Chapter 10

Centrifugal Fans

Centrifugal fans of various descriptions constitute one of several types of

turbomachinery, which are used to transfer energy to a flowing fluid. Cen-
trifugal fans are similar in many respects to both centrifugal pumps and
centrifugal compressors. Of course, pumps handle liquids and so can easily
be distinguished from fans. But, since fans and compressors both handle
gases, their differences are not very distinct. Machines with very low pressure
rises are always identified as fans, and those with very high pressure rises as
compressors. For intermediate pressure rises, either description can be
applied. Even test codes and standards often fail to make a distinction.
The flow through centrifugal machines is chiefly radial in the region of
energy transfer and is easily distinguished from the flow in axial-flow ma-
chines. Axial-flow fans are discussed in the next chapter, but many of the
principles of energy transfer given in this chapter are applicable to axial-flow
as well as centrifugal fans.
The discussions that follow are concerned with the design of centrifugal
fans from an aerodynamic point of view. As noted in the chapter on fluid
flow, a mathematical model can be constructed for any flow situation, and
various assumptions can be made to simplify the model. What is done here
can be described as a one-dimensional, incompressible, steady-flow analysis.
The purpose of the discussions is not to give a complete design method.
(More complex models are needed for that.) Rather, the intent is to show
some of the important considerations in design so that design features can be
appreciated in the application and operation of fans.

Energy Transfer
In the rotor of any turbomachine, the axial, radial, and tangential compo-
nents of the forces of the fluid particles on the rotor are associated with axial
thrust, radial thrust, and torque, respectively. Refer to the chapter on fan
mechanics for a discussion of thrust.
The net torque is equal to the time rate of change in moment of momen-
tum of the fluid between the rotor inlet (Subscript 1) and the rotor outlet
(Subscript 2). The rate of energy transfer, or power PE , for a constant rate of
mass flow m , is the product of torque (see Equation 2.13) and angular
velocity :

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PE =
m
gc
1
r2Vt 2 rV
1 t1 =6m
gc
1 6
U 2Vt 2 U1Vt 1 . (10.1)

The product of radius r and tangential velocity Vt is often called the fluid
whirl. The product of angular velocity and radius is the linear rotor velocity
U.
The tangential fluid velocity and the radial fluid velocity can be combined
vectorially to obtain the absolute fluid velocity V in the radial plane. Like-
wise, the linear rotor velocity can be subtracted vectorially from the absolute
fluid velocity to obtain the relative fluid velocity W in the radial plane.
Relative fluid velocity is theoretically tangent to the blade surface. See Figure
10.1. The net energy transfer per unit weight of fluid, or what is often called
the total Euler head H E , can be determined from

V2 V12 U 22 U12 W12 W22

2

H E = ( r2Vt 2 rV
1 t1 ) = + + . (10.2)
g 2g 2g 2g

This is the mechanical work done per unit weight of fluid. The first portion of
this equation states that the head developed by an ideal rotor depends on the
angular velocity and on the change in whirl between inlet and outlet. In the
2 7
right-hand side of the equation, the first term, V22 V12 2 g is the change in
absolute velocity head across the rotor due to kinetic energy change. The
2 7
second term, U 22 U 12 2 g is the change in pressure head due to centrifugal

(
forces. The third term, W12 W22 ) 2 g is the change in pressure head due to
the change in relative velocity through the rotor. The first term, therefore,
represents the change of velocity head while the last two terms combined
represent the change of static head.
The various forms of Equations 10.1 and 10.2 are convenient in analyzing
the effect of design changes and the effect of different conditions of operation
on an ideal machine. The sign convention used here is that a positive value of
P or H means that power must be transmitted to the air or that head is
developed by the rotor, respectively.
Energy transfer to the fluid due to shaft work can take place only within
the impeller. The energy transformation involved in the conversion of veloc-
ity to static head, which may take place in the casing or elsewhere, should not
be confused with the process of energy transfer.
The analysis of certain limiting flow situations may be helpful in under-
standing the energy-transfer process. When flow is purely radial (that is,
Vt 2 = 0 and Vt1 = 0 ), both the net power transmitted to and the head developed
in the fluid must be zero. Equations 10.1 and 10.2 clearly show that this is so.
For purely radial entry (that is, for no inlet whirl), the theoretical power and
head are determined exclusively by conditions at the discharge or outlet.

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Figure 10.1 Blade Design for Backward, Radial, and Forward Tips

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Another limiting situation is that of no flow, that is, m = 0 . No net power

can be transmitted to the fluid without flow. Similarly, the relative velocity at
either the inlet or the outlet will be zero. However, the linear rotor velocity
and absolute fluid velocities will have finite values and, the absolute fluid
velocity must equal the linear rotor velocity in such situations. The head
theoretically developed by a rotor at no flow will be twice that due to cen-
2 7
trifugal forces alone, namely U 22 U 12 g . The kinetic-energy portion is
largely transformed, not into pressure energy, but, rather, into internal energy
because of fluid friction, producing temperature rise rather than static head.
The density does not appear anywhere in the expression for theoretical
head. So, the head an impeller will develop is independent of density
Each type of fan uses the various means of developing head in distinctly
different proportions. In axial-flow fans, the particles theoretically flow at
constant radii, so U 2 = U 1 and there is no centrifugal effect. The various
types of centrifugal fans are characterized by distinctly different heel-to-tip
ratios and tip angles, so the proportion of developed head due to centrifugal
effect varies. Fans with forwardly curved blades usually have very large heel-
to-tip ratios and, so, produce less head due to centrifugal effect than fans with
backwardly curved blades, which usually have much smaller heel-to-tip
ratios. Radial-blade fans are produced with various heel-to-tip ratios, and the
head developed due to centrifugal effect varies accordingly. Mixed-flow fans
have a limited change in radius and, therefore, produce a limited amount of
head by means of centrifugal effect. Cross-flow fans use radial inflow and
outflow at the same radius, so the positive and negative centrifugal effects
cancel each other.

Prerotation and Slip

The fluid approaching the inlet of a radial-flow impeller will follow the
path of least resistance. For each flow rate there will be a different path and a
different value of the least resistance. The absolute least resistance occurs at
the design flow rate. With uniform axial approach, the fluid particles must
simply turn radially to enter the impeller at the design flow rate. At any flow
rate other than design, the fluid particles must turn tangentially, as well as
radially, in order to follow the path of least resistance.
The combination of purely radial absolute velocity and tangential linear
rotor velocity produces a relative fluid velocity, the tangential component of
which is directed opposite to the rotation. The relative fluid angle can be
determined vectorially. The heel of the blade should be curved forward at
such an angle that the fluid can enter between the blades without impact.

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The heel angle can be correct for only one flow rate, called the design
flow rate. At all other flow rates, the fluid must acquire prerotation. There
will be some impact loss and some added fluid friction, but the sum of the two
must be the least possible for the actual flow rate. At flow rates less than
design, the prerotation must be positive with respect to wheel rotation, and at
flow rates over design, the prerotation must be negative with respect to wheel
rotation.
Ideally, the theoretical power and head at the design point are as indicated
by Equations 10.1 and 10.2. However, both the head developed by and the
power transmitted to the fluid are less than the theoretical values due to the
phenomenon known as slip. Slip results because the blades do not deflect the
fluid into perfect alignment with themselves. The difference cannot be called
a loss but, rather, more appropriately, an ineffectiveness or nonutilization,
since it would occur even with an ideal fluid. Various theories predict slip,
but none agrees completely with empirical data, so none is entirely
satisfactory. However, the net result is that the fluid leaves the impeller at a
mean relative angle with the tangential direction, which is less than the blade
angle. Therefore, the impeller does not develop the full theoretical head nor
transmit the full theoretical power. A reduction in head also occurs due to the
real-flow velocity gradients across the impeller channel. It is much smaller
than that due to slip. Again, this is not a loss since it does not involve any
energy input.
Both the spacing and the discharge angle of the blades influence the
amount of slip. For a greater number of blades nb , there is smaller spacing,
more guidance is given the flow, and less slip results. Lower tip angles 2
cause less slip, apparently because the mean path of the particles more nearly
matches the blade shape. The reduction of head due to slip H is also a
function of flow rate and heel-to-tip ratio, but for simplicity,

U 22 K sin 2
H =
g nb
.
(10.3)

This approximate expression includes what is known as the Stodola correction

and is usually valid only for long overlapping blades. According to
Wislicenus,1 the correction factor K for a 90 tip and 12 blades is about 0.65.
For a 40 tip and 16 blades, K is approximately 0.9. The corresponding
difference in power transmitted to the fluid due to slip P can be obtained by
multiplying by the appropriate mass flow rate m , as indicated by

22 K sin 2
mU
P =
g
nb
.
(10.4)

1
G. F. Wislicenus, Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachinery, Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
1965, p.280.

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Ideal Performance Characteristics

The ideal performance characteristics of a fan can be derived from the
energy transfer and slip relationships given above. For simplicity, the condi-
tion of no inlet whirl (that is, Vt1 = 0 ) will be assumed. The effects of con-
trolled inlet whirl will be discussed under the heading, "Inlet Guide Vanes."
The expression for theoretical total head can be rewritten as

U2 Q U Q
HE =
g
U2
A2 g A1
cot 2 1 U 1 cot 1 .
(10.5)

This expression shows the effect of volumetric flow rate Q and blade angle
. The area A , through which the fluid must flow, is best described as that
which is normal to the radial-velocity component. The second term (involv-
ing conditions at the inlet) is zero, since zero inlet whirl is assumed. Sub-
tracting the difference in head due to slip leaves the ideal head H E taking into
account slip but ignoring reduction in head due to real-flow velocity gradients
and losses due to skin friction, turbulence, etc.:

U 22 K sin 2
U Q cot 2
H E =
gc
1
nb
2

gc A2
. (10.6)

The first term gives the theoretical shutoff head, including the effect of slip.
Only part of this will appear as static head, the rest appearing as temperature
rise. The second term expresses the effect of changes in flow rate. For a
given speed of rotation and wheel geometry, the effect of flow rate variation
will depend on the curvature of the blade at the tip. For a 90 tip angle, the
ideal head will be constant regardless of capacity, since the cotangent of 90
is zero. For a forwardly curved tip angle, the ideal head will rise with in-
creasing flow rate, since, for angles over 90, the cotangent becomes negative.
For backwardly curved tip angles, the ideal head will gradually fall with in-
creasing flow rate, since the cotangent of angles below 90 is positive. See
the curves on Figure 10.2 marked H E for each blade shape.
The variation of ideal power PE , with flow rate can be determined simply
by noting that power is proportional to the product of specific energy and
mass flow rate or the product of head and weight flow rate:

U 1 K sin U Q cot "#.

! g n g A $
2
PE = m 2 2 2 2
(10.7)
c b c 2

For radial-tip fans, the theoretical power is directly proportional to the flow
rate. But, for forwardly curved tips, the theoretical power rises much more
rapidly and, for backwardly curved tips, much less rapidly, even to the point
.

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where it may fall off with increasing flow rate. See the curves on Figure 10.2
marked PE for each blade shape.

Losses and Efficiencies

The actual power transmitted to the fluid and the actual head developed
will both differ from the ideal because of various losses. These losses can be
classified according to whether they affect head, power, or flow rate.
Hydraulic efficiency h is the ratio of the actual head H to the ideal head
H E . The hydraulic losses H E H result from skin friction and energy
dissipation caused by a change of direction or velocity in the impeller or in
any other part of the machine. Because the main flow is generally turbulent,
the friction losses usually vary as the square of the velocity and, therefore, of
flow rate. Shock losses are minimal at the design point and increase as the
flow rate deviates from the design value. The hydraulic efficiency is a
measure of the perfection in the design of the flow passages.
Volumetric efficiency v is the ratio of the net volume flow rate Q
handled by the machine to the volume flow rate handled by the impeller Q i .
The leakage volume flow rate Q i Q passes through the clearance spaces
between rotating and stationary parts to recirculate through the impeller. The
volumetric efficiency is, therefore, a measure of the perfection in the design of
the clearance spaces.
Mechanical efficiency m is the ratio of the power transmitted to the fluid
PE (part of which is converted into useful output) to the power that is applied
to the shaft Ps . The mechanical losses Ps PE include the power loss due to
disk friction, as well as the mechanical losses in bearings, seals, etc.
Total efficiency T is the ratio of the theoretical air power Po to the shaft
power Ps . The total power losses Ps Po . are due to the skin friction, turbu-
lence, leakage, and mechanical friction. Therefore,

T = h v m . (10.8)

Static efficiency S can be determined from the total efficiency using the
ratio of fan static pressure pFS to fan total pressure pFT in

pFS
S = T . (10.9)
pFT

The total and static efficiencies give information on overall performance,

that is, for the entire fan including rotor, casing, etc. The difference is that the
kinetic energy leaving the fan (as represented by its outlet velocity head) is
considered available in the first case but disregarded in the second.

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Figure 10.2
Calculated Performance Characteristics for Centrifugal Fans

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Figure 10.3
Calculated Performance Characteristics for Centrifugal Fans

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Net Performance Characteristics

The net-head/flow-rate relationship for the no-leakage condition can be
derived from the ideal-head/flow-rate relationship by subtracting the appro-
priate friction and shock losses for each flow rate. The results of such calcu-
lations for each of three typical blade-tip angles are illustrated in Figure 10.2.
Similarly, the net-power/flow-rate relationships can be derived from the ideal
by adding the power losses due to disk friction, bearings, etc. The effect of
leakage in either case is approximately as if the zero flow-rate line were
shifted to the right by a corresponding amount. This is also shown in Figure
10.2.
The relations shown for-all three types were calculated as if each were to
handle the same amount of air at design and to develop the same head with
equal total efficiencies. To further illustrate the differences, Figure 10.3 was
drawn showing the calculated net heads superimposed on one chart and the
calculated powers superimposed on another. The variation of the shock and
friction losses with flow rate is also shown. The three types of fans for which
these performance characteristics were drawn are not necessarily of the same
size or speed. To produce the results shown, the backwardly curved design
must have the highest tip speed and the forwardly curved design the lowest tip
speed. At the design point and at other points off design, the most stable
operation (as indicated by the slopes of the curves) is obtained with the
backwardly curved type. Also, the power at flow rates greater than design is
least for the backwardly curved type. The power for this type tends to level
off, and if low enough tip angles or appropriate inlet guide vanes are used, the
power curve will actually droop, as shown by the dashed lines. This Limit-
Load type of power characteristic is very desirable for closely motored fans
in systems where the flow rate may increase because of lower-than-
anticipated resistance. Note that the forwardly curved type shows the lowest
power at shutoff, which is very desirable whenever there is considerable
operation at reduced flow rate.
The dashed-line curve at low flow rates indicated in Figure 10.2 for the
backwardly curved blade design is for the flat, backwardly inclined blade
variation of this fan. The "break" in the curve is the result of a severe flow
separation from a boundary in the blade passage. The solid-line smooth curve
is for a truly curved blade fan with an identical tip angle. For equal tip angles,
the blade can be curved only by steepening the heel angle, which in turn,
means that inlet guide vanes must be used as discussed below.
The usual head/flow-rate characteristic at low flows for forward-curved
designs appears as indicated on Figure 10.2 by the dashed line. This is
probably due to negative inlet whirl produced by back flow through the inlet
of the wheel at these low flow rates.
High relative Mach numbers lead to choking with a resultant loss of head
and efficiency. However, in most fan applications, the relative Mach number
is quite low.

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Theoretically, the net performance of a fan can be deduced by considering

energy transfer, prerotation, slip, velocity gradient, and losses. Practically,
however, there are so many secondary interactions that tests must be per-
formed not only in proving a design but also in developing it. In the follow-
ing paragraphs, only the major considerations in the design of the various fan
elements are discussed.

Overall Design
There are two major design objectives: (1) the design of an individual fan
for specific requirements and (2) the design of a line or several lines of fans
for a range of requirements. Some aspects of the second objective will be
discussed later, particularly under the headings of specific speed and the fan
laws. Only the design of an individual fan will be discussed here.
Forwardly curved tips provide the maximum head for a given rotor size,
and backwardly curved tips the least. Because a high percentage of head is
developed as kinetic energy or velocity head at the rotor outlet of a forwardly
curved-blade fan and because converting velocity head to static head is
inherently less efficient than developing static head by centrifugal force, such
fans are inefficient. The highest efficiencies are usually obtained with back-
wardly curved tips. Although first costs are usually lower with forwardly
curved designs, operating costs are lower with backwardly curved designs. A
compromise (that is, using a radial tip) may often be indicated. Radial blades
have greater strength against centrifugal force and, so, are used extensively in
high-pressure applications where high speeds are required. They are also
simply shaped and, so, are used in many situations where maintenance due to
wear or imbalance might otherwise be a problem.
Assuming that the general type of centrifugal fan has been chosen, the
next step is to decide on an operating speed of rotation. The rotational speed
may often be specified or limited because the fan is to be directly connected to
a prime mover. Usually, economy due to reducing the size and improving
hydraulic efficiency favors small, higher-speed units. However, Reynolds-
number effects, especially at the lower pressure ratios, favor larger, lower-
speed units.
Having established a general type and speed, the design of an individual
fan can now be accomplished by estimating reasonable values of the various
losses and the slip effect. Using blade angles close to the optimum estab-
lished by experience, a preliminary value for the rotor diameter can be deter-
mined from the theoretical head/flow-rate relationships. A method for
determining the optimum inlet diameter will be given below. Once the tip and
inlet diameters have been fixed, the impeller design can be completed by
calculating the necessary blade-heel angles and streamlining the passages, so
as to minimize the losses. Inlet bells or cones should also be streamlined as
much as possible for the same reason. The discharge conditions (that is, any
.

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requirement to gather the air for discharge through one or more openings) and
the need for converting energy will determine the casing design. The various
losses can then be re-estimated and adjustments made in the design as re-
quired. Finally, such a design should be proven by tests.

Inlet Design
The velocity W1 relative to the large diameter of the impeller inlet is the
vector sum of the absolute fluid velocity Vt at that point and the linear rotor
velocity U I . If no inlet whirl exists, the absolute velocity will be purely axial
(that is, VI = VIa ), so that

4Q + 1D N 6 .
D D
2
Wt = VIa + U I2 =
2
2 2 I (10.10)
I H

There is an inlet diameter DI for each combination of hub (or other obstruc-
tion) diameter DH , rotative speed N , and volume flow rate Q for which this
relative velocity is a minimum. This is the optimum inlet diameter according
to Shepherd.1 A simple solution of Equation 10.10 for the optimum inlet
diameter can be obtained either graphically or by iteration. The optimum inlet
diameter must be adjusted for the appropriate whirl, if any exists. If there is
controlled inlet whirl, the minimum relative velocity must be determined
using vector construction.
The design velocity through the impeller inlet will be high. Some sort of
converging passage is needed to avoid a high shock loss at the entrance. Even
when the inlet is not free but has connected ductwork on the inlet side, the
approach or duct velocity probably will be less than that through the impeller
inlet.
From the chapter on fluid flow, it can be concluded that the entrance
condition having the least coefficient of resistance is bell-shaped. The next
best coefficient of resistance is obtained with a converging taper.
Normally, the clearance between the stationary inlet bell (or cone) and the
impeller should be minimal in order to minimize leakage. However, it is also
true that some designs use slightly larger clearances (and greater leakage
flow) to improve performance. Sometimes, it is possible to improve overall
efficiency even though the volumetric efficiency is reduced.

Impeller Design
All the power that is transmitted to the fluid and converted into head is
transmitted by the rotating blades. To minimize the slip effect, the number of
blades should be large. On the other hand, to minimize fluid friction, the
number of blades should be comparatively small so that the mean hydraulic
radius of the channels between blades is nearly maximal.
1
D. G. Shepherd, Principles of Turbomachinery, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1956, p.
227.

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The widths of the blades at the heel and tip, as they affect the channel
areas A1 and A2 , influence the ideal head as shown in Equations 10.5 and
10.6. The width of the blade at every point from heel to tip influences the
mean hydraulic radius and, therefore, the friction losses through the impeller.
The effect of varying the tip angle has already been discussed. The
optimum tip angle is given by Stepanoff1 as 25. However, such low angles
are rarely used in fan design. Excellent efficiencies have been obtained with
angles as high as 45, and the penalty for using 90 angles (or radial tips) is
usually not more than about five points of efficiency.
The optimum heel angle is that which allows the air to enter the impeller
with minimal loss. The heels of the blades should be curved forward if they
are to meet the air with minimal shock, regardless of tip curvature. When the
inlet is small, very little is sacrificed by using a radial heel angle. Since the
relative velocity varies with flow rate, it also follows that the heel angle can
be correct only for one flow rate and that losses will increase rapidly at both
higher and lower flow rates.
The shape of the blade should be a smooth curve connecting the heel with
the tip. The flow can be improved by using airfoil-shaped blades. Reduced
losses (especially at the heel) and, therefore, significant increases in efficiency
have been achieved this way. The choice of a suitable airfoil section can be
based on single-airfoil theory with corrections for cascade effect or directly on
rotating-cascade tests, if available.
Usually, structural considerations alone require that the blades be
shrouded. In a fan, the inlet side of the casing is not generally shaped to
conform to the inlet side of the blade with minimum clearance. So, shrouds
are important from a leakage standpoint, too. Except for secondary flow
within a single channel, whatever leakage does occur is essentially radial from
tip to heel through the clearance between the stationary and the rotating inlets.
If losses are to be minimized, the shape of the shroud on the inlet side should
be such that the fluid can make the turn from axial to radial flow without
separation. If one factor has led to the rapid development of airfoil bladed
fans, that is the development of economical, curved-inlet shrouds. The well-
curved inlet shroud makes it possible to realize the full advantage of using
airfoil blades. Before the advent of economical spinning and pressing to
achieve the desired inlet-shroud shapes, the only fans that successfully used
airfoil blades were of axial-flow design where such shrouds are unnecessary.
1
A. J. Stepanoff, Turboblowers, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1955, pp. 66 and 232.

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Casing Design
The casing of a centrifugal fan must serve two functions. First, it must
collect the air from the periphery of the wheel so that it can be discharged in
the desired direction. Second, since a large part of the head developed
appears at the impeller discharge as kinetic energy, the casing must also
convert part of this velocity head into static head. Both transforming energy
and collecting air, even at constant velocity, involve losing part of the total
energy. The transformation of energy can be efficiently accomplished in a
radial diffuser at the impeller periphery. It can also take place in a conical
diffuser located beyond the point of discharge after the fluid has already been
collected and directed to that point by some sort of scroll-shaped casing. Both
radial and conical diffusers need considerable space, so the processes of
collection and diffusion are often concurrently attempted in fans. The sacri-
fice in efficiency involved in such an attempt is least with backwardly curved
designs, since the least amount of energy transformation is required here.
Diffuser vanes are seldom, if ever, used in fans because they impair efficiency
at off-design points and may even do so at design.
Casings are usually volute or scroll-shaped. Centrifugal-fan casings
generally have straight parallel sides and a spiral-shaped scroll. The point at
which the scroll most closely approaches the impeller periphery is called the
cutoff. Ideally, the cutoff should be located at the diameter of the impeller,
the increase in scroll radius should be proportional to the angular displace-
ment from the cutoff, and the discharge plane should extend nearly radially
from the point of cutoff. In practice, however, the point of cutoff is always
cut back so that there will be some clearance over the impeller tip. The cutoff
clearance is critical to both noise generation and efficiency. Also in practice,
the plane of discharge may be almost tangential to the point of cutoff so that,
in effect, part of the impeller discharges directly into the outlet. The shape of
the volute can be approximated by using a series of circular arcs rather than a
true spiral curve. Some designs may incorporate what is called a drop outlet.
All these features are illustrated in Figure 10.4. The lower-case letters indi-
cate the scroll centers, which may be uniform as shown or expanding from a
to d. The various scroll radii R should be chosen so that the circular arcs
merge into each other, forming a smooth, continuous curve. As shown, the
cutoff has been cut back from a point atop the wheel through an arc of some-
thing just under 90. The amount of clearance over the cutoff is about 20% of
the impeller diameter. Values as low as 5% can be used. The drop outlet is
certainly less efficient than a diverging taper. The difference will approach
that between abrupt and gradual enlargements, as given in the chapter on fluid
flow.
The width of the casing is usually much greater than the tip width of the
impeller. It also usually exceeds the width of the impeller at the heel so that
the entire inlet bell can be contained within the width of the housing.

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Figure l0.4 Scroll Design for Ventilating Fans

Inlet Guide Vanes

Either positive or negative inlet whirl can be produced by using appropri-
ately shaped guide vanes ahead of the impeller. Vanes curved in the direction
of rotation produce positive whirl, which reduces theoretical head and power.
However, counter-rotation vanes produce negative whirl with the opposite
effect. This can be demonstrated by substituting positive or negative values
of tangential velocity in Equations 10.1 and 10.2. For either positive or
negative whirl, the impeller blades should be curved forward at the heel to
meet the incoming flow directly and, so, minimize the losses on entering.
Smaller heel angles are needed with counter-rotation vanes, and steeper heel
angles are required when the vanes are curved in the direction of rotation. A
proper heel angle for no inlet whirl falls somewhere in between. If two
impellers (one intended for use with inlet vanes and the other for use without
inlet vanes) are designed with the proper heel angle and other features so that
hydraulic, volumetric, and mechanical efficiencies are the same, the differ-
ence in actual head and power will equal the difference in theoretical head and
power. See Figure 10.5 illustrating the effect of guide vanes on blade shape.

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Neither an open-inlet fan nor one of the same type with fixed inlet vanes
has higher overall efficiency, if both are equally well designed. However,
there are other considerations, especially in backwardly-curved designs. First,
an open-inlet fan is simpler in both blade shape and inlet design. For the heel
angle required, a perfectly flat, backwardly inclined blade gives an acceptable
tip angle. Second, a fan with fixed inlet vanes has a curved blade which, with
its steeper heel angle, makes it mechanically stronger than the flat blade.
Third, the inlet vanes serve as mechanical guards and as straighteners reduc-
ing the effect of any adverse inlet whirl that might result from an accidental
upstream disturbance. Fourth and most important of all, at reduced flow rates,
the separation that occurs with flat-blade designs is eliminated and a smooth,
unbroken head/capacity characteristic results instead. Fifth, at flow rates over
design, the Limit-Load horsepower characteristic is accentuated when inlet
vanes are used.
The overall efficiency of straight-radial-blade fans can be improved by
using inlet vanes to produce positive whirl. The fluid angle then more nearly
matches the heel angle, thus reducing losses and improving efficiency.
With small inlet diameters, the effectiveness of inlet vanes in changing
theoretical head and power is limited. Also, inlet vanes are not usually used
to produce negative whirl. The use of such "ramming" vanes greatly narrows
the operating range.
Fixed inlet vanes are usually placed as near to the impeller inlet as possi-
ble. The effective discharge angle from the vane will be somewhat smaller
than the actual angle for any finite number of vanes because of the inertia of
the flowing air. As with slip in impellers, the number and angle of vanes also
influence the slip through inlet guide vanes. The entering edges of vanes
should be directed exactly upstream. To achieve the same degree of vane
overlap from the center to the periphery of the inlet, the radius of curvature of
the vane is gradually increased from the center outward, making the vane
surface part of a cone.
Variable inlet vanes can be used advantageously whenever considerable
operation at less-than-design capacity is required. If the fan is designed for
fixed inlet vanes, variable vanes with the same effective curvature can be
substituted without any significant sacrifice in peak efficiency. If, however,
the fan is designed with an open inlet, the variable vanes should be designed
to produce the smallest possible effect on flow in the wide-open position. In
either case, gradual closure of the vanes should direct the flow more and more
in the direction of rotation. The resultant changes in inlet whirl will reduce
reductions in head developed must also be accompanied by reductions in flow
rate, power requirements at flow rates less than design are always lower than
the power needed at design. Using variable inlet vanes for flow control leads
to a further reduction of power. This additional reduction will nearly equal
the theoretical amount due to increased inlet whirl at flow rates near design.
That is, the efficiency remains nearly constant for small flow-rate reductions.
.

1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 10 CENTRIFUGAL FANS 10-17

Figure 10.5
Vector Diagram for Ventilating Fans With and Without Inlet Vanes

Under these conditions, the change in flow rate and the change in absolute
velocity combine in such a way that the change in the direction of the relative
velocity is practically negligible. At more greatly reduced flow rates, how-
ever, there is a significant change in the direction of the relative velocity.
Even so, the change is not as great as if the flow rate had been reduced
without increased inlet whirl.
Variable inlet vanes can be used with forward-, radial-, or backward-
blade impellers to achieve power reduction at reduced flow rate better than
with dampers, which do not produce inlet whirl. Because of the shapes of
their power/flow-rate curves, the greatest reduction is usually obtained with
backwardly curved blades and the least with forwardly curved blades. For
equal design efficiencies, the net power for reduced flow rates near design
should be very nearly the same, regardless of the type of impeller.
The use of sliding inlet disk, sliding inlet cone, or sliding discharge
cylinder control produces characteristics that approach that of a correspond-
ingly narrower impeller

1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.