Grop Thesis

Investigation of AC Electrical Machine Stators with
Fractional Conductor Windings
HENRIK GROP
Licentiate Thesis
Stockholm, Sweden 2010
Electrical Machines and Power Electronics
TRITA-EE 2010:013 School of Electrical Engineering, KTH
ISSN 1653-5146 Teknikringen 33
SE-100 44 Stockholm
ISBN 978-91-7415-602-7 SWEDEN
Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska hgskolan framlgges

till offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknologie licentiatexamen torsdagen den
29 April 2010 klockan 15.00 i H1, Kungl Tekniska hgskolan, Teknikringen 33,
Stockholm.
Henrik Grop, Mars 2010
Tryck: Universitetsservice US AB
iii
Abstract
Industry always searches the least expensive solution for a machine design.
Therefore, there is a need for integrating different customer ordered machines
within the same frame, while keeping the foundation of the mechanical de-
sign constant. Since the winding design in electrical machines is essential for
the performance and relatively inexpensive to adapt, it can be used to meet
different customer demands.
This thesis investigates the foundations of a special winding named frac-
tional conductor winding. An expression for winding factors for certain kinds
of these windings is developed. Calculations showed that the selection of the
winding distribution has effect on the air gap space harmonics produced by
the winding. In some cases, the fifth and seventh space harmonics can be
eliminated by the use of fractional conductor windings in combination with
short pitching.
The construction of a prototype fractional conductor wound induction
motor was documented and is presented in this thesis.
The air gap flux density in a dual slotted fractional conductor wound in-
duction motor running at no load is studied. Analytical models are compared
to results obtained by finite elements and measurements. It was found that
analytical results overestimated the peak of the fundamental flux density by
13.5%. The overestimation was caused by the iron reluctance of the main flux
path as well as saturation. Leakage was found to be a minor cause of this
overestimation.
Slot leakage and differential leakage in machines having these windings
are studied. The analytical models were evaluated, with mostly good agree-
ments, compared to finite element modeling as well as measurements.
Keywords: Windings, Leakage, Large machines, Induction motor construc-

tion.
v
Sammanfattning
Industrin sker alltid den mest kostnadseffektiva lsningnen p en maskins

konstruktion. Drfr finns ett behov att bygga olika kunders maskiner, med
fljaktligen varierande specifikationer, i samma maskinstomme och drmed
anvnda en gemensam grundkonstruktion. Eftersom lindningen i en maskin
r avgrande fr prestanda samt dess utfrande r relativt billig att gra
ndringar i, kan den anpassas till att uppfylla olika kunders krav.
Den hr licentiatavhandlingen utreder grunderna fr en speciell sorts lind-
ning kallad delvarvslindning. Ett uttryck fr lindningsfaktorn fr vissa typer
av dessa lindningar hrleds. Berkningar visar att valet av lindningsfrdelning
pverkar storleken p de av lindningen producerade vervgorna i luftgapet. I
vissa fall kan den femte och den sjunde ordningens vervg elimineras genom
anvndandet av delvarvslindning i kombination med hrvstegsfrkortning.
Bygget av en delvarvslindad asynkronmotorprototyp dokumenterades och
beskrivs i denna licentiatavhandling.
Vidare undersks fldesttheten i luftgapet med sprning av stator och
rotor i prototypen. En jmfrelse med mtningar och finita elementmeto-
den visar att den analytiskt berknade fldesttheten verskattas med 13.5%
beroende p jrnreluktans och mttning. Lckning visar sig endast pverka
resultatet marginellt.
Sprlckning och differentiell lckning i maskiner med dessa lindningar un-
dersks. Analytiska modeller utvrderas med mestadels goda resultat genom
jmfrelse med finita elementmetoden och mtningar.
Skord: Lindningar, Lckning, Stora maskiner, Konstruktion av asynkro-

nmotorer.
Acknowledgment
This project is conducted at the department of Electrical Machines and Power

Electronics at the Center of Excellence in Electric Power Engineering through the
High Performance Drives program.
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Juliette Soulard
as well as my co-supervisor Prof. Chandur Sadarangani for all help and inspiration
during the project. Secondly, I wish to thank all important people at ABB Au-
tomation Products, Division Machines who were involved in the project. Especially
Holger Persson for suggesting the topic and Dr Marguerite Holmberg for supervis-
ing me at ABB in the beginning of the project. Further on, I am very grateful for
all support I got at ABB by Djordje Savinovic, Bjrn Lindberg, Magnus Lundin,
Dr Eva Mrtensson, Hans ke Eriksson, Bengt Eriksson and John Seppas. A spe-
cial thanks to Lars hrn who I commuted with during the six months in Vsters.
Many thanks to all employees in the factory of ABB Machines, especially the staff
working in the winding factory and the test room where I spent many joyful hours.
Thanks to all employees at the Department of Electrical Machines and Power
Electronics who have been very helpful and friendly. A special thanks to my of-
fice mate and friend Dmitry Svechkarenko, with whom I have solved the Worlds
problems several times but never remembers the solution. Thanks to my colleague
and friend Alexander Stening for his inputs in discussions and also for his great
sense of humor. I am very happy having worked together with my colleague and
friend Rathna Chitroju. The department secretary Eva Pettersson has been very
helpful in administrative tasks, thank you for this. A huge thanks goes to Olle
Brnnvall for the many interesting discussions in the sauna and elsewhere, I hope
your shoulder will heal soon.
I am very grateful to my mother and father for always being supportive whenever
I need.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Katharina, who has been a great partner
and friend during these years.
vii
Contents
Acknowledgment vii
Contents viii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 AC-armature windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Main contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Outline of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Benefits and issues associated with fractional conductor windings 9

2.1 Investigation of different phase group patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Conclusions from the winding investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Winding factors for fractional conductor windings 21

3.1 Introduction of the coil factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 The coil factor for a simple winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 General expression of the coil factor for winding A . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 The coil factor for space harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Modelling of air gap flux density at no load including stator and

rotor slotting 33
4.1 Air gap flux density in the prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Influence of slotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Search coil measurements and comparison to analytical and FEM
models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5 Stator slot and differential leakage 47

5.1 The slot-model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Verification of slot energy by FEM modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
viii
CONTENTS ix
5.3 Differential leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.4 Measurements of slot leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.5 Measurement details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6 Validation of FEM model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.8 Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6 Construction of a full scale prototype 77

6.1 Punching of sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 Stacking of sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3 Stator coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.4 Winding the stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.5 Connection of the stator winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.6 Vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.7 Insertion of rotor bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.8 Machine assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.9 Sensors and tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7 Conclusions and Future Work 91
Appendices 92
A Derivation of the coil factor for winding A 93
Bibliography 97
List of Figures 100

Chapter 1
Introduction
Electrical machines have been the work horse for the industry for over 100 years.
The first trembling steps towards todays high efficiency, high technology electri-
cal machines were taken by Michael Faraday in the beginning of 1830s when he
discovered what later would be called the Faraday disk generator [1].
Since this time the AC-machines have been continuously developed. The effi-
ciency has increased dramatically leading to smaller machines for the same rated
power. Nowadays, electrical motors in the megawatt range are available on the
market. Such large motors are used for driving compressors, pumps and also re-
finers for grinding wood into pulp in the paper industry. Generators are produced
in even higher powers. It is not rare that the generator in a nuclear power plant
has a rated power exceeding one gigawatt as in Forsmark 3 and Oskarshamn 3 for
instance [2, 3].
This thesis will focus on special windings for mainly large AC-machines. The
main purpose is to investigate yet another parameter to adjust in order to give the
machine properties that meet the customers demand. This is especially useful when
there exists a catalogue machine with certain properties and a customer orders a
machine with slightly different properties. The engineers would in this case be able
to use this catalogue machine frame without the need to buy new punching tools and
still meet the customer demands. This can be achieved, among other possibilities,
by designing the armature winding in different ways. The machine properties of
interest can be for example the starting torque or the starting current.
1.1 AC-armature windings
Traditional rotating AC-electrical machines carry windings on their stator and pos-
sibly rotor. In a synchronous machine, the field is usually set up by a rotor winding
also known as field winding which is fed by direct current. Since the field is set up
by the rotor current, the stator winding only has to handle the load current.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
In the induction machine, the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator
winding induces in the rotor bars a voltage causing a current to flow. This current
in turn reacts with the field set up by the stator and creates a torque acting on the
rotor. The stator winding in this machine has therefore to handle both the field
current and the load current.
Construction of AC-armature windings

Stator windings for induction and synchronous machines are basically identical.
Different types of winding arrangements exists. The choice of the type of winding
is affected by several factors among which are [4]:
Size of the machine
Number of poles
Slot geometry
Rated voltage
Rated current
The most common type of stator windings for large high-voltage machines is the
diamond winding where all coils are identical and have the same coil pitch. The
coils are crossing each other in the end winding regions. The diamond winding is
constructed in double layers for large machines. Each coil has one coil side in the
bottom of a slot and the other coil side in the top of a slot. Fig. 1.1 shows an ex-
ample of the connection of a diamond winding. The double-layer diamond winding
allows for short pitching of the coils. This has the advantage that the magneto-
motive force becomes more sinusoidal as compared to the full pitch winding. The
short pitch also reduces the amount of copper usage as the inactive end windings
becomes shorter [5]. The coils in this winding are completely manufactured before
they are inserted into the machine. The coil ends forms two distinct but equal lay-
ers which makes easy the securing of the coils to prevent mechanical failure due to
short circuit currents [4]. The cross section of the coils is rectangular and therefore
the slot has to be rectangular and totally open.
Another type of winding is the concentric winding. This winding use coils which
are wound on top of each others end windings. The first coil of the coil group is
placed so that it has the shortest pitch. The second coil is placed so that it has
the second shortest coil pitch and its end windings are placed outside of the first
coils end windings [6]. Thus, a drawback of this winding is that it use coils that
are different. Fig. 1.2 shows an example of a concentric winding.
1.1. AC-ARMATURE WINDINGS 3
g replacements
1 5 10 15 20 24
Top layer
Bottom layer
A1 A2
Figure 1.1: Connection of phase A in a double layer 4-pole diamond winding.
1 5 10 15 20 24
g replacements
A1 A2
Figure 1.2: Connection of phase A in a single layer 4-pole concentric winding.

(a) Diamond winding (b) Concentric winding
Figure 1.3: Two different winding constructions.
Concentrated and distributed windings

When the number of slots per phase for each pole is greater than one, the winding
is called distributed. If the number of slots per phase and pole is equal to one,
the winding has traditionally been called concentrated. The word concentrated has
recently also been used for tooth windings where the coil span is one slot only (see
for example [7]). The number of slots per pole per phase is in this case fractional,
and the end-windings are non-overlapping.
Special Windings
Fractional slot windings
In fractional slot windings with overlapping end-windings, the number of slots per
pole per phase are different between different poles. This makes the average number
of slots per pole per phase a fraction. However, this usually produce subharmonics
rotating at a higher speed in the airgap than the useful component. Fractional slot
windings are used in large synchronous machines with many poles [4]. They have
also been shown to reduce the total amount of copper for the same power output [8].
Dahlander type windings

The Dahlander or pole changing winding was developed in the end of the 19th cen-
tury. It allows for machine operation at two (or more) fixed speeds without change
of the supply frequency. Such speed control was traditionally used when there was
no frequency converters. However, the Dahlander winding is still attractive in some
applications where only two speeds are necessary [9]. The reasons for todays use
are the low cost, the robustness, the low system weight and the smaller required
space as compared to the inverter fed system. An example of an application is
given in [10] where a motor for pumping cooling liquid in the aircraft Airbus A380
1.1. AC-ARMATURE WINDINGS 5
is designed. Clearly, the lower weight and the smaller space requirements are the
reasons for use in this application.
Fractional conductor windings

The number of conductors per slot is conventionally constrained to be an integer
number. However, it can be allowed to use coils having different numbers of con-
ductors in different slots. If the equivalent number of turns per slot (mean value)
is allowed to take a fractional value, more possibilities are introduced regarding the
tuning of the machine parameters. This possibility has not been investigated as
thoroughly as fractional slot windings so far.
In a similar way as fractional slot windings have been named, the author sug-
gests to call windings with a fractional equivalent number of conductors per slot,
fractional conductor windings. This thesis will treat three phase AC-machines using
fractional conductor windings. Focus is on high voltage windings with rectangular
conductors but most of the results can be used for fed-in-windings with circular
conductors as well. Due to production reasons, the study is limited to two different
number of turns per coil.
The reactances of an induction machine are all proportional to the square of the
number of turns in the slots Ns . For example, the main reactance is given by [11]:
2
qkw Ns
60 f DL
cs
Xh = (1.1)
e
with e the equivalent air gap thickness, D the air gap diameter, L the active length
of the machine, cs the number of parallel connections, and q the number of slots
per pole per phase. The stator slot leakage reactance is given by [11]:
2
Ns
Xss = 2f pq Ls (1.2)
cs
Where s is a function of the slot shape. These reactances are affecting the per-
formance of such a machine. By adding or removing one turn in every slot, Ns
is changed in integer steps. This can have a large impact on the machine perfor-
mance, especially for a large high voltage machine where the number of turns per
slot usually are few. However, by having different number of conductors in different
slots, it is possible to achieve a fractional equivalent number of turns per slot Nse ,
and therefore the possibility to fine tune the reactances is established. Even if the
focus of the project is on high voltage machines with rectangular conductors, most
of the work and models described in this thesis are valid for low voltage machines
with round conductors as well. The conductors in the different coils of the winding
should have varying cross-section areas in order to keep the fill factor constant in
the slots.
1.2 Objectives
The overall objective of this project is to create understanding on how fractional
conductor windings affect the performance of AC electrical machines. The starting
current and the starting torque are especially interesting parameters. Analysis of
losses in fractional wound machines also needs to be carried out. Tools for daily
calculation routines should be developed and verified by measurements and finite
element methods.
In order to reach these goals, the foundations of these models are presented and
verified in this thesis. Thus, the main objectives of this thesis are:
Define fractional conductor windings and identify interesting winding layouts.
Develop tools and models to investigate performance of such machines at
no-load.
Validate each model with measurements on a full scale prototype.
1.3 Main contributions

The investigations have resulted in the following contributions:
Definition and description of interesting coil layouts for fractional conductor
windings.
Expressions for winding factors have been developed for certain especially
interesting winding configurations. These are ready to be used in daily engi-
neering calculation routines.
A full scale prototype machine has been built and successfully tested. The 15
MW prototype has a fractional conductor wound stator.
Slot leakage has been analytically calculated for fractional conductor wind-
ings. The analytical model has been evaluated with finite element methods
and measurements.
Differential leakage in machines having fractional conductor windings has
been investigated. The differential leakage calculation has been verified by
finite element methods.
1.4 Publications
Two conference articles have been published so far:
H. Grop, J. Soulard and H. Persson. Stator Slot Leakage in AC-Machines
Equipped With Fractional Conductor Windings. In Proc. International Con-
ference on Electrical Machines and Systems, Tokyo, Japan, November 2009.
1.5. OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 7
H. Grop, J. Soulard and H. Persson. Theoretical Investigation of Fractional

Conductor Windings for AC-Machines - Definition, Air-gap m.m.f. and Wind-
ing Factors. In Proc. International Conference on Electrical Machines, Vil-
amoura, Portugal, September 2008.
1.5 Outline of the thesis

Chapter one
The thesis is introduced in this chapter. Different kinds of armature windings are
described. The most basic definition for fractional conductor windings is presented.
Chapter two
The harmonic spectrum of the air gap magneto-motive force is discussed for different
winding layouts. Particularly one winding layout is excluded from use in electrical
machines. Other windings are found being interesting for further studies.
Chapter three
Expressions for winding factors for fractional conductor windings are introduced.
Windings are investigated with the help of these winding factors. The advantage
of combining windings having varying number of turns with a carefully chosen coil
pitch is discussed and illustrated with an example.
Chapter four
The air-gap flux density is investigated both with and without slotting effects.
Finite element models are being used to verify analytical models. Measurements
by means of search coils are recreated from analytical models as well as FEM in
order to further verify the results.
Chapter five
This chapter deals with leakage modeling in machines using fractional conductor
windings. The slot leakage is evaluated by analytical models which are verified by
finite element methods as well as measurements. Further on, differential leakage is
studied for these special windings.
Chapter six
The building and assembly of the full-scale prototype is presented in this chapter.
The author had the honor to follow the production in the factory of the company.
The building is described in a chronological order from the punching of sheets to
the testing. The chapter contains several pictures, shot by the author, from the
different stages of the machine building. Measurements on this prototype are used
in previous chapters for verifications of analytical and finite element models.
Chapter Conclusions
The main results of the thesis are gathered and discussed. Future work possibilities
are presented.
Chapter 2
Benefits and issues associated with

fractional conductor windings
Two fractional conductor windings having the same number of turns per slot, Nse
and the same slots per pole per phase, q can have different properties in terms of
production of space harmonics in the air gap. This is because the two windings
can be realized in different ways. For example, assume that the following winding
1
is desired: q = 4 and Nse = 10 with a coil pitch reduced by one slot. This
2
winding can be wound with two coils having 10 conductors and two coils having 11
conductors in three different ways. The first possibility is to put the 10 conductor
coils at the sides of the phase belt and the 11 turn coils at the center of the phase
belt. The second option is the opposite to the first option, i.e. the 10 conductor
coils at the center and the 11 conductor coils at the sides. The third option is to
group the coils of the same kind in adjacent slots. The examples of the different
possibilities of placing the coils are presented in fig. 2.2. Some attention needs to
be put on how the representation of fractional conductor windings are made in this
thesis in order to explain this figure.
A three-phase wound stator with a fractional conductor winding having two
poles is shown in fig. 2.1. Due to symmetry, only one half of the machine needs
to be represented. The part of the stator not displayed in fig. 2.1 follows the same
pattern as the displayed part but with the conductors oriented in the opposite
direction. The winding has also symmetries in terms of phase groups, also referred
to as phase belts. These phase group symmetries can be used to effectively present
windings that have equal phase groups.
The coils within a phase-group have varying number of turns. The difference
between the coils is in this thesis presented by either color differences (see fig. 2.1)
and/or by displaying the number of turns directly in the slot corresponding to the
location of the coil side. To sum up:
If all phase belts are equal, windings will be presented by a single phase belt,
9
CHAPTER 2. BENEFITS AND ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH FRACTIONAL
10 CONDUCTOR WINDINGS
N1
Phase group
PSfrag replacements N2
+ C C
A
+ C
A C
C
C
+ B+
A
A+
B
+
A+
B
+
B
B+
A+
B+
Figure 2.1: A stator of a two-pole machine with a fractional conductor winding
with q = 3 and q2 = 1.
showing the different coils with colors (and/or number of turns). This is the
case when symmetry exists between all other phase belts.
If all phase belts are not equal, windings will be presented by a larger portion
due to lack of symmetries. The number of turns is shown by colors (and/or
number)
PSfrag replacements Let PSfrag

us go back to the example winding
replacements given above. The appropriate way of
PSfrag replacements
presenting these three possible winding layouts are given in fig. 2.2. All three com-
binations are possible to realize in a real machine, but they have different properties
in terms of space harmonic production. The question is which configuration is the
best and which is the worst. Such questions are answered in this chapter. Frac-
tional conductor windings with different layouts will be investigated and evaluated
in order to give these answers.
10 11 11 10 11 10 10 11 10 10 11 11
A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+
A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+ A+
10 11 11 10 11 10 10 11 10 10 11 11
Slot: 1 2 3 4 5 Slot: 1 2 3 4 5 Slot: 1 2 3 4 5

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.2: Three possible winding configurations with the same equivalent number
of turns per slot but with different properties.
2.1. INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERENT PHASE GROUP PATTERNS 11
2.1 Investigation of different phase group patterns

One of the problems that may arise when fractional conductor windings are used
is that the armature m.m.f. wave may contain harmonics of even orders. Further-
more, the amplitude of the uneven harmonics may become unacceptably large as
compared to when a conventional winding is used. A numerical calculation tool has
been developed in order to study the armature m.m.f. wave created by fractional
conductor windings. The number of conductors in each slot can be selected without
limitations. The m.m.f. wave is calculated for a specified current and the harmonic
contents of the m.m.f. wave is calculated using fast Fourier transform.
An example of the output from the tool is given in fig. 2.3 where the single-phase
and three-phase m.m.f. produced by a full pitched fractional conductor winding
with q = 4 and q2 = 2 is shown. The q2 coils are placed in the center of the phase
and have 1 turn each. The q1 coils have 2 turns each. The phase currents are
I
Ia = I, Ib = Ic = . The first step to the left in the single phase m.m.f. shown
2
in fig. 2.3 corresponds to the first positively oriented phase A coil. This coil has
twice the number of turns as the second coil of phase A+ . Therefore the first step
in the m.m.f. wave is twice the amplitude of the second step. The phase sequence
in the three-phase m.m.f. is A+ C B+ A C+ B , again with the first positively
oriented phase A coil corresponding to the first step to the left.
6
10
4
PSfrag replacements
5
2 PSfrag replacements
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
0 0
-2
-5
-4
-10
-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Electrical angle [rad] Electrical angle [rad]
(a) Single-phase m.m.f. (b) 3-phase m.m.f.
Figure 2.3: Armature air-gap m.m.f. of a full pitched fractional conductor winding
with q = 4 and q2 = 2.
Many ways of placing the coils are possible, some being more advantageous
than others. A fractional conductor winding with q = 6 and q2 = 2 with a 2-slot
short pitch is taken as an example to describe the different possible coil arrange-
ments. The possible coil arrangements can be divided into six different phase-group
patterns:
Regular phase-group pattern with centered q2 coils (Fig. 2.4(a)).

Regular phase-group pattern with the q2 coils placed one slot from the side
of the phase group (Fig. 2.4(b)).
Regular phase-group pattern with centered q1 coils (Fig. 2.4(c)).
Regular phase-group pattern with the q2 coils concentrated to one side of the
phase-group (Fig. 2.4(d)).
Regular phase-group pattern with randomly placed q2 coils (Fig. 2.4(e)).
Irregular phase-group pattern (Fig. 2.4(f)). (q=3 is used for this configura-
tion).
The six different coil-arrangements are further described here.
N1 N1 N1
PSfrag replacements N
PSfrag
2 replacements N
PSfrag
2 replacements N2
(a) Winding A (b) Winding B (c) Winding C

N1 N1
PSfrag replacements N
PSfrag
2 replacements N2
(d) Winding D (e) Winding E

N1
PSfrag replacements N2
A+A+A+ AAA
A+A+A+ AAA
(f) Winding F
Figure 2.4: Different phase-group patterns for fractional conductor windings. The
coils are short pitched by two slots.
Subsections A-F presents the three-phase m.m.f. produced by the windings

shown in fig. 2.4. The m.m.f. from the fractional conductor windings are compared
to a reference winding, called conventional winding, with Ns = 4 turns per slot.
The current is adjusted to obtain the same amount of ampere-turns in the phase
groups for the fractional conductor winding and the reference winding according to
eq. 2.1.
p qN
Nref Ns
Iref = p2
s
If c = Iref = Iref (2.1)
Nf c Nse
2 qNse
The coil arrangements in fig. 2.4 are then evaluated based on the amplitude of
the 5th and 7th harmonics. It should be noted that N1 = 2 and N2 = 1 is an
extreme case and has been chosen to emphasize the properties of the phase-group
pattern. The m.m.f. produced by all the investigated windings are plotted at the
I
time instant when the currents are Ia = I , Ib = Ic = .
2
A Regular phase group pattern with the q 2 coils in the center of

the phase group
The coils are placed with a regular pattern for all the phases and the q2 coils are
situated in the center of each phase-group according to fig. 2.4(a). Fig. 2.9 shows
a plot of the corresponding three phase air-gap m.m.f. The harmonic spectra for
the single and three phase m.m.f. waves are shown in figs. 2.7(c) and 2.7(d). The
amplitude of the steps in the m.m.f. are different as compared to the reference
winding due to the varying number of turns per slot (see zoom in Fig. 2.7(b)). The
harmonic spectra of the corresponding reference winding is shown as well in Figs.
2.9(c,d). It is found that the fundamental is reduced by less than one percent. The
fifth harmonic is reduced by 72% while the seventh harmonic is increased by 130%
for this fractional conductor winding compared to the reference winding. This coil
arrangement is recommended when a suppressession of the fifth harmonic is aimed
for.
CHAPTER 2. BENEFITS ANDPSfrag
ISSUES
replacements ASSOCIATED WITH FRACTIONAL
PSfrag replacements
20 20
15 18
16
10
14
5
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
12
0 10
-5 8
6
-10
4
Winding A
-15 Winding A 2 Reference
-20 0
PSfrag replacements 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
PSfrag replacements
(a) Three phase m.m.f. for the fractional con- (b) Zoom of three phase m.m.f. for the fractional
ductor winding. conductor winding and the reference winding.
1 1
Winding A Winding A
0.9 Reference 0.9 Reference
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
(c) Single phase space harmonics. (d) Three phase space harmonics.
Figure 2.5: Three-phase m.m.f. with harmonic spectrum for the fractional conduc-
tor winding with centered q2 coils, q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch.
B Regular phase group pattern with the q 2 coils placed one slot
from side of the phase group
The coils are placed with a regular pattern for all the phases and the q2 coils are
placed one slot from each side of the phase-group according to fig. 2.4(b). This
pattern is recommended as it reduces both the fifth harmonic by 6% and the seventh
harmonic by 16% as compared to the reference winding.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
20 20
15 18
16
10
14
5
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
12
0 10
-5 8
6
-10
4
Winding B
-15 Winding B 2 Reference
-20 0
PSfrag replacements
1 1
Winding B Winding B
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
tor winding with the q2 coils placed one slot from side of the phase group, q = 6
and two-slot short-pitch.
C Regular phase group pattern with the q 1 coils in the center of

the phase group
The coils are placed with a regular pattern for all the phases and the q1 coils
are situated in the center of each phase-group according to fig. 2.4(c). This coil
arrangement increases the amplitude of the fundamental by 1%. It also increases the
amplitude of the fifth harmonic by 78% while the amplitude of the seventh harmonic
is decreased by 83%. The arrangement can be recommended if a reduction of the
seventh harmonic is desired.
ISSUES
PSfrag replacements
20 20
15 18
16
10
14
5
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
12
0 10
-5 8
6
-10
4
Winding C
-15 Winding C 2 Reference
-20 0
PSfrag replacements
1 1
Winding C Winding C
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
tor winding with the q1 coils placed in the center of the phase group, q = 6 and
two-slot short-pitch.
D Regular phase group pattern with the q 2 coils concentrated to

one side of the phase group
The coils are placed in a regular pattern and the q2 coils are placed at one side
of each phase-group as shown in fig. 2.4(d). As seen in fig. 2.8(d), the amplitude
of the fifth harmonic is more than 60% larger while the amplitude of the seventh
harmonic is almost the same as compared to the reference winding. Therefore,
the coil placement according to fig. 2.4(d) is not recommended due to the large
increase of the amplitude of the fifth harmonic, without the reduction of the seventh
harmonic.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
20 20
15 18
16
10
14
5
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
12
0 10
-5 8
6
-10
4
Winding D
-15 Winding D 2 Reference
-20 0
PSfrag replacements
1 1
Winding D Winding D
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
tor winding with the q2 coils located at one side of the phase-group, q = 6 and
two-slot short-pitch.
E Regular phase group pattern with the coils placed randomly

The coils are placed in a random pattern (see fig. 2.4(e)). Fig. 2.10(d) shows
that the amplitude of the fifth harmonic is 37% larger as compared to the refer-
ence winding. The seventh harmonic is reduced by 31%. This coil arrangement is
recommended if a reduction of the seventh harmonic is desired.
ISSUES
PSfrag replacements
20 20
15 18
16
10
14
5
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
12
0 10
-5 8
6
-10
4
Winding E
-15 Winding E 2 Reference
-20 0
PSfrag replacements
1 1
Winding E Winding E
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
tor winding with random phase-group pattern, q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch.
F Irregular phase group pattern

With irregular pattern, it is meant that the top and bottom-layers in the phase
groups do not have the same configuration. A pole pair of an irregular fractional
conductor winding was shown in fig. 2.4(f). Phase A in the top layer has the pattern
N2 N1 N2 . In the bottom layer, the pattern is N1 N2 N1 and hence the term "irregular
phase-group pattern" is used for such a winding configuration. Fig. 2.10 shows that
the irregular phase-group pattern introduces even order harmonics in the air-gap
m.m.f.. Therefore, this coil arrangement should absolutely be avoided as such a
wound stator would introduce more stray loss to the machine and consequently lead
to lower performance. The reason for the even space harmonics in the m.m.f. is
2.2. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE
PSfragWINDING
replacements INVESTIGATIONS. 19
PSfrag replacements
9
8
8
6
7
4
6
2
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
5
0
4
-2
PSfrag replacements 3
-4
2
-6 Winding F
Winding F PSfrag replacements 1 Reference
-8
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1 1
Winding F Winding F
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11 13 14 17 19
h h
Figure 2.10: Three-phase m.m.f. with harmonic spectrum for the fractional con-
ductor winding with irregular phase-group pattern, q = 3 and two-slot short-pitch.
that this winding does not have half wave symmetry in the single phase m.m.f. [12].
2.2 Conclusions from the winding investigations.

In this chapter, it has been shown that windings having the fractional conductor
properties can be used to obtain a fractional equivalent number of conductors per
slot, but can also control the magnitude of certain space harmonics of the m.m.f.
in the air gap. This property is attractive since it can contribute to the usual way
of reducing space harmonics by distributing the coils in several slots and by uti-
lizing short pitched windings. The fractional conductor windings can be realized
as both single- and double-layer windings. The investigation of the six windings
(A-F) showed that only one combination (F) was definitely not suitable for use in
electrical machines while the others (A-E) can be used. Winding A and winding
C seems especially promising as they are suitable for suppressing the fifth or the
seventh harmonic respectively. The drawback of using these configurations is that
the amplitude of other harmonics is increased. Winding A, for example, is magni-
fying the seventh harmonic, and winding C is magnifying the fifth harmonic. As
the fractional conductor windings are altering the magnitude of the m.m.f. space
harmonics, an extra winding factor should be introduced when calculating perfor-
mance of machines equipped with fractional conductor windings. This new winding
factor will be introduced and discussed in chapter 3.
Chapter 3
Winding factors for fractional

conductor windings
A neat tool for analyzing the space harmonics produced by a winding is winding
factors. Winding factors can be understood as the relation between the flux linking
an actual winding to the flux that would have been linked by a q = 1, full pitched
reference winding. The total number of ampere-turns must of course be the same
for both the actual winding and the reference winding [13].

kw,h = (3.1)
ref
Eq. 3.1 can also be expressed in terms of the induced voltage [14]:
Geometric sum of voltages for space harmonic h

kw,h = (3.2)
Algebraic sum of voltages for space harmonic h
3.1 Introduction of the coil factor

Winding factors are usually separated in two parts, namely the distribution factor,
kd and the pitch factor, kp . This means that the winding factor for space harmonic
h is given by:
kw (h) = kd (h) kp (h) (3.3)
The distribution factor is due to the distribution of the coils in several slots. The
pitch factor is due to coil pitches other than one pole pitch. Expressions for the
winding factors are well known for conventional windings (see for example [15]).
Methods for determining winding factors for machines having a fractional slot wind-
ing (not to be mistaken by fractional conductor winding) have also been developed
in the past [9].
However, to the knowledge of the author, expressions not involving tedious sums
for winding factors for fractional conductor windings have not been derived prior
21
CHAPTER 3. WINDING FACTORS FOR FRACTIONAL CONDUCTOR
22 WINDINGS
to this thesis1 . It is therefore of importance that this derivation is performed here.

In order to take into account the varying number of turns in the slots, a new factor
is introduced in addition to the distribution factor and the pitch factor. This factor
has been given the name coil factor. The expression for the winding factor including
the coil factor is then given by:
kw (h) = kd (h) kc (h) kp (h) (3.4)
The derived quantity is the coil factor lumped together with the distribution factor.
It has not been found possible to give one general expression for the coil factor for
all kinds of fractional conductor windings, limitations had to be introduced. This is
due to the fact that the possible combinations of placing the different kinds of coils
are many as q may take large integer values. Therefore, the conducted analytical
derivation is restricted to the case where the q2 coils are in the middle of the phase-
group. This means that the q2 coils with the N2 turns are placed in adjacent slots
in the center of the phase-group and coils with N1 turns are placed symmetrically
on each side of the center. This is the layout of the winding A configuration shown
in fig. 2.4(a). This configuration was selected because it was found particulary
interesting in chapter 2 as it reduces the fifth harmonic in the air-gap m.m.f.
3.2 The coil factor for a simple winding

The winding factor will first be determined for the simplest form of the winding A.
This winding has q = 3, q2 = 1, and a coil pitch equal to one pole pitch, y = p .
The winding is shown in fig. 3.3(a). Figure 3.3(b) shows the voltage phasors of the
induced voltage in the winding. The voltages in adjacent coils are phase shifted
with an angle corresponding to the slot pitch angle:

= (3.5)
3q
In fig. 3.3(b), it is found that the geometric sum of the voltage phasors is:
1 N2

Eg = 2 e + cos (3.6)
2 N1
The algebraic sum of the voltages is:
1 N2

Ea = 2 e +1 (3.7)
2 N1
Applying eq. 3.2 to the winding in fig. 3.3(a) yields:
1 N2
2 N1 + cos
kd kc = 1 N2
(3.8)
2 N1 + 1
1 Excluding the paper: "Theoretical investigation of fractional conductor windings for AC-
machines Definition, Air-gap m.m.f. and winding factors" written by the author of this thesis,
published at ICEM 2008.
3.2. THE COIL FACTOR FOR A SIMPLE WINDING 23
y = p
N1 N2 N1 N1 N2 N1 N2 e
N1 ~
E
rag replacements
PSfrag replacements
e
E
(a) The simplest form of the winding A configuration. (b) Voltage phasors for
the simplest winding A
configuration.
Figure 3.1: Configuration for winding A in its simplest form, q = 3, q2 = 1.
To find out the contribution of the different number of turns to the winding factor,
i.e. to calculate kc , eq. 3.8 is divided by the distribution factor kd given by eq. 3.9:

q
sin
2
kd (h) = (3.9)

q sin
2
24 WINDINGS
The fundamental winding factor, kd kc , is plotted for this simple winding as the
number of turns N1 and N2 are varied. This plot is shown in fig. 3.2. The winding
called a standard winding in the figure is a normal winding with q = 3 and a full
pitch. Figure 3.2(a) shows the variation of the winding factor as N2 is varied and
N1 = 10 at every point. Figure 3.2(b) shows the variation of the winding factor as
N1 is varied and N2 = 10 at every PSfrag
PSfrag replacements
point. If N1 = N2 in 3.8, the combined coil and
replacements
1 1
Example winding Example winding
0.99 Standard winding 0.99 Standard winding
0.98 0.98
kd kc
kd kc
0.97 0.97
0.96 0.96
0.95 0.95
0.94 0.94
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
N2 N1
(a) Varying N2 , N1 = 10. (b) Varying N1 , N2 = 10.
Figure 3.2: The winding factor for the fundamental when the number of turns is
varied for q = 3, q2 = 1.
distribution factor becomes:
1 + 2 cos
kd kc = 0.96 (3.10)
3
which of course is the same value as for the standard q = 3 winding having equal
number of turns per slot. This means that the coil factor kc is unity for this winding.
As the coil in the center slot of the phase group carrying N2 conductors, becomes
dominant over the coils in the periphery having N1 conductors, the winding factor
approaches unity, i.e. the winding behaves like a q = 1 winding. When the turns in
the periphery of the phase group, becomes dominant over the turns in the center
slot, the winding factor approaches:
kd kc, N2 <<1
= cos (3.11)
N1
where N1 has been chosen to approach infinity. It is also possible to let N2 be zero
in eq. 3.8 with the same result. The resulting voltage phasors for these two extreme
cases are illustrated in fig. 3.3.
3.3. GENERAL EXPRESSION OF THE COIL FACTOR FOR WINDING A 25
N2 e ~
~
E N1 E
rag replacements PSfrag replacements

N2 e e
N1
e
e

(a) Voltage phasors when (b) Voltage phasors
N1 is large compared to N2 . when N2 is large
compared to N1 .
Figure 3.3: Voltage phasors for two extreme cases.
3.3 General expression of the coil factor for winding A
Since the winding A configuration seems to be an interesting winding layout, it

is attractive to have a general expression for the coil factor for this winding. For
simple use, the expression should be of the same form as the distribution factor,
i.e. no tedious sums should be included in the expression. This general expression
is derived in this section.
The magnitude and the angular displacement of the fundamental voltage pha-
sors for different coils of this winding configuration is shown in fig. 3.4. The dashed
phasors indicates that an infinite number of this kind of coil can be connected and
thus, fig. 3.4 is a general case of the winding A configuration. This configuration
can be further separated in two subcases depending on whether the number of slots
per pole per phase is even or odd. Thus, two different phasor diagrams are shown
in fig. 3.4. When q is odd, q2 must also be odd (see fig. 3.4(a)), and vice versa (see
3.4(b)), in order for the winding to have symmetry within the phase-belt.
26 WINDINGS
q1 q1
2 2
q2 1
2
e e
e
e
q2 1
2
e
e
N2 e
N2 N1
2
N1 e N2
N2 N1 e
N1 e N2 e ~
E
1 N2 e ~
E N1
2 N1
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
(a) Odd q and odd q2 (b) Even q and even q2
Figure 3.4: The two general cases that can be identified when the the q2 coils are
placed in the center of the phase belt.
Odd q and odd q2

The algebraic sum of the voltages in fig. 3.4(a) is easily found by adding all the
magnitudes of the individual voltages:

N2
Ea = e q 2 1 +eq (3.12)
N1
By phasor addition in fig. 3.4(a) the geometric sum of the induced voltage in
3.4. THE COIL FACTOR FOR SPACE HARMONICS 27
the winding with odd q and odd q2 after simplification is found to be (see Appendix
A for details of the calculation):
q
N2 sin 22 sin q2 sin q22

Eg = e +e (3.13)
sin 2 sin 2

N1
The combined distribution and coil factor for the fundamental can now be de-
termined by applying eq. 3.2 on eq. 3.12 and eq. 3.13:
1
kc kd =
N2
sin 2 q + q2 1
N1
q
N2 q
2
1 sin + sin (3.14)
N1 2 2
Even q and even q2

By looking at fig. 3.4(b) it is found that the algebraic sum of the individual voltages
is the same as for the odd q and odd q2 case. This means that eq. 3.12 is used to
determine the algebraic sum for this case as well.
The geometric sum of the phasors in fig. 3.4(b) is given by (see Appendix A for
details):
q
N2 sin 22 sin 2q sin q22

Eg = e + e (3.15)
sin 2 sin 2

N1
Which is the same expression as was obtained for odd q and odd q2 . The expression
for the combined coil and distribution factor is therefore identical and given by eq.
3.14 for both cases.
3.4 The coil factor for space harmonics

So far, the combined coil and distribution factor for the fundamental component has
been derived. The induced voltage produced by the space harmonic h is obtained
by considering that the angle between the voltages induced in two adjacent slots is
phase shifted h times the displacement of the fundamental component [14]. Thus
the winding factor for the space harmonic h is found by substituting for h in
eq. 3.14.
Some simplifications in the denotations of the variables will be introduced before
the expression for the combined coil and distribution factor is presented. These
simplifications are done in order to reduce the risk of mixing the variables when
winding factors are calculated. Since the expression is valid for the case when the
q2 coils having N2 turns are placed in the center of the phase belt, it is easier to
denote q2 by qc and N2 by Nc . In the same way, the number of turns for the q1
coils, situated at the periphery of the phase belt, can be called Np . By this change
28 WINDINGS
of indices, the more convenient form for the expression for kd,h kc,h is given by eq.
3.16:
1
kc,h kd,h =
Nc
sin h
2 q + q c 1
Np

Nc qc h qh
1 sin + sin (3.16)
Np 2 2
The modulus of the winding factors calculated by eq. 3.16 are presented in table
3.1 for some selected windings.
Table 3.1: Winding factors of fractional conductor windings with the q2 coils placed
in the center of the phase-group.
q qc Nse kw1 kw5 kw7 kw11 kw13

3 0 2 0.96 0.22 0.18 0.18 0.22
5
3 1 3 0.95 0.06 0.41 0.41 0.06
4 0 2 0.96 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.13
3
4 2 2 0.95 0.00 0.41 0.21 0.21
5 0 2 0.96 0.20 0.15 0.11 0.10
9
5 1 5 0.95 0.11 0.28 0.23 0.00
7
5 3 5 0.94 0.00 0.39 0.11 0.26
6 0 2 0.96 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.09
10
6 2 3 0.95 0.06 0.34 0.24 0.03
8
6 4 3 0.94 0.00 0.36 0.05 0.27
In fig. 3.5, the winding factor for the fifth harmonic and the seventh harmonic
are presented for the winding q = 5, qc = 3. The number of turns in the center
coils is kept constant (Nc = 10) for all points in fig. 3.5.
Figure 3.5(a) shows that theoretically the winding factor of the 5th harmonic
can be zero by using Np = 20 and Nc = 10. Usually, this is done by using a 4/5
pitch of the coils [16]. Further on, by looking at fig. 3.5(b), it is found that the
modulus of the winding factor for the seventh harmonic will decrease as the number
of turns of the periphery coils are decreased (taking 10 turns as reference). In table
3.2 the winding factors for the fundamental, the fifth and the seventh harmonics
are presented for a p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3 and 4/5 pitch. The number of turns for the
center coils is Nc = 10 and the number of turns for the periphery coils is Np = 7.
The layout of the coils is the same as was studied in fig. 3.5. A standard winding,
having the same pitch is presented in table 3.2 as reference. The column called
PSfrag replacements
3.4. THE COIL FACTOR FOR SPACE HARMONICS
PSfrag replacements
29
0.7 0.5
0.6 5th Harmonic 0.4 7th Harmonic

0.3
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.3
kd,7 kc,7
kd,5kc,5
0
0.2 -0.1
-0.2
0.1
-0.3
0
-0.4
-0.1 -0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Np Np
(a) kd,5 kc,5 as Np is varied, Nc = 10. (b) kd,7 kc,7 as Np is varied, Nc = 10.
Figure 3.5: kd,h kc,h for the 5th and 7th harmonic, for a q = 5 and qc = 3 when the
number of turns in the periphery is varied.
"Distr. Factor" is showing the combined distribution factor and coil factor for the
fractional conductor winding.
Table 3.2: Winding factors for the winding: p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, Nc = 10, Np = 7,

y = 12, i.e. 4/5 coil pitch. Winding factors for a standard q = 5, y = 12 winding
are shown as a reference.
Distr. Factor Pitch Factor Winding Factor
Space Harm. 1 5 7 1 5 7 1 5 7
Fract. Cond. 0.963 0.296 0.036 0.951 0 0.588 0.916 0 0.021
Stand. Wind. 0.957 0.2 0.149 0.951 0 0.588 0.910 0 0.088
Table 3.2 shows that the fundamental winding factor has been increased by 0.6%
for the fractional conductor winding in comparison with the standard winding.
Further on, the winding factor for the seventh harmonic has been significantly
reduced. The magnitude of the winding factor for the seventh space harmonic is
25% of the value for the standard winding. The winding factor for the fifth space
harmonic is zero due to the choice of coil pitch. The magnetomotive force produced
by the winding described in table 3.2 is presented in fig. 3.6. The currents are Ia =
I
I, Ib = Ic = . The current is adjusted to obtain the same amount of ampere-
2
turns in the phase groups for the fractional conductor winding and the reference
winding. The spectrum plots in fig. 3.6 shows the normalized spectrum, i.e. all
the harmonic components for both windings are normalized to the fundamental
30 WINDINGS
component of the reference winding.
Figure 3.6(d) confirms the results indicated by the winding factor calculation.
The amplitudes of the normalized space harmonics shown in fig. 3.6(d) are pre-
sented in table 3.3. Apart from the seventh harmonic, this fractional conductor
winding is shown to also reduce the amplitudes of the 13th and 17th space harmon-
ics. The 11th and the 19th space harmonics are very little affected as seen in table
3.3.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
80 80
Fract. Cond.
60 70
40 60
20 50
M.m.f. [A]
M.m.f. [A]
0 40
-20 30
-40 20
Fract. Cond.
-60 10 Reference
-80 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
PSfrag replacements Electrical angle [rad] Electrical angle [rad]
(a) Three-phase m.m.f. for the fractional con- (b) Zoom of three-phase m.m.f. for the fractional
ductor winding. PSfrag replacements
conductor winding and the reference standard
winding.
1 1
Fract. Cond. Fract. Cond.
0.8 0.8
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
h h
(c) Single-phase space harmonics. (d) Three-phase space harmonics.
Figure 3.6: M.m.f. and spectra of winding with p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, y = 12, i.e.

4/5 coil pitch, with Nc = 10 and Np = 7.
3.5. CONCLUSIONS 31
Table 3.3: Normalized magnitudes of the space harmonics for the m.m.f. wave for
the fractional conductor winding: q = 5, qc = 3, y = 12, i.e. 4/5 coil pitch. The
turns of the coils are: Nc = 10, Np = 7. The normalization is made with respect
to the fundamental component of the standard winding.
XX
XXX h
X
Winding XXXX
1 5 7 11 13 17 19
Fract. Cond. 1.006 0 0.0034 0.0105 0.0012 0.0009 0.0061
Stand. Wind. 1.000 0 0.0138 0.0104 0.0051 0.0039 0.0060
3.5 Conclusions
The conclusion drawn from this investigation is that space harmonics in the air
gap can be reduced significantly by taking advantage of the fractional conductor
windings. To calculate the reduction of certain space harmonics, the winding factor
is a neat tool to use. However, for the proposed layout of the coils, the reduction
of a certain space harmonic by using only fractional conductor windings has the
drawback of increasing the magnitude of another space harmonic. It was illustrated
with an example, that while the seventh space harmonic is reduced, the fifth space
harmonic can be increased (see the values of the distribution factor presented in
3.2). This problem was however solved by selecting a proper value of the coil pitch
so that the fifth harmonic was eliminated and thus the full advantage of using a
fractional conductor winding was obtained.
Chapter 4
Modelling of air gap flux density at

no load including stator and rotor
slotting
This chapter presents a method to model the air-gap flux density in an induction
machine running at no-load. The model is linear and takes into account the vari-
ation of air-gap permeance due to the stator and rotor slotting. The air-gap flux
density is compared to results obtained from FEM simulations for the prototype
motor presented in chapter 6. The results are also verified by measurements of the
induced voltage in a search coil wound around a stator tooth.
4.1 Air gap flux density in the prototype

The magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) across the air-gap is calculated based on the
assumption of infinite permeability of the iron parts of the machine. Thus, the
m.m.f. generated by the windings is acting across the air-gap only. The m.m.f.
produced by different windings were discussed in chapters 2 and 3. Therefore no
further presentation of these is done in this chapter. The magnetic flux density, at
position in the air gap without taking slotting into account, i.e. for a smooth
stator and rotor, separated by a distance is given by [17]:
Fm ()
B() = 0 (4.1)

With being constant along the machine bore, the shape of the air gap flux density
will be the same as the shape of the magnetomotive force which is plotted for the
prototype machine at no-load in fig. 4.1(a). This is not true for a machine with
conductors placed in slots on both sides of the air gap. The flux density in the
air gap is shown in fig. 4.1(b) if slotting is not taken into account. Figure 4.1
shows that the m.m.f. and the flux density contains identical harmonic orders.
33
CHAPTER 4. MODELLING OF AIR GAP FLUX DENSITY AT NO LOAD
34 INCLUDING STATOR AND ROTOR SLOTTING
Especially pronounced are the step harmonics caused by the discretization of the
stator winding.
5000
1
2500
0.5
M.m.f. [A]
PSfrag replacements PSfrag replacements
Bg [T ]
0 0
-0.5
-2500
-1
-5000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
[rad] [rad]
(a) No load m.m.f for the prototype machine. (b) Air gap flux density for the prototype
machine.
Figure 4.1: No load air gap m.m.f. and flux density for the prototype machine,
without slotting effect
4.2 Influence of slotting

The coils in the stator and the bars in the rotor are placed in slots which makes the
air-gap length of the machine not constant along the bore. There are basically two
ways of handling this problem. The first one utilizes a fictitious air gap length by
introducing a correction factor for the air-gap length. This factor is traditionally
known as the Carter factor and is given by eq. 4.2 [18].
s
kc = (4.2)
s bs
s is the slot pitch for the considered slotting and is a function of the ratio of the
slot opening bs , to the air-gap length . In [19], the Carter factor is expressed in
terms of the slot pitch and the air-gap length according to eq 4.3.
s
kc = (4.3)
s
is here an other function of the ratio of the slot opening to the air-gap length. This
method does not handle the variation of the air gap length along the circumference
of the machine bore, it simply adjusts the length of the air-gap to a value that is
constant and determined by the geometry of the slotting.
The second method is to fully consider the slotting on both sides of the air gap,
leading to a function that describes the magnetic conductance of the air gap along
4.2. INFLUENCE OF SLOTTING 35
the length of the machine bore [20]. The magnetic conductance will vary along the
circumference of the air-gap by virtually vary the air gap length. This means that
the flux density in the air-gap will not be constant over a slot pitch even though the
magnetic potential difference across the air-gap is constant. The derivation of the
magnetic conductance of the air gap with a slotted stator and rotor is presented
here. It is based on a work presented in [19] where the equations can be found.
The air-gap flux density can be calculated as the product of the M M F , F and
the inverse air-gap length at point according to equation 4.4 [19].
0 F (, t)
B(, t) = (4.4)
()
If the product 0 F (, t) is unity in eq. 4.4 for a machine with a slotted stator
and a smooth rotor at point , the flux density at this point is given by 4.5.
Furthermore, this function is called f1 ().
1
Bg () = = f1 () (4.5)
()
The magnetic conductance of this air gap at point is given by eq. 4.6.
1
1 () = = f1 () (4.6)
()
The increase of the air gap length at point due to the stator slotting, 1 () is
given by 4.7
1
1 () = () = (4.7)
f1 ()
Therefore, the fictitious air gap length at point is given by eq. 4.8
() = 1 () + (4.8)
If the rotor is also slotted and the origin of the rotor slotting is displaced the angle
r from the origin of the stator slotting (see fig. 4.2), the fictitious air gap length
is given by eq. 4.9
() = 1 () + 2 ( r ) + (4.9)
By combining eq. 4.7 and 4.9 the expression for the air gap length at point is
found to be:
1 1 1 1
() = + + = + (4.10)
f1 () f2 ( r ) f1 () f2 ( r )
The magnetic conductance is then calculated according to eq. 4.6. It is found to

be:
1 1
1 2 = = (4.11)
() 1 1
+
f1 () f2 ( r )
Equation 4.11 can be further simplified into eq. 4.12 which describes the magnetic
conductance of the air gap with slotting on both the stator and the rotor side of
the air gap [19].
f1 ()f2 ( r )
1 2 () = (4.12)
f1 () + f2 ( r ) f1 ()f2 ( r )
The functions f1 () and f2 ( r ) are periodic functions with the period deter-
mined by the angle of the stator and rotor slot-pitch respectively [19]. They are
given by the fourier series in eq. 4.13 and eq. 4.17 [19].
s1 =0
PSfrag replacements

bs1 B(, t)
r r
s2
Figure 4.2: Displacement of the rotor coordinate system with reference to the origin
of the stator coordinate system.

X
f1 () = a0 ah cos(hQ1 ) (4.13)
h=1
Where a0 is given by:
1/2 s1
1
Z
D
a0 = f1 ()d = (4.14)
s1 0 kc1
s1 is the corresponding angle of the stator slot-pitch s1 and kc1 is the Carter-
factor for the stator slotting [19].
The fourier coefficients for the higher harmonics are determined by using results
from a rigorous conformal mapping analysis of the effect of the slotting on the air
gap flux density. The results from this analysis were presented in [19]. It showed
that the air gap flux density is affected by the slot up to the distance 0.8 times the
slot width from the slot center.

bs1
a h = Fh (4.15)
s1
Where is a function of the ratio bs1 , i.e. the ratio of the slot opening to the
air-gap length and Fh is given by equation 4.16 [19].
( hb
" #
s1 )
s1 2
14

bs1 hbs1
Fh = 0.5 + hbs1 2
sin 1.6 (4.16)
s1 h 0.78 2( s1 ) s1
In the same manner, for Q2 rotor slots, f2 is calculated according to eq. 4.17.

X
f2 () = b0 bh cos(hQ2 ) (4.17)
h=1
Where b0 is given by:

1/2 s2
D 1
Z
b0 = f2 ()d = (4.18)
s2 0 kc2
bh is determined as ah but with bs2 s2

taken from the rotor dimensions instead [19].
With f1 and f2 known, the distribution of the magnetic conductance can be
calculated according to equation 4.12 and the air-gap flux density is calculated
according to equation 4.4 with 1 = 1,2 . Examples of the magnetic conductance
function is given in fig. 4.3 and fig. 4.4. For simplicity and easier visualization,
a very coarse slotting is chosen Q1 = 6, Q2 = 11. Further on, the function is
normalized. The first 200 terms in equation 4.13 and 4.17 are taken into account.
The influence of slotting on the magnetic conductance is clearly shown in fig.
4.3. The influence of moving the rotor is shown as well. In this particular case, the
stator slots (upper slotting in fig. 4.3) are most responsible for the variation in the
magnetic conductance but the comparably small rotor slots (lower slotting in fig.
4.3) affects the conductivity as well. In fig. 4.4 the magnetic conductance of the air
gap has been plotted for a rotor slot width that is increased to 1.5 times the value
shown in fig. 4.3. The stator slot width is kept at the same value as in fig. 4.3.
This has increased the impact of the rotor slotting on the magnetic conductance
distribution as shown in fig. 4.4.
The no-load air-gap flux density modeled analytically can be seen in fig. 4.5(a)
together with the flux density obtained from the finite element method (FEM)

Stator-slotting Stator-slotting
Normalized magnetic conductance

Rotor-slotting Rotor-slotting
1 2 (normalized) 1 2 (normalized)
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
[degrees] [degrees]
(a) Distribution of the magnetic conductance in (b) Distribution of the magnetic conductance in
the air-gap with r = 0o the air-gap with r = 45o
Figure 4.3: Distribution of the magnetic conductance in the air-gap at different
rotor positions, bs1 = bs10 , bs2 = bs20 .
Stator-slotting Stator-slotting

Rotor-slotting Rotor-slotting
1 2 (normalized) 1 2 (normalized)
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
[degrees] [degrees]
(a) Distribution of the magnetic conductance in (b) Distribution of the magnetic conductance in
the air-gap with r = 0o the air-gap with r = 45o
Figure 4.4: Distribution of the magnetic conductance in the air-gap at different

rotor positions, bs1 = bs10 , bs2 = 1.5bs20 .
shown in 4.5(b). The machine is simulated in FEM at rated voltage with a forced
rotation at synchronous speed (corresponding to no-load operation). The no-load
current obtained from FEM is then used in the analytical model and the flux density
waveforms calculated from the two different methods are compared. Further on,
the harmonic contents calculated from the analytical model as well as from FEM
are presented in fig. 4.5(c)-4.5(d).

1 Bg Analytical 1 Bg FEM
0.5 0.5
Bg [T ]
Bg [T ]
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mechanical angle [rad] Mechanical angle [rad]
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements (a) Air-gap flux density from analytical model. (b) Air-gap flux density from FEM.
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
Magnitude [T]
Magnitude [T]
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37 42 44 1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37 42 44
h 0.9 h
(c) Harmonic spectra of analytical flux density. (d) Harmonic spectra of FEM flux density.
Figure 4.5: Air-gap flux density waves from the analytical and finite element
method.
The analytical model predicts a 13.5 % higher fundamental component com-

pared to FEM. This is due to the reluctance of the iron parts which is not taken
into account in the analytical model. Leakage is another factor that is not ac-
counted for in the analytical model. Even though no third space harmonic exists
in the air-gap flux density, saturation of the iron can be a reason for the lower
flux density in FEM. In a proper machine design where the saturation of the teeth
and the core is almost equal, the air-gap flux density is maintaining the sinusoidal
shape even though saturation occurs [9]. To investigate the level of saturation in
the machine, several no-load FEM simulations were done at varying voltages from
1000 V up to 12000 V in steps of 1000 V and forced synchronous rotation of the
rotor. The no-load current for the different voltages were then used in the analyti-
cal model and plotted versus the peak of the fundamental of the flux density wave.
A harmonic model were in this case chosen in FEM due to the time demanding
nature of time stepping simulations. The results are presented in fig. 4.6. The
no-load current predicted by FEM is approximately 150 A and in this region it can
be seen from fig. 4.6 that the machine is beginning to saturate. Fig. 4.6 also shows
that the leakage is not the major reason for the overestimation of the air gap flux
PSfrag replacements
density as the analytical and FEM results are similar in the linear region.
0.9
Analytical
0.8
FEM
0.7
0.6
Bg 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Stator Current [A]
Figure 4.6: No-load air gap flux density as function of the stator current.
Further on, three FEM simulations with linear materials of three different per-
meabilities (r = 3900, r = 10000 and r = 1010 ) were performed in order to
validate the analytically calculated flux density wave form with reduced impact of
the iron. The permeability r = 3900 corresponds to the electrical steel in the pro-
totype machine in the linear region. A current source was used in these simulations.
The results for the magnitude of the fundamental component are summarized in
table 4.1. The flux density from the simulation with r = 10000 is shown in fig.
4.7. By comparing the linear FEM results in fig. 4.7 with the analytical results
in fig. 4.5 it is found that the analytical flux density with this material is overes-
timated by 1.2%. When the permeability is further increased, the flux density is
underestimated by 0.5% in the analytical model. This is due to modeling errors
and as well uncertainties in the finite element solution due to a finite number of
mesh elements.
4.3 Search coil measurements and comparison to analytical

and FEM models
Several search-coils are wound around stator teeth and stator back. The analytical
model for the air-gap flux density was used to estimate the induced voltage in one of
the tooth search-coils. The assumption is that the flux through the teeth is constant
4.3. SEARCH COIL MEASUREMENTS AND COMPARISON TO
ANALYTICAL AND FEM MODELS 41
Table 4.1: Peak values of the fundamental component of Bg from no-load FEM
simulations with different materials.
r N-L1 3900 10000 1010
Bg 0.6973 0.7612 0.7820 0.7960
Difference +13.5% +4.0% +1.2% -0.50%
1 Non-Linear material that is used in the prototype.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements 0.8

1 Bg FEM 0.7
0.6
0.5
Magnitude [T]
0.5
Bg [T ]
0 0.4
0.3
-0.5
0.2
0.1
-1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37 42 44
Mechanical angle [rad] h
(a) Air-gap flux density from FEM with linear (b) Harmonic spectra of FEM flux density
materials.
Figure 4.7: Air-gap flux density waves from the finite element method with linear
materials.
above the teeth and across the air-gap. Measurements corresponds very well to
the FEM simulations. The analytical model does not predict an exactly similar
magnitude of variation in the wave form as measurements and finite element model
do. However, the main shape of the wave-form is correct. The method that was
used to calculate the flux through one tooth in the analytical model was to integrate
the air-gap flux density along a distance corresponding to a stator slot-pitch.
Z 2
g (t) = B(, t)Lrd (4.19)
1
where L is the axial length of the considered tooth (the length of one sheet package)
and r is the inner radius of the stator. The voltage induced in a search coil wound
around a tooth is given by differentiation of 4.19 with respect to t. The induced
voltage in one of the search coils is shown for one electrical period in fig. 4.9(a).
Figure 4.9(b) shows the results obtained from the finite element solution. Figure
4.10 shows the measured curve for one electrical period. The difference observed in
the analytical method is assumed to mainly depend on the geometry of the rotor
slots, since the rotor slot opening is responsible for the variation of permeance
observed from the stator tooth and hence the magnitude of variation of the flux
density when the rotor rotates an angle corresponding to a rotor slot-pitch. The
rotor slots in this machine are semi-closed and no model is at this time used for this
kind of slotting. The value of the slot opening that is used in this permeance model
is the opening of the slot neck. In the analytical results shown in fig. 4.9(a), the
integration of the flux density is done along a complete slot pitch according to fig.
4.8. The selection of the limits was based on the assumption that the air gap flux
beneath half the width of the slots on both sides of the tooth is passing through
the tooth. It can be seen in fig. 4.9(a) that the magnitude of the harmonics in the
induced voltage is smaller than predicted by FEM.
=0
1
B(, t)
PSfrag replacements
r
r = 0
Figure 4.8: Integration limits which was used to determine the induced search coil
voltage analytically.
This is due to the fact that the first order rotor slot space harmonics in the air
gap flux density is predicted smaller by the analytical model. The rotor slots causing
the rotor slot space harmonics are semi closed in the prototype machine. This is not
taken into account in the analytical model. Instead the rotor slot opening that is
used in the permeance model is the opening of the slot neck. It is tempting to think
that this slot opening should be increased to a fictitious value that is wider than the
slot neck but more narrow than the inner slot width. This would have a magnitude
increasing impact on the rotor slot space harmonics, causing the harmonics created
by the rotor slotting to increase in the analytically calculated search coil voltage as
4.3. SEARCH COIL MEASUREMENTS AND COMPARISON TO
ANALYTICAL AND FEM MODELS 43
3 3

2 2
1 1
Voltage [V ]
Voltage [V ]
-0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [ms] Time [ms]
(a) Analytical calculation of the search coil volt- (b) FEM calculation of the search coil voltage.
age. Integration was done over one slot pitch.
Figure 4.9: Search coil voltage for one tooth at no-load and rated voltage from the
analytical calculation and FEM.
PSfrag replacements
2
1
Voltage [V ]
-1
-2
-3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [ms]
Figure 4.10: Measured search coil voltage at no-load and rated voltage.
well. In fig. 4.11 the magnitude of the rotor slot space harmonics is plotted against
the width of the rotor slot. In this way, a value for the fictitious slot opening can
be found by searching for the slot width that gives the same magnitude of first
order rotor slot space harmonics as the finite element method predicts. It is clearly
shown that with this fictitious value of the opening, the analytically calculated
induced voltage in the search coil agree much better with results from FEM and
measurements.
0.04
Rotor slot harmonic magnitude [T ]

0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
1 1.17 1.33 1.5 1.67
Rotor slot opening width [p.u.]
Figure 4.11: Rotor slot harmonics magnitude as function of the rotor slot opening.
PSfrag replacements
2
1
Voltage [V ]
-0
-1
-2
-3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [ms]
Figure 4.12: Analytical search coil voltage calculated with a fictitious rotor slot
opening due to semi-closed rotor slots.
4.4 Conclusions
This chapter presented a method to model the no load air-gap flux density in an
induction machine by means of knowledge of the magnetomotive force and the dis-
tribution of the magnetic conductance in the air-gap. The analytical model predicts
a 13.5% higher fundamental component in the flux density wave compared to FEM
simulations. This deviation is assumed to depend on the magnetic saturation of
the iron which is not taken into account in the analytical model. More work has
to be done to investigate the effects of saturation on the distribution of the air-gap
flux density.
4.4. CONCLUSIONS 45
Further on, the rotor has semi-closed slots which is not taken into account in
the analytical model. The slot is assumed to be fully open with the width of the
slot-neck. The effect of widening the rotor slot opening were however studied to
some extent. This resulted in a modified Carter factor which in turn made the
analytically calculated induced voltage in a search coil correspond more accurately
to measurements and finite element methods. The influence of leakage on the
magnitude of the fundamental component of the air-gap flux density should also be
a subject for further investigation.
Chapter 5
Stator slot and differential leakage
The derivation and verification of an analytical model to calculate the slot-leakage

flux for fractional conductor windings is presented in this chapter. In conventional
machines current density is constant in all slots. This is not the case when the
machine has a fractional conductor winding since different slots can contain different
number of turns. It is therefore of interest to study the slot leakage distribution
in stators with such a winding. The slot leakage inductance is determined from
expressions for the magnetic energy associated to a slot. The verification is made
by comparing the analytical results to finite element models. An indirect verification
of the slot leakage is made as well with measurements on the prototype machine.
5.1 The slot-model

The slot used in the derivation is assumed to be rectangular. The slot contains two
coil sides. Between the coil sides is a layer of insulation. The conductors of the
PSfrag replacements
coils are assumed to be uniformly distributed along the coil height.
Slot Wedge
h0
N2
hc
Top Coil
Bottom Coil
hi
N1
hc
Stator Tooth
x
w0
Figure 5.1: Slot model for derivation of the slot leakage.
47
48 CHAPTER 5. STATOR SLOT AND DIFFERENTIAL LEAKAGE
The magnetic field strength

The magnetic field in the different regions can be written as:
x
H(x) = N1 I 0 < x < hc (5.1)
w 0 hc
N1 I
H(x) = hc < x < h c + h i (5.2)
w0
N1 I N2 I (x hc hi )
H(x) = + cos() hc + hi < x < 2hc + hi (5.3)
w0 w0 hc
N1 I N2 I
H(x) = + cos() x > 2hc + hi (5.4)
w0 w0
Where is the phase displacement of the current between the bottom and top
coils. The field is assumed perpendicular to the slot walls. The leakage field is
proportional to the current in the slot and the corresponding slot leakage reactance
can be considered constant [4]. The main assumption is that the stator iron has
infinite permeability. The second assumption is that H is perpendicular to the slot
walls everywhere in the slot. The field is plotted together with the model of the
slot in fig. 5.2.
PSfrag replacements
0
0.1 1
0.2 H(x)
0.3
0.4
h0
0.5
0.6
N2 I 0.7
0.8
hc

1
x[p.u.]
0 0.5
0.1
0.2
hi
0.3
0.4
N1 I 0.5
0.6
hc
0.7
0.8
0.9
x 1
0 0.5 10
w0 Magnetic field [p.u.]
Figure 5.2: Magnetic field along the height of the slot.
The magnetic energy in the slot

The magnetic energy stored in the slot can be calculated from the magnetic field:
1
Z
Wm = 0 H 2 dV (5.5)
2 V
which is reduced to:
1
Z
Wm = 0 H 2 (x)Lw0 dx (5.6)
2 h
5.2. VERIFICATION OF SLOT ENERGY BY FEM MODELING 49
if H is only varying with x. L is the length of the machine.

The energy associated to the different regions is:
1 2
Wm1 = 0 (N1 I) Lhc (5.7)
6w0
1 2
Wm2 = 0 (N1 I) Lhi (5.8)
2w0
1 N22

2 2 2
Wm3 = 0 I Lhc N1 + N1 N2 cos () + cos () (5.9)
2w0 3
2
1 b0 + b 1

N1 I N2 I
Wm4 = 0 L + cos() h0 (5.10)
2 w0 w0 2
The total energy stored in the slot is then:
"
0 I 2 L
N12 4h

Wm = 2w 3
c +h +h
i 0 +
0
#
hc + h cos2 () + N N (h + 2h ) cos ()

+N22 3 0 1 2 c 0 (5.11)
5.2 Verification of slot energy by FEM modeling

The finite element method model that is used to verify the analytical expression
of the slot energy contains two coils. One in the slot bottom and one in the top
of the slot. The return conductors are also present in the model. The geometry
of the slot is presented in fig. 5.3. The mesh is presented in the same figure. The
results are presented in figs. 5.5-5.7. The results show very good correlation with
the analytical calculations with the exception for the energy in the slot wedge which
is overestimated in the analytical results.
Stator Tooth
Stator Yoke
IN2 IN1
(a) Slot geometry. (b) Mesh of the geometry.
Figure 5.3: The geometry used to determine the slot leakage.

Results from FEM

Figure 5.4 shows the leakage flux distribution for the case with 9 turns in the
slot-bottom and 8 turns in the slot top.
Figure 5.4: The leakage flux in a slot.
The magnetic energy in the different regions is calculated by FEM and compared
to the the same quantity calculated with the analytical expressions. Figure 5.5-5.7
shows the energy in the slot bottom, the slot top, the wedge and the total magnetic
energy when different number of turns are used. In fig. 5.5, the number of turns in
the slot bottom, N1 is 9 and the number of turns in the slot top, N2 is 8. If this
case is compared to fig. 5.6 where N1 is 8 and N2 is 9, it is found that the first
case gives more energy in all parts of the slot except the wedge. The latter slot will
therefore give more leakage per current, i.e. have a higher leakage reactance. The
same is true for fig. 5.7 (N1 = 3, N2 = 2) and fig. 5.8 (N1 = 2, N2 = 3), where the
first case gives more slot energy per current and hence more leakage reactance.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
0.25
Analytical 1.5 Analytical
0.2 FEM FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.15 1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
PSfrag replacements Winding current [A] Winding current [A]
(a) Bottom PSfrag replacements

(b) Top
2.5
0.3 Analytical
Analytical
2 FEM
0.25 FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.2 1.5
0.15
1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Winding current [A] Winding current [A]
(c) Wedge (d) Total
Figure 5.5: Magnetic energy in the different regions of the stator slot for N1 = 9,
N2 = 8
PSfrag replacements
0.2 PSfrag replacements 1.5

Analytical Analytical
FEM FEM
0.15
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]

1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
PSfrag replacements Winding current [A] Winding current [A]
(a) Bottom (b) Top

PSfrag replacements
2.5
0.3
0.25 2
FEM FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.2 1.5
0.15
1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(c) Wedge (d) Total
N2 = 9.
PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
0.3 Analytical Analytical

1.5
FEM FEM
0.25
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.2
1
0.15
0.1 0.5
0.05
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
0.35 Winding current [A] Winding current [A]
PSfrag replacements
(a) Bottom PSfrag replacements (b) Top
2.5
0.3
0.25 2
FEM FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.2 1.5
0.15
1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
(c) Wedge (d) Total
N2 = 2.
1.5
FEM FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]

0.1 1
0.05 0.5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
0.15 Winding current [A] Winding current [A]
PSfrag replacements
(a) Bottom (b) Top
0.3
0.25 FEM 1.5 FEM
Magnetic energy [J]
Magnetic energy [J]
0.2
1
0.15
0.1
0.5
0.05
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
(c) Wedge (d) Total
N2 = 3.
5.3. DIFFERENTIAL LEAKAGE 55
5.3 Differential leakage

The differential leakage is defined as the leakage caused by harmonics other than
the fundamental in the airgap. Space harmonics in the air gap, traveling at a lower
speed than the fundamental, induce in the stator winding a voltage of fundamental
frequency. In the rotor winding, the frequency of the voltage induced by the same
space harmonic is higher than the frequency induced by the fundamental. Since a
torque only can be produced by a stator m.m.f. having p poles and a rotor m.m.f.
also having p poles, the fields having more than p poles are not contributing to
the useful magnetic flux. The differential leakage coefficient can be expressed as
a relation between the total inductance of the winding (including all harmonics)
and the inductance of the winding for the fundamental (having p poles) according
to [19]: X
L
L
d = 1= 1 (5.12)
Lp Lp
The constant d can be determined by the aid of the Grges diagram [19]. An
introduction to the Grges diagram is presented here in order to determine the
differential leakage coefficient. It is based on the derivation in [19] where all the
equations can also be found.
The Grges diagram

The Grges diagram is a tool that can be used to evaluate special windings, i.e.
fractional slot windings, fractional conductor windings or other non-standard wind-
ings. For example, the differential leakage coefficient can be calculated in a simple
way, avoiding the evaluation of complex sums [19].
The magnetic induction at the point can be described in terms of the current
layer intensity distribution, A(), according to:
1
Z
B()
= H0 + A() r d (5.13)
0 0
H0 is the magnetic field intensity at the origin which is given from the condition that
the net flux along the air gap periphery must be zero. This condition is expressed
by eq. 5.14 assuming the radius of the air gap is unity (r = 1):
Z 2
B() d = 0 (5.14)
0
The m.m.f. can then be calculated by multiplying the magnetic field intensity
by the air-gap length. Including the time variation of the current (sinusoidal) and
the phase-shifts, the m.m.f. can be expressed as:
Z
F ()ej(t+) = H0 ejt + A()ej(t+ ) d (5.15)
0
where is the phase-shift of the current layer intensity at the point and is
the phase-shift of the m.m.f. at point .
The integral on the right hand side of eq. 5.15 can be written as:
Z Z
j(t+ ) jt
A()e d = e A()e(j ) d = ejt f () (5.16)
0 0
The vector f () is given by summing the vectors A()ej along the air-gap pe-
riphery from zero to the upper limit :
Z
f () = A()e(j ) d (5.17)
0
as is varied, f () describes a curve. This curve is called the Grges diagram. If

the current layer intensity is integrated along the entire air gap periphery, it results
in: Z 2
A()ej(t+ ) d = 0 (5.18)
0
Eq. 5.18 implies that the Grges diagram closes on itself at least once as the
position is changing from 0 to 2 mechanical radians along the air gap.
If the conductors carrying the current layer intensity are located in slots, eq.
5.15 becomes:
n
X
F (n)ej(t+) = H0 ejt + An ej(t+n ) (5.19)
n=1
where F( n) is the m.m.f. above the n : th slot pitch and An is the current layer
intensity of slot n. f is now a function of the slot number n:
F (n)ej = H0 + f (n) (5.20)
The function f (n) when the conductors are placed in slots is found in a similar
manner as in eq. 5.17:
n
X
f (n) = An ejn (5.21)
n=1
Figure 5.10 shows three examples of Grges diagrams at the instant where the
current in phase A is at its positive maximum value. Figure 5.10(a) is drawn for
a simple winding having q = 5 slots per pole per phase and the coil throw y = p .
Figure 5.10(b) shows the Grges diagram for the winding q = 5 and y = 45 p . The
Grges diagram showed in fig. 5.10(c) is drawn for the fractional conductor winding
which was described in table 3.2 in chapter 3. This winding is also presented in fig.
5.9. The slot numbers are marked in fig. 5.9 and the vector is marked with the
corresponding slot number in fig. 5.10(c). The circle corresponding to the Grges
diagram of the fundamental for each winding is plotted together with the Grges
diagrams in fig. 5.10. The radius of this circle, R1 for a three phase winding is
given by [19]:
1
R1 = kw,p0 Cg (5.22)
p0
p0 is the number of poles for the basic winding, i.e. the least number of poles
that still can realize the winding having p poles. kw,p0 is the winding factor for
the fundamental of the winding. Since the winding having p0 poles is magnetically
equal to the real winding having p poles then the winding factor must be equal
for the basic winding and the real winding. Cg is the circumference of the Grges
diagram.
According to [19], the differential leakage coefficient can be determined from the
Grges diagram as the squared fraction of the radius for the fundamental and the
mean radius of the slot points, Rg :
2
Rg
d = 1 (5.23)
R1
As a reference, the differential leakage coefficients for the windings displayed in

fig. 5.10 are d = 0.0065 for the winding in fig. 5.10(a) and d = 0.0039 for the
fractional conductor winding in fig. 5.10(c). The differential leakage coefficient for
g replacements
a non fractional conductor winding with q = 5 and y = 54 p which Grges diagram
is shown in fig. 5.10(b), is d = 0.0041. This means that the coil pitch has most
impact on d but the introduction of the fractional conductor winding has further
reduced the differential leakage coefficient.
C
Np A +
B+ A C+ B
}
}
}
}
}
}
Nc
1 5 10 15 20 25 30
}
}
}
}
}
}
}
A+ C B+ A C+ B A+
Figure 5.9: Fractional conductor winding with p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, Np = 7,

Nc = 10, y = 54 p
A A
B B
C C
(a) Grges diagram for the winding q = 5, (b) Grges diagram for the winding q = 5, y =
4
y = p . .
5 p
10
15
A
B
1 C
30
20
25
(c) Grges diagram for the fractional conduc-

tor winding winding q = 5,
qc = 3, Nc = 10, Np = 7 y = 45 p .
Figure 5.10: Grges diagrams (arrows) for three different windings. The circles
having radius R1 corresponds to the Grges diagram for the fundamentals.
Differential leakage from FEM

Consider a winding having 1 slot per pole per phase and a full pitch coil step. The
coils of the winding is also assumed to have equal number of turns N . This winding
would have a winding factor equal to 1 for all harmonics. The fundamental and the
fifth harmonic of the air gap flux density are presented in fig. 5.11.
0.8
0.6
PSfrag replacements
0.4
B[T ]
0.2
0
sn n
@
0 p p 3p p
4 2 4
x
x = 5 -
Figure 5.11: Fundamental component and fifth harmonic from a simple winding
The space harmonic of the air-gap flux density of odd order h produced by this
winding can be described by:

x
Bref,h (x) = Bref,h sin h (5.24)
p
The flux linkage for one pole for this simple winding would then become
p
2 p
Z
x
ref,h = L N Bref,h sin h dx = L N Bref,h (5.25)
0 p h
Since the inductance is directly proportional to the flux linkage, eq. 5.12 for this
reference winding will become:
ref,h
P P
Lref Lref,h
dref = 1= 1= 1 (5.26)
Lref,1 Lref,1 ref,1
Where index 1 refers to the useful fundamental component. Equation 5.26 can be
separated in its components in order to calculate the differential leakage coefficient
for each space harmonic.
Lref,h 1 Bref,h
dref,h = = (5.27)
Lref,1 h Bref,1
If the winding now is distributed, the coil step may be reduced and the coils
may have different number of turns, the flux density, Bh produced by this winding
will instead become.

x
Bh (x) = kd,h kp,h kc,h Bref,h sin h (5.28)
p
Where kd,h , kp,h , kc,h are the distribution factor, the pitch factor and the coil factor
respectively. The flux linkage for this winding is:
2 p 2 2 p
h = kd,h kp,h kc,h L N Bh = (kd,h kp,h kc,h ) L N Bref,h (5.29)
h h
What is given by the finite element method is the flux density Bh which means that
the left hand side of equation 5.29 should be used when calculating the flux linkage
in FEM. The differential leakage coefficient expressed in terms of Bh is finally given
by eq. 5.30:
Lh 1 Bh
d,h = = kd,h kp,h kc,h (5.30)
L1 h B1
The calculated analytical differential leakage coefficient, together with the coeffi-
cients given by finite elements are given in table 5.1 for the prototype machine. It
should be noted that the analytical model seriously underestimate the differential
leakage coefficient for the harmonics of order 35 and 37. These harmonics are the
stator slot harmonics of the first order (Q1 = 72, p = 4). The differential leakage
coefficient given by the analytical model (calculated based on the flux linkage on
the right hand side of eq. 5.29) does not include the slotting effect. This effect is
of course included in the finite element model. This fact explains the large differ-
ence between the two models for the slot harmonic orders. However, for the other
space harmonics of importance, i.e. the largest differential leakage coefficients, the
analytical model and the FEM model are coherent.
The differential leakage coefficient for space harmonics 5-19 are also presented
in fig. 5.12.
Table 5.1: Differential leakage coefficients for certain space harmonics.
Space Harmonic h Analytical Calculation FEM Calculation Difference

5 1.6098 104 1.6485 104 +2.4%
7 2.0225 105 2.1697 105 +7.3 %
11 1.0697 104 1.0487 104 -2.0 %
13 2.6388 105 2.1791 105 -17 %
17 1.3496 106 1.9723 106 +46 %
19 1.0804 106 1.3749 106 +27 %
. . .
. . .
. . .
35 8.1633 104 6.6704 103 +720 %2
37 7.3046 104 5.2742 103 +620 %2
41 2.3941 106 2.9183 106 +22 %
2 First order slot harmonics.
PSfrag replacements
104
2
Analytical
1.8
FEM
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
d
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5 7 11 13 17 19
h
Figure 5.12: Differential leakage coefficients of orders 5-19 for the prototype ma-
chine.
5.4 Measurements of slot leakage

The slot leakage is evaluated from measurements of the flux in the teeth obtained
with search coils. In this way, it is not possible to obtain an absolute fig. of the
flux leaking through a certain stator slot. However, what can be obtained is the
difference between the leakage of two adjacent slots. This figure can be compared
to analytical and finite element models. It is assumed that if this comparison
give consistent results, then the real slot leakage is also predicted correctly by the
analytical and finite element models. In fig. 5.13, the setup of the search coils,
each having the same number of turns Nsc , is presented. The assumed flux paths
for the slot leakage are shown in the same figure. The main flux gap , crossing the
air gap is not shown in the figure. The flux linkage associated to the search coils
are called b for bottom search coil, c for center search coil, and t for the top
search coil closest to the air gap. There are three search coils wound around each
consecutive tooth of a phase belt. The search coils are displayed in fig. 5.13(a).
Their respective placements are described here as well:
At the very bottom of the tooth, below the bottom main stator coils.
At half the height of the tooth, between the main stator coils.
At the top of the tooth, between the top main stator coils and the slot wedges.
x x
L4 L8
N2 I N1 I
L3 L7

x L2 L6
x
N1I N1I

L1 L5
x x
Stator Yoke Stator Yoke

(a) Placement of search coils marked with X. (b) Distribution of slot leakage.
Figure 5.13: Tooth search coils and slot leakage paths.
A picture of the bottom search coils placed in the prototype is shown in fig. 5.14
From fig. 5.13, it is found that the flux linkage associated to the bottom search coil
is:
k=8 k=4
!
X X
b = Nsc gap + Lk Lk (5.31)
k=5 k=1
5.4. MEASUREMENTS OF SLOT LEAKAGE 63
Search coil
Axial dir. -
Figure 5.14: Photo of some of the search coils mounted around the bottom of the
stator teeth.
This means that the bottom search coil is linking the main flux, gap and also the
difference between the leakage occurring in the slot to the right of the tooth, and
the leakage occurring in the slot to the left of the tooth.
The flux linkage for the center search coil is given by:
k=8 k=4
!
X X
c = Nsc gap + Lk Lk (5.32)
k=6 k=2
According to eq. 5.32, the center search coil is linked by the main flux and all the
difference in slot leakage except for the leakage crossing the bottom stator coil.
The top search coil is linked by the main flux and the difference in leakage
crossing the slot wedge:
t = Nsc (gap + L8 L4 ) (5.33)
Subtracting the bottom search coil flux linkage (eq. 5.31) from the center search
coil flux linkage (eq. 5.32) gives:
b c = Nsc (L5 L1 ) (5.34)
which is the difference in leakage between the bottom leakage of the right-hand slot
and the bottom leakage of the left-hand slot in fig. 5.13. If the same expression is
derived for the difference between the top and the center search coil, this results in:
c t = Nsc (L6 L2 + L7 L3 ) (5.35)
Since the height of a coil is much larger than the height of the insulation, hc >> hi ,
the leakage through the mid-slot insulation L2 and L6 , can be neglected for this
investigation. Eq. 5.35 is then reduced to:
c t = Nsc (L7 L3 ) (5.36)
By calculating the right hand side of eq. 5.34 and eq. 5.36 using the analytical
model presented in section 5.1, the leakage model can be evaluated by determination
of the left hand side from measurements or the finite element method or both.
5.5 Measurement details

All measurements investigated in this section were performed at no-load conditions.
Figure 5.15 shows the teeth equipped with search coils, as well as the configuration
of the winding for the prototype machine. All teeth shown in fig. 5.15 have three
search coils each as described in the previous section. The curve containing har-
monics presented in fig. 5.16 shows the induced voltage in a search coil placed at
the bottom of tooth number 2. This is the signal obtained directly from the oscil-
loscope. It is therefore the induced voltage produced by the flux in a single sheet
package of the machine. The sheet packages are separated by radial cooling ducts
in which the search coils were wound through (see fig. 5.14). The measurements
were sampled at 100 kHz. The supply voltage was 60 % of rated voltage in order to
avoid saturation of the iron. The curve with no superimposed high order harmonics
in fig. 5.16 is the fundamental of the induced search coil voltage. The abbreviation
S.C. for search coil is used in fig. 5.16.
N1 N1 N1 N2 N2 N1 N1 N1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
N2 N2 N1 N1 N1 N1 N2 N2
Stator Yoke
Phase I Phase II Phase -III

Figure 5.15: Teeth equipped with search coils.
The harmonic spectrum of the measured voltage from fig. 5.16 is shown in
fig. 5.17. Focus will be on the fundamental component in the following analysis.
However, the origin of the harmonics of significant amplitude in the voltage obtained
by the search coil measurements is discussed first. It is found that apart from
the fundamental, the harmonics dominating the measured search coil voltage are
PSfrag replacements
5.5. MEASUREMENT DETAILS 65
1.5
1
S.C. Voltage [V]
0.5
-0.5
-1
Bottom S.C.
-1.5
Bottom S.C. Fund.
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.16: Measured signals for tooth 2 at no-load and 60% of nominal voltage.
originating from the rotor. Each time the center of a rotor slot passes by the center
of a stator tooth, the magnetic conductance for this stator tooth flux path is at
minimum. On the other hand, when a rotor tooth center is in line with the stator
tooth center, maximum magnetic conductance is obtained. Therefore the flux in
the stator tooth will vary with a period defined by the rotor slot pitch. The flux
variation at this high frequency (compared to the fundamental) induces a significant
voltage in the search coils since the time derivative of the flux becomes relatively
high. The third harmonic found in fig. 5.17, caused by saturation in the iron,
is very low which implies that saturation is hardly present at this level of supply
voltage [21].
Connecting the measurements in time

The oscilloscope that was used during the measurements had not enough channels
to handle all search coils at the same time. This means that the voltages from all
the search coils (totally 28) could not be measured at once. Therefore, the search
coil voltages had to be sampled in four sets of measurements. One search coil was
therefore connected during each measurement session to allow for coupling of these
measurements in time. If one of the tooth search coils would have been chosen
as the triggering signal, the triggering might have occurred at slightly different
PSfrag replacements
1.4
Bottom S.C.
1.2
S.C. Voltage [V]

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
h
Figure 5.17: Frequency spectrum of the measured signal for the bottom search coil
of tooth 2 at no-load and 60% of nominal voltage.
phases of the (fundamental) period since the signal includes higher order harmonics
whose phases are dependent on the rotor position at the triggering instant. This
can be seen in fig. 5.16 where several instants in the fundamental period satisfies
a certain triggering level at positive or negative slope. Selecting a tooth search
coil for triggering would have led to difficulties to insert the signals in the correct
time frame during the post processing of the data. To minimize this error, the
reference (or the triggering) signal was chosen to be the voltage from a search coil
wound around a pole of the machine. This search coil was connected during all the
measurements. The signal from the pole search coil is plotted in fig. 5.18. This
signal contains high frequency harmonics of lower amplitude as compared to the
teeth search coil signals, and therefore the pole signal is a better alternative for
triggering. The phases of all the harmonics in the pole voltages were then adjusted
so that the pole voltage from all four sets of measurements are in phase. The phases
for each harmonic in the other signals were corrected exactly as much as the pole
voltage signals were. The measurements from the four different series could in this
way be coupled in time.
PSfrag replacements
5.6. VALIDATION OF FEM MODEL 67
15
10
S.C. Voltage [V]
-5
-10
Pole S.C.
-15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.18: Measured voltage induced in the search coil wound around a pole.
5.6 Validation of FEM model
A finite element method model describing the test conditions during the measure-
ments was created. This model was verified by comparing the results of the flux
measurements to results obtained by the model. The FEM model is then used to
investigate the slot leakage. The tooth flux corresponding to the induced voltage in
fig. 5.16 was calculated by integration of the voltage wave form. The measured flux
is shown in the left plot of fig. 5.19(a) (right three curves) together with the flux
obtained by FEM (left three curves) for the same tooth. It can be seen especially
that the top curves corresponding to the bottom flux and the middle flux in the
tooth are difficult to distinguish, leading to a really low value of the difference in
leakage between the adjacent slots. Figure 5.19(b) shows a zoom of the peak in the
measured data. Note that in fig. 5.19, the total flux for all sheet packages in the
machine is shown. The phase shift between the curves in fig. 5.19(a) was introduced
in order to visualize the plots in a more convenient manner. The results from the
measurements and the finite element model are really similar. The subtraction of
the fundamentals of the middle and top tooth fluxes in fig. 5.19, according to eq.
5.36 is plotted in fig. 5.20. Again, it is found that the finite element model is giving
results in agreement with the measured data. It is concluded that the FEM model
has been validated and can therefore be used for the calculation of the leakage flux
crossing the bottom of the stator slot.
30
PSfrag replacements
27.5 Bottom
20 PSfrag replacements
@R
@
27
FEM
10 @ 26.5
Flux [mWb]
R
@ Center
Flux [mWb]
26
0 Meas. 25.5
@
-10
R@ 25
24.5
-20
24

-30
Top
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
Time [ms] Time [ms]
(a) Flux in tooth 2 for the complete machine (b) Zoom of the measured flux in tooth 2.
length. The right curves are measured and the
left curves are obtained by FEM. The lower
curve for both measurements and FEM corre-
sponds to the flux in the tooth top.
Figure 5.19: The flux in tooth 2 from the measurements and predicted by the FEM
model at no load and 60% of nominal voltage.
5.7 Results
Leakage in bottom slots
The leakage flux in the bottom slots i.e. L1 and L5 in fig. 5.13(b) and fig. 5.21,
was calculated from the magnetic vector potential A in FEM. The vector potential
was evaluated at the points denoted A1 to A4 in fig. 5.21. By denoting the active
length of the machine L, the flux crossing the left bottom stator coil and entering
the tooth in fig. 5.21, L1 , can be calculated according to [22]:
L1 = L(A1 A3 ) (5.37)
The flux crossing the right bottom stator coil and entering the tooth in fig. 5.21,
L5 , is given by [22]:
L1 = L(A2 A4 ) (5.38)
The fundamental of these fluxes are plotted for tooth 1, tooth 2 and tooth 3 in fig.
5.22 - 5.24. The remaining fluxes are reported as the leakage difference, given by
eq. 5.34, in table 5.2. The magnitudes of the fluxes in fig. 5.22 are equal. The
reason for this is that the number of turns of the bottom coils that surrounds tooth
1 are equal. However, since there are different phases in the slots, a phase shift
equal to 60 degrees between the fluxes is expected. This is verified by fig. 5.22 as
5.7. RESULTS 69
2 FEM
PSfrag replacements
Measurements
1
Flux [mWb]
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.20: Top flux subtracted from the center s.c. flux for tooth 2.
L3 5 6
L7
3 4

L1 L5
1 2
Stator Yoke
Figure 5.21: Flux paths and vector potentials.
well. The bottom stator coils surrounding tooth 2 do not have the same number of
turns and therefore the magnitudes of the fluxes are different as seen in fig. 5.23.
The phases on both sides of tooth 2 are the same and therefore the fluxes are in
phase.

0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Flux [mW b]
Flux [mW b]
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 L1 Analytical -0.4 L1 FEM

L5 Analytical L5 FEM
-0.6 -0.6
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms] Time [ms]
(a) (b)
Figure 5.22: Leakage flux crossing the slots to the left and to the right of tooth 1.
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Flux [mW b]
Flux [mW b]
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms] Time [ms]
(a) (b)
For tooth 3, the same phases are occupying the neighboring slot bottoms and
the stator coils have the same number of turns. The fluxes are therefore in phase
and have the same magnitude, as seen in fig. 5.24. By studying fig. 5.22-5.24,
it is found that there is an approximate 10% overestimation of the leakage flux
in the analytical model. The iron is assumed to have infinite permeability in the
analytical model. Therefore the magnetic field is assumed to be acting across the
slot only. The FEM model indicates at some points, a flux density corresponding
to the low part of the knee in the magnetization curve of the iron. These points
are located just below the slots, i.e. in the slot leakage paths. Therefore, the 10%
difference can be caused by the m.m.f. drop in some of the iron parts in the leakage
5.7. RESULTS 71

0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Flux [mW b]
Flux [mW b]
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms] Time [ms]
(a) (b)
path.
The right hand side of eq. 5.34 is applied to the analytically calculated leakage
for tooth 1 and the left hand side of eq. 5.34 is applied to the values obtained by
FEM. These curves are shown in fig. 5.25. Values obtained with eq. 5.34 calculated
for the other teeth are shown in table 5.2. The phase of the flux was taken from
FEM for tooth 7 in the measured data (see section 5.8). Non-available values are
indicated by (*) in table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Peak values of the difference in leakage between adjacent slots for the
slot bottoms.
Tooth Analytical [mW b] FEM [mW b] Measured [mW b]
1 0.551 0.531 0.512
2 0.069 0.070 *
3 0 0.013 *
4 0 0.016 *
5 0 0.013 *
6 0.069 0.063 *
7 0.551 0.531 0.567

0.4
0.2
Flux [mW b]
0
-0.2
-0.4 Analytical
FEM
-0.6
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.25: The difference between the bottom leakages of the two slots closest to
tooth 1 using eq. 5.34.
Leakage in top slots

A study of the finite element model shows that the leakage, at the very top of the
slot, is not perpendicular to the slot walls (see fig. 5.26). The analytical model
for the slot leakage is based on the assumption that the field is perpendicular to
the slot walls. Therefore, the analytical model of the slot leakage working for the
bottom of the slot is insufficient to predict the leakage at the top of the slot. The
flux that is entering the slot from the slot wedge in fig. 5.26 is believed to be part
of the zig-zag leakage caused by the space harmonics of order 2ks 1, where s
is the number of slots per pole and k is any integer [23]. This is the reason for
the disagreement between the models. The results obtained by using eq. 5.36 are
shown in table 5.3. The values in table 5.3 correspond to the peak values of the
difference in leakage between the adjacent slots. The only signal that was affected
by the phase shift described in section 5.8 was the measured flux from tooth 7.
Therefore, it is only the measurements from tooth 7 that are given a phase from
FEM.
5.7. RESULTS 73
Isovalues Results
Quantity:E
quifluxWeber
Time(s.):0,02Pos(deg):180
Line/Value
1 / -151,1243E -3
2 / -150,99193E -3
3 / -150,85956E -3
4 / -150,7272E -3
5 / -150,59483E -3
6 / -150,46246E -3
7 / -150,3301E -3
8 / -150,19773E -3
9 / -150,06536E -3
10 / -149,93298E -3
11 / -149,80061E -3
12 / -149,66825E -3
89 / -139,4759E -3
90 / -139,34353E -3
91 / -139,21116E -3
92 / -139,07878E -3
93 / -138,94641E -3
94 / -138,81405E -3
95 / -138,68168E -3
96 / -138,54931E -3
97 / -138,41695E -3
98 / -138,28458E -3
99 / -138,15221E -3
100 / -138,01984E -3
Figure 5.26: Flux leakage lines in the slot top.
Table 5.3: Peak values of the difference in leakage between adjacent slots for the
slot top.
Tooth Analytical [mW b] FEM [mW b] Measured [mW b]
1 1.102 3.056 2.939
2 0.138 1.893 1.997
3 0.069 1.690 1.843
4 0.551 2.247 2.294
5 0.069 1.756 2.000
6 0.138 1.841 2.042
7 1.102 2.817 3.426

5.8 Measurement Errors
The fundamental components for the three search coils around tooth 1 are plotted
in fig. 5.27. It is found that the center and top search coil voltages are in phase,
but the bottom search coil voltage is out of phase relative to the others. This is an
observation that could not be confirmed when using finite element methods. In the
simulation, all the search coil signals around the same tooth are in phase. So is the
case as well with measurements for tooth 2, tooth 3 and tooth 4. These signals are
plotted in fig. 5.28.
PSfrag replacements
1.5
1
S.C. Voltage [V ]
0.5
-0.5
Bottom
-1 Center
Top
-1.5
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.27: Fundamental components for the search coils placed on tooth 1.
Another property that cannot be explained nor observed in the simulation is

that there is a phase difference between the signals from tooth 7 in different axial
positions from the measurements. The fundamentals of the voltages induced in the
search coils wound around tooth 7 are plotted in fig. 5.29. The phase shift between
the search coil voltages, and thereby the fluxes in the different sheet packages along
the axial direction, is definitely not explained by any theory. This led us to conclude
that the measurement equipment could be in cause.
A deep investigation of how the error occurred was initiated. The problem was
identified by tracing the measured data to the channel it was measured by. It was
found that the measurement data that were phase shifted had been sampled from
5.9. CONCLUSIONS 75
PSfrag replacements
1.5
1
S.C. Voltage [V ]
0.5
-0.5
Bottom
-1 Center
Top
-1.5
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.28: Fundamental components for the search coils placed on teeth 2-4.
the same two channels of the oscilloscope. These two channels most probably had
some setting different than the other 5 channels.
5.9 Conclusions
Though a lot of time was spent on dealing with measurement errors, these errors
could finally be traced back to specific oscilloscope channels and corrected. The
comparison of the quantities obtained from FEM and measurements led to the
conclusion that the FEM model predicts accurately the leakage in the slots. It
could also be seen that the leakage crossing the top of the coil in the slot was
affected by the zig-zag leakage. This led to disagreement in the evaluation of the
analytical model in this region.
PSfrag replacements
1.5
1
S.C. Voltage [V ]
0.5
-0.5
Bottom
-1 Center
Top
-1.5
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 5.29: Fundamental components for the search coils placed on tooth 7. Mea-
sured at two positions in the axial direction. One search coil was placed at the drive
end of the machine (solid line). The other search coil was placed in the middle of
the machine length (dashed line).
Chapter 6
Construction of a full scale

prototype
Large high-voltage induction machines used mainly for pump and compressor ap-
plications have been used as a work horse for several decades. This chapter presents
the manufacturing process of such a machine, illustrated by a prototype successfully
built from fall 2006 until early 2007. The prototype is a 4-pole induction motor.
The rated power is 15 MW and the nominal voltage is 10 kV. The shaft height is
800 mm.
6.1 Punching of sheets

The manufacturing process starts by punching sheets of electrical steel for the stator
and for the rotor. Two different punching tools are used. The first tool makes the
main shape of the sheets and the second one creates the slots in the steel sheets.
Coils of steel, purchased from Surahammar [24], are feeding the first punching
machine and out comes the non-slotted sheets. The sheets used for the rotor are
punched in its whole shape directly. However, stators of this size must be punched
in fractions of its circumference, 1/6 of the circumference for this prototype.
6.2 Stacking of sheets

The stator and rotor are made of sheet stacks with cooling ducts in between. The
stacking of the sheets one upon the other is done either manually or by a robot.
Press rings are placed at both ends of the stator and the rotor. The first sheet
package is placed on top of the press ring and separation from the next sheet
package is obtained by using special cooling duct sheets between the sheet packages
(see figure 6.1 and figure 6.2).
When the required number of sheet packages is stacked and put one upon the
other, the second press ring is put into place at the other end of the stator. Beams
77
78 CHAPTER 6. CONSTRUCTION OF A FULL SCALE PROTOTYPE
(a) The sheet stacking table used when (b) The half-finished stator where the cooling
sheets are stacked by hand. One sheet- ducts are visible. One of the press-rings can
package is stacked at a time and then lifted be seen at the bottom of the figure.
and put on top of the finished sheet-packages.
Figure 6.1: The stacking of the stator sheets.
(a) View of stacked stator sheet packages. (b) View of stacked rotor sheet packages.
Figure 6.2: View of stacked sheet packages for stator and rotor. (The stator and
rotor are not fully stacked).
welded along the stator outer periphery then secure the stator construction. The
6.3. STATOR COILS 79
stacked rotor is heated in an oven to make it expand. Thereafter, a shaft is inserted

in the center of the hot rotor. The rotor is then cooled, which makes it shrink and
therefore the shaft become forced mounted in the rotor laminations.
6.3 Stator coils

The stator coil production starts with a number of rolls of copper strands, equal
to the number of parallel strands per turn. The copper strands are delivered with
applied strand insulation. The rolls are connected to a winding machine, which
wind the copper strands to a coil blank. A shrunk-on hoop is wound around the
coil blank, which then is pressed and at the same time heated. The shrunk-on hoop
shrinks and makes sure the strands of the coil blank are kept in place when the coil
blanks are to be spread (see figure 6.3).
Copper strand
with insulation
Shrunk-on hoop
Figure 6.3: Cross section of the coil blank.
In the spreading process, the coil gets its final diamond shape. The straight
parts of the coil are kept in place and pulled apart to a distance corresponding
to a coil pitch [11]. The spreading of a coil is made in two steps. It starts with
the actual spreading of the coil where the spreading machine opens the coil to the
width of a coil pitch. Then the radiis at the coil ends are created by fixtures, which
are pressed from below against the coil ends. These radiis should be kept as small
as possible in order to minimize the average coil length and to reduce the machine
length. The spreading of stator coils is a complicated process since it is hard to

tell how the copper material will respond to bending and twisting. This is mainly
caused by the fact that the coil consists of several strands. Therefore, the first
spread coils are thoroughly measured, tested in a jig and the spreading machine
is tuned. The setting of the machine usually requires a lot of time but when the
machine has been tuned the spreading of the coils is completed quickly. Much of
the tuning of the machine is entirely done by hand. The coils are now ready for
application of the main insulation.
The main insulation consists of a glass-fiber band, which is applied around the
coil. Partial discharge (PD) protection is applied on parts inside the machine. The
PD protection consists of a carbon band with a low resistivity, which is wound
around the coil. An insulation machine applies most of the insulation, including
the PD-protection. However, at the narrow end regions of the coils the insulation
machine cannot be used and the insulation is applied by hand.
Fractional Conductor Winding

The winding in this prototype machine is of a special kind. Instead of having
coils with equal number of turns, it has coils with two different number of turns
but still having the same cross-section area so that they use the same slot area.
By doing this, a fractional equivalent number of conductors per slot per phase is
obtained, allowing to tune the short circuit impedance for example. The MMF
wave is modified and approximates a sinus wave better than a standard winding if
the coils with different number of strands are placed judiciously (see table 6.1 and
figure 6.6). The drawback is of course that two different kinds of coils have to be
manufactured.
The winding has two layers i.e. each coil has one straight side in the top layer
and the other one in the bottom layer of the slot (see figure 6.4).
Table 6.1: The winding configuration with different number of coils per slot. Only
phase A is shown.
Slot number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8 9 9 9 9 8
Turns of coil
8 9 9 9 9 8
6.4 Winding the stator

Once the coils are spread and insulated, they are ready to be inserted into the
stator. Two operators placed at each end of the machine complete this task. The
6.5. CONNECTION OF THE STATOR WINDING 81
PSfrag replacements
Second coil side of coil 1.
Seen from the drive side In the top layer of slot 16.
15
10
First coil side of coil 1.
5 In the bottom layer of slot 1.
1
5
Figure 6.4: Principle of 72 slots, 4-pole two-layer winding with 6 coil pitch.
coils are lifted by a crane and put into the machine. Plastic strips are put between
the coil and the slot. The coil slips on the strip while it is pushed into the slot.
This strip protects the PD-protection and ease the coil insertion. The plastic strip
is pulled out of the slot once the coil is in place. Each coil is inserted in the same
way until the coil pitch is reached (where the top side of the first coil is). Then
the coil side already occupying the slot must be lifted so that the bottom coil-side
can be put into the slot (see figure 6.6). Temperature sensors or RTDs are inserted
between the two layers of the stator winding. Finally, the wedges are put into
the slots to secure the coil-sides in the slots. The wedges can either be made of
non-magnetic or magnetic material. (See figure 6.5).
6.5 Connection of the stator winding

After placing all the coils into the slots, the coils are high voltage tested. Then, the
end connections are made. First the coil-connections within a coil group are made.
For a two layer winding, a coil group is constituted by 2q coils of the same phase
situated in adjacent slots and connected in series or in parallel. q is the number of
slots per pole per phase.
Then the connections between coil groups of the same phase are made if such
connections are present in the machine. These connections are always present unless
the machine has two poles. The copper strands are soldered together either by
putting all parts lumped together or in a more structured manner by transposing
the positions of the strands in the coil (see figure 6.7). The total losses in the
machine are affected by the method of connection that is used. After soldering,
the joints must be insulated with the same glass-fiber band used for the coil main
Rotor
Air gap
PSfrag replacements
Wedge
Top coil
Stator tooth
Stator back
Bottom coil
Figure 6.5: Slot with two coil sides and a slot-wedge.
(a) Winding of the stator as seen from drive (b) Winding of the stator as seen from non-
end. The white stripes on the end windings drive end, which also is called the connection
marks the 8-turn coils. side.
Figure 6.6: The stator during insertion of the winding.
insulation.
During the insertion of coils in the stator, a glass-fiber rope is attached around
the end windings. This is called brazing of the coil ends. It becomes a very strong
construction after impregnation of the stator. The end-winding rope guarantees the
winding does not break down mechanically in the presence of the large forces acting
on the end-windings during start and short-circuit transients [11]. The construction
of the stator winding is mostly done manually and therefore it is a time consuming
task. After all the internal connections are completed, the wires that function as
6.6. VACUUM PRESSURE IMPREGNATION (VPI) 83
Slot N Slot N+1
1 turn of
1 turn of
4 parallel
strands { 1
3
2
4
4
2
3
1 { 4 parallel
strands
Figure 6.7: Transposition of the coil strands in a coil.
main connections to the machine are inserted into a jig, which keeps them in place
during the vacuum pressure impregnation of the stator.
6.6 Vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI)

Vacuum pressure impregnation has successfully been used for over 30 years. The
basic equipment for a VPI-process plant is a resin storage tank, a process chamber,
a vacuum pump and a source of pressurized dry air or nitrogen [25]. The wound
and connected stator is lowered into the process chamber and impregnated with
epoxy-resin (see figure 6.8). Applying vacuum in the chamber where the stator is
placed starts the process. The chamber is then filled up with epoxy-resin and the
stator is left for several hours to soak the epoxy. Thereafter, pressure is applied in
the chamber and the epoxy-resin enters all cavities of the winding insulation and
in the space around the winding which allow for better heat transfer compared to
non-VPI machines. Non-VPI machines have experienced problems with the slot-
wedges . By vacuum pressure impregnating the machine, the wedges are firmly
secured by the resin [26].
After the VPI, the stator winding surrounded by insulation is solid and resistant
to moisture and chemicals. The rope used to secure the end-windings has after the
Figure 6.8: Lowering a stator into the VPI-chamber. (Courtesy of ABB Automation
Products, Division Machines)
VPI become hard and strong helping to handle mechanical stress. The vacuum
impregnation of the stator ensures a long life endurable insulation.
6.7 Insertion of rotor bars

The rotor bars, usually made of copper or aluminum are inserted into the rotor slots
from the side of the rotor. Thereafter they are hammered in the slots by a special
machine, which secures the bars in the slots by a slight deformation of the bars. No
wedge is used in the rotor since the slots are semi-closed. The short-circuit rings
are then attached to the rotor ends and welded to the bars as shown in figure 6.9.
The rotor is finally balanced at rated speed to minimize mechanical vibrations.
6.8 Machine assembly

The final step in the production process of a large induction motor is the final
assembly. The stator is inserted into a stator frame; the rotor is put into the stator.
Then, the end shields holding the bearings are mounted. All sensors required for
temperature and vibration monitoring are connected to a terminal box sitting on
the outside of the stator frame. The main-connection wires are connected to the
6.9. SENSORS AND TESTS 85
Figure 6.9: The bars and the short-circuit ring of the rotor.
main terminal box also located on the side of the stator frame. Finally, the cooling
system is mounted. The cooler is often of the same or larger physical size compared
to the machine depending on the type of cooling.
6.9 Sensors and tests

In order to measure and monitor certain phenomena in the machine, many sen-
sors are usually placed, especially in the stator. The measuring devices consist of
Resistance temperature detectors or RTDs and search-coils for flux measurement.
In a normal machine for delivery, there are a minimum of totally six temperature
sensors in the stator winding and a couple of sensors in the bearings. These are not
only used in the test-room but also used to monitor the running conditions of the
machine during operation on site. However, in this prototype many more sensors
have been placed in order to get a better picture of what is going on inside the
machine.
Every delivered machine is normally tested according to a standard procedure,
for example IEEE standard 112 [27]. However the first machine in a new series is
(a) Lifting device used to lift the stator into (b) Putting the stator into the stator frame.
its frame.
Figure 6.10: The stator during assembly.
tested in a more extensive way. The standard tests are briefly described in this
chapter.
Temperature sensors
Extra temperature detectors have been placed in order to study indirectly the loss
distribution in the machine through the temperature increases. Hopefully, it will
be possible to identify the magnitude and place of the different losses through the
transient behavior and the steady-state values of the temperatures. The magnitude
of the loss influence the steady state temperature and the different time constants
in the transients should allow to determine where the losses occur. The overall goal
is to determine the loss distribution in the machine by the use of thermal models.
Figure 6.11 shows the placement of some of the temperature detectors.
Search-coils
Search-coils are placed around different stator teeth, around a pole pitch and around
the stator back. There are three search-coils on the stator teeth, see figure 6.12 for
a cross section view of a stator tooth with the search coil configuration. One search
coil is placed at the very bottom of the tooth (see figure 6.11(a)). The next coil is
situated between the main winding coils at half the slot height (see figure 6.11(b)).
The last one is placed just beneath the slot-wedge (see figure 6.11(c)). With this
configuration it should be possible to obtain the slot leakage flux.
Core flux test

This test indicates if there are any hot spots in the stator core, and determines the
iron losses in the core. The test is performed before the stator is wound. A primary
(a) Search-coils in the bottom of the teeth. (b) Search-coils and RTDs between the main
coils.
(c) Search-coils beneath the wedge. (d) RTDs in the stator back and tooth.
Figure 6.11: Search-coils and temperature sensors in the stator.
loop, consisting of a few turns is wound around the stator back and a secondary
loop or measuring loop consisting of one or a few turns is also wound around the
stator back (see figure 6.13). The primary loop excites the stator core and the
flux is measured with the secondary loop. After the test, the core is analyzed with
a thermo camera. Points where the temperature exceeds 5 o C from the average
temperature are searched for.
High voltage test 1

A high voltage test is performed on each coil inside the stator before the winding is
connected at all. This test prevents unnecessary further work on a stator with one
or several faulty coils. Note that at this instance, the coils are not connected to each
other in any way. This test indicates if any coil in the machine have unsatisfactory
main insulation and therefore has to be replaced before work can continue. The
test can be divided into two separate parts:
Air gap
Wedge
Tooth Tooth Tooth Top search coil
PSfrag replacements
Search coil between
main coils
Bottom search coil
Stator yoke
Figure 6.12: A cross section of a stator tooth with the search coil configuration.
(The height of the main coils is reduced in the figure to show the search coils more
clearly).
Primary turns
Secondary
turns
PSfrag replacements
Figure 6.13: The stator during the core-flux test.
All lines to ground
Single coil to ground
The test voltage for high voltage induction motors should be Upk = 2 Un +1kV (rms)
[27], with Un the rated voltage (line-to-line) of the machine. However, since the
stator winding insulation is not impregnated yet, the test voltage is reduced in this
test. The frequency is 50 Hz in both tests. The high voltage is applied during 1-2
s.
Figure 6.14: High-voltage test of the prototype machine.
High voltage test 2

A second high voltage test is performed after the stator has been impregnated. A
high voltage is applied between line to ground. The voltage is 1.1 Upk which is
higher than the recommended test voltage according to [27]. The frequency is 50
Hz and the high-voltage is applied for a period of at least 60 s.
Heat-run test
Since the rated power of the machine is so high, it would be inconvenient to test it
at rated load conditions. Therefore, the two-frequency test method is used. This
test starts by running the machine at nominal voltage and frequency at no-load. A
second voltage of a lower frequency (10 Hz below rated frequency according to [27])
is superimposed to the nominal voltage. The voltage of the lower frequency is
adjusted so that nominal current is reached if possible. In case the nominal current
cannot be reached, the maximum available current should be used and another
heat-run test should be made at no-load with only the nominal supply voltage
applied. The two points can then be used to extrapolate the conditions at nominal
current.
During the heat run tests, the temperature rise of all RTDs are continuously
monitored and the test is conducted until the highest temperature rise is Tk <
Tk1 + 1 o C where Tk is the current temperature and Tk1 is the last temperature
record (the time between two measurements is 30 minutes). It usually takes 4 hours
of running to reach these conditions during a two-frequency test for machines of
this size [28].
(a) The machine seen from the drive end. (b) Sensor cables and main supply.
Figure 6.15: The prototype machine during testing
6.10 Conclusions
It was a rich experience to follow each step of the construction of the prototype of
this induction machine. The construction with tests extended from October 2006 -
March 2007, during which the author worked full time at the company.
Chapter 7
Conclusions and Future Work
This licentiate thesis shows that the concept of fractional conductor windings can
be used successfully in electrical machine design. This has been shown theoretically
by analyzing different layouts of windings. The prototype machine showed that the
windings are also possible to construct in practice. In order to gain most benefit
from these windings some effort must be put in the layout of the windings. If
this is done in the wrong way, some space harmonics (other than the fundamental)
produced by the winding can be large, or worse, space harmonics of even orders can
occur. However, if the layout is chosen carefully, the space harmonics can be kept
at a low level. It was shown that the fractional conductor winding concept can, in
some cases, be used together with a fractional pitch in order to achieve effective
reduction of space harmonics in the air gap magnetomotive force and in the air gap
flux density.
Analytical models predicted the peak of the fundamental of the no load air gap
flux density 13.5% higher than what was obtained by finite element modeling. An
improvement of accuracy can be reached by introducing the reluctance of the iron
as well as saturation of the main flux path in the modeling. Leakage, not accounted
for in the analytical calculation is not a major reason for this lower flux density.
Analytical slot leakage models were evaluated by means of finite element meth-
ods. The calculations showed good agreement in the bottom of the slot which
implies that the analytical model is working correctly. This conclusion is as well
supported by indirect measurements of the slot leakage in the split-phase slots.
The slots containing the same phases could not be verified by measurements due
to a very small signal which disappeared in the measurement error. The leakage
crossing the top coil in the slot was affected by the zig-zag leakage. This effect
was seen in FEM and confirmed by the measurements. The FEM model and the
measurements produced similar results for the leakage in the top of the slots. It
was therefore concluded that the finite element model was working properly and
hence this model could be used as verification of the analytical model in the bottom
slots where measurements were unavailable.
91
92 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Differential leakage was predicted very accurately by analytical models for all
space harmonics except the slot harmonics. The reason for this is that slotting was
not accounted for in the calculation.
Beside the necessity of conducting measurements to verify the different models,
the time spent on the company was great experience for the author. Each stage of
the prototype manufacturing was followed in the factory production lines.
Future work
The reduction of space harmonics in the air gap flux density is an interesting prop-
erty of fractional conductor windings. This possibility should be further investi-
gated and a prototype should be used as a verification.
Leakage and saturation should be included in the analytical air gap flux density
modeling. The contribution of the rotor currents to the air gap m.m.f. should be
added in the model. These improved models could then be used as a foundation
for predicting starting torque and starting current. The analytical models should
be verified by finite element methods as well as measurements.
In addition to the search coils, many temperature sensors were placed in the
prototype. Special series of measurements were conducted acquire more knowl-
edge on the contribution of the different loss components. The evaluation of these
measurements is yet to be done.
Appendix A
Derivation of the coil factor for

winding A
Odd q and odd q2

The algebraic sum of the voltages in figure 3.4(a) is easily found by adding all the
magnitudes of the individual voltages:

N2
Ea = e q 2 1 +eq (A.1)
N1
By phasor addition in figure 3.4(a) the geometric sum of the induced voltage in
the winding with odd q and odd q2 is found to be:
q2 1 q 1
N2 1 X 2 X 2
Eg = 2 e + cos (n ) + 2e
cos (n ) (A.2)
N1 2 n=1 q 1
n= 2 +1
2
The left hand sum in eq. A.2 can be written as:
q2 1
N2 1 X 2
2e + cos (n ) =
N1 2 n=1
q2 1

N2
= e 1 + 2 cos () + 2 cos (2 ) + + 2 cos (A.3)
N1 2
Eq. A.3 can be further simplified by using the Dirichlet kernel trigonometric
identity given by eq. A.4:
sin (n + 21 ) x

1 + 2 cos (x) + 2 cos (2 x) + + 2 cos (n x) = (A.4)
sin x2

93
94 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF THE COIL FACTOR FOR WINDING A
By using eq. A.4 on eq. A.3, the first sum of eq. A.2 is found to be:
q2 1
q2
N2 sin

N2 1 X 2
2
2e + cos (n ) = e (A.5)
N1 2 n=1
N1 sin
2
The right hand sum of eq. A.2 becomes:
q 1
2
X
2e cos (n ) =
q2 1
n= 2 +1
q1

= 2e cos (m ) + cos ((m + 1) ) + cos ((m + 2) ) + + cos (A.6)
2
Where q221 + 1 has been replaced by m for simplicity. By making m = , eq.

A.6 is expressed by:
q 1
2
X
2e cos (n ) =
q2 1
n= 2 +1
= 2e [cos () + cos ( + ) + cos ( + 2) + + cos ( + k)] (A.7)
where k = q 2 q2 1. The trigonometric identity given by eq. A.8
cos () + cos ( + x) + cos ( + 2x) + + cos ( + nx) =
n+1
nx
sin x cos +
2 2
= x (A.8)
sin
2
can now be applied to eq. A.7. By doing so, an expression for the second sum of
eq. A.2 is found to be:
q 1
qq2 q+q2
sin cos
2

X
4 4
2e cos (n ) = 2e (A.9)
sin 2

q2 1
n= 2 +1
95
The expression given by eq. A.9 can be further simplified by recognizing:

sin ( + ) + sin ( )
sin () cos () = (A.10)
2
Finally, by applying eq. A.10 on eq. A.9 it is found:
q 1
q q2
sin sin
2

X
2 2
2e cos (n ) = e (A.11)
sin 2

q2 1
n= 2 +1
This means that the geometric sum of of the voltages for odd q and odd q2 is the
sum of eq. A.5 and eq. A.11:
q

Eg = e +e (A.12)
sin 2 sin 2

N1
As finite expressions for the sums in eq. A.2 has been developed, the combined
distribution and coil factor for the fundamental can now be determined by applying
eq. 3.2 on eq. A.1 and eq. A.12:
1
kc kd =
N2
sin 2 q + q2 1
N1
q
N2 q
2
1 sin + sin (A.13)
N1 2 2
Even q and even q2

By looking at figure 3.4(b) it is found that the algebraic sum of the individual
voltages is the same as for the odd q and odd q2 case. This means that eq. A.1 is
used to determine the algebraic sum for this case as well.
The geometric sum of the phasors in figure 3.4(b) is given by:
q2 q
2
(2 n 1) 2
(2 n 1)

N2 X X
Eg = 2 e cos + 2e cos (A.14)
N1 n=1 2 q2 2
n= 2 +1
The left hand sum of eq. A.14 can be written as:
q2
2
(2 n 1)

N2 X
2e cos =
N1 n=1 2
1 3 q2 1

N2
= 2e cos + cos + + cos (A.15)
N1 2 2 2
96 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF THE COIL FACTOR FOR WINDING A
Eq. A.15 can be written on the same form as eq. A.7 for the odd case with = 1
2
q
and k = 22 1. Therefore, the identity eq. A.8 can be used and it is found:
q2
q q
N2 sin 42 cos 42

2
(2 n 1)

N2 X
2e cos = 2e (A.16)
2 sin 2

N1 n=1 N1
Eq. A.16 can be further simplified by using eq. A.10:
q2
q
N2 sin 22

2
(2 n 1)

N2 X
2e cos =e (A.17)
2 N1 sin 2

N1 n=1
The right hand sum of eq. A.14 is equal to:
q
2
(2 n 1)
X
2e cos =
q2
2
n= 2 +1
" ! !
q2 q2
2 +1 1 2 +2 1

2 2
2e cos + cos +
2 2
!#
q
2 1

2
+ cos (A.18)
2
q2 + 1
which also can be expressed in the same form as eq. A.7 with = 2 and
qq
k = 2 2 1. Eq. A.18 can then be simplified to:
q
sin qq
4 cos
q+q2

2
(2 n 1) 4
X 2
2e cos = 2e (A.19)
q2 2 sin 2
n= 2 +1
As the final step eq. A.10 is used on eq. A.19:

q
q q2
sin sin

2
(2 n 1)
X
2 2
2e cos =e (A.20)
2 sin 2

q2
n= 2 +1
The geometric sum for the case with even q and even q2 is finally found by summing
eq. A.17 and eq. A.20:
q

Eg = e +e (A.21)
N1 sin 2 sin 2

By comparing eq. A.12 and eq. A.21, it is found that the expressions are the same
and hence the combined coil and distribution factor is given by eq. A.13 for the
case with odd q and odd q2 and the case with even q and even q2 .
Bibliography
[1] J. Tyndall. Faraday as a Discoverer. The Echo Library, Teddington, United

Kingdom, 2006.
[2] Oskarshamns kraftgrupp (OKG). http://www.okg.se (Website), March 2010.
[3] Forsmark Vattenfall. http://www.vattenfall.se/forsmark/ (Website), March
2010.
[4] F. Gustavson. Elektriska Maskiner. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, 1996.
[5] D.H. Breimer. Armature Winding And Motor Repair. MC Graw Hill, York,
USA, 1920.
[6] J. Perho. Winding Design. Postgraduate Course on Electromechanics. Helsinki
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[7] F. Libert and J. Soulard. Investigation on Pole-Slot Combinations for
Permanent-Magnet Machines with Concentrated Windings. In International
Conference on Electrical Machines, Cracow, Poland, 2004.
[8] M. Cistelecan and E. Demeter. Induction Motors with Low Copper Windings
and Improved Performance. In Proceedings. International Electric Machines
and Drives Conference, pages 323325, 1999.
[9] I. Boldea and S.A. Nasar. The Induction Machine Handbook. CRC Press,
London, Great Britain, 2002.
[10] M.v.d. Giet and S. Risse K. Hameyer and. Induction motor with pole-changing
winding for variable supply frequency. In Proceedings. International Electric
Machines and Drives Conference, pages 14841489, 2007.
[11] C. Sadarangani. Electrical Machines Design and Analysis of Induction and
Permanent Magnet Motors. Royal Institute of Technology, Hgskoletryckeriet,
Stockholm, Sweden, 2000.
[12] N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland, and W.P. Robbins. Power Electronics, Second
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, USA, 1995.
97
98 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[13] H. Beaty and J. Kirtley. Electric Motor Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York,
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[14] S. stlund. Electrical Machines and Drives. Royal Institute of Technology,

Stockholm, Sweden, 2007.
[15] H. Jordan, V. Klma, and K.P. Kovcs. Asynchronmaschinen. Vieweg, Braun-

schweig, Germany, 1975.
[16] B. Chalmers and A. Williamson. A.C. Machines. Electromagnetics and Design.

Research Studies Press LTD, Taunton, Somerset, England, 1991.
[17] P.F. Ryff, D. Platnick, and J.A. Karnas. Electrical Machines And Transform-
ers. Prentice Hall, Inc, New Jersey, USA, 1987.
[18] F.W. Carter. Air-Gap Induction. Electrical World and Engineering., XXXVIII,
No.22:884888, 1901.
[19] B. Heller and V. Hamata. Harmonic Field Effects in Induction Machines.

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, USA, 1977.
[20] I.A. Viorel, K. Hamemeyer, and L. Strete. On the Carters Factor Calculation
for Slotted Electric Machines. Advances in electrical and computer engineering,
7, No.2:5558, 2007.
[21] H.L. Schenk and F.J. Young. Iron Losses in Induction Motor Teeth. IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, 17, No.6:33853387, 1981.
[22] P. Thelin, J. Soulard, H.P. Nee, and C. Sadarangani. Comparison between

Different Ways to Calculate the Induced No-Load Voltage of PM Synchronous
Motors using Finite Element Methods. In PEDS01, Bali, Indonesia, 2001.
[23] P.L. Alger. The Nature of Induction Machines. Gordon and Breach, London,
Great Britain, 1965.
[24] Cogent Surahammars Bruk. http://www.sura.se (Website), Oct 2009.
[25] N.E. Frost, D. Hughes, D. Laurenty, and G.H. Miller. A Review of Vacuum
Pressure Impregnation Procedures for Form Wound Stators. In Proceedings.
Electrical Insulation Conference and Electrical Manufacturing & Coil Winding
Technology Conference, pages 641644, Indianapolis, USA, 2003.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 99
[28] Kursprm fr ABB Machines Elmaskinkurs 16-19 Oktober 2006. ABB,

Vsters, Sweden, 2006.
List of Figures
1.1 Connection of phase A in a double layer 4-pole diamond winding. . . . . 3

1.2 Connection of phase A in a single layer 4-pole concentric winding. . . . 3
1.3 Two different winding constructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 A stator of a two-pole machine with a fractional conductor winding with

q = 3 and q2 = 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Three possible winding configurations with the same equivalent number
of turns per slot but with different properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Armature air-gap m.m.f. of a full pitched fractional conductor winding
with q = 4 and q2 = 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Different phase-group patterns for fractional conductor windings. The
coils are short pitched by two slots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Three-phase m.m.f. with harmonic spectrum for the fractional conduc-
tor winding with centered q2 coils, q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch. . . . . 14
tor winding with the q2 coils placed one slot from side of the phase
group, q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
tor winding with the q1 coils placed in the center of the phase group,
q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
tor winding with the q2 coils located at one side of the phase-group,
q = 6 and two-slot short-pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Three-phase m.m.f. with harmonic spectrum for the fractional con-
ductor winding with random phase-group pattern, q = 6 and two-slot
short-pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Three-phase m.m.f. with harmonic spectrum for the fractional con-
ductor winding with irregular phase-group pattern, q = 3 and two-slot
short-pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Configuration for winding A in its simplest form, q = 3, q2 = 1. . . . . . 23

3.2 The winding factor for the fundamental when the number of turns is
varied for q = 3, q2 = 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
100
List of Figures 101
3.3 Voltage phasors for two extreme cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.4 The two general cases that can be identified when the the q2 coils are
placed in the center of the phase belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 kd,h kc,h for the 5th and 7th harmonic, for a q = 5 and qc = 3 when the
number of turns in the periphery is varied. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 M.m.f. and spectra of winding with p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, y = 12, i.e.
4/5 coil pitch, with Nc = 10 and Np = 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1 No load air gap m.m.f. and flux density for the prototype machine,
without slotting effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Displacement of the rotor coordinate system with reference to the origin
of the stator coordinate system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Distribution of the magnetic conductance in the air-gap at different rotor
positions, bs1 = bs10 , bs2 = bs20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Distribution of the magnetic conductance in the air-gap at different rotor
positions, bs1 = bs10 , bs2 = 1.5bs20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 Air-gap flux density waves from the analytical and finite element method. 39
4.6 No-load air gap flux density as function of the stator current. . . . . . . 40
4.7 Air-gap flux density waves from the finite element method with linear
materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 Integration limits which was used to determine the induced search coil
voltage analytically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.9 Search coil voltage for one tooth at no-load and rated voltage from the
analytical calculation and FEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.10 Measured search coil voltage at no-load and rated voltage. . . . . . . . . 43
4.11 Rotor slot harmonics magnitude as function of the rotor slot opening. . 44
4.12 Analytical search coil voltage calculated with a fictitious rotor slot open-
ing due to semi-closed rotor slots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.1 Slot model for derivation of the slot leakage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.2 Magnetic field along the height of the slot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 The geometry used to determine the slot leakage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.4 The leakage flux in a slot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5 Magnetic energy in the different regions of the stator slot for N1 = 9,
N2 = 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
N2 = 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
N2 = 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
N2 = 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.9 Fractional conductor winding with p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, Np = 7,
Nc = 10, y = 54 p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
102 List of Figures
5.10 Grges diagrams (arrows) for three different windings. The circles hav-
ing radius R1 corresponds to the Grges diagram for the fundamentals. 58
5.11 Fundamental component and fifth harmonic from a simple winding . . . 59
5.12 Differential leakage coefficients of orders 5-19 for the prototype machine. 61
5.13 Tooth search coils and slot leakage paths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.14 Photo of some of the search coils mounted around the bottom of the
stator teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.15 Teeth equipped with search coils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.16 Measured signals for tooth 2 at no-load and 60% of nominal voltage. . . 65
5.17 Frequency spectrum of the measured signal for the bottom search coil
of tooth 2 at no-load and 60% of nominal voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.18 Measured voltage induced in the search coil wound around a pole. . . . 67
5.19 The flux in tooth 2 from the measurements and predicted by the FEM
model at no load and 60% of nominal voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.20 Top flux subtracted from the center s.c. flux for tooth 2. . . . . . . . . . 69
5.21 Flux paths and vector potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.22 Leakage flux crossing the slots to the left and to the right of tooth 1. . . 70
5.25 The difference between the bottom leakages of the two slots closest to
tooth 1 using eq. 5.34. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.26 Flux leakage lines in the slot top. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.27 Fundamental components for the search coils placed on tooth 1. . . . . 74
5.28 Fundamental components for the search coils placed on teeth 2-4. . . . . 75
5.29 Fundamental components for the search coils placed on tooth 7. Mea-
sured at two positions in the axial direction. One search coil was placed
at the drive end of the machine (solid line). The other search coil was
placed in the middle of the machine length (dashed line). . . . . . . . . 76
6.1 The stacking of the stator sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6.2 View of stacked sheet packages for stator and rotor. (The stator and
rotor are not fully stacked). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.3 Cross section of the coil blank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.4 Principle of 72 slots, 4-pole two-layer winding with 56 coil pitch. . . . . . 81
6.5 Slot with two coil sides and a slot-wedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.6 The stator during insertion of the winding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.7 Transposition of the coil strands in a coil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.8 Lowering a stator into the VPI-chamber. (Courtesy of ABB Automation
Products, Division Machines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.9 The bars and the short-circuit ring of the rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.10 The stator during assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.11 Search-coils and temperature sensors in the stator. . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
List of Figures 103
6.12 A cross section of a stator tooth with the search coil configuration. (The
height of the main coils is reduced in the figure to show the search coils
more clearly). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.13 The stator during the core-flux test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.14 High-voltage test of the prototype machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.15 The prototype machine during testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

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Investigation of AC Electrical Machine Stators with

Fractional Conductor Windings

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska hgskolan framlgges

Henrik Grop, Mars 2010

Keywords: Windings, Leakage, Large machines, Induction motor construc-

Industrin sker alltid den mest kostnadseffektiva lsningnen p en maskins

Skord: Lindningar, Lckning, Stora maskiner, Konstruktion av asynkro-

This project is conducted at the department of Electrical Machines and Power

2 Benefits and issues associated with fractional conductor windings 9

3 Winding factors for fractional conductor windings 21

4 Modelling of air gap flux density at no load including stator and

5 Stator slot and differential leakage 47

5.3 Differential leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6 Construction of a full scale prototype 77

7 Conclusions and Future Work 91

A Derivation of the coil factor for winding A 93

List of Figures 100

1.1 AC-armature windings

Construction of AC-armature windings

Figure 1.1: Connection of phase A in a double layer 4-pole diamond winding.

Figure 1.2: Connection of phase A in a single layer 4-pole concentric winding.

(a) Diamond winding (b) Concentric winding

Figure 1.3: Two different winding constructions.

Concentrated and distributed windings

Dahlander type windings

Fractional conductor windings

1.3 Main contributions

H. Grop, J. Soulard and H. Persson. Theoretical Investigation of Fractional

1.5 Outline of the thesis

Benefits and issues associated with

PSfrag replacements Let PSfrag

Slot: 1 2 3 4 5 Slot: 1 2 3 4 5 Slot: 1 2 3 4 5

2.1 Investigation of different phase group patterns

Regular phase-group pattern with centered q2 coils (Fig. 2.4(a)).

(a) Winding A (b) Winding B (c) Winding C

(d) Winding D (e) Winding E

Subsections A-F presents the three-phase m.m.f. produced by the windings

A Regular phase group pattern with the q 2 coils in the center of

C Regular phase group pattern with the q 1 coils in the center of

D Regular phase group pattern with the q 2 coils concentrated to

E Regular phase group pattern with the coils placed randomly

F Irregular phase group pattern

2.2 Conclusions from the winding investigations.

Winding factors for fractional

Geometric sum of voltages for space harmonic h

3.1 Introduction of the coil factor

to this thesis1 . It is therefore of importance that this derivation is performed here.

3.2 The coil factor for a simple winding

Figure 3.1: Configuration for winding A in its simplest form, q = 3, q2 = 1.

distribution factor becomes:

rag replacements PSfrag replacements

Figure 3.3: Voltage phasors for two extreme cases.

3.3 General expression of the coil factor for winding A

Since the winding A configuration seems to be an interesting winding layout, it

(a) Odd q and odd q2 (b) Even q and even q2

Odd q and odd q2

Even q and even q2

3.4 The coil factor for space harmonics

q qc Nse kw1 kw5 kw7 kw11 kw13

0.6 5th Harmonic 0.4 7th Harmonic

Table 3.2: Winding factors for the winding: p = 2, q = 5, qc = 3, Nc = 10, Np = 7,

Distr. Factor Pitch Factor Winding Factor

Fract. Cond. 0.963 0.296 0.036 0.951 0 0.588 0.916 0 0.021

Stand. Wind. 0.957 0.2 0.149 0.951 0 0.588 0.910 0 0.088