Scanned and processed by Yuri Abolonko (Smolensk)

NEW IN LIFE, SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY

THE SIGNATURE SCIENTIFICALLY-POPULAR SERIES

COSMONAUTICS, ASTRONOMY
4/1983

It is published monthly since 1971.

AI Akishin,
Doctor of Technical Sciences

LS Novikov,
Candidate of physico-mathematical sciences

THE IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE MATERIALS

OF SPACE APPLIANCES
In the appendix of this number:
CHRONICLE OF COSMONAUTICS

Publisher "Znanie" Moscow 1983

BBK 39.62
A39

Akishin AI, Novikov LS

A39 The impact of the environment on the materials of space vehicles. - M .: Knowledge, 1983. - 64 s, ill. -
(New in life, science, technology, "Cosmonautics, Astronomy", No. 4).
11 k.

The processes of the effect of the space environment on the materials of satellites, orbital and interplanetary
stations determine their characteristics, such as the duration of active existence, reliability of operation and
protective functions in manned flights. The brochure presents modern ideas about these processes, the study of
which determines the further progress of space research.
The brochure is aimed at all those interested in modern astronautics problems.

3607000000 BBK 39.62

6T6
Publishing House "Knowledge", 1983.

CONTENT

Introduction
Do the materials ... emptiness?
Cleanliness is the guarantee of trouble-free operation

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 Is the collision with the molecule dangerous?
On the benefits and harms of sunbathing
Towards the solar wind
How penetrating radiation works
Heavy nuclei against a computer
Shield for solar panels
Where does the current flow?
Lightning on board spacecraft
A dust or a shell?
Long before the launch
Conclusion
Recommended literature
Appendix: The Cosmonautics Chronicle

INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of the 1970s, the development of cosmonautics has been characterized by an ever
broader penetration of it into various spheres of practical activity of mankind and the use of space technology
for solving a wide variety of applied problems. Natural resources research and meteorology, navigation and
geodesy, communication systems and technology are far from being a complete list of areas in which the latest
achievements in rocket and space technology and space instrument engineering are applied.
In our country, great attention has always been paid to the creation of space systems for national economic
purposes. In July 1975 the Pravda newspaper wrote in an editorial: "... Astronautics systematically increases its
contribution to the solution of national economic problems. The demand for its "services" is steadily growing -
more and more scientific institutions, enterprises, organizations and departments are applying for the activities
that interest them in space. With each new flight, the impact of research is increasing, which are conducted in
near-earth orbits ... "
For the implementation of national economic programs in our country, space vehicles (spacecraft) of
various types are used: manned long-term orbital space stations Salyut, artificial satellites of the Meteor series
intended for meteorological observations and research of natural resources, satellites series "Lightning",
"Screen", "Rainbow", "Horizon", etc.
In the future, new grandiose projects will appear on the cosmonautics agenda, for example, the creation of
solar space power stations with a capacity of 5-10 GW, the area of solar batteries of which will be tens of
square kilometers, and the mass of tens of thousands of tons, installation in near-Earth orbits of production and
technological complexes and Unique in their capabilities radio astronomy observatories.
In conditions when cosmonautics becomes an important part of the economic mechanism, the issues of
profitability and economic efficiency of space technology use are of particular importance. Considering that
the cost of operating the spacecraft is many times lower than the cost of its development and launch into orbit,
it is necessary to increase the service life of the spacecraft in every possible way. It is now increasingly
demanded that spacecraft reliably function in orbit for 10 years or more, and for the projected solar power
stations, taking into account colossal costs? On their creation (15 - 40 billion dollars, according to foreign
experts), the service life should be 20 - 30 years.
The most important role in ensuring long-term and trouble-free operation of space vehicles is the durability
of structural materials and elements of spacecraft equipment to the effect of external factors. The spacecraft is
affected by a whole complex of factors in the space environment: deep vacuum, corpuscular and
electromagnetic radiation of various types, meteoroids, weightlessness, etc. The spacecraft intended for the
study of planets can at all turn out to be in very specific conditions. Thus, on the surface of Venus, the
temperature reaches almost 500 C at a pressure of about 90 atm. On the Martian surface, the spacecraft can
be exposed to dust storms of soil particles moving at a speed of 30 to 100 m / s. When flying to the outer
planets of the solar system (Jupiter, Saturn), spacecraft pass through an asteroid belt located between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter. A serious danger to the spacecraft equipment during its flight near Jupiter is the powerful
radiation belt of the planet.

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 The variety of cosmic space factors that affect the spacecraft, the complex energy spectra of corpuscular
and electromagnetic radiation affecting the body, the possibility of FKP action in various combinations and in
different time sequences, all this makes it much more difficult to study and predict the behavior of spacecraft
material in a space environment. Intensive research in this field, stimulated by the demands of rapidly
developing space technology, led in fact to the creation of a new scientific direction - space material science,
whose tasks include experimental and theoretical study of the change in the physical properties and
performance characteristics of structural materials under the action of FKP, the creation of new materials, 1
Means of protection of materials and elements of equipment from the impact of the PCF.

1 The latter is often referred to as the so-called space technology. However, it is becoming increasingly widespread that
"scientific directions such as" space materials science "and" space technology "are, in essence, a unified science of the behavior
of materials and methods of obtaining and combining them under cosmic conditions" (Cosmic Materials Science and
Technology / Editor's note, Okhotin AS, M.M., Nauka, 1977). Joining this opinion, we here and in the future both disciplines are
united under one name - space material science.

Over the years of development, space materials science has achieved significant success, primarily in
ensuring the stability of materials to the effects of ultrahigh vacuum and ionizing radiation. Thanks to the
research, the radiation resistance of solar cells, optical systems, electronic equipment, thermal control systems
of space vehicles, etc. has been increased. Specific measures have been proposed to protect the most
vulnerable units of on-board equipment. An impressive testimony of the successes achieved in ensuring the
viability of spacecraft is the long-term trouble-free operation of the Soviet lunar vehicles Lunokhod-1 and
Lunokhod-2, the effective operation of the Salyut-6 OKS for almost five years, successful studies of
atmospheres and surfaces of Venus and Mars by descent Devices of Soviet interplanetary automatic stations.
With the creation in our country of the SAC type "Salyut", intensive experiments were developed in the
field of space technology. A large number of such experiments, including a number of international programs,
was carried out at Salyut-6. Work in this direction continues on board the Salyut-7.
Expansion of the spheres of practical application of space technology inevitably raises requirements to the
quality of construction materials and poses new, sometimes unexpected tasks in the field of space materials
science. As an example, one can point to the problem of accumulation of significant electrostatic charges on a
spacecraft, which had to be encountered only in the early 1970s when the first geostationary satellites were
launched (altitude of 36,000 km).
Thus, the space material science, whose history is only a little more than two decades, continues to develop
rapidly, relying on the latest achievements in related fields of science and technology and, in turn, contributing
to the development of related fields - vacuum and radiation technology, semiconductor technology Instrument
engineering, production technology of ultrapure materials.
The proposed brochure highlights the most urgent problems of space materials science, examines the
physical and applied aspects of various phenomena arising from the impact of space factors on the materials
and elements of spacecraft, describes the principles and some methods for modeling the impact of the FKP,
and shows the prospects for the development of space materials science.

IMPACT ON MATERIALS ... EMPTY!

The combination of the words "space vacuum", found on newspapers and magazines, on radio and in
television programs, has become familiar to us. The concept of "cosmos" in our consciousness is inextricably
linked with the idea of an airless space, an infinite infinite emptiness in which planets and stars move. The
word "vacuum" in translation from Latin means "emptiness". In science and technology, a vacuum is
understood as the state of a gas at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Air pressure in the Earth's
atmosphere decreases with an increase in height according to a law close to exponential.
We are interested in the parameters of the atmosphere at those altitudes where the spacecraft can function
for a long time. In Table. 1 shows the values of air pressure, density and temperature, as well as the
concentration of neutral particles in the Earth's atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 200 km, which is usually
taken as the lower boundary of orbital flights, to altitudes of tens of thousands of kilometers on which satellites
operate on geostationary and Highly elliptical orbits. We note immediately that the temperature given here in

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 the fourth column characterizes only the kinetic energy of the gas particles and does not directly affect the
temperature of the surface of the spacecraft because of the extreme sparseness of the medium.
Ta b l e 1
Change in the parameters of the Earth's atmosphere with altitude

Height, km Pressure, Pa Density, g / cm 3 Temperature, K Concentration of particles, cm -3

200 8.5 10 -5 3.0 10 -13 1 200 7.0 10 9
300 1.0 10 -5 2.5 10 -14 1 500 8.0 10 8
500 4.0 10 -7 3.0 10 -16 1 600 2.5 10 7
1,000 4.0 10 -9 1.5 10 -18 1 600 1.5 10 5
2,000 8.0 10 -10 2.0 10 -19 1 800 2.0 10 4
3,000 5.0 10 -10 1.0 10 -19 2,000 1.0 10 4
5,000 4.0 10 -10 4.0 10 -20 3,000 4.0 10 3
10,000 2.5 10 -10 1.0 10 -20 15,000 1.0 10 3
20 000 * 1.0 10 -10 2.0 10 -21 50,000 1.0 10 2
30 000 2.5 10 -11 6.0 10 -22 1 10 5 10
50,000 1.5 10 -11 2.5 10 -22 2 10 5 3-4

* At altitudes of more than 20,000 km, the particles are predominantly in an ionized state.

From Table. 1 it can be seen that in the range of heights in question, the pressure is more than 6 orders of
magnitude. Using the terminology of vacuum technology, the vacuum at heights of 200-400 km can be
characterized as high, at altitudes up to 3-5 thousand km - as very high, and at still higher altitudes the
spacecraft are in an ultrahigh vacuum.
Above 30,000 km, the pressure and concentration of gas particles are no longer very different from the
corresponding parameters in the interplanetary space. Interplanetary space, in which 1 cm 3 contains only a
few gas particles, can really be called "empty". It is not necessary, however, to forget that in this space there
are also corpuscular and electromagnetic radiation, flows of meteoric bodies, magnetic and gravitational fields,
etc., ie, various types of matter. So the concept of "emptiness" in relation to outer space should be taken very
conditionally. But for the time being we are distracted from the complex nature of the cosmic medium and will
take into account only its rarefaction, that is, that it is primarily a cosmic vacuum.
In a vacuum, any material emits gases and vapors adsorbed on the surface and located (absorbed) in the
bulk of the material. In the latter case, the process of gas evolution is preceded by the diffusion of atoms and
molecules of gases to the surface. Similarly, evaporation from the materials of various impurities and additives
occurs. Finally, evaporation (sublimation) of the base material occurs from the surface.
The evaporation rate is characterized by the mass of a substance evaporating per unit time from a unit
surface of the material. This rate increases with increasing surface temperature, it also depends on the
conditions for removing vapors from the surface: the lower the vapor pressure above the surface relative to the
saturated vapor pressure of the evaporating substance, the higher the evaporation rate.
It is clear that for use on open surfaces of a space vehicle, materials with a low evaporation rate should be
chosen at the temperature to which they can be heated in outer space conditions. For example, the thickness of
a plate made of cadmium or zinc is reduced by evaporation in vacuum by approximately 0.1 mm per year
already at a temperature of 100-150 C, which is quite real on the surface of the spacecraft due to heating by
solar radiation. In order to obtain the same thickness reduction for a plate made of aluminum, copper or nickel,
the plate needs to be heated to 750-1000 C, and at 100-150 C these materials practically do not evaporate.
For actual construction materials, the loss of mass due to evaporation in space vacuum is usually so
insignificant that it is not necessary to take into account the reduction in the thickness of the layers of
materials, except for special very thin films and coatings, as well as for the operation of materials at high

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 temperatures. However, this does not mean that staying in a vacuum passes without a trace for materials.
The processes of gas evolution and sublimation substantially change the state of the surface and near-
surface layers of materials by removing absorbed gases from the surface and from the volume, breaking up the
oxide films on the surface, removing impurities, creating microroughness on the surface as a result of uneven
evaporation, etc. All this leads to Change of mechanical, optical and electrophysical characteristics of
materials. And in this sense it is really possible to talk about the impact of the cosmic vacuum - "emptiness" -
on structural materials. Some examples of this effect of vacuum conditions on the properties of materials will
be considered later. And now we turn to another problem, directly related to the work of spacecraft in a
vacuum.

CLEANLINESS - PLEDGE OF ILLEGAL WORK

The processes of gas evolution and sublimation of materials in a vacuum lead to the formation of a gas
cloud near the spacecraft, which is affected by gravitational forces, light pressure, aerodynamic braking forces,
etc. This cloud, which also includes solid particles that detach from the surface of the spacecraft, exhaust
products Engines, gases and solid particles that get into outer space from internal compartments due to
leakage, during sluicing, etc., it is customary to call the outer atmosphere (SVA) of the spacecraft. Part of the
gas particles of CBA is excited and ionized by solar ultraviolet radiation and corpuscular streams, just as it
occurs in the Earth's atmosphere.
Due to the presence of SVA, the pressure in the immediate vicinity of the spacecraft can significantly
(sometimes by several orders of magnitude) exceed the pressure in the surrounding outer space. The density of
NEA is not constant in time. In the first day or even weeks after the SC is put into orbit, its intensive degassing
takes place, as a result of which the NEA density is quite high. At the end of the post-ignition degassing
period, the NEA density is usually stabilized at a certain level determined by the state of dynamic equilibrium
between the processes of particles entering the gas cloud, returning them to the surface of the spacecraft, and
scattering into the surrounding space.
For American ACS Skylab, for example, in a steady state, continuous mass losses were 10 -1 g / s. Of this
amount, 2 10 -2 g / s accounted for leaks from the seals (that was 1.7 kg per day) and 10 -3 g / s - for leaks of
rocket fuel through the valves of engines. The remaining mass losses were mainly due to the sublimation of
various nonmetallic materials, which numbered about 200, and the total area was about 23,000 m 2 .
The operation of modern complex spacecraft, including long-term ACS, is inevitably associated with the
inclusion of orientation and correction engines, the opening of airlock chambers, the implementation of butt
transport vehicles. During these operations, there is a sharp increase in the density of CBA due to the release of
significant quantities of liquid and gaseous products into the environment. Thus, the propulsion engines on the
American spacecraft Apollo periodically threw out about 200 g of unburnt rocket fuel, while the continuous
mass losses for this ship were 3 10 -2 g / s.
The spatial distribution of the SMA density in the vicinity of the spacecraft is complicated and is largely
determined by the spacecraft geometry, location leakage sources, characteristics of the materials used and so
on. D. The front cover shows the distribution of NEA density in the space around ACS in the steady state when
the initial degassing station It has already ended, and there was no disturbing emissions (particularly,
correction motors are turned off, lock chambers are closed). The density of the Earth's atmosphere at the flight
altitude of the ACS was about 4 x 10 -15 g / cm 3 .
Impact NEA materials and elements of the apparatus is reduced essentially to the following effects: 1) the
surface contamination products precipitating NEA; 2) increasing the background light in the vicinity of the
spacecraft due to light scattering on the particles of NEA and luminescence; 3) increase the leakage currents in
outdoor high-voltage devices and their reduction of dielectric strength due to the "deterioration" of vacuum.
Contamination affects primarily on optical surfaces CA: illuminators, lenses, telescopes and astro devices,
as well as solar panels, thermostatic coating, etc. are sensitive to contamination and many other elements
spacecraft equipment such as plasma probes detectors charged particles.. low-energy switching devices.
The precipitate NEA products consists mainly of organic substances with high molecular weight. The
sources of these substances on the spacecraft engines are fuel products, paints, electrical insulating materials,
tires and the like. D. Fastening sedimented particles at the surface contributes to solar ultraviolet radiation,

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 under which polymerization occurs many organic molecules.
Transfer of contaminants is carried out mainly by direct contact with particles flows from the source to
different portions of the surface of the spacecraft. At high density NEA certain fraction of particles may fall on
the surface after the collision with other particles in a gas cloud, t. E. By changing the original direction of
movement. On transfer of charged particles NEA influence of electric and magnetic fields near the spacecraft,
creating additional conditions for the ingress of contaminants on the surface thereof outside the visibility of
particle emission point.
Contamination of optical elements changes the characteristics of light transmission and reflection to, it
creates additional scattering at the optical surfaces. These factors may lead to significant deterioration of
parameters of optical devices and even complete failure of the device as it is, for example, occurred with
onboard spectrometer on meteorological satellites "Nimbus-4."
During the first manned flight to the moon on the spacecraft "Apollo-8", a few hours after the launch, it
was found to be contaminated outer surface of windows. And on the fourth day of the flight, when the ship was
already in the lunar orbit, three of the five portholes were heavily contaminated, which prevented observations.
Such phenomenon is typical for long-ACS. In some areas of the surface ACS "Skylab" after 120 days of
flight mass density CBA precipitated product exceeded 50 ug / cm 2 , which corresponded to a layer thickness
of 0.2 - 0.3 microns.
Astronauts L. D. Kizim, OG Makarov GM Strekalov conducting a thorough examination of ACS
"Salyut-6" at the beginning of December 1980, t. E., After more than three years of its stay in space, noted the
presence of stains translucent brown residue on the glass of some windows. Pollution was also one of the
causes of the gradual deterioration in the reflectivity of the mirror submillimeter telescope TST-1M ACS
"Salyut-6". To restore the normal operation of the telescope in the summer of 1960 the station had to deliver an
additional amplifier.
To quantify the impact of impurities on the performance of optical devices, it is necessary to know the
thickness of the deposited film, its composition and structure, the refractive index and other parameters.
Experimental studies of contaminant deposition on a variety of materials, as well as the study of the resulting
films are among the most important materials in space applications.
NEA gas cloud, as noted above, provides additional background light for optical devices due to the
scattering of light external sources (sunlight, but also light reflected from the elements and from the spacecraft
design Earth). Of greatest interest is the glow separate coarse particles in the gas cloud. Brightness particle
diameter of several micrometers luminescence is close to the luminance of the first star, or even zero
magnitude. Such particles may serve as reference points for false astronavigation devices and lead to failures
in spacecraft orientation systems.
The phenomenon of luminescence of individual large particles near the spacecraft has been observed in the
first space flight aboard the "Vostok" Yu. A. Gagarinym, and later observed by many Soviet and American
astronauts. They reported that the brightness of the particles is comparable with the brightness of the biggest
stars. And at a known voltage fantasy glowing particles can be adopted even for the "flying saucer". These
optical effects are often observed in the ACS board "Salyut-6" and demonstrated the participants of the
expedition visited GM Grechko, accompanying demonstrations humorous comments about the persecution of
a UFO station ( "unidentified flying object"). Thus itself astronaut "launched" imaginary UFO by tapping
gently on the inside wall of the station: the bumps of the outer shell separated ACS microscopic particles that
are brightly shining sun rays in some distance from the ACS, creating the illusion of "space chase."
Effect on open side NEA High KA devices to which space vacuum is natural electrical insulation, it is
primarily manifested by increased pressure in the spaces between the electrodes. In the high-voltage gaps may
occur electric breakdowns, resulting in emergency mode. But even if the breakdown does not occur in the
high-voltage devices with the loss of vacuum increased leakage currents and short-term there are electrical
discharges, so-called microdischarges that also disrupts the normal operation of the devices and creates
electromagnetic interference to the onboard electronics. Such phenomena have been observed in the ACS
"Skylab", especially in the first day of the flight, when the gassing rate was high.
To reduce the negative effects of the SMA materials, components and assemblies on-board equipment, to
take certain measures that can be divided into passive and active measures and cleaning contaminated surfaces.
Passive prevention effects of exposure to the NEA conducted at the design stage, manufacturing, assembly and

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 spacecraft prelaunch preparation. It is, for example, in the rational choice of materials in their correct
combination spacecraft structural elements, improving the sealing of the internal compartments, the use of
special purification techniques and outgassing materials.
Active methods mainly focused on the spacecraft surface contamination warning during its operation.
These include the use of various intercepting devices (screens, protective visors and curtains) mounted in the
path of the dusts flows from the sources to the "sensitive" surface sites. To intercept the charged components,
various contaminants electrostatic system.
Natural processes that prevent the formation of films contaminants on the surface of the spacecraft are
desorbed particles from the surface (the reverse process of adsorption), deletion (spraying) of product
contamination blows ions, atoms and molecules in spacecraft motion in the Earth's upper atmosphere, and
sputtering contamination space corpuscular radiations . Furthermore, removal of contaminants films is due to
physico-chemical effects of oxygen plasma in the upper atmosphere. In this form volatile oxides easily leaving
surface materials.
artificial surface cleaning methods are based on the AC gain of said natural processes. To remove
contaminant films heating surface SC may be used, which greatly accelerates the desorption process. Another
method consists in the electrostatic acceleration of the positive ions of the upper atmosphere before the surface
to be cleaned by means of grids to which is applied the potential of several hundred volts. Due to the extra
energy acquired by the ions in the electric field, rate of spraying dirt increases more than 1000 times.
The methods of surface cleaning using oxygen plasma special sources that can be mounted on the outer
shell of the spacecraft or used at the exit astronauts in outer space.
Already mentioned spray product contamination by particles in the upper atmosphere. This process is
beneficial to the operation of spacecraft, t. E. Is helpful. However, similar effects can be particles of the upper
atmosphere and to provide clean surfaces of spacecraft. Wherein the base material is sprayed, and such effects
can be harmful. In the next section, we'll just dwell on events related to the bombing of the spacecraft particles
that make up the Earth's upper atmosphere.

Is it dangerous to collisions with molecules?

Considering the behavior of materials in the vacuum of space, and the impact on the spacecraft NEA
materials, we mainly takes into account only the thermal motion of atoms and molecules. In the upper
atmosphere, at altitudes of 200 - 300 km, at a temperature (1 - 2) 10 3 K average thermal energy of the atoms
and molecules is 0.1 - 0.3 eV. However, with respect to the satellite, moving at a speed of 8 km / s, kinetic
energy of the incoming particle gas stream reaches 5 - 10 eV (depending on the particle mass). As established
experimentally, ionospheric plasma HIS surface acquires a negative potential of 0.1 - 5 V. The kinetic energy
of the positive ions bombarding the surface increases by the amount corresponding to this potential.
Furthermore, it is necessary to take into account that are in the upper atmosphere ions have potential energy
expended on their ionization. To this energy components of the atmosphere is in the range 10 to 20 eV. In
addition, some of the neutral and charged particles may be in an excited state, ie. E. Have the potential energy
of excitation. As a result, the energy transferred to the spacecraft surface of one particle of the oncoming gas
stream can be up to 10 - 25 eV. Since the threshold energy processes such as chemical reaction, dissociation,
ionization, recombination, etc., are in the range of 0.5 -.. 30 eV on the outer surface SC under the influence of
charged and neutral particles proceed upper atmosphere different physico-chemical processes .
Attempts neutral particles have an impact primarily on the gas molecules and atoms adsorbed to the surface
of the spacecraft, "embossing" them from the surface. Stripping particles from the surface also contributes to
heating of the spacecraft surface oncoming gas stream. Contribute to heating the material, and chemical
reactions occurring on the surface with heat. Unfortunately, the quantitative characteristics of such reactions
for space flight conditions known until very inaccurate, making it difficult to estimates.
Some chemical reactions are surface with the release of energy in the form of light radiation - the so-called
chemiluminescence. One interesting mechanism of chemiluminescence with orbital flight is the deactivation of
excited particles on the surface of the upper atmosphere spacecraft. It is estimated that during solar flares when
sharply increases in the upper atmosphere, the concentration of particles in the excited state, luminescence due
to this mechanism can create appreciable interference to the SC optical devices. Normal operation of airborne

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 optical devices may also be broken due to staining of the surface layer of optical material under the influence
of the incoming gas stream.
Are important experimental studies of surface phenomena carried directly into space aboard the spacecraft.
While the data of such experiments is very limited and primarily related to spray materials.
Using the apparatus "Discoverer-26" and a number of other satellites, Sputtering gas stream ram gold and
silver. The spray metal deposited on the open surface of the quartz resonator in the form of a thin film, and the
weight reduction of the film during the spraying process by registering the change of the resonance frequency
of the quartz plate. At about 200 km altitude film thickness decreased per day at 0.01 - 0.05 nm. Similar
experiments with the application on silica resonator and carried on board ACS "Salut-6".
As we have seen, the rate of spray materials in space around Earth is small, and most of this phenomenon is
not dangerous for the normal functioning of the spacecraft. Increasingly, however, put forward space projects
associated with the use of thin-film structures in recent years. So, there is a project transfer vehicle spacecraft
propelled by sunlight pressure force - a kind of "space sailing". According to calculations area "sail" of the
ship should be about 100 -. 200 thousand m 2 , and for the manufacture of "sail" is intended to use a metallized
polymer film having a thickness of 50 - 100 nm. There are projects illumination of individual sections of the
Earth's surface from space by a huge (10 - 100 km 2 ) of thin-film mirrors to reflect sunlight. Similar devices
may find application to improve the efficiency of terrestrial solar power. The thin metallic film is to be used
when you create space telescopes and antennas t. D.
When the above material loss allowance reduction in film thickness per year resulting spray will be 3.6 -
1.8 nm, which can significantly impair the optical and mechanical characteristics of the film. The spraying rate
of the material spacecraft in a circular orbit 200 km altitude follows apparently regarded as a maximum for the
adjacent space, since with increasing altitude orbit falls density oncoming gas stream. However, because the
developed promising thin-film structure must operate in space 10 - 20 years, the phenomenon of sputtering of
the upper atmosphere particulate materials, as a phenomenon of evaporation materials under vacuum, it must
be considered when designing such constructs.

On the benefits and harms of sun exposure

On the surface facing the sun SVs in the vicinity of the earth per 1 m 2 every second received
approximately 1400 joules of energy carried by solar electromagnetic radiation. In other words, the solar
radiation energy flux density of 1.4 kW / m 2 . With about 9% of the energy in the solar spectrum occurs at
ultraviolet wavelengths from 100 to 400 nm. The remaining energy is divided about equally between the
visible (400 - 760 nm) and infrared (760 - 5000 nm) regions of the spectrum. A more detailed understanding of
the distribution of energy in the solar spectrum is given in Table. 2, wherein for the different spectral ranges
are given absolute and relative values of the energy flux density, and the values of the radiation energy quanta.
In the infrared and visible light energy of the individual photons is too small to radiation can have a direct
physical and chemical effects on matter. Radiation of these spectral regions, which is often referred to as
thermal affects on materials and spacecraft hardware elements only by heating. With the decrease of the
wavelength increases the energy of photons and the situation is changing. quanta of energy may be sufficient
for the destruction of the substance - break the molecular bonds. Most susceptible to such exposure organic
compound.
table 2
The energy distribution in the solar spectrum

The interval of wavelengths, The energy flux density, W / The proportion of the total The energy quanta
nm m2 flow,% eV
Ultraviolet radiation
10 - 225 0.4 0.03 124 - 5,5
225 - 300 17th 1.2 5,5 - 4,1
300 - 400 109 7.8 4,1 - 3,1
10 - 400 126 9.0 124 - 3.1

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 Visible radiation
400 - 500 201 14.3 3,1 - 2,5
500 - 600 193 13.8 2,5 - 2,1
600 - 760 250 17.9 2,1 - 1,6
400 - 760 644 46.1 3.1 - 1.6
Infrared radiation is
760 - 1000 241 17.3 1.6 - 1.2
1000 - 3000 357 25.6 1.2 - 0.4
3000 - 5000 21 1.5 0.4 - 0.2
760 - 5000 619 44.4 1.6 - 0.2

The maximum wavelength at which radiation causes degradation of materials are around 400 nm, ie. E.
Near the short-wave boundary of the visible range. In the transition to lower wavelengths in the ultraviolet
range of the spectrum, the radiation exposure degrades to materials increases in accordance with increasing
photon energy, but with a decrease in wavelength of the emission intensity decreases sharply in the solar
spectrum (see. Table. 2). Therefore, the integral effect of solar UV radiation on materials decreases in the
short-wave part of the spectrum, and the influence of solar X-radiation materials can be practically neglected.
Well known for the dual nature of the Sun's influence on our life on earth. The sun's rays are the light and
warmth to all living things, but at the same time they have a devastating effect on many micro-organisms. Sun
presents us with beneficial tan, but overexposure can lead to serious health disorders. The sun eventually
driven by the overwhelming majority of the processes occurring within and around us.
The influence of the Sun on the spacecraft "life" is also ambiguous. The sun supplies the AC electric
power, supplying the solar panels. The sun heats the device in space, but ... Here, perhaps, it should stop at
listing the positive aspects related to the impact of solar radiation on the spacecraft. Moreover, heating of
spacecraft sun does not always useful and often brings a lot of trouble to designers of space technology.
The space between the heat transfer bodies occurs by radiation, the heat transfer by convection and heat
conduction is negligible. The outer vacuum conditions too rare gas particles hitting the surface of the
spacecraft. It is for this reason that the surrounding gas and can heat the spacecraft, although the temperature of
the gas, as we know (see. Table. 1), is sufficiently high. As noted earlier, the motion of spacecraft in earth's
upper atmosphere leads to aerodynamic heating its surface. But even at the height of 200 km of heat flow
coming on the spacecraft due to aerodynamic heating, much less the flow of solar radiation heat.
Earth is also sent to the surface of the spacecraft thermal flux, which is caused by a partial reflection of
solar radiation and thermal emission of the planet. At low orbits of the heat flux density can reach 35 - 40% of
the flux density of the direct solar radiation, but with increasing height it falls rapidly. Heat flux arriving at the
spacecraft from other sources (stars, corpuscular radiation and the like. D.) Is practically negligible.
If the antenna to direct the telescope portion of the sky, devoid of any bodies, it will enter the radiation
energy corresponding to a temperature of about 4 K. To such temperature would cool surface and the SVs in
the absence of inflow of heat thereto from external sources, chief among which is sun and thermal energy
sources on board a spacecraft. The latter include a special heating device, various instruments, correction and
orientation engines, providing crew life support system and the crew itself.
In the absence of solar radiation heating need to be on board to ensure proper thermal conditions of the
spacecraft sufficiently powerful source of energy (in fact cease to exist without lighting and solar panels). In
addition, it is necessary to take measures to reduce the discharge of heat from the inside to the surface of the
spacecraft. For this purpose, the SC housing can cover the so-called screen-vacuum thermal insulation
consisting of multiple layers of metallized polymer film. Such space "coat" supercooling is prevented from
Soviet "Moon rovers" during long lunar nights when on the lunar surface temperature dropped to -150 C.
But here it was over a moonlit night. Sun rays again brightly lit and warmed the surface of the "Lunokhod".
It would seem that you can turn off the internal heating and no longer worry about the fate of the machine.
Now, however, the opposite is necessary to solve the problem - to protect the unit from overheating. This
problem is common to all satellites, sometimes more difficult than from hypothermia protection. KA surface
heat absorption and scattering processes are characterized by the absorption coefficient, respectively, A s (for

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 solar radiation) and the surface emissivity e. If there is an excess of heat spacecraft, it is necessary to
efficiently radiate the surface and had a low absorption. This is achieved by increasing the emissivity of the
surface and a decrease in absorption coefficient.
To provide such conditions to the surface of the spacecraft, and to various devices outside the pressurized
compartment SC is applied to thin layers of materials with the necessary characteristics - temperature-control
coating (TRP). As thermostatic coatings used various paints, enamels, metallized polymeric film, etc.
Therefore, a space "coat" Soviet "Lunokhod" day served as the second function -.. Excess reflected solar
radiation.

Fig. 1. The absorption coefficient A s and emissivity for different materials: 1 -

special black coating; 2 - black paint; 3 - metals with a matte surface; 4 - gray
and colored paint; 5 - polished metals; 6 - the metal-based paint; 7 - the reverse
side of the metallized polymer films; 8 - white paint

Efficient removal of excess heat via TRP provided at values A s = 0.2 - 0.3, and = 0,8 - 0,9. In Fig.1,
which shows the values of these parameters for various materials used on the exterior surfaces of spacecraft, it
is seen that the best heat dissipation provide metallized polymer films and special white ink. Such paint (white
TRP) are prepared on the basis of metal oxides {ZnO, ZnTiO 2 et al.), Which define the color coating, with the
addition of binders (SiO 2 , Na 2 O, K 2 O), providing mechanical strength. Working thickness defining values
A s and , for white TRP is 50 - 100 microns. Note that almost all used TRP are insulators, ie. E. Coated
surface of the spacecraft is nonconducting.
Reducing the heat radiation from the surface can cause a strong overheating of the AC. Recall the story of
the ACS "Skylab". May 14, 1973 rocket "Saturn 5" has brought the station into orbit height of 435 km. After
one day, "Apollo" the ship was supposed to deliver to "Skylab," the first crew. However, shortly after start
ACS found that the temperature of its inner compartments exceeded all limits and reached 50 C. And in one
of the following days the temperature even momentarily rose to 88 C. Such overheating internal
compartments threatened completely incapacitate many onboard systems. Urgently being sought methods of
cooling stations ...
Overheating, almost led to the death of ACS, was due to the failure of protivometeoritnogo screen from the
main unit of ACS during its launch. This screen, made of aluminum sheet of 0.6 mm thickness, was
simultaneously reflect solar heat flux.

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 The station was first rescued by the crew, who still started 11 days after its launch. The astronauts were able
to establish on the surface of a temporary ACS reflective screen. And after two months or crew second it was
replaced by a new, more effective screen, which enabled to lower the temperature in the inner compartments to
21 C.
The accident at the ACS "Skylab" is an example of the sharp increase in the absorption capacity at the
surface of the spacecraft, and the consequent rapid overheating of the device. Such cases are extremely rare.
But such phenomena occurring much more slowly, in general, are typical for space technology. The fact is that
under the influence of the PCF TRP change their settings. Increase in absorption coefficient is usually
observed A s with relatively stable value . There is a so-called TRP degradation, resulting in spacecraft
temperature is gradually increased.
TRP exclusive role in ensuring the normal functioning of the spacecraft and exposure to their effects almost
all of the PCF did TRP subject of intensive research in space materials. To date, thanks to the efforts made
significant achievements in the creation of coatings that are resistant to the PCF. However, the problem
remains acute, especially in the design of the spacecraft, designed for 10 - 20 years.

Fig. 2. The change of the absorption coefficient A s under the FCP (in "OTS-2"
geostationary communication satellites)

Solar ultraviolet radiation is one of the factors causing the degradation of TRP. As a result of its exposure to
white TRP gradually darken, getting a yellow or brown color of various shades. Such changes have been
observed, for example, the ACS "Skylab". Steel and brown originally white TRP American spacecraft
"Surveyor-3" after his stay on the Moon's surface for 2.5 years. This unit is "visited" the crew of the second
lunar mission, which arrived in November 1969 on board the "Apollo 12". Some of the "Surveyor" were
brought back to Earth for study.
Thus, under the action of ultraviolet radiation white TRP become brown. Just the same, the analogy with
the sun tan. But, alas, for the TRP "tan" is harmful even in small doses: change color coating entails
overheating of the spacecraft by increasing the absorption capacity of the surface. In Fig. 2 shows the increase
in the absorption coefficient of the white TRP observed within 3 years on a geostationary satellite
communications "OTS-2".
Deterioration of properties caused by the TRP and other PCF, such as the solar wind, which we will discuss
in the next section. But before briefly on another effect caused by light reflection surface of the spacecraft.
It is about glare, original solar "bunny" that occur when light is reflected from shiny design elements.
"Bunny" getting into the optical orientation sensors systems, can deliver a lot of trouble. Therefore, when the
spacecraft ground tests the possibility of light interference is scrutinized. Here's what I wrote about this
phenomenon, one of the founders of the Soviet space technology designer and interplanetary stations
"Lunokhod" GN Babakin: "... created and the machine, whose purpose - to check how the optical sensors,

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 whether they take are any some random highlights. The sensors should get only the needed rays, no matter
how cranks flying machine ... If the glare get into the sensor, the machine will be chasing them, like a dog its
tail ... "
To provide all possible reflections of light on SC complex shape containing a large number of different
equipment, it is extremely difficult. Therefore, interference due to the occurrence of glare sometimes happen.
For this reason it is not immediately able to provide guidance on the sun telescope aboard ACS "Salyut-4" -
the instrument has seen a false light. Orientation was eventually carried out thanks to the skill and ingenuity of
the station crew, cosmonauts A. A. Gubareva and G. Grechko. ACS "Salyut-6" A similar situation occurred in
the attitude control system of one of the solar panels. The fault has been fixed by cosmonauts Vladimir
Kovalenko V. P. Savinyh.

TOWARDS the solar wind

Called solar wind plasma stream flowing continuously in interplanetary space from the outside completely
ionized gas solar shell - crown. The term "solar wind" was proposed in 1958 by the American physicist E.
Parker, develop hydrodynamic theory of motion of the plasma emitted by the solar corona.

Fig. 3. Dependence materials sputtering coefficient on the energy of the

bombarding protons: 1 - titanium; 2 - SiC; 3 - B 4 C; 4 - stainless steel

The solar wind plasma consisting essentially of protons and electrons moving at a speed near the Earth 320
- 400 km / s. The kinetic energy of protons at a rate of 600 - 800 eV, and the electron - only 0.3 - 0.4 eV, since
the mass of the electron is almost 2000 times lower than the proton mass. Due to the random thermal motion of
the plasma in the true energy of solar wind electrons is several times higher, but still they do not have any
significant impact on the spacecraft materials. The main influencing factor of the solar wind is a stream of
protons. During flares solar wind speed may increase up to 1000 km / s, respectively while increasing the
energy of the protons and their flow density.
Exposure to solar wind protons materials reduces to the following main effects: atomization and create
radiation defects in the surface layer structure due to the introduction of protons and "shift" of atoms.
The process of sputtering materials are often characterized by sputtering coefficient, which shows the
average number of sputtered material from the surface atoms per incident ion. In Fig.3 shows the results of
laboratory studies that investigated the dependence of the sputtering yield of the proton energy for different
materials. It is seen that the maximum values of the sputtering coefficient are observed at energies close to the
energy of the solar wind protons.
On the spacecraft from the impact of the solar wind affects primarily TRP. Due to the formation of
radiation defects in the colored coating and enhance the absorption of thermal radiation. Exposure to solar
wind during one year can increase the absorption coefficient TRP 10 - 15%.
Thus, we have introduced to the influence of materials and equipment SC two PCF, produced by the Sun:
an electromagnetic radiation and solar wind. During outbreaks still sun emits solar cosmic rays (SCR), mainly

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 flows protons with energies from 1 to 10 4 MeV. SCR energy protons, as we have seen, many times greater
than the energy of the solar wind protons.
In the outer space there are other high energy particle flows. With increasing energy particles increases
their penetration depth into the thickness of the material. high energy particles can penetrate through the shell
of the spacecraft and a danger to the crew and the equipment, are disposed in the inner compartments.
Therefore, the study of radiation environment in space and the impact of different types of corpuscular
radiation on living organisms and a variety of materials and items of equipment is one of the central places in
space physics, space biology and medicine and, of course, space materials. The charged particles of high
energy is often called penetrating corpuscular radiation, or ionizing radiation.

As exposure to ionizing radiation

The main types of corpuscular ionizing radiation in outer space are electrons and protons radiation belts,
galactic cosmic rays (GCR) - isotropic flux of protons and heavier nuclei coming from remote regions of the
Galaxy, and already familiar SCR.
Earth's radiation belts discovered during flight of the first Soviet and American satellites and Soviet space
rockets, were one of the most significant discoveries in the XX century. In our country, the first studies of the
radiation belts were carried out under the guidance of Academician S. N. Vernova and Corresponding Member
of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR A. E. Chudakova. It is interesting that the discovery of the radiation
belts was relatively unexpected, although in 1907 - 1912 years. have been published by K. Stormer, in which
the motion of particles in a magnetic dipole field and followed where principal possibility of capture of
charged particles by a magnetic field of the earth.
Radiation belt are relatively stable giant congestion areas electrons and high energy protons held Earth's
magnetic field. Geomagnetic earth sheath, the deformed pressure of the solar wind and antisolar elongated in a
direction with radiation contained within it is called magnetosphere. Thus, radiation belts enclosed in
magnetosphere Earth. Physical model magnetosphere describing the configuration of the magnetic field,
distribution density of the particles in space, their type, the energy, the nature of the motion and so on. E., Is
quite complicated and continues to be updated as new data. Indicate only the characteristic dimensions
magnetosphere boundary of the magnetic field from the side illuminated by the sun, lies at a distance of 10
earth radii (Earth radius R W is 6370 km) measured from the center of the Earth; magnetosphere transverse
dimensions in the meridional direction is 35 - 40 R H , and the region elongated in antisolar direction - the so-
called magnetotail - extends to distances measured hundreds earth radii. Moon orbit intersects magnetosphere
tail at a distance of 64 R H from the earth.
For electron radiation belts characteristic energy range from 0.05 to 5 MeV protons - from 0.1 to 50 MeV.
Note that the clear separation of the captured radiation into two parts - the inner (proton) radiation belt
centered in the equatorial plane is at a distance of about 3000 km from the surface of the Earth, and external (e)
radiation belt with the center at a distance of 15 - 25 thousand km. from Earth, it was observed by the results of
the first measurement performed by using gas discharge counters that were recorded only particles a
sufficiently high energy. These subsequent measurements showed that the entire space inside the
magnetosphere, including radiation belts location area is filled with the charged particles with an energy of
several tens keV to several tens of electron volts and below.
GCR particles have the highest energy as compared with other kinds of space corpuscular radiation. GCR
energy is contained in an extremely wide range - from 10 8 to 10 21 eV, but the flux density is relatively small.
Data on penetrating corpuscular radiation in outer space are given in Table. 3.
As the energy of charged particles impacting on the spacecraft, the materials and equipment elements are
amplified radiation effects caused by them: the formation of structural defects, ionization and excitation of
atoms substance nuclear transformation.
Radiation effects inevitably alter the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the materials and
consequently the performance of the elements made therefrom. Particularly sensitive to radiation
semiconductor, optical, dielectric, and polymer materials, commonly used in space technology. Less sensitive
to radiation metals.
All radiation changes in the materials and items of equipment can be divided into reversible and

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 irreversible. Reversible occur in materials under irradiation and almost completely disappear after its
termination. Irreversible changes continuously accumulate during irradiation and stored completely or partially
after the end of irradiation. Changes the first type are mainly associated with the ionization and excitation of
atoms, change of the second type - to form a radiation-induced defects.
TA B L E 3
high energy particles in space

View corpuscular The particle flux density, m -2

Composition particle energy MeV
radiation s -1
1 - 30 3 10 10
protons
Earth's radiation belts: > 30 2 10 8
internal 0.05 - 05 2 10 12
electrons
> 0.5 5 10 10
protons > 0.1 1 10 12
external 0.05 - 1.5 2 10 11
electrons
> 1.5 1 10 9
Solar cosmic rays protons 1 - 10 4 10 7 - 10 8
Protons 3 10 4
Cores helium
10 3 - 10 14 3 10 3
lightweight core (Z * = 3 -
Galactic cosmic rays for all groups of 5 10 1
5)
Average nucleus (Z = 6 - 9)
nuclei 2 10 2
heavy nuclei (Z = 10 - 30) 4 10 1

* Z - serial number of the element in the periodic system.

As reversible changes in materials or irreversible depends on the type of bombarding particles, their energy
flux density and t. D. However, the nature of these relationships are different. For example, if the reversible
increase in density changes only in proportion to the corpuscular beam enhances the effect, in the case of
formation of irreversible changes in flux density increase may cause new damage to the materials and
arrangements of elements apparatus.
Consider how changes occur in both types of semiconductor devices. Charged particles, decelerating in the
solid body, produce the ionization of the atoms and electrons detached from the atoms can move freely therein.
The resulting ions are precluded from doing so - they are firmly held in the crystal lattice. However, every
ionized atom can capture an electron neutral neighboring atoms, like "transferring" it its ionized state. When an
external electric field is the process of "moving" the ionized state in the lattice is in a direction opposite the
direction of electron movement, and the movement of the elementary equivalent to the positive charge.
For a description of various phenomena in semiconductors, the representation of the motion of non-existent
really positive particles, whose name "hole" is given. Thus, we can say that in a solid atom ionization produces
two elementary charge of opposite sign - electron and "hole" (in other words, forms an electron-hole pair).
Electrons and "holes" can be created in the semiconductor and other manner - by introducing impurities
into the base material forming therein any additional free electrons, or, conversely, the blank electronic
communication between the lattice atoms, ie, "holes"... In the former case, we say that the semiconductor
material has an electron conductivity or a conductive n -type, the second - hole conductivity or conductance p
-type.
If two semiconductor material with opposite type conductivity result in close contact, the contact plane is
formed near electric double layer, the so-called p-n junction which has rectifying properties, ie. E. The ability
to pass an electric current of one polarity only when the external voltage applied a p-n junction. When the
voltage of opposite polarity across the p-n junction with very low current flows, which is called reverse current
p-n junction. Accordingly, the polarity of the applied voltage is called the back or locking. On rectifying action

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 of p-n junction, and most of the work is based semiconductor devices.
Retarding in the semiconductor material of the charged particle creates in its wake a chain of electron-hole
pairs - ionization track. If the ionization track is formed in the p-n junction to which a reverse polarity voltage,
and electrons are "holes", moving under the action of the electric field in the opposite direction, create an
additional reverse current through the p-n junction. Thus, one of the consequences of exposure to radiation on
semiconductor devices is to increase the reverse current p-n junctions during irradiation, which could degrade
the device parameters. If during the irradiation in the semiconductor material does not accumulate a significant
number of defects after the end of irradiation is reduced to the initial value reverse current p-n junction, ie. E.
The effect is reversible.
Interestingly, the effect of reverse current increasing p-n junction during irradiation and finds useful
application. On this principle works semiconductor detectors of ionizing radiation. If the energy of particles
entering the detector is large, it generates a large number of electron-hole pairs in the p-n junction and causes a
short-term (pulse) increase in reverse current p-n junction. The number thus generated electron-hole pairs and
thus the magnitude of the current pulse proportional to the energy of the detected particle. For example, in
silicon the creation of one electron-hole pair is consumed energy of about 3.6 eV. When full braking charged
particles with an energy of 1 MeV in a material arises 2.8 10 5 of electron-hole pairs, which corresponds to
the charge, the calling reverse current pulse through the p-n junction, 4.4 10 -14 Cl.
Most often, the currents produced by cosmic radiation in semiconductor devices directly by irradiation are
small and do not have a significant effect on the operation of electronic equipment. More substantial changes
are irreversible, manifested in gradual deterioration of the semiconductor device parameters: decrease of the
gain lowering the permissible operating voltage, etc. These modifications, as already noted, due to the
accumulation of radiation-induced defects in semiconductor materials...
Radiation resistance of semiconductor devices is estimated mainly irreversible effects that may ultimately
lead to failure or total failure of the device. Ground bounce is controlled withdrawal device parameter from a
predetermined range of acceptable values. To characterize the radiation resistance is often used term
"maximum permissible flow" - per unit area of the maximum number of particles results, which is a material
or device can withstand without changing parameters. For example, if silicon transistors irradiation with
protons of 20 MeV energy gain of these transistors begins to decrease after the total flux of protons exceeds
equal to 10 11 protons / cm 2 . Note that such a flow of high-energy protons can get for the year instruments
outside the pressurized compartment spacecraft during flight in the inner radiation belt.
A more universal criterion for evaluating the radiation resistance is the quantity of absorbed radiation dose
at which significant changes begin parameters materials or devices. The absorbed dose of ionizing radiation is
measured by the radiation energy which is absorbed by a unit mass of the substance. The unit of absorbed dose
is called the gray (Gy), and has a dimension of joules per kilogram. Data on the radiation resistance of certain
materials and products of electronic equipment are shown in Table 4.
Table. 4 that have different optical materials are relatively low radiation resistance. The range of the optical
elements used on board a spacecraft, it is extremely wide: windows, lenses, prisms, optical fibers, the input
window photoelectric devices, laser technology elements, etc...
The main effects caused in optical materials by cosmic radiation, are luminescence and color. The first
effect is reversible, the second - irreversible.
Under the action of radiation occurring processes of ionization and excitation of atoms of optical materials.
Reported atoms wherein excess energy is mainly released by the emission of light quanta in the visible
spectrum. This luminescence is excited by ionizing radiation, called radio-luminescence.
TA B L E 4

Absorbed doses of cosmic corpuscular radiation, in which significantly changed the characteristics of
the materials and items of equipment

The absorbed dose

The material or product The changes
is Gy
Semiconductors 10 3 - 10 4 An increase of reverse currents, gain reduction

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 Solar cells 10 3 Reduced efficiency
Optical glasses of different
10 2 - 10 4 Deterioration of transparency, coloring
brands
fused silica 10 4 - 10 5 deterioration of transparency
The deterioration of optical and electrical properties,
plastics 10 4 - 10 6
decrease in mechanical strength
Changing the nominal values, degradation of electrical
Capacitors and resistors 10 5 - 10 6
properties
metals 10 9 - 10 10 Changing magnetic and electric motor: Properties

Notably the case of radio-optical elements by heavy nuclei GCR. When they enter the luminescent optical
material there is intense light flash, which bears the name of the phosphene. Phosphenes create significant
interference pulses for optical devices and optoelectronic devices. It is assumed that this mechanism explains
the bright flashes; light, which felt American astronauts on the lunar surface with the eyes closed. Phosphene
in this case may be due to hitting a hard core FCL in the lens, which created a human feeling light flash ..
Staining of optical materials by cosmic radiation occurs due to ionization of the atoms and the occurrence
of radiation-induced defects. Appeared in the material upon irradiation free electrons and "holes" can be
gripped by radiation defects. This produces so-called color centers, which alter the optical properties of the
material - optical glasses without special additives begin to brown colored at an absorbed dose of 10 2 - 10 3
Gy.
radiation coloration problem is particularly important for the optical fiber used in the outer equipment,
since the length of the fiber communications can reach tens or hundreds of meters and the radiation effect of
reducing the transparency of the fiber will strongly affect the quality of the transmitted information.

Fig. 4. Reduce the annual radiation dose inside the spacecraft protective
aluminum wall: 1 - when flying in the center of the inner radiation belt; 2 - at a
dose of SCR interplanetary flight.

The challenge of protecting the crew and the equipment of spacecraft from the effect of radiation is one of
the most important in the preparation of spaceflight. The main method of protection is the radiation absorption
shell SC. From Fig.4 shows that even a relatively thin aluminum wall considerably reduces the dose of
radiation in the inner compartments. And developed so-called active protection SC methods using electric or
magnetic fields, the deflecting charged particles from the apparatus.
Equally important is the right choice of the spacecraft's orbit. Long-term manned missions, such as ACS

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 "Salute", held below the radiation belts of the Earth, so that this kind of radiation has no effect on ACS.
Sufficiently rapid intersection radiation belts when flying to the moon or planets of the solar system also does
not represent a significant danger to the crew of spacecraft.
Most dangerous for astronauts during interplanetary flights protons SCR. Curve 2 in Fig. 4 shows the
average total annual dose of SCR. In fact, this dose is created by individual bursts, the number of which per
year may be from 1 - 3 to 20 - 36 depending on the level of solar activity. Protons CKL reach near the Earth in
1 - 5 hours after solar flare, and the average duration of their flow is about 1 day.
In preparing manned missions to the Moon by "Apollo" program, American experts calculations of
radiation doses have been performed, which can get located in the ship's crew during the most powerful solar
flares. As the input data for calculating parameters previously observed outbreaks were taken. It was found that
when high-power solar flares magnitude of the absorbed dose within the ship can be from 0.5 to 3.5 Gy. The
last dose is already a serious threat - it could cause the astronauts from acute radiation syndrome. Solar flares,
creating such a large dose of very rare - they happen on average once in several years. But nevertheless
understood the importance of predicting solar flares in planning manned missions.
Protons SCRs are dangerous for astronauts and when flying in Earth orbits, although significantly less than
for interplanetary flights. The fact that most of the protons SCR deflected Earth's magnetic field and the poles,
there is absorbed in the atmosphere penetrates to altitudes of a few tens of kilometers. On average, and
particularly equatorial latitudes can break through the magnetic field of a high-energy protons, the most that in
the composition of SCR are relatively few.
Orbit ACS "Salute" is chosen so that the plant does not come to the polar regions, and even powerful solar
flares do not pose a serious threat to the crew. One of these solar flares occurred July 4, 1974, when the
spacecraft "Soyuz-14", piloted by astronauts P. R. Popovichem and Yu. P. Artyuhinym, went to ACS
"Salyut-3". Then, 6 and 8 July, after the transition of the crew to the station, there were new solar flares. In this
day and ground services themselves astronauts were especially careful continuous monitoring of radiation
levels on board the ACS, but although he increased several times compared to the conventional, yet remained
within safe limits.
Well, if there is an extremely powerful solar flare? Then there is the possibility to take refuge in the descent
"Soyuz" spaceship apparatus, thick insulating walls which provide protection from radiation. Finally, for the
steps can be taken for the descent of spacecraft from orbit while SCR protons move from the Sun to the Earth.
GCR particles do not pose a health risk, even astronauts during long orbital flights. To a large extent this
type of radiation on sensitive onboard equipment. We have already mentioned the establishment of the GCR
nuclei of light flashes, which can interfere with the operation of optical devices. The next section will look at
how the GCR affect the operation of electronic equipment.

Heavy nuclei AGAINST computer

The electrons and the "holes" formed in contact with fast charged particles within the semiconductor
device, create inside it an electric charge, and their movement in an electric field causes a current pulse. This
effect is based the work of charged particle detectors, t. E. For the detection effect is useful. However,
transistors and integrated circuits, working in a variety of electronic devices, spacecraft, such events are a
source of impulse noise. If the amplitude of the interference signal is comparable with the amplitude of the
working signal of the semiconductor device, false alarm device may occur, which includes a device (e.g., a
trigger switch to change the state of the memory cell, and so on. P.). Such phenomena are called functional
failures, which include, inter alia, include information failures in the computer memory cells.
At the heart of malfunctions are, thus, reversible changes in the parameters of semiconductor devices. A
distinctive feature of this failure, which distinguishes it from other phenomena related to the impact of
corpuscular radiation, that's what he called one-edinstveinoy charged particle when it enters the semiconductor
device. While the gradual degradation of the devices associated with irreversible effects, is a consequence of
the impact of a large number of particles.
For the occurrence of functional failure, generally speaking, two conditions are necessary: a large enough
amount of charge generated in the semiconductor device trapped particle, and not too long length of track
ionization (gather to fully electrons and "holes" on the instrument electrodes). It follows that such failures can

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 only be caused by particles having a sufficiently high energy and at the same time a small path length in the
semiconductor material.
Of the various types of space corpuscular radiation to the greatest extent meet these requirements heavy
nuclei GCR (see. Table. 3). Because of their very high initial energy GCR particles penetrate spacecraft shell
housings and instrument housing and can get into the semiconductor material at the end of run, having a
significantly lower energy, but just such as to effectively brake and produce intense ionisation in a thin layer of
semiconductor material.
Size of areas, within which the electric field and the movement of the charge occurs (active region), in
modern semiconductor devices are measured in tens or even a few micrometers. Low values of fluxes of heavy
particles of GCR and such small dimensions of the region in which the particle should get to have failed, cause
a very low probability of such an event in terms of space. It is estimated that the probability of severe core
FCL contact with the active region of a semiconductor device during one day spaceflight is approximately 10
-5 . However, computers installed on-board the spacecraft today already contain about 10 5 of semiconductor
devices, ie. E., Taken together, they are potentially subject to a single functional failure in the day due to this
effect. But there is a steady trend towards further growth of the volume of electronic equipment on board the
spacecraft.
The problem itself malfunctions in electronic equipment under the influence of single charged particles
appeared, paradoxically, as a result of advances in semiconductor technology Instrumentation. Creation of
modern semiconductor chips with a very high degree of integration, on the one hand, resulting in lower
operating voltages and currents, and on the other - a sharp increase in the number of elements subjected to
malfunctions, in the composition of the apparatus.
To quantify susceptibility to malfunctions of semiconductor devices is the concept of critical charge Q o
receipt on which one of the electrodes of the device causes its activation. Minimum energy can be calculated
on the basis of the critical charge E of which should be allocated in the active region of the device that has
failed. The lowest values of the critical charge for structures such as metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS-
structures) for their Q o = 3 10 -13 Cl, and the minimum energy release, causing a failure, - E a = 7 MeV. For
transistors with p-n junction Q o = 1.5 10 -12 Cl and E on = 35 MeV.

SHIELD FOR SOLAR

Solar cells - the main sources of electricity in modern spacecraft - comprised of a large number of
semiconductor solar cells, or as they are called solar cells. In Fig.5 is a diagram of the photoconverter made of
a silicon p-type conductivity (conductivity p -type). The initial monocrystalline silicon wafer usually has a
resistivity of 0.1 to 100 ohm cm and a thickness of 0.1 - 0.5 mm. The upper layer of silicon to a depth of 0.1 -
2 microns, are introduced so-called dopants, whereby this layer acquires electronic conductivity ( n -type) and
on the interface of p - and n -type regions formed in silicon p n- - transition.
Electrical contact to the sunlit surface of the photoconverter is a thin metal strip, while the opposite contact
is continuous. Photoconverter illuminated surface is covered with a transparent film, just as is done in many
optical devices, including all the familiar camera lens. Quanta of light are absorbed in photoconverter screen,
creating electron-hole pairs are separated by the electric field of p-n junction, and between the contacts
photoconverter a potential difference. Important part of the solar cells used in satellites, is the protective glass,
the role of which more will be discussed further.

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 Fig. 5. The solar cell device 1 - the protective glass; 2 - transparent glue; 3 - AR
coating; 4 - region p-n junction; 5 - a silicon wafer; 6 - metal contacts.

Modern silicon solar cells are used on spacecraft provide voltage 0.5 - 0.6 V at a load current density of 40
- 45 mA / cm 2 . In theory, the coefficient of solar radiation into electrical energy conversion (photoconverter
efficiency) can reach 22%. Efficiency photovoltaic converters actually used on the spacecraft until
approximately twice lower.
Photoconverter operational parameters, including the efficiency strongly depends on the completeness of
collecting electrodes in the electron and "hole" formed in the converter under the influence of light. Various
types of originally existing structural defects of the semiconductor material (a material completely free of
defects can not be made), and the defects caused by cosmic radiation, electron capture portion and the "holes"
in their movement to the electrodes, which entails deterioration of the transducer parameters.
Sensitivity silicon solar cells, like other semiconductor devices, to the action of corpuscular radiation is
high enough (see. Table. 4). On some satellites crossing the radiation belts, solar power, are not equipped with
safety glass, it is reduced by 20 - 25% in just a few hours of flight. A similar effect was observed, for example,
the satellite "Electron-3" flight.
Since energy supply is one of the key elements in ensuring the proper functioning of the spacecraft, we
have made major efforts to study the radiation resistance of solar cells and the development of ways to protect
them from exposure to cosmic radiation.
The simplest and most effective way to increase the radiation resistance of solar cells was the use of
optically transparent coatings which delay significant portion of the incident corpuscular beam. As such a
"shield" is used for solar cells and the quartz glass plates of thickness 0.1 - 3 mm. Plate thickness is selected
based on a compromise considerations: to provide sufficiently effective protection of solar cells with minimal
increase in weight; design.
In the American satellite "Rayleigh-1" (perigee apogee 7440 km 1320 km) for various types of
photoconverters samples with protective quartz glass without them have been established. During the flight,
the change investigated photovoltaic parameters. In Fig.6 shows the change in short-circuit current transducer,
clearly showing the effectiveness of quartz protective coatings. According to reports, the use of protective
coatings can improve the radiation resistance of solar cells to 100 - 1000 times.

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 Fig. 6. Change in short-circuit current (in arbitrary units) on the satellite solar
cells "Rayleigh-1":
1 - protected quartz glass member of 1.5 mm in thickness; 2 - Jari protective
glass thickness of 0.75 mm, 3 - the same element without the protective glass

Another known method for increasing radiation resistance of solar cells is the introduction of lithium into
the silicon source. Lithium atoms, reacting with the radiation-induced defects, like "heal" them, preventing the
trapping of electrons and "holes" defects and thereby improving the efficiency of charge accumulation at the
electrodes converter.
In addition to the radiation degradation characteristics of the spacecraft solar cells may deteriorate due to
surface contamination has already discussed the process of the protective glass products NEA.
In geostationary satellites surface protective Solar glass can be charged electron beams with energies of 10
- 20 keV. As a result, there may occur electric breakdowns, damaging the surface, which also leads to a
reduction of protective coatings transparency. Such phenomena we take a closer look at a few more.

WHERE current flows?

Let's try to solve this problem. Suppose that in a vacuum chamber on a metal plate of the incident electron
beam produced by a source such as an electron gun, similar to those used in our TV picture tubes. Where sent
current through the surface of the wafer irradiated with the electron?
It would seem that what could be simpler. Current, as is known, is directed against the motion of the
electrons, ie. E. In this case from the plate. However, such a response may not be valid. The fact that the
electrons incident on the plate beat of its surface layer so-called secondary electrons that leave the plate and
emitted into a vacuum. This phenomenon is called secondary electron emission.
Thus, through the surface plate are two directed towards one another electron flux: flux incident on the
plate (primary) electrons and the flow leaving the plate (secondary) electrons. A quantity equal to the ratio of
secondary electron current to the primary electron current, - the coefficient of secondary electron emission,
denoted generally by the letter a, can be both less and greater than unity. In the first case, the current actually
directed away from the plate, but it will change in the second direction is reversed, since the secondary
electron current is greater primary electron current. When = 1, the value of the total current through the
surface becomes equal to zero, ie. E. The current as would be absent.
It is understood that in our experiment, we must ensure removal of secondary electrons from the plate they
can go to the walls of the vacuum chamber or in a special collecting electrode - collector, as is done, for
example, when measuring the coefficient of secondary electron emission. If electrons irradiated plate set in the
chamber on an insulating base, the plate starts charging. When <1 therein will accumulate a negative charge
due to excess electrons, and when > 1 - a positive charge, that is a consequence of depletion of electrons
plate. The same effects arise when irradiated with electrons dielectric plate, and the charge will accumulate in a
thin surface layer of the dielectric.

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 The coefficient of secondary electron emission is dependent on the type of material, the purity of its
surface, the primary electron energy and some other less significant factors. By increasing the energy of
primary electrons of the secondary electron emission coefficient increases at first, and then, reaching a
maximum value, it starts decreasing. For metals the maximum secondary electron emission coefficient is
typically 1 - 1.5, and is achieved at about 500 eV primary electrons. Dielectrics usually have higher coefficient
of secondary electron emission as compared with metals.
When bombarded with metal ions as electron ejection occurs - a secondary electron emission under the
influence of ions, or ion-electron emission. Simultaneously with distracting surfaces a quantity of ions - occurs
secondary ion, or lithium ion emission. Possible, albeit with very low probability, and the process of ejecting
ions by electron bombardment materials - ion secondary electron emission.
In outer space, as we know, on the spacecraft impact corpuscular streams, different in composition and
energy. Therefore, on the surface of spacecraft simultaneously occur all the above processes, the intensity of
each of which depends on the characteristics of the radiation exposure.
Importantly, it occurs under the action of the PCF (Outer vacuum SVA particles corpuscular beams,
ultraviolet radiation), the change of state material surface inevitably entails a change of secondary-emission
properties. Moreover, for all the values considered process of secondary emission coefficients may be both
smaller and larger than the original. Regularities of the changes yet insufficiently studied, therefore, research in
this area is a challenge.
With illuminated areas KA occurs photoelectron emission surface - emitting electrons under the influence
of solar electromagnetic radiation (preferably ultraviolet). Photoelectron emission current density from the
surface of the spacecraft (1 - 5) 10 -5 A / m 2 .
Secondary emission processes can directly affect the operation of onboard equipment of spacecraft,
creating extraneous currents in sensitive sensors of various devices. Very large part of these processes becomes
in the formation of electrical charges on the surface of the spacecraft, which is and will be discussed further.

LIGHTNING ON BOARD CA

Under the influence of streams of space plasma and solar electromagnetic radiation SC acquires some
electrical charge, the sign and magnitude of which depend on the ratio of the intensities of processes that
ensure delivery to the surface of the spacecraft and its drain with positive and negative charges. The main
components of the current flowing through the AC surface are as follows: current of electrons and positive
ions of the plasma environment; secondary emission currents from the surface of the plasma caused by the
primary currents; photoelectric current in response to sunlight. The values of these components depend on the
characteristics of external influencing factors (intensity of solar radiation, plasma energy and particle flux
density) and the properties of the surface of the spacecraft (primarily from its emissivity).
The resulting electrical potential spacecraft surface is determined by the dynamic equilibrium condition,
when the total current flowing through the surface is zero. However, individual components of the current
directed towards the surface or away from it, is not equal to zero, ie. E. There is a continuous exchange of
charges between the surface of the spacecraft and the surrounding plasma. Change of any parameter that
affects a charge exchange, whether the coefficient of secondary electron surface energy of the plasma particles
or emissions would entail displacement of the equilibrium state: the total current has become zero at a different
surface potential.
But relative to what count the electric potential of the spacecraft?
In laboratory experiments we examined; situation was simple: it was possible to measure the potential of
isolated metal plate relative to the installation housing, which is generally connected to the ground bus. And
what a second terminal to connect a voltmeter in space, if we wanted to measure the potential of the
spacecraft?
The space count SC electric potential is produced relative to the surrounding plasma, and measuring the
potential magnitude is quite feasible, but, however, with a more sophisticated tools than conventional
voltmeter. The equilibrium state is precisely characterized by the fact that between the surface of the
spacecraft. and ambient plasma is established a certain potential difference, which "regulates" the flow of
plasma particles to surface SC, hindering particles of the same sign and the opposite accelerating particle.

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 The values listed components of the current are different and vary depending on the satellite orbit
parameters and geophysical conditions. Typically, the determining factor is the ratio of the plasma electron
current charging KA negative and photoelectron current from the surface of the compensating negative charge.
At low Earth orbits (ionospheric) energy of plasma particles are small (0.1 - 0.3 eV), and the concentration of
particles is such that the plasma electron current exceeds the current photoemission. Therefore, in the
ionosphere, the spacecraft acquires a small negative potential.
At altitudes in the tens of thousands of kilometers from the Earth's surface characteristics magnetospheric
plasma levels are strongly dependent on the geomagnetic activity, wherein the plasma is non-uniform in space.
During geomagnetic disturbances on the height from the magnetotail invade plasma streams with a particle
energy of the order of 5 - 30 keV at a flux density up to 10 14 m -2 s -1 . The magnitude of the electron current
flowing in these conditions the surface of the spacecraft, such that the illuminated areas on the surface it is still
adequately compensated photoemission current but in the absence of illumination the Offered electron charge
is accumulated on the surface. As a result, the AC surface may acquire a negative potential, measured units or
even tens of kilovolts.

Fig. 7. Displacement of the energy spectra of electrons (1) and protons (2)
satellite data "ATS-5." The solid lines indicate the spectra when the satellite has
acquired a negative potential, entering into the Earth's shadow; dashed lines -
spectra recorded on the illuminated part of the orbit

Obviously, when a negative potential relative to the plasma spacecraft surface energy of electrons incident
on the surface, should be reduced as compared with the initial value for e , where - surface potential, e - the
charge of an electron. Energy of protons should correspondingly increase by the same amount. Such
phenomena have been observed experimentally in a number of flights of the spacecraft, which proves directly
occurrence of high negative potentials on the surface.
In Fig.7 shows energy spectra of electrons and protons magnetospheric plasma obtained during flight
geostationary satellite "ATS-5" prior to its entry into the Earth's shadow, and thereafter. It can be seen that after
entry into the shadow HIS energy spectra shifted by the energy scale in opposite directions by an amount
corresponding satellite potential -4,2 kV.
Thus, the presence of a high electric potential on the surface of the spacecraft changes the conditions of

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 interaction of plasma particles with the surface affects the testimony of some of the scientific instruments
(spectrometers of charged particles, electric field sensors and so on. D.), But, it would seem, is not a serious
danger to the functioning of most onboard spacecraft systems. However, it is not. The fact that the surface of
modern spacecraft 80 - 90% is covered with dielectric materials: temperature control coatings (which, as
noted, the vast majority are non-conducting), the protective solar lenses, etc. Therefore, the potentials of lit and
unlit areas of the spacecraft surface.. They may not be aligned. There is a so-called differential charging, in
which between the individual surface portions having high electrical voltage.
Differential charging is facilitated if the surface of spacecraft materials have a high secondary-emission
properties spacecraft has a complex geometry, and so on. D. Significant potential difference arising between
the individual sections of the surface can lead to electrical breakdown of the surface creates an
electromagnetic, light and acoustic disturbances to the equipment KA. This is truly a thunder and lightning in
the spacecraft!
For the first time with this terrible phenomenon encountered in the early 70-ies in the operation of
geostationary satellites. The work of the equipment observed a large number of anomalies occur spontaneously
(without commands from Earth) switching on and off of different devices, change the orientation of the
antennas, stops the supply of electricity from solar panels and much more, and abnormalities were observed
mainly in the night and early morning hours. Not immediately able to understand that all these effects are
connected with the electrification of the satellite.
Gradually, the statistical analysis of occurring failures and malfunctions of spacecraft hardware correlation
was found between the observed anomalies and the appearance of intense flows of hot plasma in the
geostationary orbit, coming from the magnetotail. Later on geostationary satellites are equipped with special
sensors to detect the EMI and meters the electric field intensity at the surface of the spacecraft. Data from these
instruments, convincingly confirmed the occurrence of electrical discharges on board the spacecraft due to
differential charging surface.
Undertaken theoretical and laboratory studies of the effects of electrification geostationary satellites
allowed to understand the basic laws of the observed phenomena. However, this problem was far from being
exhausted. While seemingly simple model described charge accumulation on the surface of the AC
electrification physical picture of real objects is extremely difficult to analyze. In this "blame", in particular,
the complex geometry of spacecraft and the large number of materials with different electrophysical
characteristics on their surfaces, and the mutual influence of individual charged electrostatic surface portions.
Moreover, as we know, the properties of dielectric materials (e.g., their surface conductivity and emission
characteristics) may vary significantly under the influence of the PCF. This further complicates the analysis of
the effects associated with electrification SC.
There is an ongoing intensive theoretical study of this phenomenon by modeling the processes of charging
by computer and performed experimental studies conducted on laboratory simulation facilities and natural
conditions. For example, in 1978, into a geostationary orbit satellite was launched ( "SKATHA") weighing 227
kg, is designed specifically for the study of the processes of electrification, an electric shock and the
relationship of these phenomena with contaminated surfaces satellite products NEA. The satellite are examples
of various materials exhibited in the outer shell as well as a capacitive sensor for measuring the potential on
the sample surface, electromagnetic pulse detector produced discharges quartz microbalance to study
deposition NEA products charged and uncharged regions of the surface, spectrometers electrons and protons,
and other equipment.
The most radical method of getting rid of the surface electric breakdowns on board the spacecraft is to
eliminate the differential charging surface. In other words, it is necessary to provide sufficient electrical
conductivity, high surface of the spacecraft to the potentials of the individual sections can be aligned.
Unfortunately, this is not so simple. In essence, the need to develop new types of conductive glass, thermal
control coatings and other materials, or to create a thin conductive, optically transparent coatings which have a
well-kept on the base material, not to change its properties, and, in addition, be resistant to the PCF. Work in
these areas are maintained and are rapidly one of the most important materials in space sections.
Another method of reducing the surface potential; KA is the selection of structural materials with the
required secondary-emission characteristics. Current of secondary electrons ejected incident electrons and
protons, carries a negative charge to the surface, as well as the photoelectric current. But in this way to provide

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 sufficiently complete removal of the electronic charge on the surface it is very difficult when the primary
particle energy changes over a wide range.
While for relieving excess negative charge from the surface SC practiced use different types of electron
emitters.
To increase the reliability of geostationary satellites can also by developing interference-board equipment,
wherein the electronic circuitry used with low sensitivity to electromagnetic disturbances, apply selection logic
circuit and a random signal r. D.
The use of the whole complex of the electrical and technical measures for the protection of geostationary
satellites by electrification has already yielded tangible results. On modern geostationary satellites there is
much less anomalies than in the same first-generation satellites. Ongoing research and development activities,
in particular the creation of new conductive materials in the near future will ensure further progress in this
direction.
Another aspect of the electrification problems emerged in recent years in connection with the development
of so-called active experiments in space, during which the SC injected into the environment of intense beams
of charged particles to study the physical processes in the magnetospheric plasma. If the current flowing from
the plasma to the surface of the spacecraft, fully compensates for the outgoing charge SC can be charged to a
potential corresponding to the maximum energy of the injected particles. And when settling of charges
collected from the plasma on the dielectric surface of the spacecraft on the last potential occurs with respect to
the metal body, which may lead to dielectric breakdown.
It should be noted that the risk of electrical breakdown on board the spacecraft is not only connected with
the phenomenon of electrification. On modern spacecraft has miscellaneous equipment (scientific, radio and so
on. D.), Operated at a voltage of several to tens of kilovolts.
Natural engineering solution for creating high-board devices is the use of outer vacuum as an insulating
medium, ie. E. One would place such apparatus is pressurized compartment spacecraft, which would
significantly reduce the weight of the apparatus. Many of the high-voltage components and should be located
in the open space according to their functionality. However, the removal of high-voltage equipment in open
space has a negative side: under the influence of the PCF increases the risk of electrical breakdown, or, as they
say, reduces the dielectric strength of the equipment.
We have already mentioned the reduction of dielectric strength avionics due to the impact of the NEA. At
high density NEA may experience different forms of electric discharge gas. In this case, a major role will be
played by the impact ionization processes in the gas volume. For space flight conditions more typical form of
the discharge is a so-called discharge in vacuo, the initiation and development of which is determined by the
processes at the electrode surface.
For the occurrence of electrical breakdown in high-voltage vacuum gap requires that at the surface of one
of the electrodes, for any reason, there was an intense source of plasma which fills the interelectrode space.
Dimensions surface portion from which plasma outflow begins, can be very small - several micrometers or
even fractions of a micrometer. Therefore, various microscopic defects in the surface of electrodes
(protrusions, foreign inclusions and the like. D.) Play a significant role in the occurrence of electrical
breakdown.
When the equipment is operated in an open space, such defects on the surface of the electrode can be
formed under the action of the PCF. For example, due to contamination of the electrodes or products SVA due
to uneven evaporation of electrode material in vacuum. It is true that in space there is another factor that has a
significant impact on the operation of high-voltage devices. It is the smallest particles of meteoric matter.

A speck of dust or shells?

The particles, which are responsible for the phenomenon of a meteor, called meteoroids. They move in
space: space mainly in elliptical orbits around the sun. Meteoroid movement speed relative to the Earth
movement lies in the range from 12 to 72 km / s. The flux density of these particles decreases rapidly with
increasing mass. For most small meteoroids, the transverse dimensions of which are tenths; micrometer, and
weight - about 10 -13 g, flux density close to 10 -2 m -2 s -1 . With increasing particle size to a few tenths of a
millimeter flux density decreases to 6 - 7 orders of magnitude.

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 Can reach the earth's surface or in the atmosphere of unburnt residues largest meteoroid (meteorites) or, by
contrast, the smallest meteoroids which are inhibited in the atmosphere without experiencing significant
evaporation, and then slowly settle to the Earth.
Moon, unlike the Earth has no atmosphere, so any size body to freely bombard the surface. When bumps
incident particles on the surface of the moon occur secondary particles - fragments lunar soil, flying ballistic
trajectories. The speed of most of these fragments below 1 km / s, and therefore the concentration of secondary
particles at a distance of 20 - 30 km from the moon can significantly exceed the concentration of particles
falling on its surface.
On the lunar surface, and there is also a dust in its ordinary sense, which is fine particles of lunar soil -
regolite. It is the most famous lunar dust that caused a lot of debate, until January 31, 1966 has not been
brilliantly carried out a soft landing of the Soviet spacecraft "Luna-9" on the surface of our nearest celestial
neighbor. It was found that a thick layer of dust, which, as expected, could even drown, there on the surface of
the moon. Nevertheless, having a relatively small amount of lunar dust poses a challenge for the designers of
lunar vehicles: a speck of dust, settling on the surface of materials and items of equipment, pollute them. This
is facilitated by the presence of electric charge on the part of the dust particles, since the electrostatic forces
hold the dust particles on the surface of the material and can facilitate their displacement.
Mars dust storms occur, during which rise from the surface and transported in the atmosphere particle size
of 0.1 - 10 microns. Particle velocity under this reaches 100 - 150 m / s, and the flux density of the transferred
mass of material - 10 -5 kg (m 2 s) -1 .
Prior to the beginning of the space age and the early years of space flight lively debate raises the question
of the danger of collisions with large meteoroids spacecraft. However, the data available on meteor showers,
and practice space missions have shown that the probability of such events is very low. In the history of
astronautics has not yet registered a single case of serious damage to the spacecraft meteoroids.
The vast majority of collisions with surface SC accounted for by very small particles whose size is
measured in micrometers. Such particles are often called micrometeoroids or a microparticle, although with
respect to the microcosm such particles as nucleus atoms and t. D., They, of course, are particulates.
Upon impact micrometeoroids on a solid surface crater is formed thereon with dimensions (depth and
diameter) can be several times the diameter of the incident particle. Crater formation goes through the step of
heating, melting, and vaporization material in the impact zone. The latter process takes place intensively at
particle velocities above 15 - 20 km / s. The temperature in the impact zone at a rate micrometeoroids 30 km /
s is about 10 4 K. Due to the high temperatures generated vapor is ionized substance, ie. E. The plasma ejected
from the crater cloud.
The flow of these processes on the electrodes of the AC high-voltage open devices and creates the
preconditions for the emergence of electric breakdowns. The results of the experiments carried out on the
ground simulation installations convincingly confirmed the reality and the high probability of initiation of
electrical breakdowns in the open high-voltage equipment of spacecraft blows micrometeoroids of electrodes.
Due to the formation of craters is a gradual removal of material from the surface bombarded by particles, -
surface erosion. This is reflected primarily on optical characteristics of the surface, and thus micrometeoroids
are particularly dangerous for mirrors, lenses for optical instruments, illuminators spacecraft. Damage to the
windows in the form of small scratches and craters observed by many astronauts during long flights on ACS
"Salute".
It must be said that when the collision speed of 1 km / s, which are characteristic for the fragments and
moon soil particles Mars dust storms, there is no melting of the bombarded surface. However, in this case
formed microscopic cracks and dents, disintegrating particles retained residues, that a sufficient number of
blows leads to an overall deterioration of the characteristics of the optical elements. Laboratory experiments in
which the effect of Mars simulated storm on the optical elements lander showed that for 5 - 10 hours stay on
the surface of Mars in a storm window transparency may be reduced by 15 - 20%.
Micrometeoroids can relatively easily penetrate through various thin-film structure. For some structures
(for example, thin-film reflector of light, as mentioned previously) small through-holes are not a serious
danger. For others (eg, inflatable structures), the appearance of the through holes can cause failure.
CA probability of a collision with a large meteoroid, which could create in the sealing shell through-hole of
large size, as already mentioned, is very small. However, the particle size of a few tenths of a millimeter can

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 cause unwanted damage spacecraft shell. When sharply increased duration manned missions to the ACS
collisions with such particles become very real. Therefore it is necessary to take special measures to protect
ACS from meteoroids and strokes.
An effective measure is the installation of a relatively thin-walled shell of the screen before the main ACS.
It can be broken through the meteoroid have got, but he has to lose speed and collapse. On the main wall of the
ACS, separated from the screen some clearance, affects the flow of the material remains of the screen and the
meteoroid, dramatically widening the gap. Such effects on the wall is no longer a danger.
Such protective shields are provided with main compartments ACS "Salut-7", and in some cases and
shielding elements perform other functions. On the same screen it was when we looked at the emergency
overheating ACS "Skylab".
Under laboratory conditions, to simulate meteoroid streams has an arsenal of technical means. This
includes accelerators running on compressed gas, and electromagnetic guns, and explosive boosters, which use
shaped charges, and plasma and laser accelerators, finally, electrostatic accelerators of different types.

Long before the start

Before you go to space travel, any spacecraft "flying" in terrestrial laboratories, t. E. There is conduct
thorough testing of all components and spacecraft systems, ranging from tiny "bricks" and ending with the unit
as a whole. If we talk about the materials, their trials start even earlier, before they have to be manufactured
these "building blocks" of the spacecraft. A continuing test materials at all stages of preparation of the
spacecraft to fly, because you need to figure out how to behave in every material in concrete products and
components after the processing of different types, being in contact with other materials.
However, ground-based experiments with materials and does not end after the launch of the spacecraft: the
information coming from the SC requires clarification of certain details of the behavior of materials. And if
there is something unexpected, whether or reducing contamination of the windows solar power, and again
carried out laboratory experiments to find answers to why it happened and how to avoid such events in the
future.
Technical means used in the test materials on the impact of the French Communist Party, in general, similar
to those that are used in spacecraft test and its individual components. The basis of any laboratory setup, which
investigated the impact of the PCF for the materials is a vacuum chamber with therein: different simulators
PCF:.. Sources of ultraviolet radiation, electron and ion guns, etc. Of course, when studying samples of
materials, the volume of the vacuum chamber may be significantly less than with SC of tests (up to several
thousands or even tens of thousands of cubic meters in the latter case, the volume of chamber). But at the same
time in step test material samples can be used such simulators PCF, such as powerful accelerators of electrons
and ions, which, when the AC test as a whole, are generally not used.
We will not dwell on the technical details of the various simulation units and look at the most important
moments in the organization of the test, so to speak, test strategy, illustrate our consideration of some specific
examples.
The diversity of the PCF, the complexity of their characteristics, the complex nature of the impact makes it
very difficult to simulation testing of materials and elements of the spacecraft equipment in the laboratory.
There are two fundamentally different approaches to the organization of such tests. First, play the space
environment in strict accordance with the conditions in orbit, without the need to know in detail the impact of
the various mechanisms of the PCF for materials and equipment elements. However, such tests are costly and
time and money are not always implemented technically. For example, to reproduce under laboratory
conditions the real magnetospheric corpuscular radiation requires collaboration of several different types of
accelerators that is associated with a very serious technical difficulties.
Significantly more simulation method applies the second test, in which first detected the weakest link in the
test volume is determined mainly object resistance, and then investigated in detail the mechanisms of damage
to the unit. Moreover, during the tests performed the selection of one or more of the PCF, the greatest influence
on the characteristics of the test material or element. When degradation thermostatic coatings, for example, in
such a dominating factor is the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, and if damaged semiconductor photovoltaic
solar cells - proton radiation belts. In the next step, identify and investigate physical processes responsible for

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 the deterioration of the test object parameters (surface contamination, formation of radiation-induced defects
and the like. D.).
In tests on materials adopted to detect radiation resistance and split effects that depend either on the total
radiation dose or the dose rate, ie. E. From the flux during irradiation, as mentioned earlier. The important
points when tested in radiation resistance are the choice of the form of radiation, radiation replacement of one
species by another, replacement of corpuscular radiation with complex energy spectra, typical for space,
particle streams with audio energy received at accelerators.
Laboratory simulation tests are carried out, as a rule, accelerated while reducing test times in 1000 and
more in relation to the. Period of work materials and items of equipment in space aboard the spacecraft. This
approach, in addition to winning time, provides a significant economic effect. However, it requires a detailed
knowledge of the mechanisms of action of space for materials factors: the lack of scientific validity of the
accelerated tests can lead to erroneous results.
In recent years, increasing attention is paid to material testing in field conditions directly on board the
spacecraft. We have already mentioned about the study spraying processes, pollution and electrification of
materials under natural conditions. ACS "Salut-6" were prepared very interesting data about meteoroid
interaction with different materials. Samples of materials for a long time exposed on the outer surface of the
station, and then were taken at the exit astronauts in outer space.
It should also be noted that the full-scale experiments provide an opportunity to examine the impact on the
PCF materials, hard reproduced in the laboratory. One such factor is the incoming flow the Earth's upper
atmosphere when moving particles spacecraft in low orbits. Preparation flow of neutral gas particles with an
energy of several eV in the laboratory is very complicated experimental challenge. The use of the relatively
simple devices aboard ACS allows you to solve this problem successfully.

CONCLUSION

We reviewed many of the problems and challenges being addressed by space materials - a relatively young
scientific field, the birth and development of which were stimulated by the practical demands of space
technology. Some of the materials in space problems, such as the behavior of materials under high vacuum,
have been long known, and study their relation to space flight started long before the launch of the first
spacecraft. Others, such as the degradation of TRP or exposure CBA products in the surface elements of the
spacecraft and equipment arose in the early stages of the development of space technology. Finally, there are
still problems such as electrification of satellites in geostationary orbit, work materials in the atmospheres of
other planets with unusual combinations of parameters and influencing factors that have emerged recently, and
now intensive research in these areas.
The variety of physical and chemical phenomena and elementary process underlying BDS exposure to
materials and KA elements identified close interaction space materials to other areas of science and
technology. In its development space materials is based on the latest advances of physics, chemistry, high-
vacuum technology, semiconductor technology, and so on. D.
In turn, space materials science makes a significant contribution to the development of adjacent areas, such
as radiation technology, high-energy chemistry and so on. D., And encourages their further development.
The specificity of space material science and breadth of perspective required by professionals working in
the field of deep erudition in various, sometimes distant from each other's areas of expertise. In our country for
several years is preparing research engineers specifically to work in the field of space materials.
Space conquering new frontiers, space vehicles - the messengers of the human mind - penetrating all the
more remote corners of the solar system, implemented new ambitious projects in Earth orbits, aimed at solving
practical economic problems. A primary role in the implementation of these projects to ensure long-term plays
uptime materials and items of equipment in the space environment. space material achievements are a solid
foundation for the task. And it is hoped that a new generation of researchers, today's students and high school
students, which primarily addressed this brochure will make a worthy contribution to solving the problems of
space materials and the development of Soviet space technology.

RECOMMENDED READING

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 Ve r n o v S . N . , Va k u l o v P V, G o r c h a k o v E V, L o g a c h e v Yu . I . earth's radiation belts
and cosmic rays. M. Education, 1970.
K o z l o v L . V. , N u s i n o v M D , A k i s h i n A I , Z a l e t a e v V M , K o z e l k i n V V Modeling of
the thermal regime of the spacecraft and the environment. Ed. Academician G. I. Petrova. M., Engineering
1971.
K u l a k o v V M , L a d y g i n E . A . , S h a h o v t s e v V I , Vo l o g d i n E P A n d r e e v N . radiation
effects on electronic goods. Ed. EA Ladygina. M., Sov. Radio, 1980.
K r e y n i n L B , G r i g o r e v a G . M . Solar panels in a cosmic radiation exposure. - In Sat .: "The
results of science and technology." Space exploration. 13. T. M., VINITI, 1979.

CHRONICLE COSMONAUTICS *

* CONTINUED (see the beginning .: number 11 for 1981, and number 6 of 1982). Based on materials from various news
agencies shows the start of some artificial satellites (satellites), since May 1982 On the manned space flight is told in separate
applications. The launch of the satellite "Kosmos" series is announced regularly, for example, on the pages of "Nature"
magazine, where and refer interested readers.

1982

17 MAY from board an orbiting space station (ACS) "Salut-7" in Earth orbit satellites launched
radioamateur "Spark-2". Created in student KB MAI them. Ordzhonikidze, it is designed for amateur radio
experiments, which involve youth and student organizations, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany,
Cuba, the Lao PDR, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. AES management, reception
and processing of incoming information are carried out by student receiving and command posts in Moscow
and Kaluga. This launch the world's first artificial satellite was launched aboard a manned spacecraft, in orbit
around the Earth (for more details see the launch of satellites .: Recent advances in space exploration; 1982).

"Molniya-1" 29 MAY HEO launched the next (55th) Soviet satellite connection. It is designed to support
the operation of the system long-range telephone and telegraph radio communications, as well as the
transmission of television programs. It was with the launch of the first of these satellites in 1965 in our country
for the first time launched a satellite telecommunication system (for details, see .: A g a d z h a n o v P. A . ,
B i g A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites; number 12 behind 1981).

JUNE 9, the US launched a stationary orbit in the "standing" point of 123 W. e. the satellite "Westar-5."
This satellite 2nd generation national satellite communications system (CVS) company "Western Union" is
intended to replace the satellite 1st generation "Westar-1." It was with the launch of the first of these satellites
in 1974, the US launched the first national CCC (for details, see .: Recent advances in Space, 1982).

JUNE 30, in the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite into orbit rescue "Kosmos-1383". Its
launch is carried out under the program of establishing an international satellite system search of vessels in
distress and planes "COSPAS-SARSAT", developed in the Soviet Union ( "COSPAS"), the United States,
Canada and France ( "SARSAT"). In the Soviet Union in the framework of the deployment of this system
already operates in Moscow and the item being built ground stations receiving information in Arkhangelsk and
Vladivostok, from where it will be relayed to the Soviet center of the Ministry of Navy of the USSR in
Moscow (for details, see .: A g a d z h a n o v P. A . , b i g A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites; number 12 for
1981).

10 July in the United States into a polar sun-synchronous orbit satellites launched natural resource 2nd
generation "Landsat-4 (Dee)". The advanced equipment of the satellite "Landsat" series, in particular, will
allow him to use the navigation data directly from the "Navstar" satellite system. In addition, it provides for
retransmission of the satellite information via satellite tracking and data transmission system TDRSS, the first
two satellites which will be launched in 1983

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 "1 Molniya" 21 JUNE USSR started next (56th) satellite communications.

27 JULY displayed at a regular orbit (19 minutes) Soviet satellite connection type "Lightning-3 '. Output
into high orbit as Soviet satellites such as "Molniya-1", they are the constituent elements of the CAS used in
particular for the transmission of television programs in the "Orbit" system (for details, see .: A g a d z h a n o v
P. A . , L a r g e A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites, number 12 of 1981).

27 JULY using American-vehicle (LV) derived on the stationary orbit at a point "standing 104,5 h. d.
Canadian satellite communication 2nd generation "Anik D-1." This satellite, as well as "Anik D-2", scheduled
for launch in 1985, is intended to modernize the Canadian CCC "Telesat". Exceeding power 2 times satellite
1st generation ( "Anik-Hey"), they first developed a Canadian and not an American company (for more details
see .: Recent advances in Space, 1982).

3 SEPTEMBER in Japan using the last N-1 RN in orbit satellites Technology "Kiku-4" ( "ETC-3 '). It is
intended for the further working out a three-axis stabilization system. In addition, the board established an
experimental ion engine to explore opportunities as advanced engines satellite orientation.

On September 9, China launched a satellite with scientific equipment. This is the 11th satellite launched in
China, and three of them were returned back to Earth.

SEPTEMBER 10 due to a malfunction of the propulsion system third stage ended in failure 5th launch of
the Western European rocket "Ariane". The last stage, along with the satellite "Mareks-Bi" and "Sirio 2" fell
into the Atlantic Ocean. After the failure of the 1st operational launch of "Arian" (the first four were
experimental) decreased the chances of this launch to compete with the US Space Shuttle (Space Shuttle) for
launching satellites of other countries. Since the launch failed to bring satellites "Mareks-Bi", intended for use
in the international system due to ships 'Inmarsat', the next launch of "Aryan" instead of satellites "Ekzosat"
will be launched on 1st satellite "CEN" Western European CCC, which can perform some functions of the
satellite "Mareks-Bi" (more on RN "Ariane" see. Recent advances in space exploration for 1980).

HIS "screen" television broadcasting SEPTEMBER 16 USSR launched next (9th). The output on the
stationary orbit at a point "standing" at 99 . d. (international registration index "Hospital-T"), these satellites
are used for the transmission of television programs in the areas of the Urals and Siberia to the subscriber
receivers simplified type in the remote and sparsely populated regions of the country (for details, see .:
A g a d z h a n o v P. A . , B i g A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites; number 12 for 1981).

September 28 in the US on a stationary orbit to the point "standing" at 63 . d. launched the 5th satellite
type "Intelsat-5" global commercial CCC international consortium ITSO. This is the 1st of the satellite
"Intelsat-5", which is also expected to be used in the international satellite communications system with ships
'Inmarsat' actions so far with the help of three US satellite "Marisat" and Western European satellites "Mareks-
Yo" (more on satellite "Intelsat-5" see .: A g a d z h a n o v P. A . , B i g A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites;
number 12 for 1981).

OCTOBER 20 in the USSR stationary orbit to the point "standing" at 90 . d. running next (6th) satellite
communications "Horizon". Which is a modification of this type of satellite, it has enhanced multilateral
onboard repeater equipment designed to provide telephone and telegraph radio communication and
transmission of television programs (more on these satellites see .: A g a d z h a n o v P. A . , B i g A A
G a l k i n V. I . communication satellites; number 12 for 1981).

October 28 in the US on a stationary orbit to the point "standing" 139 W. d. launched the 5th satellite
"Satcom" American SCS owned by RCA Corporation. This is the 1st of satellites 2nd generation CAS RCA,
which should replace the satellites of the 1st generation of the CCC, the first of which was launched in 1975

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 (for details, see .: Recent advances in space exploration for 1982).

November 11, during the 5th Space Shuttle "Columbia" flight were put into stationary orbit at point
"standing" 94 W. d., and 117,5 h. e., respectively, the third satellite of the American CCC Es CBS and the
1st Canadian communications satellite "Anik-C." Both satellites were developed by the American firm
"Hughes". Satellite "Anik-C" are intended to replace the satellite "Anik-Yo" in the Canadian CCC "Telesat".
The launch of the third (backup) satellites put definitively into operation a satellite system of business
communication CBS CBS for businesses, government agencies and other organizations, which was created on
the initiative of the company "Comsat" with IBM and "Aetna Life" firms (more on , see .: Recent advances in
space exploration; number 12 for 1982).

NOVEMBER 18 during flight ACS main mission to "Salut-7" astronauts carried orbiting satellite "Spark-3
'. This was the second launch of the satellite on board the ACS "Salyut-7". As with similar satellite launch,
"spark-2", A. Birch and Lebedev checked before starting the operation of the satellite systems and the
estimated time through the lock chamber brought it into a free space (for details see .: Recent advances in
astronautics; 12 of 1982).

HIS "Rainbow" due November 26, the Soviet Union launched the next (11th). Outputted on the stationary
orbit at a point "standing" at 35 . e., he received an international registration index "Hospital 2". Along with
stationary satellite type "Horizon" and "screen", as well as satellite type "Zipper-1" and "Lightning-3", these
satellites are widely used in operating our country television broadcasting systems (for details see .:
A g h a j a n o v P . A . , B i g A A G a l k i n V. I . Satellites; number 12 for 1981).

DECEMBER 15 displayed on the next orbit (9th) Soviet meteorological satellite "Meteor-2". On board
mounted integrated apparatus for obtaining images of global cloud and the underlying surface visible and
infrared ranges, and radio telemetry equipment. The latter can operate both in the storing mode, and in the
direct transmission mode information to the State Research Center for Natural Resources and the
Hydrometeorological Center of the USSR.

1983

JANUARY 26 into sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 900 km with the help of the American rocket
"Delta" displayed Netherlands (with the participation of the US and UK) satellite "IRAS" intended for
Astronomical Research in the infrared range. The basis of scientific equipment HIS 60-cm telescope equipped
with 62 infrared receivers in four spectral ranges (wavelength region of 8 - 120 microns). It is assumed that in
the year of active existence of the satellite "IRAS" finds 1,000 times more infrared sources than their known
until now.

DECEMBER 4 in Japan using CR "H-2" is running on the stationary orbit at a point "standing" at 130 . d.
Japanese satellite "Sakura-2Ey" ( "CA-2Ey"). This is the 1st satellite of the national CCC, and thus Japan has
become the third country (after the USSR, USA and Indonesia), which has its own commercial CCC (PPE
equipment "INSAT-1Ey" Indian CCC out of order at the beginning of operation). For the first time in the world
in Japan CAS 30/20 GHz range is used (earlier in this range, experiments were conducted only for satellite
communications).

20 FEBRUARY Japan launched satellite "Hinotori-2" ( "ASTRO-Bi"). As prior Japanese Radiographic

satellite "Hinotori", it is designed for astronomical studies in X-rays, but has better equipment (proportional
counter with an effective surface area of 1000 cm 2 ).

launch of the satellite "Cosmos-1443" on March 2 produced in the USSR. By design, the satellite is similar
to the satellite "Cosmos-1267", which was tested in a joint flight with ACS "Salyut-6". The aim of trigger
"Cosmos-1443" is to develop systems, assemblies and elements of the satellite design in various modes of

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 flight, including joint flight ACS "Salut-7".

Anatoliy Ivanovich Akishin

Lev Simonovich Novikov
Environmental impacts on spacecraft materials

Ch. Industry Editor LA Erlykin . Editor E. Yu. Ermakov . Ml. Editor GI Valyuzhenich . Cover artist AA
Astretsova . Artist. Editor M. A. Guseva . Tech. Editor N. V. Lbova . Corrector VV Kanochkina .
IB number 5433

Put in a set of 19/01/83. Signed for publication 3/14/83. T 01774. The paper size 108 84 1 / 32 . Paper type. 3. literary headset.
Print high. Cond. Pec. l. 3.36. Cond. kr.-ott. 3.57. Uch.-ed. l. 3.45. Circulation of 28,300 copies. Price Order 92. 11 kopecks.
"Knowledge" publishing house. 101835, GSP, Moscow, Center, Serov proezd. 4. Order Index 834 204.
Typography All-Union Society "Knowledge". Moscow, Center, New Sq., D. 3/4.

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 4th page. Cover

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