar in his book Scientific
fission by splitting a heavy atomic nucleus (e.g.,
Edges (Penguine Books, 2003, p.127) writes,
uranium) into two equal parts, at the same time
Meghnad Sahas ionization (c. 1920) which
emitting nucleus and releasing very large amount
opened the door to stellar astrophysics was one of
of nuclear energy, was started in 1939. This gave
the top ten achievements of 20th century Indian
the impetus to establish the Institute of Nuclear
contribution in science and could be considered
Physics in Calcutta. The helplessness for not
in the Noble Prize class.
having 1 gm of radium before came out at the
opening session of the Institute of Nuclear Physics Sahas role in building a large number of
in Calcutta inaugurated by Marie Irene Joliot Curie scientific organizations, e.g., Indian National
(1957). Science Academy, CSIR institutes, Saha Institute
of Nuclear Physics, a prestigious bulletin like
A Stratographic Observatory was Science and Culture, are also some of his positive
visualized by Saha in 1936 while he was attending initiatives. Beside being a great scientist, he was
a Summer School in Astrophysics at Harvard. He a true nationalist and a spirit behind building of
gave his impression what could be seen above the modern India with science and scientific temper.
ozone layer and how this observatory will help in
this investigations. How Sahas dream came true 6.4. S N Bose
and predictions verified has been elaborated by
Harold Shapley in his Sahas Obituary published Satyendra Nath Bose
in the Journal of the Asiatic Society (1957). was born in January 1, 1894 in
Calcutta. His father, Surendra
Dirac-Saha Equation in 1949 was his Nath Bose, was originally from
masterly re-derivation of Diracs quantization the district of Nadia, an
condition for magnetic monopole. Magnetic accountant in East Indian
monopole is a hypothetical unit of magnetic charge Railway. He was the first child
analogous to electric charge. No evidence has been of his father followed by six
Fig. 6. S N Bose
found for the existence of a separate magnetic other sisters. He had a brilliant (1894-1974)
pole, for they are always found in pairs. Saha career standing first in order in
392 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

his B.Sc. (Honours in Mathematics) and MSc Nepal), affine connection in Einsteins new unitary
(Mixed Mathematics). He was appointed lecturer field theory, Albert Einstein; [9 articles published
in Physics of the Calcutta University in 1917, left independently and /or with collaborators, R.K.
for Dacca University and joined it as Reader in Dutta, B.C. Dutta, J. Sharma].
Physics in 1921. S.N. Bose was brilliant as a student
In 1945 he came back to Calcutta standing first in all most all the exams; among his
University as Ghosh Professor of Physics and colleagues a few distinguished names are:
Dean of Faculty of Science. He obtained honoris Maghnad Saha, Nikhil Ranjan Sen, Jnan Chandra
causa ( honorary D.Sc. degrees) from many Ghosh and others. He was a man of simple habits,
universities in India (Calcutta, Jadavpur, deep thinking, and a great intellectual. To begin
Allahabad, ISI Calcutta and Delhi), General his career, he translated Einsteins paper on theory
President of Indian Science Congress (1945-48), on relativity from German language into English
President of National Institute of Sciences in India along with Saha. His article to Einstein, printed
(1949-50),became Padma Vibhusan (1954), FRS with Einesteins rejoinder, is a landmark in history.
(1958), Vice-Chancellor of Visvabharati Boses paper on radiation theory and other topics
University & National Professor (1958-74). The are equally brilliant. His trip to Paris during 1924-
number of his research articles are hardly 25 (for 25, working with Madame Curie, Maurice de
details, vide INSA Biographical Memoires of the Brooglie, meeting in Berlin with Einstein set the
Fellows, Vol.7, 59-79): tone in his life. An account of his originality has
1917-1920: Worked on finite volume of molecules been given by many of his colleagues including
and equation of state, stress equation of Mehra and Rechenberg (1982), Mukunda(1994),
equilibrium, deduction of Rydbergs law from Ghosh (2005), and many others. However, some
quantum theory of spectral mission [papers of his contributions will be of interest:
published independently and/or with collaborator Radiation and the Ultra-Violet
M N Saha] Catastrophe was the pet subject of Bose. While
1921-1944 (at Dacca): Plancks law and he was giving his lectures in the university of
hypothesis of light quanta (first paper to Einstein), Dacca, he reiterated that the contemporary theory
Thermal equilibrium between radiation and matter on radiation was inadequate because it predicted
and a different law of probability for elementary results not in accordance with the experimental
particles (second paper to Einstein),moment results. He predicted that Maxwell-Boltzmann
coefficient of D2 statistics, progress in nuclear distribution would not be true for microscopic
physics, anomalous dielectric constant of artificial particles where fluctuation due to Heisenbergs
ionosphere, electromagnetic waves in the uncertainty principle will be significant. Thus he
ionosphere, studies of Lorentz group of equations stressed the probability of finding particles in the
and solutions of the equation : 2 (2/c2t2) = phase space made state having volume
- 4 (x,y,z,t), note on Dirac equations and the associating the distinct position and momentum
Zeemann effect [papers published independently of the particle.
and /or with collaborators, S R Khastgir, S C Kar,
Boson, Bose- Einstein Statistics & Bose-
P K Datta, K Basu].
Einstein Condensate are best known when Bose
1945-1956 (at Calcutta): Integral equation in early 1920 prepared a paper on, Plancks law
relating to hydrogen atom, extraction of and hypothesis of light quanta, and made a request
germanium from sphalerite (collected from to Einstein to translate it into German for its
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 393

publication. It came out in Zeitschrift fur Physik from a gas, hence the term condensation.
(1924) with Einsteins German translation with Seventy years were to pass before this
years Noble Laureates, in 1995,
his own rejoinder. Boses main interpretation was succeeded in achieving this extreme state
that since photons are indistinguishable from each of matter.
other, one cannot treat any two photons having
equal energy as being two distinct identifiable Radio- waves and Wave-equation are few
photons. According to him, all particles in the such areas in which Bose was also interested. He
universe whether elementary or composite, have investigated the problem of total reflection of
been found to belong to one or two classes, viz, radio-waves in the ionosphere, by solving the
one which exhibit integral spin, named as Bosons classical Lorentz equation by the method of
by Dirac, and the other having half- integral spin, characteristics. From the general scheme he found
known as Fermions by Pauli. No exceptions to four different possible conditions for the total
this rule have been found so far, provided all reflection of radio-waves only under different sets
possible degrees of freedom are taken into account. of simplifying conditions. He published another
Boses explanation is known as Bose-Einstein paper on Lorentz group in which a four
Statistics.The result derived by Bose laid the dimensional transformations was decomposed into
foundation of Quantum Statistics. Einstein two factors which led to the spinors from algebraic
combined Boses theory and De Broglis hypothsis considerations. He along with S.C. Kar gave a
(Ph.D thesis after it is examined by him) on the complete solution second degree differential
quantum theory of gases. This led to the prediction equation involving four-dimensional space-time
of existence of phenomenon which became known continuum; a similar equation has been found to
as Bose-Einstein condensate, a dense collection be used by Bhabha during his lecture on problems
of bosons (particle with integer spin), which was of cosmic rays in the Calcutta University
demonstrated to exist by experiment in 1995). Department of Mathematics (1941). Bose along
Schrodinger later said that the discovery of wave with K.M. Bose gave an exact solution of Diracs
mechanics and the Schrodinger equation was equation for hydrogenic atom in a magnetic field
largely influenced by this paper. It is Bose (1943), and deduced an integral equation for
Statistics, Bose condensate and Boson which Schrodingers wave equation for hydrogen atom
emphasize the impact of Boses work. Bose was in the momentum space and discussed the physical
not a Nobel Laureate, but In this context the problems from the integral equation.
reference of the press release of 2001 Noble Prize
in Physics will be of interest. It says, Boses contribution have been relatively
few but remarkable. His contributions in physical
This years Noble Laureates have
succeeded in discovering a new state of science and mathematics got international ovation.
matter, the Bose-Einstein condensate Over and above, he was founder of Bangiya Vijnan
(BEC). In 1924 the Indian physicist Bose Parishad and his main aim at the fag end of his
made important theoretical calculations
career was to popularize science in Bengali. He
regarding light particles. He sent his
results to Einstein who extended the was a great lover of arts, fond of instrumental
theory to certain type of atom. Einstein music (seldom missed an art or painting exhibition
predicted that if a gas of such atoms were or musical concert, specially of classical type),
cooled to a very low temperature all the
and himself played on the Esraj like a master. He
atoms would suddenly gather in the
lowest possible energy state. The process is a genre of his own and known for inner sparks
is similar to when drops of liquid form in his thoughts.
394 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

6.5. S K Mitra classification of elements, resistance of thermionic


Sisir Kumar Mitra, the valves at high frequencies, spontaneous
son of Joykrishna Mitra was oscillations in low pressure discharge, recording
born in Calcutta. His father wireless echoes at the transmitting station, effect
was originally from Konnagar, of solar eclipse on the atmosphere, study of the
Hoogly, came to Calcutta for upper ionized atmosphere in Bengal by wireless
the medical education of his echoes, earthquakes, effect of a meteoric showers
wife in the Campbell Medical on the ionosphere, transmission of radio waves
School, and shifted to Fig. 7. S.K. Mitra round the earth, knowledge of ionosphere,
Bhagalpur, as his wife got an dielectric, absorbing layer and the ionosphere at
(1890-1963)
appointment in the Lady low heights, magnetic double refraction of ionized
Dufferin Hospital at Bhagalpur after obtaining her air, need for a radio research board in India,
degree. Young Sisir had his school education from wireless echoes from low heights, radio waves
Bhagalpur, B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from from middle atmosphere, distribution of gases and
Presidency College, Calcutta. He joined the their pressures in the upper atmosphere, E-layer
Calcutta University as lecturer of Physics in 1916 of the ionosphere, ozone-sphere and E-layer of
and obtained D.Sc. degree of the University in ionosphere, ultraviolet light theory of aurora and
1919. From 1920-23 he stayed in Paris and magnetic disturbances, atomic oxygen elastic
obtained another doctorate degree from the collision with electrons and the region of F
university of Sorbonne. He then returned to absorption, zodiacal light and light of the night
Calcutta University and joined as Khaira Professor sky, active nitrogen and N 2 ions, after-glow
in Physics in 1923. brightness of active nitrogen, night-sky emission
and region F ionization, radar, auroral spectrum,
His associations with Wireless Laboratory,
geomagnetic control of region F 2 of the
Ionosphere Research school, Haringhata
ionosphere, microwaves, the upper atmosphere
Ionosphere Field Station at Calcutta, Upper
and some unsolved problems; [papers published
Atmosphere and Space exploration with artificial
independently and/or with collaborators, D
Satellites made many significant contributions. He
became Chairman of the Radio Research Banerjee, H Rakshit, B C Sil, P Syam, B N Ghose,
committee of CSIR (1943-48), President of the S S Banerjee, A C Ghosh, J N Bhar, S P Ghosh, A
Asiatic Society of Bengal (1951-52), President of K Banerjee, B B Ray, S Das Sharma].
the National Institute of Sciences in India (1956- 1948- 63: N2+ ions and some nitrogen after-glow
58). He got FRS from Royal Society London phenomena, active nitrogen in aurora, the Upper
(1958), Padmabhusan (1962), National Research Atmosphere (2nd edition), thunderstorms and
Professor in Physics by the Government of India. sporadic E ionization of ionosphere, aeronautics
1918-1923: Worked on illumination curves in and electronics, electronics in the service of
oblique diffraction, Sommerfelds problem of medicine, upper atmosphere and space exploration
diffraction by a semi-conductor screen, diffraction with artificial satellites, physics of the earths outer
by apertures with curvilinear boundaries, space [published independently and/or with
diffraction figures observed in a heliometer, radio collaborators, M R Kundu].
waves, electric oscillations (papers published His foreign trips to Paris during 1920-23,
independently). working under Charles Fabri of the University of
1924-1947: Beats by high frequency interruption Sorbonne on a topic, Determination of
of light, refraction of light by electrons, periodic Wavelength in the region 2000-2300 A0 of the
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 395

copper spectrum and training in radio valves other types of satellites by the Russian, American,
circuits and radio communications in Guttons Chinese and other developing countries, may be
laboratory, Institute of Physics, University of just out of sheer curiosity, but ultimate challenge
Nancy were considered very useful for his of manned satellite into space was as to how to
increasing interest in upper atmosphere. In the overcome the earths gravity. Earlier there were
Ionospheric research, the technology of radio only two widows to the screening of the
physics and electronics played an important role, atmosphere through wide range of electromagnetic
and in this field the works of S K Mitra, G R measures, either corresponding to light waves or
Toshniwal and S R Khastagir are prominent. through radio waves. But the satellite program has
However, Mitra and his group studied the effect made it possible to collect reliable data of the
of solar eclipse on the ionosphere, measured physical conditions in inaccessible remote regions
atmospheric height at Calcutta during Polar year, of the atmosphere and outer space, specially in
height of the absorbing layer, the C region and the area of radio communication and meteorology.
the origin of E layer of the ionosphere, anomalous The earth-satellites (Explorer I, IV, VI, VII,;
dielectric constant of artificial ionosphere, and the Vanguard I & II, Sputnik II & III, Discoverer VII
radio-wave propagation in ionosphere. However & VIII), and Moon rockets (Pioneer I, III, & IV;
some of his results are of interest: Lunik I, II & III), launched between1958 and 1959
Upper Atmosphere and the space beyond supplied valuable data in this connection.
hundreds and thousands of kilometers above the Density, Pressure, Temperature
surface of the earth was of interest to Mitra The Distribution at some selected heights in Upper
period : 1925-35 was, according to Prof Mitra, Atmosphere were areas selected by Mitra for
was a difficult period for the ionosphere workers investigation. In this context he developed a model
to go through the collections of many research constructed in 1952 based on certain assumptions
centres, and publications made in the form of (Table 1). The density distribution is now generally
reports and research papers on ionosphere. What computed from the orbital data of the satellite. The
he did, he collected all these details containing orbit of the satellite is not fixed, and changes
world picture of ionosphere, which he presented continually, firstly due to drag effect specially at
in his opening speech organized by National its perigee when it passes through comparatively
Institute of Sciences in India in the year 1935, dense atmosphere, and secondly due to irregular
under the title, Report on the Present State of our gravitational pull of the earth differing
knowledge on Ionosphere. The book in its considerably the ideal central pull of a spherical
enhanced form was published by the Asiatic earth. The geomagnetic disturbance is also
Society in 1947, of which 2000 copies of the book associated with with solar corpuscular emission,
was sold quickly worldwide. Another revised and the upper atmosphere density is effected by
edition came out in 1952 followed by Russian
translation.. The knowledge has been greatly Table 1. S.K. Mitra model (1952)
enhanced with the help of artificial satellites. The Height Density Pressure Temperature
launching of artificial satellites has actually been (km) (gm/cm3) (mm of Hg) (0K)
started with the program of International
800 3.67 10-17 2.13 10-10 3040
Geophysical year (1957 1st July to 1958 31 st 500 7.00 10-16 2.25 10-2 1840
December). 300 2.11 10-14 3.83 10-8 1040
Systematic efforts have now been made 110 4.98 10-10 2.70 10-4 270
to place earth satellites in orbit, moon rockets and 100 1.74 10-9 1.00 10-3 240
396 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Table 2. A.P. M itra and S.B. M athur model (based on Table 3. Height distribution of electrons (deduced from
rocket and satellite data, 1959) radio-rising and radio-setting of the satellite)
Height Density Pressure Temperature Altitude Electron Density of neutral
(km) (gm/cm3) (mm of Hg) (0K) (km) concentration particles (N per cm3)
(N per cm3)
800 6.00 10-17 4.81 10-10 2068
500 1.54 10-15 9.46 10-9 1591 3,100 1 102 <1
300 4.97 10-14 1.85 10-7 1023 2,450 1 103 20
130 2.74 10-11 3.46 10-5 462 1,800 1 104 2 103
1,150 1 105 2 105
heating by heating due to absorption of such 600 7 105 1 107
emission. Revised data based on high altitude 400 1.4 106 6 108
rocket and satellite data has been suggested by 320 1.8 106 ......

A.P. Mitra and S.B. Mathur in 1959 (Table 2).The 200 1 105 ......

data at 800 km height is significantly different in


both the tables. The figure in the last columndensity of
Ionosphere studies by him have indicated neutral particles at great heightsare obtained
that while stratosphere extends approximately 11 from consideration of the life time of free electron
km from the surface of the earth, the Ionosphere in these regions. It is the time that elapses between
extends to much greater heights and merges with the production of the electron by ionization and
the interstellar gas at a distance of several tens of its disappearance by recombination, which is in
earths radius. It produces a number of effects on the order 105 to 106 seconds or more in over 24
the radio signals transmitted through it from a first hours. Taking this into account, the density is 107
moving satellite. To estimate the electron at height 600 km (Table 3) is comparable with the
concentration in the ionosphere at great height, density value 106 at 800 km (Table 1).
all the effects detected on the radio signals and
Corpuscular Radiation Belt was believed
the positional data of the satellite are taken into
to be a zone whose outer belt contains streams of
account. These measurements are of considerable
charged particles emitted from the Sun and the
importance, as the transmitter located on the
inner belt contains possibly the inner ray neutrons
ground do not catch any electron concentration in
produced in the atmosphere. The solar origin
regions above the level of maximum ionization
hypothesis of the outer radiation belt explains a
of the F2 layer (the region between 300 km and
long standing difficulty of the auroras. For the
500 km). The ionospheric effects on satellite radio
solar corpuscles, if they are to reach the auroral
signals are mainly of three types, viz., Faraday
latitudes (with in 250 of the magnetic poles), the
fading effect (because of changes of the plane of
electron or proton speed will not be able to ionize
polarization as the satellite changes its position
the atmosphere at the height of the most frequent
due to rotation), Doppler effect (shift in frequency
occurrence of aurora (round 100 km), then how?
of the transmitted signal due to motion of the
There are many opinions, not discussed here. As
satellite) and Refraction effect (due to radio-rising
regards neutron hypothesis of the inner belt it is
and radio-setting of satellite, when the bending of
assumed that the particles have their origin in the
the radio waves entering the atmospheric layer is
neutrons produced by interaction of cosmic rays
away from the normal, refractive index being less
with atmospheric particles.
than unity). The distribution of the Electron
concentration at different heights are given along Cosmic ray data in the atmosphere as
with densities of the neutral particles (Table 3). obtained from the satellite radio-telemetered from
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 397

Sputnik II observations were also analyzed by Tripose in mechanical sciences in June 1930, and
Mitra. The latitude and longitude dependence of became a research student in theoretical physics.
the cosmic rays showed that the lines of equal During his research tenure in 1932 in the
intensity do not follow the geomagnetic parallels. Cavendish Laboratory, he was exposed to the
It confirmed the view that the cosmic ray equator experiments on the existence of neutron,
does not coincide with the geomagnetic equator. transmutation of light elements by high-speed
It also came out that above 200 km the intensity protons, cloud chamber photographs of the
of the cosmic rays increased with height. At 700 production of electron pairs and showers by
km it was about 40% more than that at 200 km. gamma radiation. In 1939 Bhabha came back and
The increase with height was assessed for two joined Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore as
reasonsdecrease of intensity of earths magnetic Reader in Physics and stayed there for five years.
field with height, and reduction of the screening He became the first Director of Tata
effect of more particles from the earth reaching Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and
the satellite. Fluctuations on intensity was also was appointed Chairman of the Atomic Energy
observed, the reason of which was not clear. Commission in August 1948. Subsequently the
Beyond 10 and 17 earth-radii (the outer most point Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (original name-
of the observation), the counting rate of the main Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay) for
counter appeared to reach an asymptotic value, atomic research was founded on 12 January 1967.
and the counter gave the value of 3.2 cm2/sec Bhabha became FRS in 1941, Padma Bhusan in
between interplanetary distance at this height. 1954, Adams prize and many other prizes for his
Mitra was laborious, extremely work on elementary particles. He received honoris
methodical, known for his devotion to duty, causa, i.e., honorary doctorate degree from many
precision and perfection. He was a lover of order, universities in India and Abroad. Bhabha
cleanliness and beauty besides being a good published about 82 research papers (Vide
scientist. Biographical Memoires of the Fellows of the
National Institute of Sciences in India, Vol. 2,
6.6. H J Bhabha 1970, pp.78-97).
Homi Jehangir 1933-1939: Concentrated on the annihilation of
Bhabha, son of Jeehangir H fast positrons by electrons in the K-shell, creation
Bhaba, M.A.(Oxon), Barrister of electron pairs, electron-positron scattering,
-at-Law, was born on 30 passage of first electron through the matter, wave
October, 1909. He had his equation in conformal space, passage of fast
education at the Cathedral and electrons and the theory of cosmic showers,
John Connon Schools, negative protons in cosmic radiation, proton-
Elphinstone College, and neutron exchange interactions, penetrating
Fig. 8. H.J. Bhabha
Institute of Science in components of cosmic radiation, heavy electrons
(1909-1966)
Bombay. From his childhood and nuclear forces, theory of mesotron
he had developed a keen sense and love for music, (meson),bursts and the spin of the meson, classical
recorded symphonics, concertos, quartets and theory of electrons and mesons (published
sonatas of Beethoven and Mozart and others, for independently with collaborators, H R Hulme, W
his aunt (wife of J.N. Tata) who lived across the Hettler, H Carmechel, C N Chou).
road had a huge collection of records. In 1927 he 1940-1960: Classical theory of spinning particles,
joined Caius College in Cambridge, obtained point dipoles, spinning particles in Maxwells
398 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

field, scattering of charged meson and spinning matter. This led to the discovery of electron pairs,
particles in meson field, classical and quantum muons and so on.
theories of neutral meson, protons of double
Bhabha Scattering gained international
charge and the scattering of meson, particles of recognition after Bhabha established a correct
half spin and Compton effect, radiation reaction expression for probability of electron relating to
relating to scattering phenomena, cascade theory positron scattering and meaningful method for
with collision loss, separation of electronic and measuring the cross section. In this context, his
non-electronic components of cosmic radiation, work on Compton scattering on the reduction of
relativistic wave equations for the proton, meson energy of a photon in its interaction with a free
intensity in the sub- stratosphere, latitude effect electron, R-process, and nuclear physics are quite
for mesons, equation of motions in point particles, noteworthy.
relativistic wave equations of spin 3/2, production
of mesons and localization of field energy, heavy Absorption of Cosmic Radiation features
mesons of a solid emulsion block; (collaborators, and electron showering production in cosmic rays
B S M Rao, D Basu, S K Chakravarty, Harish were areas of concern to Bhabha, who made
Chandra, R R Daniel, H J Talor, J R Heeramaneck, experiments and offered suitable explanation. In
A Ramakrishnan, N B Prasad, W B Lewis); 1936 he published two papers on The Passage of
Fast Electron and the Theory of Cosmic
1961-1966: Atomic power in India, atomic energy Showers, in which he used the theory how
in Indian economy and underdeveloped countries; primary cosmic rays from outer space interact with
(Collaborator, M. Dayal). the upper atmosphere to produce particles
Cosmic ray was one area on which Bhabha observed in the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler
showed wide interest. From the time he had been then made numerical estimate of the number of
student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, electrons in the Cascade process at different
UK, he studied theoretical physics under N.F. Mott altitudes for different electron initiative energies.
and P.A.M. Dirac, and his paper on cosmic ray, The Cascade process is actually used for
Absorption of cosmic radiation came out from separation of isotopes. It consists of a series of
W. Paulis laboratory at Zurich in 1933. His papers stages connected in such a way that that the
on cosmic radiation, cosmic showers, electron separation produced by one stage is multiplied in
showers on cosmic rays, and penetrating several stages. In a simple cascade method, the
components of cosmic radiation were quickly enriched fraction is fed to the succeeding stage
published before he came back to India. Here he and the depleted fraction to the preceding stage.
collaborated with S.K. Chakravarty and carried The calculation made by Bhabha and his colleague
out a number of theoretical studies with cascade agreed with the experimental observation of
theory of electronic showers with collision loss, cosmic ray showers by Bruno Russi and Pierre
nature of primary cosmic rays and the photons Victor Augar.
associated with cascade theory. According to Nuclear Program was planned by Bhabha
M.G.K. Menon, the second Director of TIFR, the stage by stage. First Apsara (1 MW) was built
period 1940-45 in IISc was extremely fruitful to designed and built by Indian engineers. It was
Bhabha. In 1945 he became the Director of TIFR. made for engineering experiments, material testing
His interaction with the stalwarts like, Wolfgang and isotope production. Second was Canadian
Pauli and Enrico Fermi in Rome, and Neils Bohr Indian Reactor (40 MW) under Colombo plan to
in Copenhagen helped him to plan his research process monazite sands of Kerala beach and to
on cosmic rays including its interaction with separate rare earthsthorium and phosphates,
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 399

thorium hydroxide and uranium fluoride and so life of white dwarf star. In 1933 he received Ph.D
on. His plan was power generation in three stages, on his thesis, Distorted Polytropes, FRS (1944)
from Thorium (rather than Uranium), total reserve from Royal Society (London). Joined the
of Thorium being rich to the tune of 500,000 tons; university of Chicago as an undergraduate student
second the Plutonium obtained from the first in 1955, served its faculty till to the time of his
generation power station can be used in the second death in 1995. Received many prizes of
generation of power station, designed to produce international repute, and won Nobel Prize for
electric power. The process will convert Thorium Physics (1983) on the structure and evolution of
into U-233 or depleted Uranium into Plutonium stars. Government of India honoured him with
with breeding gain. The second generation of Padmavibhushan in 1968. His phase-wise
power stations may be regarded as intermediate research work may be noted as under:
step for breeder power station of third generation 1930-1942: Chandrasekhar limit, white dwarf
which will produce more U-233. Then they will stars, stellar structure, stellar dynamics, statistical
begin in the course of producing power. theory of stellar encounters; complex statistical
Bhabha had a smart personality and was a mechanical problems; [Vide his books on Stellar
man of great caliber, artist, having many other Structure and Stellar Dynamics]
qualities. Many of his contemporaries remember 1943-49: Absorption and emission lines in stellar
him for his sketch of Niels Bohr and piano playing, spectra, radiative equilibrium in stellar
besides being a top class nuclear scientist. atmosphere, radiation field in the atmosphere,
analysis of radiative transfer of stellar atmosphere,
6.7. S Chandrasekhar
illumination and polarization of the sunlit sky,
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar was born in formulation of fundamental equations governing
Lahore on October 19, Rayleighs problems and their solutions,
1910.His father settled in systematic use of non-linear integral equations and
Madras in 1918 when he a special class of such equations (Chandrasekhars
was Deputy Accountant X and Y functions) and their solutions, classical
General of Northern treatment of polarization of light, neutron transport
Railways. Chandra was and diffusion; [Vide his books on Ellipsoidal
number three in a family Figures of Equilibrium, and Radiative Transfer]
of ten children (4 sons
1950-1960: Studies on quantum mechanics,
and 6 daughters). He
electrodynamics & optics, mathematical theory of
learnt German language Fig. 9. S. Chandrasekhar
(1910-1995) relativity, stability problems, and plasma physics;
during his under
hydrodynamics and hydromagnetic stability,
graduation in Presidency College, Madras, and
quantum theory of the negative ion of hydrogen,
showed a great interest in science research through
theory of turbulence, confirmation of these
his articles on Paulis paper on quantum
theories at a special laboratory at the university
mechanics, Compton scattering and New Statistics
of Chicago, formulation of stability theory using
(published in Proceedings of the Royal Society,
variation principles, (studies compiled in his
1929) in his student days. In 1930 he got a
books, Plasma Physics, Hydrodynamics and
Government of India scholarship on the
Hydromagnetic Stability);
recommendation of the college Principal and
admitted the same year at Trinty College, 1961-1995: mathematical theory of black holes,
Cambridge and discovered a critical limit of the and colliding gravitational waves; [See his books,
400 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Mathematical Theory of Black Holes; Truth and expressible in terms of the fundamental atomic
Beauty]. constants, the star would not become a white
dwarf. For sufficiently large mass, special
Chandrasekhar got interested in the state
relativity comes in eventually and quantum
of matter in stellar interior, source of stellar energy,
mechanical pressure cannot compete with the
stellar models and the problems of white dwarfs
gravity nor with the classical thermal pressure. A
and highly condensed stars, including estimation
star will keep on contracting in this limit as it
of maximum mass. His early work was concerned
radiates away energy, and will eventually suffer a
with thermodynamics of the Compton effect with
worse fate. It was admitted before that no radiation
reference to the interior of the stars. As to the
could escape from a star if it contracted to less
opacity coefficient of degenerate matters essential
than its Schwarzschild radius. Such a state of
for the calculation of temperature of this type of
invisibility is what we know as a black hole. The
stars, Chandrasekhar, besides D.S. Kothari and importance of this discovery is now firmly
R.C. Majumdar, has done wonderful work. His established and well adopted by astronomers, in
publications on physical state of matter and spite of initial objection and criticism by Sir Arthur
pressure in the interior of stars and also of their Stanley Eddington.
constitution were studied intensely by him. Some
of his results will be of interest: A maximum mass limit of white dwarf
stars, Chandra suggested, as 1.44 solar masses,
Theory of White Dwarf stars which are which is known as Chandrasekhar Limit. He says
not like other normal stars has been a major area that a star becomes unstable before they reach this
of interest to Chandra. These dwarfs are highly limit. Or in other words, if the star mass is greater
under-luminous, much fainter, and are judged than 1.44 times the solar mass, the minimum mass
on the basis of an average star of the same mass. which must be exceeding for a star may ultimately
A typical dwarf star is the companion of Sirius collapse. While working on general relativistic
which has a mass equal to that of the Sun but problems, it became clear to him that the stars
whose luminosity is only 0.003 times that of the more massive than this limit might have exhausted
Sun, i.e. only 0.3 percent. In addition, white dwarfs their nuclear fuel, could contract to much denser
are characterized by exceedingly high values of neutron star. Even though they have a similar but
mean density. Moreover, Sirius has mass equal to larger mass limit, these massive stars could
that of the Sun and has a radius of approx. 20,000 contract to Black holes, if they do not explode
km, astonishingly small for such a great mass. This completely as supernova. Black hole is a region
implies a density of 61,000 gms/cm3, or just about on space-time from which gravity prevents
a ton/ inch3. But why the dwarfs are of such low anything including light from escaping. It is
luminosity was still a matter of great theoretical expected to form when very massive stars collapse
importance. It was found that for a given effective at the end of their cycle. After a Black hole is
temperature, the white dwarfs are much fainter formed it continues to grow by absorbing mass
than a star on the main series, or in other words, from its surroundings. The limit was calculated
to maintain the same luminosity, the white dwarf by Chandrasekhar in 1930 during his voyage to
will need a very much higher effective temperature Cambridge from India. It took nearly three decades
(for much whiter) than the main series stars. To before the full significance of the discovery of
get an answer, Chandra based his calculations on Black hole was recognized. Chandrasekhar limit
Einsteins special theory of relativity and the new has now entered the standard lexicon of physics
quantum mechanics, and found that if the mass of and astrophysics. His mathematical theory of
the star exceeded a certain critical mass, Black hole was published in 1983.
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 401

Distribution and motion of stars was also of equations for early stage of turbulence.
a favourite area of Chandra. He calculated in detail Chandrasekhar, however, gave a numerical
the factors responsible for their slowing down due solution of Heisenbergs homogeneous isotropic
to gravitational drag of the neighbouring stars. His turbulence exhibiting uniform properties
studies on stellar structure and stellar dynamics throughout in all directions. He has also used an
(1932-42) established that that stars experience important dimensionless number for magneto-
dynamical friction and suffer from a systematic hydrodynamics, named as Chandrasekhar
tendency to be decelerated in the direction of the number.
motion. This dynamical friction is one of the Chandras interest in classical physical
consequences of the fluctuating force acting on a ideas was renewed when he started writing a
star due to the varying complexion of the commentary on Newtons Principia from modern
neighbours. On stellar dynamics, he and his perspectives in the fag end of his career and
colleague, Von Neumann applied the statistical published it for common readers. Even his work
analysis of the stellar encounters. His treatise on on mathematical reasoning of the scattering of
rotating objects began to be appreciated after two light has drawn attention.. Chandra was an
decades of its publication. extremely methodical and talented teacher and
Stability in hydrodynamics and researcher who is an example for others.
hydromagnetic problems was formulated very Chandrasekhar was a great astrophysicist
comprehensively using variational principles of and much ahead of his time. He was a teacher in
mathematics. Starting with a discussion of the the true sense, and made everything appeared
classical Benard convection problem of simpler through exhaustive and critical analysis.
transferring of heat through a liquid or gas and According to Martin Schwarzchild (the well-
setting up a convection current, Chandra known astrophysicist), There is not one field that
generalizes it by including the effect of rotation hes worked in, where we are now daily using
of magnetic field, then extending it to their some of his results. In his Noble Lecture (1983),
combined effect, followed by discussion on the Chandra himself emphasized in the concluding
problems of thermal stability in fluid spheres, remark of his Nobel Lecture about Beauty, Truth
spherical shells, stability of coquette flow and and Symmetry in the Universe, leading us into
more general flows between co-axial cylinders, the realms of both scientific features of nature and
jets and cylinders and some problems of metaphysics of science.
gravitational stability. His book on Hydrodynamic
and Hydromagnetic Stabily (1961) is a master 7. PERIOD OF CONSOLIDATION (1961-2000)
presentation in the field.
The previous section has given an account
Chandrasekhar Number was discovered of some excellent experimental and theoretical
when he was busy shorting out magneto- scientists of first half of the twentieth century in
hydrodynamical problems (1961). For assessing India. It is somewhat satisfying when we think
friction in fluid motion Mach number of the flow how wide was their research field, and how had
of fluid and Reynolds number for assessing the they achieved international fame in spite of
friction in fluid motion were already popular. varieties of limitations with no government grant,
Turbulent flow was also decomposed into various better not to speak about facilities for basic
components by Reynolds or Navier-Stokes research, tools, techniques, source materials, and
equations or by direct numerical simulation. N.R. experimentation. The research was only guided
Sen and his student H.P. Majumdar gave solution by the urge of doing something great. India
402 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

became free from Colonial rule in 1947, and the production in pairs, produced by cosmic rays.
gap between experimental and theoretical Menon also took initiative for cathode ray
knowledge was visible and became the demands experiments in Kolar Gold Fields in Mysore
of the day. Efforts were made not only to build (KGF), found to be an ideal place having pits of
new institutions under TIFR, CSIR, DAE, IIS, various depths extending up to 2 miles below the
BARC,RRI, etc, but also under old and new surface. The experiments were carried out in
universities, the main aim being how to minimize collaboration with groups from England and Japan
the gap between theoretical and experimental which collected most comprehensive depth-
understanding and to make India self-sufficient. intensity data for muons up to the depth of 9,600
In astronomy, astrophysics and physics, the ft below the ground. The first natural atmospheric
general thrust in physical science was to set up neutrino interactions were also detected in KGF
major observation facilities in cosmic ray, optical, (1965). The nucleon-decay experiment to a life
infrared, millimeter and radio wave bands of span of 1031 years was also carried out with
electromagnetic spectra to get a realistic picture detector which was operational in 100 ton
of the universe and to know more about their category. BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research
characteristics. Centre) provided early leadership from the time
of Bhabha (since 1960) in using inelastic scattering
The cosmic ray research was of course
(i.e. when the scattering particle looses energy by
originally started by D.M. Bose and his group in
causing excitation of the struck nucleus) to prove
Calcutta, who detected cosmic ray particle tracts
elementary excitations in condensed matter. RRI
in photographic plates exposed in the Himalayan
(Raman Research Institute, Bangaluru) some time
region, and also successful in identifying new
in 70s took systematic studies specially on liquid
particles with a mean mass 200 times that of the
crystals and in library-scale studies in new
electron, much before Powells systematic
arrangements of liquid crystals, and decoding
development of photographic emulsion method,
stage with a stacking of disc-like molecules, this
and pi-mesons in cosmic rays. It was generally
being possibly the highest point in the life of RRI
believed that the cosmic rays enter the atmosphere
during 1970-78.
from outside the earth, i.e. from extra-terrestrial
sources. Cosmic ray in its penetrating power can The atmospheric studies which started
be perceived after their traversing the whole also in Kolkata carried out important work on low
column of earths atmosphere, equivalent to a layer frequency propagation in the ionosphere,
of water ten meters thick, can reach any points on aeronomy and the ozone layer in the upper
the earth. TIFR cosmic group under the initiative atmosphere (15 to 30 km above the earths surface
of Homi Bhabha, the then Director of the Institute, and responsible to absorb a large proportion of
took lot of initiative and used balloon flights for Suns ultraviolet radiation).The work in radio
study of cosmic ray. MGK Menon, who was the astronomy also started in Calcutta and renewed
second man in-charge of TIFR and the right hand with great interest and in a large scale in TIFR in
man of Bhabha was a student of W. Pauli and also 1962 under the active interest of Bhabha and
an expert on cosmic rays. He took great interest Menon. It was through the encouragement of
in the preparation of high-precision measurement Menon, Govind Swarup and his group was
techniques and use of large strapped emulsion successful in setting a large telescope indigenously
stacks in the flights to obtain important results like in Ootacamund (Ooty) on a hill with a slope of
properties of strangeness (quantum attributes of the same latitude of the place and barrel placing
elementary particles), decay mode of heavy in parallel to the axis of the earth. It had a parabolic
unstable particlescalled K-mesons, associated cylindrical antenna (530 m 30 m) stretched
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 403

towards north-south with facilities of scanning striking resemblance thereby suggesting that the
eastern sky, and began active participation since nuclear constituents ( i.e. nucleons consisting of
its commissioning in 1970. Ooty Radio Telescope proton and the neutron) serve a similar role in
(ORT) is used for observing sensitive and high shaping nuclear structure, as it is in the case of
angular resolutions of extra galactic sources at a molecular structure (with their electronic degrees
frequency of 327 MHz using the method of lunar- of freedom energetically suppressed so that they
occultation (Ramakrishna,2010). It has also behave effectively like elementary constituents).
enabled extensive observations of pulsars, The nucleon-like state was also observed by
supernovae, apparent angular size of galaxies with experimental scientists in cosmic rays produced
their energy flux, The optical telescope facilities in high energy accelerators, and in resonances
also dates to this period and supply interesting data produced by the bombardment of pi-meson beams
on discovery of rings surrounding Uranus, on proton targets in the laboratory. It was first
measurement of star clusters and their kinematics. conjectured by that the nucleons must be held
GMRT (Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, together by short-range forces (because of the
Bangaluru) was also ser up by TIFR consisting of much less dimension of the nucleons), or meson
30 antenna each of 45 m diameter works over a (heavy quanta, the rest mass of these quanta was
wide frequency of 150-1500 MHz, effort being estimated to be about 200-300 times heavier than
made to widen the frequency range to 40 MHz the electron estimated by using Uncertainty
1500 MHz. Signals from all antennas are brought Principle of Heisenberg ). This was known as pi-
to a control room to correlate using hardware and meson (or pion), but it entered into lot of
software correlators to process 32 MHz of controversy for not having the strong interactive
bandwidth around the operating frequency. RRI properties as expected. Later on it was found that
and IIA (Indian Institute of Astrophysics, pi-meson has a partner, kaon in cosmic rays,
Bangaluru) and various other institutes work in which could produce powerful meson resonances
collaboration in mapping of the sky and at its excited states by energetic pion- beams, in
exchanging important data between them. parallel with the corresponding nucleon (or
Various efforts were being made to baryon) in the laboratory. Following this process
correlate the theoretical and experimental a large number of nucleon- and pion-like particles
understanding and the search continued for more (collectively called hadrons, signifying large,
and more subatomic particles and their massive particle like mesons and baryons) were
characteristics, since they were generally found which created serious doubt as to the
conceived as the building blocks in the formation property of elementarity of atom. It was of course
of matter in the universe (Mehra and Reichenberg, found that some of the fundamental particles of
1962; Mukherji, 1971-72; Mitra,1984; Hawking, atom could be better understood if they were made
1987; Gell-Mann, 1994; Pal,2008;). Major focus up of even smaller components, an idea that lead
was obviously given on the compositeness of to the concept of quarks (as a fundamental particle
atomic nucleus. With the discovery of neutron- that combines to form other particles, including
particle which is electrically neutral, and yet found proton and the neutron, the particles that make up
to be a basic constituent of atomic nucleus (where the atomic nucleus). Initially, quarks were
atomic mass is concentrated), and was also on par conceived having three fold properties of forces
with the proton, it was found that both lie within (or flavours, proposed by Gell-Mann )Up
the same shell structure. Under nuclear (charge + 2/3, mass 0.378 ), Down (charge 1/3,
spectroscopic instrument, it was also noticed that mass 0.336), and Strange (charge 1/3, mass
the atomic spectra and molecular spectra have a 0.540), combing as doublet, triplet composites of
404 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

more elementary constituents. [The mass is elements through group structures might have
expressed in Gigaelectron volts (GeV) following prompted the idea of field for better understanding
Einsteins mass and energy formula]. These three of the particle properties. First, the
flavours together with their antiparticles proved Electromagnetic theory of Maxwell was examined
adequate for the description of about 300 hadrons and it was found that electromagnetic field has
and their resonances (hadron sector). not only the underlying unity of both electricity
and magnetism, but also supports the theoretical
Fourfold classification of forces
properties like, charges and their conservation,
electromagnetic, strong-nuclear, weak-nuclear and
gauge fields as force media and charge carriers
gravitational, which govern particle interactions
(invariance under gauge transformation leading
of different kinds (called Lepton sector) were also
to conservation of charge, a kind of symmetry for
attempted. Of these, the electromagnetic forces
translational and rotational invariance)besides
have already been encountered in atomic
particle interpretation at the hands of Planck, Bose
interactions, and strong-force in nuclear level
and Einstein. The gauge concept gave a new
interactions. The gravitational force is of course
meaning to the entity called charge, not only as
is most tangible, but conceptually most baffling
a measure of force between charged particles, and
of all. The weak-nuclear force is noted in
is strictly conserved as a result of its universal
phenomena like -decay whose feature of missing
coupling to a gauge field, of which the photon
energy and angular momentum has been
once again is a non-trivial example. The theory of
introduced in the concept of neutrino (partner),
quantum electro-dynamics (QED) based on
a mass-less, charge-less particle, which can travel
photon field (having mass-less vector, boson) has
thousands of miles unnoticed to accompany the
got spectacular experimental success in predicting
- particle (electron). Its existence as a partner of
the effect of electromagnetic interactions (1 in 1012
electron was also experimentally proved. Some
accuracy). It has also a theoretical property, known
particles of course exhibit both weak and
electromagnetic force interactions and are given as Renormalizability, which ensures free
calculation of physical effects to infinity (any
the generic name of lepton particles(means small
arbitrary order) through suitable redefinitions of
or light), which have maintained their elementarity
electron mass and charge. In this sense it is a
(along with their partners which makes them
universal carrier of electric charge but does not
weak). Three more quark flavours but much
possess any charge of its own. May be colour
heavier than the earlier three were also postulated
carrying gluon (a type of boson responsible for
as properties of quarks. These areCharm (charge
the strong force between quarks) field, photon
+ 2/3, mass 1.500), Beauty (charge 1/3, mass
field, vector field or others which is a right kind
4.720) and Top (charge + 2/3, mass 174.000). The
of vehicle as carrier of charges, as required by the
theory behind the colour force is called quantum
theory to explain the forces. The way the periodic
chromodynamics (QCD). The muon-particle
table was based on group structures, the similar
which has properties similar to electron but 200
approach is possibly being attempted for a possible
times heavier also participates in weak and
solution.
electromagnetic interactions, so is tau- particle
which is 17 times heavier than muon-particle, their Boson-Fermion Classification of
partners are being searched out. Attempts are also particles was another revolutionary concept. S.N.
made to explain effects of interaction of these Bose (1924) had advocated a new form of counting
forces through the use of group structures and their of quantum states for truly indistinguishable
effects in terms of various field reactions and particles, a revolutionary concept which drew
properties. Mendeleyevs classification of constant endorsement not only from Einstein but
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 405

also from Schrodinger (1926), Heisenberg (1927) generalization for first moving objects, and
and Dirac (1928). According to the Principle of Hamiltonian equations of motion (or quantum
Indistinguishability, the wave-function of a truly theory) for small objects/particles, the latter being
identical particles must be totally symmetric with adaptable to Heisenberg form of quantum
reference to an interchange of the labels of any mechanics (alternative to Schrodinger form). The
two of them. The photon was the first non-trivial small particles, not fast enough, created lot of
example of this principle. Thus the wave-function problems. In order to make a compromise between
for an n-photon state, specified by their respective the two opposite concepts (Dirac floated the idea)
and states of polarization (or spin) should have of particle and anti-particle on the basis of
this symmetric property. For any other of identical mathematical formalism, and argued for
particles whose intrinsic angular momentum or relativistic quantum mechanics of electron as an
spin is an integral multiple of Plancks constant antiparticle of positron having opposite mass and
(h), the corresponding wave-function must be spin, opposite sign for charge, magnetic moment
totally symmetric. There is another class of and lepton number, result being simultaneous
(identical) particles of intrinsic angular momentum destruction of both as particles and the entire mass
or spin is half-integral (of Plancks constant h) converted into energy. Though the existence of
which obey the anti-symmetric property with anti-particles for all types of fermion- particles
respect to the interchange of any two particle were generally believed, it was taken as a non-
lebels. The anti-symmetric property automatically trivial solution in the absence of experimental
ensures that such particles must obey Paulis verification. The concept of charge with reference
Exclusion Principle (their wave-function would to nucleon were thought to exist in two distinct
vanish when any two particles with identical charge states much like two spin states of an
numbers occupy the same position in space). The electron, viz., isospin and flavor, the former is the
counting rule for the second type of particle was simple manifestation of the latter. The isospin
given by Fermi (1926) with appropriate space (or isotropy of charge space) in a preferred
modification to Boses rule. The electron (spin direction and symmetry of near equality of masses
h) was the first non-trivial example of the second are maintained for isospin multipliers. Strong
type. A few particles have been identified as : interactions at the hadronic and quark levels
Boson particles (with integral spin)photon, indeed respect this symmetry. Weak interaction
alpha-particle, pi-meson, W-boson and gluon violates isospin symmetry as seen from the rather
which satisfy Bose-Einstein statistics; and large mass differences within its multiples. Various
symmetry of group representations like U (1), SU
Fermions (half integral spin)electron, nucleon,
(2), SU (3), SU(6), were applied for explanation
triton, neutrino and quarks which satisfy Fermi-
of these interacting forces. More sophisticated use
Dirac statistics. Pauli has further suggested that
of group symmetric theory was first made in
Boson-Fermion classification can be axiomatically
unifying first the electromagnetic and weak
derived from the very foundation of quantum field
interactions, and then put under Grand Unified
theory under general conditions (Lorentz
theory (GUT) of electro-weak and strong
invariance, causality and locality of basic field
interactions. It has been found that each physical
operators). A new symmetry between Boson and
process leading to infinite variations due to the
Fermion systems has now been proposed to erase
participation of fermion is cancelled in the same
this distinction.
way an offending fermion is replaced by a
Another situation was seen when companion boson. Boson-Fermion symmetry
Newtonian equations which admitted a relativistic (SUSy) is virtually a doubling of number of
406 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

elementary particles since each particle or field negative squared mass and soon realized that
of conventional type now requires that a boson excitations of such imaginary mass field do not in
particle to have an identical SUSy partner. Thus, fact propagate faster than light theory, rather
photon and photino (spin 1 & respect.), gluon represents an instability known as tachyon
and gluino (coloured spin ( 1 & respect.), lepton condensation. No compelling evidence for their
and slepton (spin & 0),W boson and wino (spin existence has been found. Apart from this fact,
1 & ), Higgs boson and Higgsino (spin 0 & ), the work of Virendra Singh on Regge pole theory
Graviton and Gravitino (2 & ) and so on are for coupling coulomb scattering (caused by the
fermion - particles and their SUSy partners. Thus electrostatic field surrounding nucleus), pion-
each conventional boson must have a fermion nucleus scattering are note worthy. His
SUSy partner having identical charges, for investigation of SU(3) as an octet operator of
example, boson and photino (photons SUSy decay interaction, the decay of baryon decuplet
partner) would have a spin + (charge neutral) into baryon and mason octet was investigated
and vice versa. None of these hypothetical along with a new provision of sum rule connecting
particles have yet been observed but the various decays (known as Gupta- Singh rule). The
theoreticians are hammering on incessantly. SU(6) symmetry for assessing correct spectrum
Presently, a theoretical framework, theory of of hadron states were also put- forward leading to
super-symmetry has been worked out for SU(6) mass formula (known as Beg-Singh
prediction of a rich crop of new heavy particles. formula). Singhs investigations of boot-strap
theory for understanding spectrums and their
However, classification of elementary
coupling leading to the discovery of strong
particles is explained by a Standard Model based
interaction coupling constant as well as strong
on weak, and electromagnetic fundamental
coupling theory based on Skyrmion dynamics and
reactions, using mediating gauge bosons, like
its relation to Large N QCD are considered
gluons, W(-), W(+) and Z bosons, and the photons.
important contributions by scholars in the field.
Apart from 24 fundamental particles (12 particles
Another interesting branch, called string field
and their associated anti-particles) which are the
theory on the basis of duality concept between
constituents of all matter, it also predicts the
strong and weak interactions, where small one-
existence of a type of boson, known as Higgs
dimensional string replace the point particles of
boson (after the name of Edinburg University
quantum theory, suggested by Ashok Sen of Harish
physicist, Peter Higgs, existence of which is now
Chandra Institute in Allahabad, has brought a
experimentally verified). This has been known for
major breakthrough in the field with wide
several years, and most particle- physicists of
implications, according to one group of scientists.
course do believe that the model is an incomplete
Interesting activities are being pursued in the areas
description of nature. A few deviations have
like, branes, tachyon condensation and the energy
already been noticed like, neutrino particle mass
landscape of string field theories.
has already been detected through experiments,
though it was originally thought to be mass-less An active engagement in researches has
particle; tachyon, another hypothetical particle been found in this period between the particle-
was floated by ECG Sudarshan that moves faster physics (microphysics) and astrophysics
than light. It is a great challenge and strikes at the (macrophysics). This two-way traffic perhaps
base of particle physics and breaks Lorentz provides the biggest challenge for physical science
invariance and the theory underlying special as a whole, which has been occasioned by major
relativity. Feinberg proposed that tachyonic strides in both fields. Some likely consensus has
particles could be quanta of a quantum field with indeed evolved in the form of Standard Model for
IDEAS AND RESEARCHES ON PHYSICAL CONCEPTS IN INDIA 407

weak and electromagnetic interactions, and QCD being made for better understanding. These two
for the strong interaction between quarks and way traffic between micro- and macro-physics are
gluons. The still bigger unifying principles of moving at a rapid pace. Indian physical scientists
GUT, SUSy etc may be regarded as attempts to survive in this dilemma and between these two
deal with further unanswered questions like, lines.
mechanism of coupling electro-weak and strong
interactions at a very high energy state, theoretical 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS A DILEMMA
speculation of existence of a very massive particle,
In fine, it may be said that the concept of
e.g. X-boson awaiting experimental verification
universe and physical ideas related to it get a
and so on.
meaningful and concrete picture in its evolutionary
The astrophysicists have apparently given process through the centuries. The Smkhya and
a solution to this problem by put-forwarding a other Indian philosophical schools conceived atom
model, known as Big Bang Model. It explains as the basic unit of matter and of universe, and
that Big Bang during the early evolution of the gave a hypothetical as well as speculative
universe acted as Natures powerful accelerator explanation of five elements, earth, water, fire, air
and collisions were very frequent, the temperature and ka (space, the atmospherical region
and density were very high. As a result, a variety between the earth and the sun) based on atoms
of particles, some very massive and difficult to having varieties of properties like, motion, touch,
detect since they interact too weakly produced in colours and flavours etc. Even duality principle,
this early phase and dropped out of the equilibrium like purua and prakti, iva and akti, sulfur and
configuration, because the reaction rate could not mercury, was adopted in containing the energies
cope up rapid expansion and cooling of the of two opposite forces to neutralize. Greeks had a
universe, leaving behind only the relics of those similar atomic concept, but not so clearer as that
particles. The masses, lifetimes, and interactions of the Indians. Scientists from sixteenth century
determine their relative survival rate as well as onwards have made persistent effort to penetrate
the manner in which they presumably influenced deeper and deeper into Nature through telescopic,
the subsequent evolution. It is not easy to get near spectroscopic and satelite observations to
the steady state moment of Big Bang (on a understand and interpret it in all its aspects. The
logarithmic time scale) which implies a huge concepts of atomic, sub-atomic and cosmic world-
extrapolations in time of presently expanding view have come to a stage, by observation,
Hubble flow of distant objects in the universe, to experiment and application, to a point beyond
the epochs when the matter in the universe was which the scientists cannot proceed. Even the
much denser and hotter than it is today. However, modern explanation of the properties of charge of
the observations by Edwin Hubble had shown that quark by colour and flavour, and the concept of
the universe was expanding (Theory of anti-particle reminds the metaphysical concepts
expanding universe), and as such the thought of of the early Indians leading us to varieties of
static universe (Steady State theory propounded paradox in our modern day explanation. Just as
by James Jeans, Fred Hoyle, J. Narlikar and others) physical sciences have given us control over the
is untenable under general relativity. Refutation physical world, so the life sciences also enable us
of steady state was further verified by the cosmic to control the inner world to a great extent. This
microscopic background radiation. According to holds true both in case of physical world and
Stephen Hawking, the discovery of microwave biological world, the boundaries of knowledge of
radiations put a final nail in the coffin of the steady which appear to have been reached which is
state theory. However, various interpolations are difficult to cross. This is due not to any lack of
408 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

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