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Word-formation

in Modern Standard Arabic and


English
A Corpus-based Study

An M.A. Thesis

Eman M. M. Elesawy

Minia University,Egypt

Eman.esawy@gmail.com

(This is the researcher's personal pre-final draft)

2002
Table of Contents

Page No.
Acknowledgements i
Table of Contents ll
List of Abbreviations V

Introduction : I
Theory and Application I
Vocabulary Change as a mirror of cultural change I
Aim ofResearch -J
Corpus of Research 4
Methodology 6
History of English: 7
a)Old English 7

b)Middle English 9
c)Modern English 11

Arabic as a Semitic Language : t2


a) History t2
b)Typology and Richness t4
The'word'as a linguistic entity l6
Morphology t7
Defi nition of word-formation l8

chapter one : English word-Formation I a theoreticar basis 20


1.1. English Morphology; a brief outline 20
l.2.Processes employed in Word-Formation in English 20
1.2. l. Additive Processes;derivation 21

l.2.Z.Compounding z5
l.2.3.Reduplication 27
l.2.4.Conversion 29
1.3. Reductive Processes 31

l.3.l.Blending 3l
iii

1.3.2.Clipping 32
l .3.3.Initialization and Acronyms 34

1.4. Other Processes Employed in Word-Formation 35

l.4.1.Shifting 35
l.4.2.Borrowing 37

1.4.3.Coining 39
l.4.4.Backformation 4t
l.4.5.Eponyms 4t
l.4.6.Analogic Creation 44
1.4.7. Idioms and Proverbs 45

2.Chapter Two: Analysis of English Sample 46

3.Chapter Three: Arabic Word-Formation 57


3.l.The Notion of Eloquence in Arabic 57
3.2 .ABrief Outline of Arabic Morphology 58
3.3. Word-Formation in Arabic 60
3.3.l.Derivation: 60
a)regular derivation 62
b)irregular derivation 62
3.3.2.Arabicization 64
3.3.3. Translation 67
3.3.4.Metaphoric and Non-Metaphoric Speech 69
3.3.5.Blending: 7t
a)auditory blending 72

b)regular blending 73

3.3.6.Analogic Creation 75

3.3.7.Coining 77

3.3.8.Metathesis and Mutation 78

a)Metathesis 78

b)Mutation 79
lv

4.Chapter Four :Analysis of Arabic Sample 8l

S.Chapter Five :Conclusion 93

Bibliography 100

English References 100


Arabic References lll
Appendices
English Appendices l17
Arabic Appendices 179
Arabic Summary
List of Abbreviations

Following are the abbreviations used in the thesis :

MSA Modern Standard Arabic

CA Old Classical Arabic

AAL Academy of Arabic Language

ME Modern English

OE Old English

The following characters are used for transliterating Arabic consonants


within the thesis :

Arabic character Consonant description


letter
lls N? Glottal stoo
(J B Voiced bilabial plosive
dr t Voiceless alveolar plosive
t
(J th Voiceless dental fricative
.,
(. o Voiced palato-alveolar fricative
7 h Voiceless Dharvnseal fricative
? kh Voiceless velar fricative
I d Voiced alveolar olosive
J dh Voiced dental fricative
J r Linzuo-alveolar roll
J z Voiced alveolar fricative
(-rt s Voiceless alveolar fricative
L
(-Y sh Voiceless nalato-alveolar fticative
cn S Velarized /s/
cf D Velarized /d/
.b T Yelarned /t/
T z Yelarized/zJ
? 3 Voiced pharyngeal fticative
z gh Voiced velar fricative
.J t Voiceless labio-dental fricative
,J q Voiceless uvular plosive
VI

dl k non-aspirated voiceless velar plosive


d I Voiced alveolar lateral serni-vowel
t m Voiced bilabial nasal
0 n Voiced alveolar nasal
j h Voiceless elottal fricative
J w Labio-velar semi-vowel
.3 Y Palatal unrounded semi-vowel

The following are characters used for vowel transliteration within the thesis :

Character(s) Phonefic Vowel description


used transcrintion
a lal Long unrounded open
front vowel
oo lu.l Longrounded back
vowel
ee li.,l Long unrounded close
front vowel
Introduction
Theory and Application:
Different traditions of linguistic study put the emphasis of the work at
various points between theory and description .At the theoretical end the
centre of interest is now highly formalized .A set of abstract statements
give the broad outline of how a language is organized: the main categories
that are used, the types of rules allowed ,and so on. The nineteen sixties
enjoyed a period of intense theoretical work led by Noam Chomsky ,and
since then many linguists have returned to the job of description, of
providing detailed accounts of the workings of individual languages .

As a part of the inevitable reaction to a concenffation on theory,


people began to shrdy areas which had been relatively neglected. For
example,connected texts and spoken discourse rather than individual
sentences ,became prominent during the nineteen seventies .The study of
variety in language confiasted with the uniformity which was a useful
simplification in formal theory .More recently still,the study of vocabulary
is growing to match the more abstract realms of semantics .The return to an
in description does not reject theory -in fact it poses questions
interest
which lead to a constant review of theory- but it means that fresh
approaches can be developed in most areas.

Vocabulary change as a mirror of culfural change:


Vocabulary is a determinative factor in man's life . Choice of vocabulary
items plays an important role in man's ability to express himself and

exchange thoughts and ideas with other people . Language first forms were

vocabulary items referring to concrete objects in man's surrounding


environment, phrases and sentences exhibiting full or partial syntactic
relations czlme on the way towards a fully developed linguistic system at
later stages.
2

Algeo (2000) stresses the vitality and importance of vocabulary or lexicon


in language; he says:
Throughout the history of English ,like that of all other
languages, developments in the vocabulary have a social and
intellectual dimension ,oS borrowing reflects foreign
contacts, standardization reflects the rise to power of a ruling
class, concern with correctness reflects a desire to maintain
or change social status, terms of address reflect social
hierarchy ,and terms applied to a subordinate class (such as
women or blacks)by the superordinate classes (such as white
males)reflect social power. (P.91)

The English language has been so fully and widely elaborated that it has

passed from being a topical and localized language into attaining


internationalism. The flexibility and simplicity of its grarnmar have a role
to play in this process ;but the larger part is to be played by its vocabulary
which has been borrowed , modeled and parodied in its structure and
derivational moulds by many languages of the world. English adds to ,

modifies and elaborates on its semantic resources.This is achieved by


applyng difierent techniques or methods. Algeo's statement provides a

good example of vocabulary change in ME; (words in italics are the


selected examples for recent creations in English vocabulary):

Change in vocabulary also involves fluctuations in the


faddishness , vogishness, popularity ,or centrality of
words.The stylishness of words is difficult to attest
objectively, but some words are clearly a mirror of the
times in which they are used .They are keywords for the
zeitgeist of their age .(p.88)
3

Aim of Research:
Arabic is a very rich language that has very few descriptive studies of
its phonology or morpholory. old granunar books glve prescriptive
accounts of Arabic grammar and correct usage . As much as these books

rules, some of them are


are helpful providing materials, examples and
stuffed with rather redundant and disftacting material , besides the
quotations and many divergences where grammarians disagree over
conjugational matters, different usages and old varieties of language.
Modern language books either adopt the methodology of old literature
with some refinement or try to apply modern linguistic theories to Arabic.
Some books tell of the general history of language. Many synchronic
studies examine the characteristics of local varieties or Arabic
colloquialisms phonologically, morphologically or syntactically;
independently or in contrast with other languages. What is most lacking
within the linguistic literature is an analytic diachronic approach in tackling
the development of language over long centuries. For example, there is no
comprehensive etymological study of its lexicon and ways it has

developed.

MSA is the official Arabic variety for the entire Arab world; it is used
in international organizations and in many wide-ranging world-wide media.
Ways this language has developed and is developing in confiast to CA and
to ME, which is almost the one and predominant international language, is
an issue wortlry of studying.

is about exploring one side of MS,\ namely


This research paper
lexicon; how far MSA has developed its lexicon and the processes
employed in enlarging the lexical repertoire of language .
4

It aims at searching for patterns of development in both ME and MSA,


probing into how fff patterns of morphological growth have been
productive in both languages and which of these patterns gave rise to the
largest number of vocabulary creations in language .

Corpus of Research:
Language used as corpus material for the research has to be of certain

characteristics, it has to be well-used, modern, standard variety. These


characteristics apply only to journalese, which provides an acceptable
linguistic and standardized nonn for the majority of people on both parties.
British English is taken as a model in this research because it provided
the mother variety for all modern Englishes in the world and still does. And
because it is far more standardized and conventionalized than any other
variety. And so is Modern Standard Egyptian Arabic (MSA) which
provides much of both literary and lingurstic material for the Arab world.
Research samples are taken from the weekly edition of Al-Ahram
Arabic newspaper, issued every Friday; and from English The Sundalt
Times .Samples were taken from these two newspapers over a period of six

months starting from January 2000 till the end of June the same year.
Words were extracted from essays tackling political issues and world
news. These were the front, third and tenth pages n Al-Ahram and the
'World' pages rn The Sundoy Times. The material got from The Sundav
Times are on-line material got for convenience .All the articles under the
heading 'World' were examined and scrutinized for new creations and
coinages. The number of issues examined from The Sundoy Times are 25
issues; each has round 12 articles in the World news ,at least .The number

of articles examined is 300 articles minimum .Journalists and reporters all


round the world wrote these articles.Numbers of pages where the articles

appeared in actual print were not given on line ; still all aticles examined
had the heading'World' .
5

As for the Arabic newspaper the total number of Friday's weekly edition
during six months was 26 issues .Three whole pages were examined in
each issue : the first page where news and headlines covering events all
over the world are given ,the third page where the editorial of Al.Ahram is
written by Ibrahim Nafe3 (the editor in chieQ and the tenth page where a
new political or sfiategic topic is discussed each week .The number of
Arabic anicles examined is no less than that of English .Different writers
write in the 10ft page QaDdyoh wa ?dr6? (Topics and Opinions), other than
the reporters who write in the front page in addition to the editor in chief

writing in the 3'd page (the column 'Quietly).That is to say the total number
of pages examines is 78 pages .

Political and world news were chosen in particular to ensure diversiry


in people writing and in events described ,Also political jargon is the one
aspect of language easily susceptible to change in any language due to the
effect of news agency reports which re-circulate new jargon and coinages
all over the world .English is the language most influential in this respect,
not only over Arabic but over other languages also such as French and
Japanese.

An example illustrating this fact is glven in an essay titled 'Costly Slip


Closes Millenial Bridge' , ( Sundalt Times 16Jan.,2000 ,[The Sundsy Times

Online. Onlne.22July,200ll ) ,it says :

French language purists are once again agonising over


their failure to stem the tide of Anglo-Sa:ion linguistic
pollution .The latest offender is l'e-mail ,a word that
instantly describes a new age of global communication ,but
sounds like yet another nail in the national cultural coffin.
o

Methodology:
This piece of research is about contrasting two languages that belong
to two different language families namely ; English and Arabic. English
belongs to the lndo-European languages whereas Arabic is a Semitic one.
Both languages differ in their phonological, morphologlcal and
orthographic characteristics.
The research is a contrastive case-study where new lexical items are
chosen and selected from the two newspapers. These items are collected,
categoized and contrasted on both sides. Tables are given of the number
and totality of words under each category .words are arranged
alphabetically in each table.Further Statistics are done as to contrast the
frequency of usage and percentage of word formation processes in each
language.

The body of research is divided into five chapters. First there is an


innoduction about the aim and corpus of research, the reason for choosing
this topic, history of both languages and related material in this respect
concerning the definition of the 'word' , morpholory and word formation.

Chapter one givesa theoretical background about Modern English


word formation. Word formation in English is a subject that has been
recently studied in much detail. Material is presented in the same sequence
and importance it receives in related literature. English word formation
processes are presented in as much detail as necessary for the research
context.

Chapter hvo is an analysis of the English sample . It provides an insight


into the patterns mostly used in the sample .Charts ,figures and tables ere
given in due context.
7

Chapter three deals with Arabic word formation. It tackles issues such
as the main processes of word formation in Arabic as described by
traditional grammarians in classical granrmar and linguistic books. No
comparison between Arabic and English processes was given in this
chapter, except for very few remarks given to avoid confusion of terms and
processes for the reader.The system of transcription throughout this
research is simply a fiansliteration of the Arabic items.

Chapter four is an analysis of the Arabic data sample. Processes were


introduced in the sequence of their importance and frequency of usage in
MSA. Statistics of the frequency of usage and percentage of words selected
in each category are grven. Tables and figures are provides when
necessary.

Chapter five is a conclusion and sunmary of the research .It sums up the
main ideas presented in the research confiasting and analyzing main pattern
of development in both ME and MSA.

History of English:
a)Old English Morphology
old English was spoken in England from 450 A.D. to about ll00.It
was highly inflected ,using intricate grammatical changes to show gender,
number, tense and case.

Christianity became established in the British Isles beginning from 597,


and Latin -the language of the church -began to influence old English.
Another influence was the Danish and old Norse brought by the
Norsemen, who occupied parts of England during the 9,b and lOth
centuries.To enlarge its vocabulary ,old English depended mainly on its
resources, not on bonowings from other languages .
From Proto-lndo-European ,the Germanic languages had inherited many
ways of forming new words ,especially by the use of prefixes and suffixes.
Thus in oE, adjectives could be formed from nouns by means of such
suffixes as -rg , -lEas ,and -fut ,giy/rr'g words lke bt\dig 'bloody ,and
Bancful'thankfi.rl'.
Besides affixation, oE formed new words by compounding. The
difference is that affixation (derivation) mainly employs bound
morphemes, whereas a comporurd word is fonned by the joining of two or
more free morphemes. So,for example ,literafure, arithmetic ,grarlmar, and
asfronomy were called bdccreft, rTmcreft ,stefcrefi, that is
,'book-skill',
'munber-skill' ,'letter-skill', and 'star-skill' Homelier compounds have
survived to our own times ,like Eorwicgo 'earwig, ,hdmstede .homestead,,
and, w-tfmanr? 'woman' .

OE did however borrow a small number of words from other languages,


especially for the concepts and institutions of Christianity .OE cirice or
cyrce 'church' is derived from Greek form meaning .(house) of Lord,
which goes back to heathen days. Similar forms are found in all the
Germanic languages.During the hurrying of the vikings to England,
Scandinavian influr of words has left its mark on place niilnes. Common
Scandinavian place name elements are -by 'village ,homestead' as in
Grimsby; Grim' s village' ; ih orp' secondary settlement,outlyrng farmstead,
as in Grimsthorpe
'
ioft 'building -site,plot of land'as in Langtoft (where
the first element means 'long') ; and -thwoite 'woodland clearing,
meadow' as in Micklethwaite'large clearing'.
Scandinavian influence on English went a good deal further than place
names. However, the Scandinavian settlers did not exterminate the English,

but the latter were sufficiently nurnerous to influence English speech.


I

The total number of Scandinavian loans in fact rather small compared


with the number of words later borrowed from French and Latin; on the
other hand many of them are words in very frequent use so that there are
still parts of England and Scotland where you can hear good Scandinavian
words like blg 'to build',hoast'cough' ,liak'to play',lait'to search' ,lathe
'barn',and /ie'scythe'.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 had a profound influence on the English
language .For some centuries, English ceased to be the language of the
governing classes, and there was no such thing as standard literary English;
and when English did once again become the language of the whole
country it had changed a good deal under the influence of the conquerors.
b)Middle English :

In the thirteenth cenhry, French was still being spoken at the


English court, and literature was being written in French for the nobility of
England; but it is this century that sees the tipping of the balance away
from French and back to English. The fourteenth century sees the definitive
triumph of English .French was now rapidly ceasing to be the mother
tongue even of the nobility, and those who wanted to speak French had to
learn it .Literature, even the most courtly literature was written more and
more in English .In the second half of the cenhrry there was a great literary
upsurge, with Chaucer as its major figure .English was also used more and

more in administration. The literary language Chaucer wrote in was to


become the standard language by the end of the fifteenth century.

Although French died out in England, it left its mark on English. Its main
effect was on the vocabulary ,and the enonnous number of French loan-
words came into language dunng the Middle English period
Many of the French loan-words reflect this culture and political dominance.
They are often words to do with war, ecclesiastical matters ,the law,
hunting, heraldry,the arts ,and fashion .
10

As might be expected, titles of rank tended to be taken from French.


These include (in their modem spellings) baron, count, duke, mqrquees,
peer, prince, and sovereign.

However English words were still retained like earl, king, knight, lady,
lord, and queen Words to do with adminisfiation include chancellor,
council, country, crown, government, nation, parlioment, people and state.
Also mental and moral qualities such as charity, courtesy, cruelty, mercy,
and obedience.

The early French loan-words were so well assimilated into English that
they were soon felt as not in any way foreign .This made it easier for the
language to accept later Romance and Latin loans .Indeed one of the results

of the influx of French loans was to make English more hospitable to


foreign words and less prone to use its own resources for word fonnation.
Where oE invented words like tunglocrefi 'star-skill' or Frlnes
'threeness', Middle and ME often borrowed or adapted a word from
abroad ,like astronomy (from French which had borrowed it from Latin,
which had itself borrowed it from Greek ) and trinity (from French and
Latin ).But once they have been taken into English, such loan-words can be
combined with native elements to form firther words. French-English
hybrids appear quite soon after the conquest .The earliest type being French
stems with English prefixes ,like beautiful ,faithless , gentleness ,

preaching, and ungracious.

The Middle English period is marked by a great reduction in the


inflectional system inherited from OE, so that Middle English is often
referred to as the period of weakened inflections.
11

c)Modern English
Gradual changes in Middle English led about 1500 to ME, commonly
designed simply as English .A major change was the Great Vowel Shift
(bout 1500) in which the pronunciation of long vowels changed .Another
change was the disappearance of nearly all the remaining inflected fonns.
The trend toward uniformity in spelling was begun by printers and aided by

the appearance of dictionaries, such as Dr.Samuel Johnson's (1755).

The vocabulary of English has grown enonnously through the adoption


of words from languages throughout the world, mainly French, Latin, and
Greek. More than haH the words in the English vocabulary come from
Latin or Greek sources. In addition, wherever English explorers, traders, or
colonists went they picked up native words (invented words) and word
combinations, such as oomph, blurb andtape recorder .

Despite the large number of foreign words in the English vocabulary, a


majority of the most-used words (for example, the, a, or ,on ,of ,to ,with,

from, for ,at, breod, woter, good ,strong, go, come, speak,)are still those of
Anglo-Sa:<on origin.

In contrast to the Middle English and Early ME periods, when enormous


numbers of French and Latin loan-words came into language ,in The Later

Modem Period English has borrowed relatively few words from other
language ,but there has been a trickle of them.

Because of the growth


of world trade, and Britain's large part in it,
English has borrowed words from many distant countries, such as
budgerigar from Australia, (tea-) caddy from Malaya, ketchup from China,
raffia from Madagascar, and taboo from Polynesia.
13

Arabic at that time was very limited and simple in its structures and
lexical items minoring the primitive and confined life the Arabs lead then.
As nomadic tribes started to settle down into community life and establish
bigger residential gatherings, more lexical items were coined to meet the
communicative needs of these mini-communities. Arabic at that time was
growing into its middle age .

It was not until late with the growing urban communities in the island,
establishing inter-tribal fairs and trade movement and getting in contact
with other cultures such as Persian and Romanian(mainly through
frade)that Arabic reached its peak as a fully developed lingurstic system.

By the pre-Islamic age Arabic was a highly refined language. Poetic


contests were held at fairs, tribal conventions and assemblies. Descriptive
poems and epics were recited in those gatherings. The best poems were
honored by being written and hanged on the kiswa (coverings) of the
Ka3ba; and they were called Almo3alaqat (the hangings' ).CA then was a
highly literary language that rhymed.

As the language of nade and as the language of Islamic culture and


religion, Arabic has wide influence. The area in which it is used extends
from cenfial Africa and the Middle East into Eastern Europe and Indonesia.
Colloquial Arabic includes numerous spoken dialects ,some of which
are mutually unintelligible. The chief dialect groups are those of Arabia,
Iraq ,Syria, Egypt ,and North Africa. With the exception of the dialect of
Algeria ,all Arabic dialects have been strongly influenced by the literary
language. With the spread of literacy and the increase in higher education
in the Arab world ,the influence of CA on the colloquial dialects has
become greater.
14

b) Typology and Richness


Carl James (1980) classified languages into three main categories:
synthetic, agglutinative and analytic. Synthetic languages are also called
"monosyllabic" where the nucleus of the linguistic system is the syllable.
Syllables stand for morphemes and words are synthesized of discrete
syllables. Examples for synthetic languages are Chinese ,South African
languages and American Indian languages. These languages, as primitive
as they might appear, are as capable of expressing the semantic needs of
their speakers as any other language.
Agglutinative languages form words by agglutinating affixes to a base
morpheme .The internal structure of the base morpheme remains
unchanged.

New meanings are added by adding new affixes (i.e. new motphemic
layers)to the base morpheme. Examples of agglutinative languages are
Japanese, Turkish and English.

Arabic is an analytic language.In analytic languages the constituent


morphemes of a word change in form and meaning in relation to each
other .The semanticity of the word in each case is dependant on and
changeable to the alterations and relations behveen the constituent
morphemes . Syntactic relations between words within the same sentence
are indicated by morphologlcal changes in the words.In Arabic inflection is
a demonstration and indication of both syntactic and semantic relations
among words. Latin, Greek and Aryan are also analytic languages and so
are all Semitic language families.

The Arabic alphabet has 28 letters .The sound system of Arabic is very
different from that of English and the other languages of Europe.It includes
a number of distinctive guthral sounds (pharyngeal and uvular fricatives)
and a series of velarized consonants(pronounced with accompanying
constriction of the pharynx and raising of the back of the tongue) .
15

There are three short and three long vowels (a,i,u, a,-1,[) .Arabic words
always start with a single consonant followed by a vowel ,and long vowels
are rarely followed by more than a single consonant; clusters containing
more than two consonants do not occur in the language.

Arabic shows the fullest development of typical Semitic word


structure. An Arabic word is composed of two parts: l) the root; an Arabic
root generally has three consonants and no vowel.It provides the basic
lexical meaning of the word and 2) the pattern, which consists of vowels

and gives grammatical meaning to the word. Thus, the root KTB
i , I ) gives kitAb ("book"),where as the same
combined with the pattern (

root combined with the pattern (eri) gives kAUb ('one who
writes',or'clerk').Arabic also makes use of prefixes ,which act as subject

markers, pronouns ,prepositions ,and the definite article.

Verbs in Arabic are regular in conjugation. There are two tenses: the

perfect, formed by the addition of suffixes ,which is often used to express

past time;and the imperfect ,fonned by addition of prefixes and sometimes

containing suffixes indicating number and gender, which is often used for

expressing present or future time .

In addition to the two tenses there are imperative fonns ,an active
participle ,a passive participle ,and a verbal noun .Verbs are inflected for
three persons ,three numbers(singular, dual, plural),and trvo genders .In CA

there is no gender differentiation in the first person, and modern dialects


have lost all dual fonns. The classical language also has forms for the
passive voice.
16

Whereas there were three cases (nominative, genitive, and


accusative) in the declensional system of CA nouns ;nouns are no longer
declined in the modern dialects .Pronouns occur both as suffixes and as
independent words.

The'word' as a linguistic entity:

As this research is about word formation ,it may be usefrrl to try grving

a quick review of the definition of a 'word' both in English and in Arabic.


Several factors and criteria have been interplaying in such a definition

whether in English, Arabic or any other language in the world .This is due
to the fact that the word as a linguistic entity comprises many features at
different levels; phonemic, Semantic, syntactic, morphologfcal and

orthographical. No single definition could epitomize all these features


successfirlly without ignoring one or the other. Furttrer the 'word 'as an
entity so particularly belongtng to its language could not be described and
defined in a way that is generalizable to all languages.

Traditional definitions of the 'word' usually referred to it and examined


it in isolation from its linguistic and extra-linguistic (contextual)
environment, paying no attention to the fact that a word acquires part of its
meaning from its context.Modern linguistics paid tribute to this fact in
branches such as semantics and discourse analysis.

Arabic and English definitions of 'word' are mainly very similar; the
only difference is that whereas English linguists didn't confine their
definitions to English words ,some Arab linguists were keen to limit the
scope and range of their definition to the Arabic word setting criteria for
judgog and identifui"g "pure Arabic words. These criteria were first
referred to by Ibn Sanaan(1932) .
17

English definitions of the word adopt a descriptive approach.Further


they can generalized to many other languages . Matthews (l978)comments
on this fact saying that most English studies of the linguistic unit 'word'
tackle it and malyze it as a synthesis of tiers on three linguistic levels :
"the word in phonology or orthography (the word-forrn) , in grammar (the
word proper) and in the lexicon (the lexeme)." p31
Arabic linguists ,on the other hand , are more concerned with grving a
prescriptive definition of the "faseehoft" word (eloquent Bure word) . This
is ,perhaps , due to the fact that Arabic is the language of the euran and
they are keen to preserve its eloquence against misusage and impurities.
Ibn Sandn set eight criteria for a word to be a pure one. For example, a
pure word (a faSihah word) should not have its phonemes pronounced at
far and divergent points of articulation so that the speaker do not find
difficulty in pronouncing it. It should follow and comply with Arabic
metric patterns ,it should not be vernacular, obscene or obsolete .Further it
should be of average length; neither too long nor too short, etc.

Morpholory:
Morphology is simply the technical linguistic term referring to that
branch of language study which is concerned with the "fonn of words" in
different uses and constructions.
It is notable that there is an interdependence between word formation
research and both morphology and lexicography .The "word" as a linguistic

entity subsumes the "morpheme" as the minimal lexico-grammatical unit.

Words are composed of morphemes, be those morphemes free or


bound, single or multiple. And regularizing the pattems of word formation
in any language is useful in determining the methods of arranging lexical
entries and affixes in dictionaries.
18

Definition of word formation:


Word formation is the science of creating new semantic entities in a
language ; be these entities totally new creations or a modifications on
other ones .The first attempt at giving a definition of word formation was
grven by Hans Marchand (1969)in his book The Cotegories and Types of
Present day English Word formation . He defined the process of word -
formation as follows:
Word formation is that branch of the science of language
which studies the patterns on which a language forms new
lexical units, i.e. words .Word formation can only be
concerned with composites which are analyzable both
formally and semantically.(pp. I 0- I 9)

Gabrielle Stein (1985) divides word-formative processes into trvo


different patterns; first words created as "grammatical syntagnas, i.e.
combinations of full linguistic signs"; i.e.words created through the
processes of compounding, bacldorrnation ,derivation and conversion .In
all of these processes the new coinage is formed by appending a bound or
free morpheme to another semantically well-established and recognized
one.

Secondly "words which are not grammatical syntagmas, i.e. which are
composites not made up of full lingulstic signs". Under this pattern comes
processes such as blending ,clipping, , word-manufacturing (e.g.
acronyms,coinages and trade names).In all these processes the user bases
his coinage on no distinct root morpheme
19

Word formation pprocesses are classified into two main categories:


additive processes and subfractive processes. ln additive processes
morpholoEcal "additions" are annexed to the base. These additions might
be free morphemes (discrete autonomous words) or bound morphemes
(affixes). The process employed in the first case is called compounding .In
the second it is derivation. Another third additive process is reduplication.

ln reductive processes certain parts are cut off the lexical item and the
remaining parts-be these single letters or a whole morpheme- stand up in
representation for the original word .Reductive processes include clipping,
intialuation, acronyrns and blending.
There are other processes that may be as powerfrrl and important as
processes in these two categories, yet they neither add nor subtract from the

word .These are : borrowing, semantic shifting , conversion, coining ,

eponyms and idioms and proverbs. Such processes are used to fill any
empty semantic slots in language.
Chapter One
English
Word formation
20

1.1. English morphology; a brief ourline:

Morphemes in all languages fall into two; roots and non-roots.


classes
Roots are mainly the bearers of the semantic load of the word any
;
modification or addition to the meaning is done by handling the root in one
process or the other . Roots may in themselves be composed of more than one

element in which case they are called stems .Roots and stems together are
called the "base". Affixes added to the base are the "non-roots" and they are
always bound to it.

English is a language that is regular in its morphologrcal build. English words


are generally divided into two main categories : simple words and composite
words.Simple words are one morpheme words. Composite words are made up

of more than one element (morpheme ).This would include words created
through the processes of derivation and compounding. Words created through

annexing bound morphemes to the base (affixes) are termed "complex


words", whereas words formed through pasting free morphemes together are
termed "compounds".

l.2.Processes employed in word formation in English :


Process employed in English word formation are subdivided into two main

categories : additive processes and reductive processes .In additive processes

additional morphemes are added to the base ,whether these morphemes are
free (compounding) or bound (derivation) .Sometimes parts of the word itself

are repeated (reduplication) .


21,

Reductive processes cut off certain morphemes of the base . These processes

comprise blending , clipping, initialization and acronyns. Other processes


employed in word formation include borrowing , coinages, backformation ,

analogic creation , eponyms, and idioms and proverbs.

1.2.1.Additive Processes :derivation:


Crystal (2000) defines derivation as the process of "building new words by
adding derivational affixes ,which do not apply regularly to an entire class of
words,but only to some subset "p.39. Derivation also involves adding an

empty morpheme to a full morpheme.

Derivational affixes can be subdivided into different categories based on


various classifications. They can be categorized according to placement within

the root into prefixes , infixes and suffixes. According to the semanticity of the

affix itself (the semantic connotation it denotes) ,they can be divided into
affixes that change verbs into nouns, nouns into adjectives, and adjectives into

adverbs.
According to their grammatical function affixes are divided into
inflectional affixes and derivational ones. Derivational affixes mostly change
the part of speech of the word they are adjoined to whereas inflectional ones
nonnally do not. lnflectional affixes are mainly case-markers.
There a^re over 100 common prefixes and suffixes in English , and they
can be ssed singly or in various combinations. Some of the most used prefixes

are : anti- (antifreeze) , , de- (defraud) , ex- (ex-husband) , non-


co- (co-pitot)

(non-smoker) , super- (supermarket) , ultra- (ultra-modern), and un-


(undecided). Among the suffixes are :-able (drinkable) , -ation (starvation) ,

-eer Qtrofiteer) , -ftil (glassful) , -ish (childish) , -let (booklet) ' -ness

(goodness) uod -ly (friendlY) .


22

Adding strings of prefixes and suffixes can produce such monster

words, as Crystal (2000) says, e.g. indestructibilfry and

onti di s es tabli s hmentari ani sm. p.39

Affixes might be of native or foreign etymology. For example -ly of


modern English is a development of the OE suffix -lic meantng "body",'dom

is a development on the OE -dommeaning 'Judgment , statute" that is "what


is set", the suffix *ship (used to form absffact nouns) is a development on OE
-scipe as rnfriendship andfellowship .-som is a development on OE -sum, an

adjective-forming suffix,e.g. lonesome and wholesome. -stet{OE'estere),


origlnatly feminine ,as in spinster "female spinner" and webster "female
weaver" ,but later losing all gender connotations ,oS in gangster and
speedster.@yles, 197 1.p.28 I )

Foreign affixes can be of old or modem etymology .Foreign affixes of old

etymology include -ize and-ism;both are adaptations on the Greek -izein ,


(a suffix used to form action verbs) and -ismos or -isma (the ending used to
derive nouns from these verbs). Examples of English words formed on this
model are , syllogize syllogism, evangelize and Evangellsz 'Examples
and

for Latin affixes that entered the English language are the two prefixes of
privative firnction de-,anddls- .These two prefixes are used to add the meaning
of deterring or subtraction to the base as in defrost (to remove frost from;
cause to melt), dewax (to remove wax from a new parcel)disincentive
,,deterrent" and disassemble meaning "to take apart". Another Latin prefix

that is populady used is non- which turns meanings of words into opposite,
e.g. non-c onformi st, nonali gnment arrd nonwai lab i lity "lack".
23

One of the foreign affixes that entered English in modern age is the French

-6e as in lrainde, don,ie and escap6e . -teria, a suffix of Mexican Spanish

origrn , adopted from the word cafeteria, has become higtrly fruitful in recent
times carrying implications of self-service and hence speed of the kind that is
existent at cafeterias. Words formed on this basis are wasltateria, bookateria'

and sodateria .IJsageof this sufEx has extended to names of retail business
or
establishments as in hatateria "hat shop" and snackateria "snack shop
counter".

The suffix *burger from the Gennan Hamburger gave rise to many such
culinary vocabulary as in cheeseburger,and chickenburger ,etc' Nso -furter
fuomfranlcfurter gave rise to words such as shrimpfurter , etc.
Affixes may be adjoined to both native and non-native words' For
example -ize is suffixed to many words of French origln as in authorize '
in
moralize artd naruralize and also to words of English e{ymology as
tenderi ze and finoli ze.

L,2.2.Compounding
Pyles defines comPounding as :

Putting together two or more words together to make a new


word with; meaning in some way different ,if only in being
more specific ,fr; that of its separate elements in
board" is not the same
luxtaposition -for instance ,a "black
thing as a "blackboard"' . .' ( p'289)

Compognds are opposed to derivations in the way that compognds are


e.g. grandstand,
lexical nnits which always consist of two FULL morphemes;
on the other hand may
teapot, bedside, dislxwater, andfingerprint. Derivations

comprise bound morphemes adjoined to fulI ones'


24

Compounding is one of the additive processes that help in building up the

vocabulary of English.Strang (1977)states that "especially ,but not


exclusively, in the fields of science and technolory ,abundant new formations
depend on processes more akin to compounding than affixation." P.27

Compounding is a process long used in English morphology. English has

known it ever since the days of Chaucer till early and late Modern English
periods. For example "garlic" iS an OE compound from gar "spear" plus leac
"leek" , also hussy from O.E. hus "house" plus wTf and nostril from OE nosu
"nose" plus pyrel "hole".
The most remarkable compound that struck English ears in the early 1960s is

the famous manshoot referring to launching astronauts into outer space and
though the compound easily died and did not find much repeating tongues it
gave quick rise to a pattern of similar compounds such as " splashdown" which

was virtually contemporaneous with it.

As frequent and well used is the process of compounding in English, it


exhibits no regularityof pattern. Compounding in English tends rather to be
idiosyncratic. There is no single definition that specifies the types of
morphemes or elements that might cluster together into compounds. Any
English word has the possibility of entering into combination with any other
word; nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, or even prepositions .Yet not actually
a// words do.
There are criteria to differentiate a compound noun from a lexical
phrase. One of these criteria is stress pattern .Whereas in lexical phrases stress

usually falls on the second part of the phrase, in lexical compounds stress
usually falls on the first noun. As O"Grady (1996)says :"In particular, most
A-N compounds are chara cte-5zed by a more prominent stress on their first
component." P.153.
25

Pyl.r stresses this fact, he saYs:

A more significant and interesting characteristic of


compounds -one that tell us whether we ale dealing with two or
lnore words used independently or as a unit -is their tendency
to be more strongly stressed on one or the other of their
elements, in contrast to the more or less even sfi.esses
characteristic of phrases ... , without this type of stress in
compounds, the close connection between the constifuents that
gtves them their special meanings would not be readily
apparent. In effect, it welds together the elements and thus
makes the difference between'greenhouse "heated structure for
growing plants" and green'house "house painted green".(
p.2e0)

Hatch suggests another criterion for identifying lexical compounds which


is to use the test "whether the traditional patterns for adjectives can be used -

canvery or rather precede the compound ?" p.190 Yet admittedly -as the
writer states -this test is not very efficient with all types of compounds,
particularly the qypes that involve or start with a gerund or a "v-ing" form (e.g.
"aflying spacecraft') where it is hard to decide whether the first element is an
adjectival or a genrndive form.
Compounds vary in length ;there is no rule to set the number of words

combining into a compound .Compounds could be made up of two words such

as toothbrush ligsaw and they can pile up to fow or five words e.g. dogfood

box and bqseball bat rack (O"Ctrady, p.153). Further exarnples arc: ready-to'

eat meal , hit-and-run driver , much-talked-about subject , blow'by-blow figbt


and round-the-clock talk .( Strang, p.39)
A weird example for a very lengthy compound comes from a real life song,

it says:"I"ve got those God-wtry-do not-you-love-me-oh-you-do-I"ll-see-you-


later-Blues" (from Sondheim"s Follies ) (Hatch,p.l89).
26

Such very lengthy compounds are not frequent in every day conyersatron

due to restrictions of the pragmatics of speech and the processibility of the

and in written
listener. Yet compounds of moderate length do occur in speech
hand-to-
media(press) . For example , tongue -in-cheek ,mother-in-law,
mouth, lighterlhan-air, etc.
sometimes compounds make it out of slang or technical language into
Standard English e.g. double-whammy (a combination of two bad things

coming together ).
compounds have no preset way of writing .They can be written

hyphenated as in baby-sit , goose-step or intact as in icebox andfirearm'Sill

using a hyphen in writing the compound is a matter of orthograPhical


being a
convenience that varies from one dictionary to the other rather than
feature. Chronologically ,"the preference in recent years has been
to
linguistic
write compounds solid."(Pyles,p.210).Preposition' adverb and pronoun
componnds are written intact e.g. upon ,into ,tlrroughout ,within;moreover '

nevertheless , henceforth and herself, whoever and whatever 'strangely


e'g'
enough some lexical compounds are written with their parts unadjoined
ice cream, post and high school. In such cases the stress pattern of the
ffice
lexical
compound serves to differentiate compotrnds from their counterpart
phrases.

compounds in English can function as any part of speech. They can


be

verbs asin make-believe ,nouns wishbone ,adjectives foolproof, adverbs


overheard , prepositi ons without or participial -ed adjectives as in open-
minded.Pyles noted that -ed participles al.e the most common type of
compounds in English .P.294
27

The relation between the constituents of a compound can be of different


semantic configurations .Hatch (1995), in an attempt to enumerate the types
of relations that binds together parts of compounds, enumerates nine patterns
of lexical relationships :

Cause: teargas ,sleeping pill


Have: bull"s eye ,picture book
Make: rainwater, daisy chain
lJse walerwheel ,sleom iron
Be whitecap ,larget site
ln'. house cat ,country club ,hillbilly
For ashtray,fishpond
From: fingerprint ,seo breeze
About: tax law ,book review ( p.190)

Compounds serve other means than just adding more items to the leicon.
Pragmatically ,as Hatch says, they are :

useful ways of condensing information and they add variation


to the way we refer to concepts in discourse...Compounds
provide us new ways to refer to the same information. They are
for that reason often used for newspaper headlines and
advertisements and announcements where space is at premium.
(p.1el)

1.2.3.Reduplication:
Reduplication is an additive word-formative process. It is a repetitive
process where , as Hatch states, "all or parts of the words are repeated to add

quantity, intensity, or smallness qualities by repetition or elongation."p.l96


Bolton (1987) and Romaine (2000) , considers reduplication as a special type
of compounding . That is to say "reduplicative compounds" .

Reduplication is a process used in many languages of the world .For


example it is used in Vietnamese to modify and intensify adverbials e.g. Luon

Luon (often always) and nho' nho' (smallish).


28

Also in Ilocano,one of the major languages of the Philippines,reduplication


is used for plurali"*g words as in '.talan ( field ) , tatalan (fields) and biag
(life), bibiag(lives). (Hatch,p.l97)
In English reduplicatin is used mainly for creating diminutive or

endearment forms. Examples where reduplication is used to add the quality


of smallness ar.e "teeny, tiny eorings" .Examples where it is used for
endearment is in "sweetl/", in such cases the syllable -y ,hlis used to add the

meaning of endearment or smallishness.Sometimes reduplication is used to


intensifii the quality of an action or denote its continuity as n flip-flop and
hush-hush. Reduplication can also be used for mere exaggeration of an action

as in tittle-tattle (gossip), titbit (good news) , tit for tat (one deed done in
repayment of another) and higgledy-piggledy (in messy

disorder).Reduplication can be done by repeating the entire word as in goody-


goody or just a syllable or a sound in it as in ping-pong , criss-cross, hodge-

podge andmishmash

Romaine distinguishes three main patterns in reduplication.Identical


reduplication ( the least frequent form) e.g.'. tum-tum , goody-goody, lulu,

hush-hush , consonantal (or ablaut ) reduplication e.g. : hee-haw , wiggle-


waggle , tick-tock , flip-flop and rhyming reduplication (the most frequent
form) e.g. : rumble-tumble, chock-a-block , honlcy-tonk and heebie'
jeebies.pT 5.

Sometimes there would be a linking or extending syllable after either


element as appears in the last four examples.Another source for supplying
reduplications is baby-talk, Romaine writes :

English also has several devices for freely creating


reduplicating compounds .A variety of babytalk is
illustrated by dogry-wogry and fuzzy'wttz'zy , ffid
Yiddish English makes forms like fear-schmear , courage-
shmourage .Th.y are each an open set of true
reduplications (P.75).
29

1.2.4.Conversion:
Conversion is a process where existing lexical items change their part of
speech in order to create new items bearing the same meaning but belonging
to different grammatical categories. Subtle modifications of meaning may

take place as a result but in the end the core meaning in both the word and its

converted fonn remain the same.Conversion is considered derivation by

adding a zero-morpheme to the base. It is a process well-used and explored in


English, Pyles says:

The name of particularly every part of the body has been


converted to use as a verb - one may head a committee,
shoulder or elbow one"s way through a crowd , hand in one"s
papers ,finger one"s tie, thumb a ride ,back one"s car ,leg it
along, shin up a tree, foot a bill,toe a mark, and tiptoe through
the tulips-without any modification of form such as would be
necessary in other langrrages.( p.310 )

Conversions are used to create verbs from their respective nouns as in

"penning an eloquent biogfaphy" , verbs from propositions "prices had

upped' , nouns from adjectives as in commercials and formals (evening


clothes) , adjectives from phrasal verbs as in "In Chechnya ,the breakoway
republic",etc. Pyles says :

Adjectives may also be converted into verbs , as with better,


round, tame, and rough.In advertising "literature " we have
been urged to "pleasure up" our smoking with a particular
brand of cigarette ,though some would doubtless have
preferred a rival brand which "gentles the smoke and makes it
mild."...Even adverbs and conjunctions are capable of
conversion , aS in "the whys and the wherefores," "but me no
buts" in which but is first used as a verb , then as a pluralized
noun). (p.311)
30

The most-used form of conversion in English is noun-to-verb conversion .

Noun-to-verb conversions are classified into five patterns. These patterns


describe the semantic relation between the converted form and the new
lexical item .An English noun converted to a verb may have a relation with its
verb of applying or removing what the parent noun denotes as in "nev'spaper
the shelves , "flea the dog"; going to or performing an activiry at a place
denoted by the parent noun as in "to youlh-hostel Europe" , "lo iacuzi" ;

applying duration or time as denoted by the parent noun as in "to John lI/ayne
it.", "to Zombie out" ; causing to resemble whatever the parent noun denotes
as in
"to carpool the people " ,"to trash the neighborhood" ; producing the
process or activity denoted by the parent noun as in "to suction the ear", "to

conference""; performing actions usually performed by means of the parent


nogn as in "to RZacross America", "to scissor the material." (Hatch,p.180)

Quite frequently, though, syntactic change and semantic change

accompany one another. When a morpheme is extended to a new syntactic

class ,it acquires a new meaning. The preposition /adverb up , for instance,
can now be used as a verb e.g."The manager upped the prices".Its new
syntactic use is accompanied by a new meaning "raise" 'Down has also
become a verb, with the meanings "drink" e.g."He downed the medicine."

Conversion has become a feature of everyday life. People speak about "zip-

codingtheir letter s" , " trashing papers" ; they say they will "pizza a bit before
theyfreeway on home" .Thus it appears that conversions can be used to
create lexical items expressing location, duration ,agency' goal and

insffumentalitY.
31

l.3.Reductive Processes :

Reductive processes include blending , clipping and initialization and

acronJrms. Each of these processes plays a role in adding to the lexicon of


the language ,though to varying degrees of course.

1.3.1.Blending:
Crystal (1981) defines a "blend" as "the result of two elements
fusing to form a new word or construction." p.449 For example
brealcfast+lunch gives the blend brunch , dictaphone is a blend of dictation
plus phone , guesstimate of gzress plus estimote , fanzine of fan plus
magazine and breathalyzer of breath plus analyze. Hi -fi is a blend of high

andfidelity.
Romaine speaks of blending phones or phone themes rather than blending
whole syllables or morphemes, she says:

Blending is not limited to the combination of two specific


etymologies, but can also in the case of phone themes involve
whole sets of word. Thus bash combines the first consonant of
words like bang,bump,blow with the rhyme of crash ,dash,
smash ; similarly,bonk combines the same first consonant with
the rime of conk.( p76)

As Hatch states "blending is a very rich and common source of word


formation in English particularly in names for products , bureaucracies ,

entertainment industry and technical fi elds " .p.2L I

Blending two existing words to form a new one is a process well-known in


English. Old Britons used it fluently and easily to form as many words as
they could. For exarnple nobleman appeared in the late fourteenth cenhrry as

a blend of aFel and haleb (OE noble and man ).Flush is a blend of flash
and gush that made its first appearance in language in, nuirl is a blend of
twist plus whirl , dumbfound ablend of dumb plus confound and flurry of
flutter and hurry .
32

ME abounds in blends ,too.For example, Medicare,the name of a program


essentially for care of the elderly, is a blend of medical and care. Velveeta , a

cheese brand ,is a blend of velvet , eat and cheese ; Sitcom is a blend of sil
and comfortable; flurry fromflutter and, hurry ; smog from smoke andfog .

Historically , sparcity came from sparseness and scarcity ; splotch from


spot and blotch. The "retro active repair of Los Angeles freeway overpasses
by refitting support columns after the 1994 earthquake became known as

retrofittingi'( Hatch, p.2 1 I )


Blends are used heavily in Press and advertising .They save space at

printing and create a catch-the'eye effect for the reader .Many of these are
short-lived and few of them acquire a permanent place in language. For
example guesstimate, alcoholiday are blends that were contrived for
headlines and momentar5r usage only.

A good example quoted by Hatch is" mummabilia (a blend of memorabilia


and mummy )which made its first appearance in a story in the Associated
Press about a display of "long-forgotten munmies and mummabilia".p.2l2

1.3.2.Clipping:
Clipping is a process where a syllable or more is cut off the word in
order to produce a shortened form. Romaine writes " clipping , acron)rms ,

and alphabetisms have become increasingly fashionable in recent

years." P.83

The clipped form often replaces its original one in usage for sake of
brevity and easiness. Clipping may take place either at morpheme boundary
or between such boundaries ; it may occur both in spoken and written forrns.
For example mob is the clipped form of mobile vulgus (movable ,or fickle,
common people)and it has supplanted it permanently in language.
33

Bus is a clipping of omnibzs literally meaning "for all" i.e. , "motor


vehicle for paying passengers. Wig is a clipping of periwrg ,etymologically
from French perruque. It has totally replaced the original form that it is the
only fonrr known. Perm is a clipping of permanent wove a way of
hairdressing familiar with British women. Curio is the clipped from
curiosity, bumf from bumfodder ,etc.
Clipped forms may be roots or affixes. There is no specific rule to
define which part of the word to be clipped. The root of the word may be
clipped to leave affixes or marginal syllables standing in representation .

For exarnple influenza is clipped to flu, zoological garden to zoo ,

advertisement to ad,laboratory to lab , omnibus to 6ns (which is not the root

but a part of the dative ending -ibus attached to all third person plural forms
in Latin). Words where the clipped forms is the root are exam of
examination dorm of dormitory ,andfridge of refridgerator.
Clipping is not a feature of one English variety only,namely formal or
Standard English .Almost all varieties of language employ it .For example it
is used in slang and mostly ends in the syllable -o as in weirdo and

psycho.Still not all clippings ending rn -o are to be slang e.g. demo and
anthro.

Once a word is clipped the new fonn acquires a life of its own within the
lexicon of the language .Clippings are treated as discrete and established

words in the lexicon as any other item. For example they can be pluralized,

as in ods, zoos, demos, etc. Some field languages and jargon talk have
clippings as a distingulshing feature .For example ,computer language and
commands, which are almost always clipped forrns ,e.g. del stands for
delete, sho cat for "show catalogue" of files, drvspce for "drive space", etc.
Also in-group talk and peer talk abound in coded clippings and body
language signals .Groups which are well-known for such usage of language
are teens and drug trafiEckers.
34

l.3.3.Initialization and Acronyms:


An acronym , as defined by Pyles, is "a word coined up from Greek
akros meaning'trp' and onyma i.e. name. " p.300. Thus an acronym literally
means "tip of a name".

Initialization, on the other hand ,is a reductive process where only the
initials of a group of words ,of a phrase or even of a title are clustered
together into a goup of letters written capitalized ,in conjunction one to the

other or separated by full stops.

A distinction between acronyms and initializations is that letters in


initializations are pronounced as individual separate phonemes as n FBI
which stands for "Federal Beaureau of Intelligence", a.m "ack emma" ,

p-m. "pip emma" ,etc. Whereas in acronlnns letters are pronounced as a

sequence of undivided phonemes .

In acronyms letters are not written separated by dots and in most cases

only the first letter is capitalized as in Wave "women accepted for volunteer
emergency service", and Yip "Youth International Party" , etc. Sometimes
acronyms are treated as mere ordinary words ; no capitalizations are used.
This happens when they refer to an ordinary object or device in everyday
life rather than to a name of an organizaion e.g. laser and radnr .

Acronyms are used in all domains of language usage . But they are

mostly used in scientific language and as references for names of political or


social organizations. They provide a means of brevity in usage .For

example , a radar is an acronlmr of "radio detecting and ranging" , Laser is

an acron)ffn of "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation".


NEGRO is the "National Economic Growth and Reconstruction
Orgaruzation". CORE is the "Congress of Racial Equality" ,etc.
35

Even in theoretical sciences such as linguistics there are lots of


acronyms e.g. PS Grammar "Plvase Structtrre Grammar" ,ILq "Rank
Analysis", CA "Constifuent Analysis" ,and TGG "Transformational
Generative Grammar" .

l.4.Other Processes Employed in Word formation


Other processes employed in English word formation include shifting,

borrowing, coining and idioms and proverbs.

1.4.1.Shifting
Shifts are cases where language development results in the change of
meaning of the lexical item thus leading to the creation of a new word
bearing the same orthography yet with a new different meaning.

Classical examples of shifts of meaning are in words such as lcnave which


originatly meant "a young lad" and now means someone rather nasty ; deer
which once meant "wild animals" in general ,so bears could be considered
deer too ;and couth which meant known or familiar and now strrvives only in

uncoulh. Decimale is nowadays widely used to mean "destroy a lot of' .As

Crystal (2000) says "The Latin origins of the word meant to destroy one
tenth of (decem being Latin for "ten")."p.44

The word broadcast meant to scatter seeds, but now it is used primarily
to refer to scattering words and news through radio and television .Drive
originally referred to driving cattle but is now mainly used for driving
cars.Clearly ,what a word meant once is not always what it means now.
36

Another example is the word virtue which ,according to Hatch, is


related to:

Latin vir, meaning man.Virtue,then originally meant


something like "manlinss" in general. Later it came to stand for
warlike prowess .Still later ,as it passed into French and then to
English ,it meant power ,even magical strength ,and it meant a
noble quality. One wonders ,then, how it came to be applied
primarily to women (when it originally meant manliness) as in
" May all your sons be brave and all your daughters
virtuous." (p.l8l)

Semantic shifts may expand, limit, or replace the original meanings of


words. In Anglo-Saxon, meat meant "food"; today, it means a certain type of
food. Notorious once meant "widely known"; today, it means "widely and
unfavorably known" .

Similarly, pretty once meant "ingenious" ("a pretty plot"), avillain was a farm
laborer, naughty meant "worth nothing", and a publican was a public servant.

Further this process may either elevate the value of the word or lower it. For
example the word lust did not always describe moral depravity but once meant
pleasure. Accident, originally meant something that happened, today it is almost
always unpleasant. Lewd meant ignorant; now these terms have much less
favorable meanings, and other words have become more exalted.
For example, minister used to mean servant, a constable was someone who
cleaned horse stalls, l.wury signified "lasciviousness" or a sharnefirl indulgence
in costly things and angel once merely meant a messenger.
37

1.4.2. Borrowing:

All languages borrow words from each other. Borrowing is one of the

most vital and influential processes in English word formation. English


borrowed an exffemely large number of lexical items from French dgring the

occupation period to England in 1066.Legal occupation meant that terms for


the court ,law, and properf would enter English from French. And so ,while
English terms l*e king and queen survived ,French provided the new words
sovereign , crown, stote and government. The influence of the chrnch
brought new terms too such as religion, service, virgin and, trinity.
As stated by Hatch: "English has words borrowed from almost every
language of the world .Immigrants from many parts of the world have their

languages to enrich our own."p.l70

Sturtevant(Lg73) noted that ever since England became a maritime nation,


and particularly since the establishment of English-speaking nations in distant
parts of the world, words have been freely adopted from nearly all known
tongues. America's contributions include wigwom, wampum, ffid tomahawk,
from the Indian languages ; adobe and co*a/ from the Spanish of the
Southwest ; sauerkraur , and wiener-wurst or wienies ,from the German
colonies in the large cities .Asia is represented, for example ,by Chinese tea,
Japanese kimono ,Malay gong , Hindi jungle, persian pagodo, Arabic

sherbet.Australia gave English kangaroo and boomerang.


From Africa come chimpanzee, gorilla, gnu and zebra. Most words
introduced by translators and by scholars in general come from written
language. Th"y are sometimes taken from modern literatures (German
"ablaut" and "umlaut'), but more commonly from the classical languages
(Greek "drema"," cosmos"; Latin,,ictus,,,,,adjective,,,,,adverb,,
).
Once a borrowed word is popularly accepted as being part of English, it can

itself engage in compounding or affixation, for instance unreliable (oE +


French +French), affe c t i ona t e (F rench + Latin), fi re -es cape(oE+French).
38

Borrowed words pass into several stages of assimilation into language, in


order to be anglicized. Sometimes phonetic or morphological change affects
the word. For example, the adoption of foreign sounds may become quite
fixed. In English the cluster I s& ] is due to Scandinavian loan-words ; the [sfr]
of Old English had changed in later Old English time to [J ] , ut in old English
[sko:h] ) modern shoe .The Scandinavian cluster occurs not only in borrowed
words , such as sky ,skin ,skirl (beside the native shfut), but also in new-

formations such as scatter ,scrawl ,scream; it has become an integral part of


the phonetic system .

After complete adaptation, the loan-word is subject to the sulme analogies as

any similar native word.Thus from the completely nativized chauffeur, we


have the back-formation to chauffe, as in " I had to chauffe my mother around

all day".

Calquing is a process where a word-for-word imitation of foreign phrases


or expressions takes place. As Strang states :

It
takes place when for a cofirmon fiurction a cofirmon
pattern is used , but its component parts are not native , as in
English "power politics" on the model of German
Machtpolitik and " wishful thinking" on the model of German
Wunschdenken... Calques are sometimes called loan
translations or Gallicisms. The phrase "loan-words" itself is
formed on the model of German Lehruw1rter.(pp.25,26)

Phrases such as marriage of convenience or it goes without saying, ot l"ve


told him I do not lwtow how many times are French Gallicisms.
39

L.4.3.Coining
Coining is sometimes called word-manufacfure .This phenomenon is
especially cofltmon in cases where industry requires a ncw and attractive
name for a product. .As noted by Pyles, the most famous coinage in ME is the

word Kodak:
which made its first appearance in print in the U.S Patent
Ofifrce gazette in 1888 and was, according to George Easfinan,
who invented the word as well as the device which it names ,"a
purely arbitrary combination of letters ,not derived in whole or
in part from any existing word. (p.276)

Hatch exemplifies for the workings of this process; how new words are
manufactured and on what basis they are chosen and justified. She says:

If we were to discover a new product ... Depending on the


image we hoped to invoke for the product ,we might fiy for
combinations of sounds thatsomehow seem to exemplify that
characteristic .If we wanted to emphasize the endearing
qualities of the item or its small size ,we would likely end the
word with the letter y , i,or e -letters used for the /il sound.
If we wanted to emphasize the sheen of its surface ,we might
well begin the word with sh- ,as in shimmer ,shine and so
forth. So a new wax product -ight begin with s/l- or
gt- .... (p.l7s)

There are examples that show how far a correct choice of trade
names can afifect its selling rates and how far phonemic choice can be

representative of the meaning the word invokes. Hatch gives some of


these examples:

Companies spend a great deal of money tying to find


exactly the right sound and letter combination for their
particular product .The car nilme Acura is said to be an
example of an excellent choice because it sounds as though the
engine has the perfect engineering of a Swiss watch....Still ,it
is said that Mist hairspray sells well in Germany even though
mist means filthy in German.(p.175)
40

How likely new coinages are to survive depends on a number of


factors .G6rlach (1995) enumerates these factors as follows:
a) The productivity of the pattern employed .
b) The semantic development of the derivational morpheme.
c) The existence of a firmly established native (English) rival for
the new coinage.
d) Etymological factors ; the conformity of a formation to a Latin
or Greek model; the tendency to avoid hybrids ,i.e. the
combination from different languages , wherever alternatives
existed as in the case of -ness vs. -ity /-ion , or un- vs. in-
negation.
e) Phonological restrictions ,such as obligatory un- /dis-
preceding in- (unintelligent ,disinterested ) , or the
obsoleteness of "womanish" because zero-derivation becarne
impossible with -ish adjectives.
0 Individual analogies or associations (e.g. being too close to
taboo words).
g) Memorable use of a word by a famous author.(pp.175,176)

Literary Coinages: Literary men have also coined new terms .Literary
coinages gain currency fust in educated and well-cultured circles then gain
access into ordinary language. Pyles quotes numerous examples for words
originally created as literary coinages by famous authors in literary works.
The existence of such coinages in famous literary works , gave them crurency

among the ordinary speakers . he says:

Henry Bradely in his still valuable The Making of English


(New York,l924;first published 1904) points out that "it is a
truth overlooked,...that every addition to the resources of a
language must in the first instance have been due to an
of some person," He cites among others
act...
lovingkindness (Coverdale) , peacemaker (Tindale),
braggadocio and derring-do "chivafu" (Spenser) ,lonely ,
dwindle, and orb "globe" (Shakespeare) , pandemonium,
irresponsible , and impassive (Milton) , and raid , ruesome,
uncanny,and glamour (Scott).(P.3 I 0)
4't

1.4.5.Backformation
O"Grady defines the process of backformation as :
A process that creates a new word by removittg u real or
supposed affix from another word in the language...A major
source of backformations in English has been words that end
with -or or -er and have mearrings involving the notion of an
agent,such as editor, peddler,swindler, and stroker.( p.158)

Verbs are the part of speech most often backformed , and the etymon is often

an agent noun in -er : sv,indle , edit, commentqte , shoplift , play-act,


typewrite,sleep-walk,etc.(Romaine,pT 3)
Sometimes verbs are backfonned from adjectives ,particularly participial
adjectives n -ed : ill-treat , ill-use, streamline ,bottle feed, etc. Backformed
verbs can be also formed from action nouns ending with the suffix -ion or
-ation e.g.; donate , demarcale, daydream , dry-clean , baclcfire, oir-
c ondi t i on, wi dow -s hop,etc.
Examples of "backformed" words in English are housekeep from
housekeeper, wordprocess from wordprocessor ,orient from Orientate,
enthuse from enthusiasm , donate from donation and lase from laser.
Backformation accounts for such words as stagemanage , institute and
burgle.(Strang, p.4l)

1.4.6.Eponyms
Words adopted from proper nLmes are called eponyms. The most
common case where names of people and places {re adopted as parts of
speech and new lexicon is names of inventors and people associated with
particular products.
For example Maverick is a name of a major of San Antonio who refused to
brand his cattle .The word maverick ca:orrc then to become a term for
unbranded cattle ,and later for anyone who took an independent stand.
42

The word boycott is the nalne of a retired British army captain Boycott who

oversaw estates in Ireland and refused to give humanitarian concessions to his

Irish tenants. They hated him so much that they ostracized him and boycott
became a synonym for rejection and isolation . Poinsettia ,a Chistmas plant,

is named for the ambassador to Mexico who introduced it to the United States.

The word Pantaloon was used in the plural old-fashioned form to refer to a

masculine garment termed pantaloon in French which in turn is adopted from

the Italian pantalone ,the name of a silly senile Venetian of early Italian
comedy who wore such fitting as nether coverings .

Pantalone in Italian means "Venetian" and hence cnme the connection.


Sanh,vich is the name of the fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-92), said to have
spent twenty-four hours at the gaming table with no other refreshment than

slices of meat between slices of bread.

Names of persons can be adopted unchanged ,for example: ampere,


bowie (lcrife), chesterfield (overcoat or
sofa) ,graham (flour), titan
(color),valentine , watl ,hertz ,ohm ,Pasteur .Some of the above-mentioned
eponyms are niunes of scientists memorialized e.g. Watt, Hertz and Ohm.

When a slight modification occurs in the pronunciation of the eponym its


spelling might be consequently changed .Names hke Volt is a clipping from the
snrname of Count Alessandro Volta(d.1827) ; and Farad is derived from
Michael Faraday (d.1867). Epicure is an anglicized fonn of Epicurus .

Eponyms receive the treafinent of ordinary lexical items in the langtage,


even if they might be names of foreign people or places. They can have
derivatives and attributive forms as pasteurize ,lewisite ,platonic, sadism ,

me smeri sm, cltouvini sm, c homslryan,etc.


43

Besides proper names of real life persons epon)rms can be names of


stereo{yped imaginary characters or fictional ones of literature and
mythology. For example names of gods and godesses in Greek mythology have
entered the language unchanged,e.g. atlas, ,mercury , narcissus , nemesis,
volcanoes.

A name of a literary character who entered the lexicon is Benedict (a newly


married man).Originally it is the name of a Shakespearean bachelor who -after
a long life of celibacy ,finally succumbed to the charms of a beautifrrl lady
called Beatrice. The name has gone a very slight modification from
"Benedick" to Benedict. Nso Don Juan ,Don Quixote and Dr.Hyde are all
names of famous literary characters that were impersonated and gained a life
of their own into language.
Names of literary characters can be derived from as freely as with names of
real people .For example there are the forms: Herculean, odyssey, quixotic,
t ant ali ze and vul c ani ze.

Eponyns can be names of places as in Camembert (cheese) and


Limousine (car)which are names of places in France . Charleston the dance,is
also the name of an American city. Tabasco (a sauce)is the name of a river in
Mexico. Derivatives of names of places are damascene ,domosk and damson
all three come from one n:rme which is Damascus .Frankfurter comes from
Franffirt, mayonnaise from Mayon , roman(type) from Roma,etc.

Eponl'rns might be used metaphorically ,for example :"She is the

Madonna of the neighborhood." and "O" you"re talking to Plato."


Science terminology has so many epon)rms .Particularly botany ,medicine

in astronomy comets are named for the first


and astronomy. For example
person who observes them .Botanists and ornithologists have been
memorialized through their discoveries .Plants and birds carry the names of
important researchers. Further, in medicine, eponyms are often used to identifo

diseases.
M

1.4.7 .Analogic Creation :

Coining brand new words is a totally different process &om analogic


creation.Whereas coining invents and innovates brand new lexical items,
analogic creation is a process that depends on parody and creating items
similar to an existing model.Strang clarifies this fact ,she says :
By contrast with the rare extreme of pure invention,
many,probably innumerable,formations exploit the principle
of analogy ,of developing the new on the basis of what is
already familiar Since likeness is an infinitely variable
relation , in degree and in kind, many different sorts of likeness
can underlie a new development .Yet a development is only
new if it involves difference as well as likeness. (Strang ,p.25)

The speaker who introduce foreign things may call them by the native name

of some related object . In adopting Christianity ,the Germanic people kept


some of the heathen religious terms : god ,lteoven ,hell were merely
transferred to the new religion. The pagan terrn Easter is used both in English
and German . (Sturtevant,p.455)

Dacron,Teflon and Orlon are all names for industrial products created in
analogic creation to the word rrylon . Strang explains the mechanisms of the
process of analogic creation in this example ; how the word "nylon" was
created as a model for other words:
Another invention ...is nylon, selected by the Du Pont
Company from some 250 proposals; it has no etymology, but
it is easily remembered ,redolent of Greek on the one hand
and of the (equally invented) rayon (1924) on the other.Once
these two existed , they created a precedent for the virtual
morpheme -on : (a variety of ) synthetic fibre/ fabric , as in
orlon ,perlon .This family of words illustrates a range of
analogies that can operate in word formation once a model,
however arbitrary,comes into existence. (p.25)
45

l.4.8.Idioms and Proverbs :

Forming idioms is one way of forming complex lexical items in English


besides compounding and derivation. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning can

not be predicted from the individual meaning of the morphemes it comprises.

If you beot a dead horse , you do not necessarily strike a carcass .A person
can die with his boots on or with his boots off.
Languages are full of idioms for example, smelling like a rose , stick to
the straight and narrow ,hit the nail right in the head, and sing a dffirent
tune. Almost by definition , idioms are idiosyncratic rather than regular in their
formation.

Most idioms can be interpreted literally. Idioms are in many cases similar to
standardized metaphors, such as stir up trouble or the heart of the maner.In
fact ,the metaphorical origin of many idioms is quite apparent , and there is no
reason to fiy to draw a dividing line.
But not all idioms b"g as metaphors .If kick the bucket had a metaphorical
origrn ,the nature of the metaphor is no longer apparent to English speakers.
Words that are constantly associated in usage sometimes begin to cohere
as lexical units .Bread and butter is such a common expression that it is
somewhat odd to hear "butter and bread" .Ham and eggs is another example ;

"eggs and ham" is not the way to say it. Other examples are bread and wine

and bread and water .The stars and stripes refers to more than just any
aggregation of "stars" and "stripes" ; "stripes and stars" does not have this
special significance. The silme can be said of hammer and sickle. The
morphemes in,so, and,far are used together so often that they have virtually

fused into one word .we can write either in sofar a,s or insofar as.
Chapter Two
English Sample
Analysis
46

The daa of the English


sample was initiany the
number of 2042
words' these words was then
filtered into rogs words categorized
their respective word formation into
processes. Anarysis
presented in the quantative
of the data is
order they take in the sample.categories
which
are not represented in the
sampre are not referred
to,namery, anarogic
creation' The newest and
most influentiar creations are
quoted as
examples.

Derivation is the rargest word


formation process emproyed
English
in the
sampre(626words) .Maoy prefixes
and suffixes are at use in this
process'But some affxes
which were considered marginal
are getting into
focus and receiving more
zeal in usage.
one of these is the suffix
afy ; many new derivations are
coined
using this suffix .For exa*pr
e :personifu ,codfu
,frenchify,farsify, typw.
Another remarkabre usage
in the sampre is the prorific
emprolmrent of
agentive suffixes. The suffixes
ir , er are employed in forming
agentive noun -using
-er is the dominant pattem, exampres are: shopper,
developer, insider, backer,
cleoner, cleaner, enforcer.As
appears from
examples above --er is
used to derive both anim
ate ( creaner, rescuer)
inanimate ( creaner and
, bomber, rauncher)agentive nouns
.
Furttrer -er is not used
to derive agenfive nouns from
verbs onry, the
usage is extended to
derive agentive nouns from
two-part compounds and
even three-part ones.
e.g-: painhrer ,
frontrunner , policy_maker , break_
dancer' out-of-towner
The suffix -ar is also used
for creating both
animate and inanimate
agentive nouns ,e.g.: defector
tormentor, contributor.
,rotor, sensor,
47

-tsr is also used for creating agentive nouns ,though not as frequently as

-er . Nouns coined using -ist usually refer to persons members at


political, social or artistic movements e.g.: lobbyist, separatist, feminist,
fascist, euro-federalist.-ist creates also nouns of professions ,examples:
columnist, biochemist, strat egist.
Re- is a prefix used also for creating new verbs. The newest creations
using this prefix ile: regroup, redouble, restructure,rentn, rethink
resurface .

Under- is used also as a prefix in such new examples as: underfunded,


underworld,under-equipped, underpower .

Un- is a well-used prefix for coining nouns ,adjectives and even


adverbs Most of the words coined up using un- are adjectives,
particularly participial adjectives e.g.: unattached, untold, unanswered.
Un- is used to coin up negative adjectives from ordinary and gerundive
adjectival forms. e.g.: unfussy, undemocratic, unwelcome,
unconstitutional, unrhythmical, unending, unsmiling, untouchable,
unthinl<able, unplatable. Exwnples where un- is used for coining verbs
are limited e.g.: unseot, unearth, unease. Examples where un- is used for
s6ining nouns are almost rare e.g.: unwillingness.
Up is also remarkably used in the sample .It has almost acquired the
status of a prefix. it is used to coin up adjectives and verbs e.g. : uplifiing,
uphold, upbringing, upwind, upgrade.
-ize is also employed abundantly. Example of new coinages that have

-ize as a suffix are : politicize, mechonize, tetorize, privatize, destabilize


criminalize, destabilize, pressurize, privatize, romanticize, globalize,
legrtimize, demonize, modernize, mechonize, fictionalize, politicize,
terrorize, westernize, womanize .
48

A newly emergent prefix associated with internet terminology is

cyber-, e.g. : cyber-police, cybernaut, cyberspace.Nso -6e which is an

emerging suffix adopted from French as stated by Sinclak (1996,p.42).

-e is used to create agentive nouns as in absentde, divorc1e,


refugee or to create recipient nouns as in detain1e ,address1e ,

train1e.Examples of 4e suffixed words in the sample are dmigrde and


attach*e.
There is a multiplicity of examples where the suffix -y is used for

deriving new forms of adjectives,e.g. : touchy, cheery, grainy,phoney,


plucley, meaty, birdy, taclqt. -/ is used to derive adjectives bearing the
characteristics of their respective nouns as in handy, dusty and hairy or to
create affectionate and emotional adjectival forms as in touchy,smiley and
che e ry .{Sinclair,p. 1 88)

E Prefixes

o? a." too%. A B"";de^q. %, Q,a+"a:16?"""4,\

Fig. 2.1 Numerical representation of the most used prefixes in the sample.

Other affixes that had a big share in the sample , are'.


anti- e.g.. antibody , anti-euro , anti-mafia ,anti-Semitism, anti-drug.
pro- e.g.. pro-government,pro-Arab , ,pro-Soviet , pro-western.
co-, e.g. : co-write, co-partenership,co-funder,co-occused.
49

all- also is used . all-female, all-out.


-like , o.g.r claw-like, Mafia-like, Morgaret Tatcher-like .

euro-,e.g : euro-scepticism, euro-federalist, europhile, eurogate .

The following chart shows numerical representation of the most employed


suffixes:

q)
80
70
60
50

E -$ ge b- l* VVr"6 E L b a

Fig.2.2 Numerical representation of the most used suffixes .

Almost all the affixes are present in the sample, examples of new
creations arc. prejudicial, workaholic, counter-terrorism,windowless,
funless, bagful, multi-cultural, sub-automatic, speciality, rehouse,
flattenrdispossess,ultraconservative,dehumanizationrintergavernmental t

dkinformationrretrorocketrmOnoethnic,gangster,racketeerrreunification ,

tradeable, ticklish.

Compounding is the second richest source for word-formation in


English(516 words) .Most compounds in the sample are adjectival
compounds created using past participles as their heads (heads of
compounds are always the leftmost constituent ) Examples for

participial compounds are: tin-roofed,silver'haired, much-revered, much'


needed,ill-chosen,ill-equipped.
50

Much- is used above as a compound-creating prefix , also ill- , and long,


liule- , fully- , well- , these adverbials are well used in the sarrple.
Further elaboration on their usage would promote them as established
suffixes within the language repertoire. Examples: long-dormant, long-
running,for-right,far-/Iun g, ful ly-front al, full- s c al e, w ell - run .

Compounds can be made of any part of speech. Examples for


compounds created by joining two nouns together. e.g: import-export,
petrol-carrier ,whirlwind.Or two verbs together ; would-be, play-act,
make-believe.Or two adverbials ; roundabout whereabouts. Examples for
prepositional compounds are : on-screen, go-between .

All other combinations and alterations of nouns, verbs, adjectives,


adverbs are also present in the sample, e.g: freefall, guard-dog,meltdown
on c e -fo rm i dab I e, di e -h ard, hi gh - ri s e, p o s t -m il I ennia l.
Three-part compounds have a number ,too e.g.: fast-food-loving, cash-

for-occess, house-to-house , all-too-close,morher-to-be. Almost all


three-part compounds are used adjectivally Four-part or sentential
compounds are almost rare in the sample.e.g..fish-out-of-water, 'Madome-
you're-all-a-bunch-of-idiots", fly-on-the-wall .

Most compounds in the sample are adjectival; either in form, usage or


both .The number of noun compounds in the sample is very small in
comparison with adjectives, verbs bid a far smaller portion.

Orthographically most compounds in the sample are two-parted,


hyphenated compounds ( 3ls hyphenated ,two-part compounds) . Three-
part compounds are few and they are always hyphenated (27 compounds).
Sentential or phrasal compounds are few .
51

Such infrequant combinations are mainly used in written media where

the reader is at leisure of reading and processing the meaning of the


sentence. Using such long compounds in everyday speech will place the
hearer at a disadvantageous place.

Borrowing is one important source of word-formation in English ,

deciding on the etymology of all words in the sample is not a simple


matter particularly that most English words have Latin or French origrns.
Words chosen as exilmples for borrowed fonns are clear-cut cases where
the morphological characteristics of these forms are evidential of their
foreignness .This means that the sample of borrowed words sample is
rather evidential and exemplary rather than being a statistical
representation of the process itself . This is due to difficulties in attesting
the exact date and etymology of all words in the salnple. Most of these
fonns are French .The number of borrowed forms examined are 144
words. Words which are French in origin are 65 words .Other words are
borrowed from sanskrit, Danish ,German,Latin, Greek,Arabic, celtic,
Spanish , Russian,Italian, Japanese ,Czech, persian and Hindi.

Borrowed forms refer to almost all aspects of life .Forms that tackle
religious creeds include the Sanskrit word Ahmici which refers to a
in Sanskrit , Hinduism , and Buddhism which rejects
religious principle
any use of violence. Tycoon is a Japanese word "Tai-koon" literally
meaning 'great lord' , came to mean an exceptionally wealthy and
powerfrrl businessman , a shogun.Robot is aCzech 'robotiti' , 'to work' ,
which was stereotyped in English to refer to an automan . Other words
were derived from it,e.g. robotism, robotistic, robot-like. poporazzi is an
Italian derogatory word denoting a newspaper photographer who follows
famous people in order to take pictures of them, often without their
agreement.
52

Manicure is a French word denoting a treatment for the care of the hands
and fingernails,(from Latin manus hand'+ French -icure(as in pedicure) .

Kaleidoscope is a Greek word referring to a succession of changing phases


or actions ,(from Greek kalos beautiful' * eidos 'form'+English -scope).
Trek a word taken from Afrikaans from'trecken' 'to pull, haul, migrate'.
Bonanza in Spanish means 'good sea' ,hence good luck . It came to refer to
any rich source of profit , an unusually profitable invesfinent or
speculation. Bog n Irish and Gaelic means 'soft ' , in English it came to
refer to a place of wet, sponry ground. Tottoo is taken from Polynesian;
the act or practice of marking the skin with inedelible patterns, pictures or
legends.

Conversion is the third-place category in the sample(l39 words) .

Converting the grammatical frrnction of one-part of speech into another is


the easiest and readiest way of supplying new lexical items. Noun-to-verb
conversions are almost the norrn, examples: dynamite , badmouth ,

nursemaid ,closet , savoge, countenonce ground and soldier .The most


notable example of conversions into verb , is that of the adverbial near

in :"As the pull-out neirs ,Haezbollah is.....".


verb-to-noun conversions are limited in comparison, e.g.: payoff, low,
rethink, keep, makeshifi.Conversions to other parts of speech are few.
Examples of conversions to adjectives , and it is only contextual
(sentential) usage that highlights such conversion,e. g. :

diehard 'The most diehard dancers"


Cut-price "Tested a cut-price rocket "

Knockdown "It has been sod for the knockdown price of... "
Hold-up "The most successful hold-up artists in America "
53

Shifting also is an active process in word-formation in English (85


words).Four most astonishing shifts are quoted : killing which shifted
from meaning "causing death to" to the nominal usage meaning "a large
amount of profit" ; mushrooz shifted from referring to the well-known
frrngal plant to verbal usage meaning "to explode ,lead to or result into"
(something which is mostly undesirable) , commonding shifted from
meaning "having orders or power over" to mean "whole-area ,
kaleidoscopic" , rule shifted from meaning "to govern " to mean "state or
decide" , freeze from " putting into freezr" , to " prohibit any bank
dealings with money accounts". Other less dominant examples exist,too :

siphon, brush, whisk, soften, riddle .

Acronyms and initializations (43 words)are important in referring to


political organizations or other non-govenrmental societies. Many of these
fonns sprang in reaction to the establishment of the European Union and
the so many organizations running its affairs e.g. ECB@uropean Cenfial
Bank),CEP^S (Cenfre for European Policy Studies), EPc@uropean policy
Center) and EU @uropean union).A good number of acronyms and
initializations are also related to United Nations" organizations Other
examples are . ClA(Central lntelligence Agency) and scuba(self-
contained underwater breathing apparatus).

Coining brand-new words is a process that provides few words in


language repertoire (38 words). Words newly coined into language are not

so many as would be thought. They need approval, acceptance and


standardization to gain cunency in the speech community. Examples :

sovvy, spoof ,wonk, gag, guntoting,slush, hack.


il

Blending is one of the important categories ,too (30 words). Most


blends were words referring to bilateral relations as in Afro-Lebonese ,
Franco-Germon , Cotholic-Jewish. Atl blends of this type are hyphenated.
other blends might ,or might not be hyphenated. Exarnples geopolitical
(geographical +political) , webcom (web"internet" +camera) and
docusoap (documented +ss3p).Blends are used sparingly in the sample
and referring mostly to very specified objects and terrns.e.g : psy-ops
Franco-Geftnan, eurogate, Catholic-Jewish, Afro-Lebanese, geopolitical,
webcam, docusoop.

using idioms is a process that has its share in the sample


(27exarrryles) . Idioms are collocational sets of words that are used to
convey stereotyped meanings.Examples for idiomatic usage in the sample
arc to dig in their heels , hit and run , to make tight of and to leave no
stone unturned .

Examples for reduplication(l9 words) exist also in the


sample.Most examples are partially reduplicated words. Examples: helt-
hole, hoi-polloi, humdrum.

Clipping is a good way for abbreviation. It is a minor process for


creating new words(I3 words). It frrnctions on already existing
ones.Examples are: Intern, medic, euro, qmic, and,diss,,.

There are few examples where eponyms (9 words) exist in the


sample . Examples for usage of proper names dre maverick, Rubicon,
Goullist and iockey , names of places byzantine and names of literary
origrns odyssey.
55

Back-formation is an easy way for coining new parts of speech


from already existing ones (6 words) .For example. televise, voccfe,
bulldoze, drug-craze .Televise is back-formed from television which was
the first to make its entry and appearance into language , bulldoze is back-
formed from bulldozer and craze from crazy. In all these examples the
original form made the first appearance into language before the back-
formed one, and not vice versa .

Almost all English word formation processes are explored in the


sample .Examining the research sample showed that derivation is almost
the largest employed process followed by compounding. The most used
derivers are the agentive suffixes -ls/ and -er andthe verbal suffixes
-ize, and -ify .

compounding is mainly employed to create participial -ed


adjectives. An innovation in English word formation is the increasing
usage of conversions to create new vocabulary items. The least used
processes in the sample are eponyms and backformation.Following are
charts showing numerical and percentage representation of word
formation processes as used and exemplified in the sample data:

HWard formation

TS&\u^iT**r,
Fig. 2.3 Numerical representation of wordformation processes in the sample-
56

S Derivation
n Compounding
E Borrowing
I Conversion
I Shifting
3 Acronyms
n Coining
E ldioms
n Blending
n Reduplication
fl Clipping
n Eponyms
tr Backformation

Fig.2.4 Percentage of each wordformotion process in the somple.


Chapter Three
Arabic
Word formation
57

3.lThe Notion of Eloquence in Arabic

MSA is a language well-preserved against impurities and random

change.Development in language is a collective process that needs


ratification and correctness from language academies.The notion of the
eloquence (fasaftah) of language and its purity is rule-sanctioned in both
CA and MSA .

Historically, 'eloquence' in language was based on one ,singular non-


urban model ; that is of the variety of Arabic spoken by Quraysh
Quraysh is the tribe of hophet Mohamed and their variety of Arabic was
reported to be the clearest, most articulate and eloquent one . It is in their
variety that the Quran was revealed. Hence the fact that their variety
provided the model of eloquence to all other Arab tribes, and upon its
characteristics the criteria of linguistic eloquence was set. Alhamzawy
(1986) says:

J$r3 otJlJJJ .'i!}::,1 clll .,i,


"+.JtJ
d$ l- &.s-lr.J -l$_l
"+r
&i ,.1. 4*r.8.,#"
\ VrJ,at'. ,.:+"4i l.6rri 4rlJ a,1..';l r++_lti kS
-r,.oEr
AlsyooTy (1958),a traditional grammarian, set the criteria of eloquence in
language as :

a)using well-known words rather than rare and forgotten ones.

b)using words that comply with the metric patterns of derivation of the
language.

c)avoiding weird or obsolete words and structures.

d)the sounds of used words should not be placed at fu points of articulation


nor display any foreign quality ,i.e. using words of hannonious phonemes
rather than discordant ones.
58

Journalism started in the Arab nation late in the 19ft century .With the
appearance and wide spread of press ,writers started taking on new forms

and modes of writing with easier and more lucid styles so as to secure a
lager scale of readers and to guarantee comprehensibility and
communication .They started to experiment with vocabulary; exploring
new dimensions of coinages and usage . Alhamzdwy says:

) I.$+ L-li ! i* OJSl l4.ii 3o_l &113 u-g+ riL,.-ll o.re cr_;*i .ril3"

Y Ycr ".b c.-oli 4il $lJ+ll lLill .r. jlsll e+.-i3 . ..4,LlillJ f*riJl r+'^Jl+ 4141"-
Thus press created a new linguistic reality , a middle standardized
language that has been termed 'third language' .This language is as a
refinement of modern colloquialisms and a facilitation of CA . It is upon
this 'third language', despite misusages , that new models of eloquence are
built.

3.2.4 Brief Outline of Arabic Morphology:


Arabic is one of the Semitic languages. It has its own individual
morphologcal system that is based upon discontinuous root paradigms. An
enfiy in an Arabic dictionary will give only the three consonantal radicals
of the root, other derivations of the surme root are formed by adding and
alternating different vowelings at different points of the root and according
to defined and preset morphological patterns in the language.

Enffies are always trilateral verbal roots .The verb is the derivational
base in Arabic morphologcal system exactly as it is in English . The only
difference in the lexicographical arangement of dictionaries in both
languages is that nouns and other derivations from the verbal root are

usually given separate entries in English dictionaries whereas in Arabic


they are always incorporated within the main verbal enfiy
59

The morphological build of any Arabic verb is always typified into the
metric pattern fa3ala which is the basic pattern for Arabic verbs.Other
patterns are created by alternating different vowelings and sometimes the

consonantal affxes (m,n,s,t) on this pattern . Hans Wher (1980) classified


the main Arabic verb patterns into ten metric patterns:

l) fa3ala cJ'i

2) fa3'3ala tEi
3) ft3ala &E
4) aBala d'si

5) ta8'3ala &s
6) taft3ala &l;:
7) enfa3ala cJ'n!

8) efta3ala ddi!
9) ef3al'la "r.J'4

l0) estaf3ala d's-l


These verbal patterns are applicable to all roots; only that some of
these are neglected or not frequented in daily or literary usage of the
language.

Arabic morphologcal system is a highly systematic one. New words can


be easily coined following preset metric patterns.For example the pattern
maJ36l always generates past participle adjectives as in : mahoob
"written", monzoor "seen, perspective" , and mahzoor "banned". The
patternfi3el is always used for coining agent nouns as in: qdtel "killer" ,

lrArcb "w-iter" , ndzer "seer, headmaster".


60

Other derivatives of the root include verbal and nominal forms coined to
different metric pattems each in accordance with its verbal root .Also
active and passive participles which count for a good bulk of Arabic
adjectives .This fact adds more to the regularity in the semanticity of
language and creates a sofi of predictability of meaning for the learner.

3.3.Word formation in Arabic:

Helal (1995) categorized word formation in Arabic into eight

processes: derivation (al?eshteqdq), blending (alnaht), mutation and


metathesis (at?ebdal wa olqalb),coining (al?ertegdl), analogic creation
(alqeyds), Arabicization (bonowing) ,fianslation (altargamah) and
metaphoric usage (shifts and idiomatic usage) (olhaqeeqah wa almagdz).

3.3.l.Derivation:
One of the most important and richest processes in Arabic word
formation is derivation. Derivation in Arabic means generating a new word
from an existing one in order to denote a new meaning and relation of
receiving an action ,being the goal of an action, its place ,its doer, etc.
Categories of derived words include agentive nouns ,past and progressive
participles ,quasi-adjectives, comparative forms, names of machinery ,time
and place references and attributives.

Arabic is a language where each goup of semantically-related words


cluster round a prototypic consonantal root .The concept of derivation then
is based on the relation between the core meaning of the root and its family
of derivatives.
61

The core meaning for a word is always expressed through its discontinuous
tripartite consonantal root whereas any derivation or expansion of that
meaning is expressed by changrng the internal vowelings of the word up to
preset metric patterns .Each vowel combination would generate a

definite,constant and preset meaning. Hence the fact that derivation in


Arabic is rather an inter-morphemic process that depends on infixes more
than prefixes or suffixes as is the case in English.

Internal vowelings are alternated between three main vowels .fatfta

Qdl),Damma(ol) and knsra (l D .Alternations of these vowels with four


T

main consonants(m,n s, t ) comprise the derivational affixes in Arabic. It


can be said ,then, that the process is a morpho-phonemic one intertwining
both morpholory and phonolory together . Helal (1995)says:

L#-Jl ul tj!-) qri-.Jt etJlt3 {.t,-.}'Jl ;6l^fr.t'Vl is4l-:-,!i L lil3


l.rL c* :4LtJl uj-.;=Jt4 ,r-,$ ,J-rt+- r-rt-.ag| 6+$ L.S jt5.:
liti-.-jJ 4*Kll dl3.*l d)tij.l ,,Jc ,sAsdl.':. L -r-"!l .-i3-.1,-t
"Ai,
.rrt t<... -,r:": jll4jir.l3l ql...!l 4-lSll r-i3.1's O-:Sslcto: kil' -l
j sj'-ll J-,.-i d+$ Cl
dr--t'lll o.rtJ d+lfr;i ,',fu e r-./.t
"+y
oJJ3 ' -l:Jl ,j--j'-Jl gJ"JS" ;$:l ej.u"ll , .JJ -lJ. L-e!-t!
Y\ f(r').0-r-ljll

dS r'i, ..-'+*Klt slil.r I';S!. ti*,,l r'r1-"X ,j .r-t cll3r.3'


,y6-r;i e+r L^JAli ,l ot-^Klt ,Ji-il +l-Lll ir J.:s-ii {il-.:l
(Y \.ri .-r=ljll &!t 0.6tii.t'Yt
62

Grammarians subdivided derivation in Arabic into nvo main categories


depending on its regularity and systematicality .

a)Regular Derivation:This ffpe of derivation employs the regular

metric patterns of language .In this case words ile generated to pre-known

meanings .That is to say words are generated up to the systematicality and


semanticity of language"s morphologlcal paradigm' For example the
combinati on fojeel is used to create exaggerative adjectival forms as in:

Qateel "murdered" ,flazeen "sad" and 3azeem"great".


b)Irregular Derivation:In this case no exact or specified rule is

followed to generate words .Ilregular derivation is employed mainly in


creating word families from proper names and Arabicizations where the
base does not usually match any specific metric pattern in the language .So

derivation is mostly done up to the musicalrty of the language and in


conformity with its sound system. The Academy of Arabic Language
(AAL) licensed such kind of derivation particularly in certain fields such

as art and science where many proper nilmes of scientists and artists are
used as bases for coining up related words , particularly in the attributive
form For example, bostorah (n.) (pasteurization),and mobastar (adj.)
(pasteurized) are derived from the narne of the French scientist Pastew

.hregular derivation subsumes many types e.g.:

Derivation from proper names ,names of places, generic nouns:

Early derivatives in Arabic were nouns referring to proper names, or to


material objects. Examples of nouns derived from proper names are.

talay'yatha on the measure : tofa3'3alo from the word Layth .


63

Season nirmes also have derivatives. Verbs derived from seasons'names


follow the pattern aJ3ala.For example:

akhrafo from khareeflautumn) meaning "to pass autuinn or to have it".


ashta from shetd? (winter) meaning "to pass winter or have it".

asa:fa from Sa2f(summer) meaning "to pass slilnmer or to have it".

arba3o from Rabee3 (spring ) meaning "to pass spring or to have it" .

Arabs derived from names of places .For example the verb abSara is
from albaSrah ; the name of a city in Iraq .This verb means "to head for
albaSrah or take it as a destination in travel".The verb AmSara means "to
fravel for maSr (Egypt )",etc.

Arabs also derived from nzrmes of objects. For example agbala is derived
from algabal (the mountain ) "to stay nearby or go for the
meaning
mountain" .Taqalnasa means "to wear a qolonswah (a helmet)",
tamanTaqa means "to argue using logic ,to use logic in reasoning" ,
estoftgara means to be as tough and hard as a stone ;to resemble a stone in

hardness,etc .

Derivation using phones :

Arabs derived from single sounds or phonemes . So if a man pronounces


the sound lh/ they say h?aha?a (to say lhl ,to laugh).f 'th' I 0l they say
tha?tha?a ( to say lAl ,to lisp ) .

Derivation using particles and conjunctions:

Further Arabs derived verbs from particles and conjunctions .For


example sowwafa means to use sowfa (will) i.e. 'to postpone doing

something to the future, procrastinate' , lowlo means 'to use lawla' (a

conjunction meaning 'if only', 'I wish if) i.e. 'to regret ,fret over/fo/,etc.
64

Deriving from Arabicizations (borrowings):

Derivation in Arabic is not confined only to words


of pure Arabic
etSrmology. Arabicized words can be derived
from too .For exampre
allegdm (the saddle) is an Arabicized
word of persian origrn. The verb
algama is an Arabic derivative meaning ,,to
saddle a horse,, .In modern
age rclefezy1n is an Arabicization from English ,the verb tarfuza
"televise" is an Arabic derivation from this
root.

3.3.2. Arabicization
Abu Mansorn Algawareeqy(1959),an old Arab grammarian
, defined an
Arabicization as:

Any, 'language' (rexical item) the Arabs adopted from


foreign languages and was mentioned in the Grorious
Quen , narrated in the history of the companions
of the
Prophet and their foilowers or even mentioned
, in poems
and stories of earlier Arabs.p.5l

AAL adopted a definition that shows more linguistic


tolerance than this
definition, no time span is set for an acceptance
of an Arabicization; ..An
Arabicization is a rexical item that Arab people of pure descent have
adopted from a foreign language and used into theirs (Magatat
Almagma3 ; I s ed.voL.7,1953.p.302)

Most Arabicizations entered language in its early


and middle stages
when contact between the Arabs and people
of neighboring nations was
mainly through raids, immigration or inter-tribal
marriages and rading.
Such contacts lead to much development in languages
on both sides. Arab
tribes at the pre-Islamic age were in contact with
the persian and the
Roman empires and also with the Semitic coptic,
, Greek,Turkish and
Barbarian cultues .
65

These contacts increased at the Islamic age when Islam was starting to

spread out in these regions of the world . The contact of the Arabs with
these cultures gained their language many new lexical items. These were
mainly scientific jargon and nrrmes of new objects unknown to Arab
people then .

CA Arabicized words from both foreign and sister languages such as


Synac, Etiopian and Aramean. Examples for items Arabicized from
Semitic languages are i yomm ( a river) and ?wwdb (repenting) from
Etiopic and Syriac. ?anbash (the lion) and 3ashoora (the nzrme of the tenth
day of MuhaIrEIm ;a Hrjri month) are Arabicizations from Hebrew.

Examples for Arabicizations from foreign languages are : aron'dng ( a

black shoeJeather or varnish) and drafs (an adjective referring to a person


of great knowledge)
'
both words are Arabicized from Persian .

Old grammarians used two terms to refer to Arabicizations: almo3or'rab


and aldakheel.T\e two terms are almost synonymous.The one meaning

"a word that has been Arabicized" and the other "a foreign word" .One

refers to the word after its adoption into language ,and the other to its state
before being adopted into it.

Arabicization in Arabic is synonymous with borrowing in English, only


that Arabicizations mostly have to undergo one process of change or
another in order to fit in the Arabic linguistic system, whereas this is not
always the case in English bonowings.

Arabicized words are mostly assimilated to fit into the phonological and
morphologlcat patterns of Arabic .An Arabicized word undergoes one or
more of three stages of change in its way of assimilation into language:
phonetic change, morphologlcal change or wholesale fransliteration .
66

Phonetic Change: Single sounds might be changed .A sound that does


not exist in Arabic is assimilated to or replaced by the nearest similar
sound.For example aspirational lpl is always replaced by lbl as in
bernameg, which is originally pronounced with /p/.

A foreign sound may be assimilated into a native similar one sharing


the same point of articulation or a nearby one as nfulAz 'steel' (originatly
bulFz) and Foor ,the nzrme of a city on the Indian coast, (originally
Boor),etc.

Clusters that do not exist in Arabic are replaced by the most similar
sequences that fit into the phonetic system of the language ,e.g. lfgl are
replaced by the more pronounceable Arabic cluster ltll as n qa'fgaleel (a
ladle) which is assimilated into qa fshaleel .Words hke desht (the desert)
were changed to dest and Ishma3eel (anutme of a prophet ) to Isma3eel.

Words with sounds phonologically distributed in a different way from


Arabic sounds are also assimilated into the phonology of the language. For
example lh/ n Arabic rarely follows lsl n a final position, consequently
words such as Persian kush (a type of fish )are changed to kusg or kusq.

Morphological Changes: Words that do not fit into the morphologrcal


system of the language are changed .For example words having a

consonant cluster at initial position are assimilated.And so are words


ending in consonant clusters of more than two sounds .

An example of a morphological adaptation of a lexical item is the word


bernameg which is an adaptation on English programme having the initial
consonant cluster voweled and letter arrangement changed.
67

Transliteration is one way of Arabicizing words . In transliteration


the foreign lexical item whether the name of an object or a proper name
are adopted into the language and written using its orthographic characters.

Old Arabs transliterated some proper names as in Khorasdn ( a name of a


city in Iran ) .other examples are kor'ram ( a name of a purple bean-like
plant, or of a soft bread ) and kor'kom ( a kind of spice). AAI allowed
Arabicization of proper names in MSA . For example, Rosya (Russia),
Amrica (America) , engltera @ngland),etc.
Arabicized words can be derived from as normally as any other native
Arabic word. They can also be used in the nominative, accusative, dative or
subjunctive cases. Rules of definiteness and indefiniteness also apply to
them normally. A proper nirme in a foreign language is Arabicized
retaining its "properness" and semanticity ,too.

3.3.3.Translation:
Translation is fransferring meaning from one language into another
through lexical items .Translation can be one of two types depending on
the aim of the process itself and the technique used to achieve this aim.

It can be either communicative (with its main focus on transferring the


main outlines of meaning without probing into the linguistic particularities
of the source text), or semantic (copious and literal translation focusing on
a word-to-word franslation of the text.)
A major language CA ranslated from was Greek . Greek translations
had an impact on Arabic in many lexical and structural domains .For
example:

* using the articles al+ld as a prefix for fonrring nouns and adjectives
(al ahe definite article the ,ld : the negative prefix non- ) For
example alldwo3y (non-awar eness),alld? ins futy (non-human),etc.
68

* Converting certain forms from adjectivality to nominality by adding


the prefixed article a/- (the) ,to the indefinite feminine adjective. For
exarrple al?insanyyaft (humanity ) and olrofteyyah (spirituality)'

* Using new methods in word derivation .For example to derive

adjectives ,the infix 4n- was added before the final suffix -y'For
example, rawhany (spiritual), gosm6ny (bodily),etc'
Translation in Egypt flourished in the 30s of the 20ft cenhrry with the
abroad and
efforts of the scholar Refa3ah AlTahTawy who studied French
returned to Egypt to found Al.Alsun High School for translation'
Translation movement progressed mainly in one direction; which is from
European language to Arabic. It is important to note that translation started
primarily within the literary domain and stretched to encompass all other
aspects of life and science.

Several factors affect the quality of translation from a language to


another e.g.cultural differences and contextual connotations -
Also ling$istic
be taken into
equivalences and the different semanticities of languages must

consideration.

Different techniques are applied in modern translation in Arabic'


First there isDirect Translation (semantic translation) . In this case a
items is
one-to-one equivalent of the meaning is sought' No intermediary
used ,nor paraPhrasing .

The second technique used is Indirect Translation (communicative


fianslation) where different stylistic techniques ile adopted
to render the

meaning of a lexical item ,if it has no equivalent in the language'


69

Calquing is a particular type of translation where a whole unit of


language; awhole structure is literally translated from the donor language
into the recipient one. This creates the effect of a "hybrid" usage of
language where lexis is native but the structure and overall meaning is
"generated" (half-blood).For example, Iilhite Literature and Black
Literature, referring to the literatures of white and black authors
respectively , were translated into al?adob alTabyaD and al?adab
al?aswad.Both translations are literary opaque for the Arab reader because
they rather denote connotations of the 'color' of the literary work itself
rather than the author.

Arabic is and was not a wholly recipient language. CA words like


algebra, alchemy, and many asfronomical terminologies (particularly
planet names) have entered English in the middle ages. At modern age, new
words has gone from Arabic into English such as intifada . The way
between Arabic and English is a two-lane highway .Though fiansferring
from Arabic into English is rather slower.

3.3.4.Metaphoric and Non-metaphoric Speech:

One of the processes Arabic exploits its lexicon is using words


figuratively to convey new meanings and give particular collocations .

This enriches language with new and innovated modes of expression .

Figurative usage of speech is classified into three types:

Allegory : An allegory can be used to express different relations


between two referents ,e.g.cause , part to whole relation, agency (doer to
object), etc . The relation between the two referents is mostly something
other than similarity .
70

Metaphors and similes : Metaphors can be explicit or implicit (or as

Arabic linguists put it "direct" or "indirect" ) .ln an implicit metaphor the


tenor is deleted or unmentioned. Metaphors are employed if the relation

between the two referents bears some of similarity and so are


similes.Similes can also be used implicitly or explicitly .

Metonymy : A metonymy is used to qualifu one of three things : an


animate or inanimate referent, a characteristic in the referent ,a
relation

between two referents. In metonymy the lexical item is used to denote a

new object not different from the original referent '

ln Arabic when a lexical item is always or mostly used in any of the

former three categories then it is called a "shifted" item ,because it has

or
been moved on from its place from the factual usage domain to rhetoric
usage. A lexical item can be shifted from factual usage into
allegoric
evocative or figrgative usage in a many different ways:
{. It can be used to substitute for one of its meanings ( narrowing of
meaning ).For example Dabb in cA was a generic name that

referred to any reptile, later usage had come to confine its meaning
and narrow its usage to just one particular fourlegged species of

reptiles.

{. Its meaning can be generalized (widening of meaning)so as to


encompass a wider scale.For example the word ba?s originally

meant 'war and its woes' ,later its meaning generalized to refer
to

any kind of hardshiP.

Its psaning can be stereotyped in such a way so as to be used in


a
{.
fixed terminologlcal domain; be it
legal,scientific, or
linguistic,etc.For example the linguistic terms Jd3'el, maJ36l,magrdr
origlnally meant "doer" ,"done" (thing),and "dragged"( item)'
7r

These lexical items came to be stereoffped to mean "subject","object" and


"genetive" (case). So is the case with the juristic terms Salah, Sowm and
zakah, (originally these words meant "prayer", "abstaining from speech"
and "refinement" ),etc.

Shifting lexical items from their arbitrary factual meaning to figurative


usage has certain effects on the reader or listener .This process is mainly

employed for expository, explanatory or even for emphatic purposes. It can


also be employed for euphemistic purposes.

It is important to say that English and Arabic exhibit almost the same
categoization of figures of speech (metaphors ,similes, metonymies and
allegories).This does not disregard the fact that secondary or minor
subdivisions and differences occur in both languages.

3.3.5.Blending:

Helal defines blending as " the process whereby some letters are

exfiacted from more than one word and appended together to create a new
word ."p.297These syllables or letters form, in their new appearance, a

discrete word that is different both in meaning and usage from their
original words .

Blending is as generative a process in Arabic as is derivation .Yet


whereas derivation is an additive process of prolongation of the root of the

word , blending is an abridging,subtractive one based on a cut-and-paste


technique.

Blending was well-known and used by old Arabs ,yet it is not as


productive and generative in MSA as it is in Indo-European languages .

Blended items left in language repertoire are considered few compared

with items generated using other processes. Blends in CA were mostly


created from proper nllmes and words that are no longer in use in MSA.
72

This justifies the fact that most of them are rare in modern usage. MSA
creates new blends that are readily used by speakers.

Blending in Arabic is subdivided into two types: auditory blending and


regular (rule-sanctioned) blending.

a)Auditory Blending: "Audition" and "hearing" were the norm for


Arabs in their coinages and derivations.Language at that time was not
written yet (except for a few poems; almo3oloqAt). ln auditory blending
the musicality of language and its rhythm are the sole factors controlling
the process, no abiding rule is set or followed. .Auditory blending creates
words out of two lexical items or a whole sentence or a phrase.Blends
created this way would have new different meanings from both parent

words, and a different form too.

Two words blends could be done in one of trvo ways : either by cutting
off parts of the two items at random choice and then pasting and tuning
them together up to the musicatity and rhythm of language as in :

?emro? (man) +?alqoys (the tribe of Qays)--+ morqosl\belonging


to?alqays tribe or hke ?emro?
?alqays; a famous heathen poet)

Or by just pasting the two words fully together with no deletion of


whatever kind in any of them. The resulting 'blend' has no new meaning
of its own . It is serves only as a means of brevity for the speakers ,e.9.:

Shaq (to cut) + ftaTob (wood)--+ shaqftaTaD (to cut wood,cutting wood)

ftab (dew) + qor (frost)+ ftabqar ("dewfrost" ,dew resulting from frost)
73

Blending from a sentence or a phrase was mostly employed to


create verbs out of phrases or full sentences. It was mainly employed for
creating verbs e.g.:

Besm* Allah +alraftmdn +olrafreem (in the nurme of Allah the all
mercifrrl,the ever-mercifrrl) -+basmala (v.to say this form)
basmalah (n. the form itself)

mobasmel (n.the person saying it)

olltamdu ( thanks)+le.Alloh (to Allah)-+ fromdala (v.to thank Allah)


fromdalah (n. this form of thanks)

b )Regular Blending : Regular blending is done using only two


lexical items . It is done in one of two ways : First adding one or more

letters to the word or base. Those letters are mostly of no specific origrn or
meaning. They derive and adopt their meaning from the blend they create
when annexed to the base.

In most cases they are added just to reinforce the meaning of the base
and to exaggerate or emphasize its qualrty. For example adding lbl to

fnZata (to limp in walking ) creates baftZala (to watk in a sort ofjump due
to a limp in legs).3 aramrom ( [of floods] sweeping and powerful) is a blend
from 3drem (strong) plus the added syllable -ram* which is meaningless
by itself but add to and emphasize the meaning of power and strength in the
word.
74

Secondly exfapolating a letter or more of one of the two items and


affixing to the other either initially (prefix), medially (iofix) or finally
(suffix).No particular rule is provided as to which letters are to be

extapolated out or as to where to affix them.Examples of words blended


this way are :

BalkhaSa (v.) ,is a blend of bakhasa and lakhaSa;extrapolatngthe lbl


from the first and prefixing it to the second.
An example where exfiapolated syllables are infixed into the blend is
the noun elbargod ( a thick red striped cloth or sheet) which is a blend
from elbigdd (a stripped sheet) andbard (cloth).
Exarnples where exfiapolated syllables are suffixed into the blend is
Thofroq (n.,the precarp) which is a blend from thafr (the end of a saddle
stripe ) andfarq (a dividing line ) .

Blending in CA has mostly been auditory . At modern age its usage has
been confined to coining scientific terminology and jargon. This is partiall,v

because of the criteria of eloquence of language . Helal says :

iJ- ,.i-.;r.ll U' U+ fJ rl( I+et-.^,, cr.rill OA Oi Jl ellJl iJ- JS cJt-


I i rrlr:'r ."1 p6---;6-- A:J Jr d+lill )l ijJri^ll crt-lSll
.+-rJl &i clLJ q+-l.rb ,",-il1 ,jJS jll crUllt g,c ,'",rt tsil O! i* lJl
& crU^i pe-r:c Ul otr"U Urie iStSJFi^llit titii.a. .,i O-p. 9 tJ
i-+l: ol-r.b a;96 Erir t-l '''-ill rd tt-i. .i3ll
(r\ roa) .+j.

Blending should be done in accordance with the language's articulatory


and phonological patterns.Further blends should follow the metric patterns

of the language.
75

Examples of modern blends following these criteria are ?anfamy (adj,


aural-nasal )which is a blend from onf (nose) +famm (mouth) and it
describes aural-nasal phonemes or this passage itself ,etc.Also leb?arz
which is a blend from Lebanon and ?arz (cedar free), and it refers to that
kind of trees lebanon is famous for.
Blending in Arabic ,then ,is a very large and comprehensive process
that comprises such morphologcal techniques as blending, reduplication,
compounding and initialization in English.

3.3.6. Analogic Creation:


Arabic is a highly systematic language characterized by having
regularized patterns and norms for generating words.The process through
which an Arabic speaker generates new lexical items using the analogy and
symmetry of existing models is called analogic creation.

The importance of this process is that it saves time and effort to come up
with new models of words to follow . It also saves the effort and load of
memorizing lots of lexical items.Further it makes learning language easier,
History: With the expansion of the Arab Empire and grourth of their
menns of life and culture, langUage also expanded its resources, new
material was flooding into language and the need to regularize its pattems
became more insistent. So Alkfialeel, an Arab linguist , embarked on
setting patterns for the language and regulttmrg its panems .It was him
and Sebawayh who first set and regulanzed the principle of analogic
creation as stated by Ibn Jini (1954) .He says :

[ r ua rr a6JS LF Je +-"Jl pS.Jt Lir+$ L"


\

i.e. whichever lexical item or structure is patterned to Arabic would be


considered Arabic speech.
76

Fendrees (1950)defines analogic creation as "the process through which

the mind creates and innovates a form or an item or a structure in


confonniry with or parody for a well-known exanrple." p.205 He says.
Y . orJarr.ei_e-.;r-c
AiJ-! t+ q#S_F J e-K rl r4.- OA$t 1.6; .;Sig jll ir!.'j:A"
Analogic creation involves modeling words to words, patterns to patterns
or even usages to usages in order to achieve linguistic growth and also to
preserve the regularity of linguistic phenomenon. It also involves creating
linguistic models and patterns using symmerical analory of forms. All
forms of analogic creations in Arabic are acceptable, even if they create
anomalous metric patterns , so long as they do not disagree with or break
the grammatical rules of language.Helal says :

e u &till -.1;J dJ"Llt iJS GFJ| i.e ._r: lJ t; n,^,rt$lt O$ J OF'


qll .-il*:^ll
lS-. Ye 4+.:3la.c d .9*J $ t+* 3lJl3 .rt+ll lilli- eb r{y d[i3 .r2 i,;l
"+*t
I . I Ua ''. 4.elr^i e-+5

Preserving the regularity and synmetricality of language does not mean


that inegularities or non-conformant forms are excluded . All languages
have inegular forms and Arabic is no exception.CIrly that analogic
creations contribute to limiting and confining the number of these
inegularities to a few in favor of conformity of form and function.
Processes of Analogic Creation:

Analogic creation in Arabic includes three main processes .These are:


a)Extending the meaning of an Arabic item to a foreign one.This is
done for no reason other than their being similar or identical in form
(metrical pattern) or function e.g. Htamr means 'wine' in Arabic and so
its meaning can be extended to refer to any drink or juice that may
produce the same alcoholic effect.
77

b)Patterning words of the same morphologlcal build together so that their


semanticity is predictable by the speaker or learner. For example words
built to the pattern fo3ayyel are always diminutive forms e.g. kotay'yeb
(booklet), woray'qah (leaflet), shogay-rah (a small tree),etc.

c)Words that are morphologcaly similar though firnctionally different are


freated as belonging to one category even if in form only,For example
words in Arabic that end in -t or -h are fieated as feminine whichever

their singular form might be. This is because -/ and -h are both the end -
markings of feminine words in Arabic whether they refer to a real or
virtual feminine object.
Analogic creation is useful in coining up many forms e.g. nouns,
adjectives, gerunds ,agentive nouns ,quasi-adjectives, comparatives, etc.It
is also a very useful process in lexicogaphy ,particularly in assembling
word-families for semantic dictionaries .

3.3.7. Coining:

Definitionz Al?ertegdl in Arabic ,is coining up new words in meaning or


in form that bear no relation nor similarib/ to the lexis of the language or
follow any of its metric patterns . Coinages are the singular, unigue and
unusual forms that gain enty into language and acceptance with its
speakers without being properly justified or accounted for by rules of word

formation,by custom nor even by the metric patterns of that language .

Ibn Jini allowed coinages provided that they are produced by someone
who spoke pure eloquent Arabic,a native speaker of CA ' "[n Arabian
whose language is genuinely eloquent , and his linguistic intuition is fast

engraved ,is the one who would unquestionably coin and create new

unknown lexical items. "


78

He says:

"c+ 41.6 .si "il"g eJL ,J*-,1l_1,-i).i 41+t ,-, .'U 4isL-i.'UJi ltl ,r.rt;eYl gli"
\o-\i.

Further he subcategorised coining into two types:


a)coining new words that never existed before.

b)deriving new words from existing roots based on anomalous metric


patterns . For example ?rfan3a3a is an coinage for the third person verb
from the root rafa3a (to lift),it was narrated in the old Arab citation :

t--iiJE tli jrJt ilj

This coinage has the metric pattern j3anlala ,which is rather an


unfamiliar pattern for verbs in general and for third person singular verbs in
particular.

3.3.8.Metathesis and Mutation:

Alqalb (metathesis) and ol?ebddl (mutation) are traditionally


considered trvo processes for enriching language lexicon .The underlying
concept in these two processes is that all meanings of an enfiy ,however
commuted and alternated its radicals might be, will range in one and the
same semantic field . Analytically, the sounds of words in Arabic are most

fiued to their meanings.

a)Metathesis:

ln metathesis one of the radicals of the trilateral root is forefronted over

the others . The result is a new enfiry sharing the same radicals of the root
with different arangement .The new entry would have the same core
meaning of the mother entry but with minor lexical differences expressing
fine semantic shades or gradations .For example gabaza and gazaba (to
pull, drag) and ya?esa and ?ayesa (to despair) ,etc.
79

CA abounds in examples of this type .Any of the three radicals of the

root could be forefronted into initial position and they can also be moved
back to the medial position or final position of the root.

Linguists accounted for metathesis as being a phenomenon that


originated as a form of experimentation and variation with linguistic
material at the early phases of language development. This experimentation
resulted in supplying the lexicon with new material .

Another explanation is that this linguistic phenomenon is one of the


manifestations of tribal differences in Pre-Islamic Arabic. Accordingly of
each commuted pair ,the commoner word is to be considered the original
base and the other one its variant.For example ya?esa would be the
original base for ?ayesa which is less frequent in usage.Because ya?esahas
wider usages and more derivatives than ?oyesa.

b) Mutation:
Mutation is a linguistic phenomenon where one of the consonantal
radicals of the trilateral root is replaced with a new different consonant.
The result is a new trilateral root which is considered a semantic variant for
the old one, and shares elements of its core meaning.

For example in waswosah (to whisper, or to insinuate evil or bad


thoughts to) when s is replaced with sft , a new word results which is
washwoshah ( meaning to whisper softly and neutrally to some
person).The two words are considered a "pair" of variants within the
semantic field of hearing and voices.Hadeer is the sound of surging sea or
tlre sound of uproaring water as in waterfalls, hadeel on the other side is
the cooing of pigeons. Both words also refer to sounds.
80

Pairs of mutations and metatheses have other features common


between them beside the semantic features . Almost all their radicals are
identical except one or two at most. These pairs of variants also exhibit the
same metric pattern and internal vowelings .

Examples for words where consonants replace each other are ; kntha3a
and kotha?a (for milk to tum sour ),enzahaw and anzahaw (to be proud

and arrogant), eltama?a and eltama3a ( to glitter) , gadth and gadf ( tomb,

a grave) ,nafafta andnafakha (to blow breath into fire


,to kindle a fire) .
Vowels sometimes replace consonants For example shagarah and
shayarah ( a ftee) , tamoTd and tqmaTaT (to stretch out md, tasada and
)
taSadada ( to impede, resist ) ,etc.

Some modern Arabic dialects still exhibit this feature. In Kuwaiti Arabic
ragel (a man) is pronounced royyar (replacing g with the semi-vowel y
),
geit (I came ) is pronounced yeit ,etc.

Mutation ,along with metathesis, are processes old Arabs used to


express fine gradations of meaning. This helped them add to the lexicon
of
the language without having to coin up brand new words . An old word
can
be revived by performing metathesis or mutation on it. Mutation was
a very
creative process in cA when language was rigorously expanding
and its
lexicon was not transcribed yel In MSA both mutation and metathesis
are
rarely used as resources for expanding the lexicon. This is due to
the fact
that language has almost been finally standardized and fear of spoiling
its
eloquence and purity prohibits such experimentation
,particularly if it is
not academically authorized or if it is done on an individual basis .There
has been calls for reviving usage of such processes . Helal proposes that
using such alterations will be of help in coining scientific terminology.
Particularly in cases where fine gradations of meaning exist and the need
for so closely related sets ofwords is demanding.p32l
Chapter Four
Arabic Sample
Analysis
81

The Arabic elementary data source amounted to the number of 2100


words .These were words chosen rnainly on basis of their novelty in
meaning, morphological build, contexfual reference or frequency of usage.

After the sample has been refined ,the number of words dismounted to
816 words -These words were new words in meaning and morphological
build. Contextual and frequency considerations have been disregarded in
refining the sample.
Words have been categorized into their respective word formation
processes .Most categories have had enough number of data words to
represent them .Word formation processes that had very few number of
words to opt for were rather disregarded and treated as out-of-usage. Three
word formation processes have not been represented in the Arabic sample.
These are metattresis and mutation, analogic creation and coining. Due to
considerations of eloquence and linguistic purity , none of these processes
is in use in MSA.

The first word formation process to examine is derivation . Derivation


can be done up to numerous metric patterns.In analyzing the chosen
sample, it was taken into consideration to tackle the most dominant patterns

that has a frequency supremacy in the sample and that enriched the
language with lexical innovations The patterns examined were nine
patterns .Eight of them are used to generate nouns following the
regulative and systematic rules of derivation. The ninth pattern relate to
deriving collective or qualitative nouns (known in Arabic as qlmasdar
alSena3y) from different lexical iterns of different metric patterns.
Eight noun pattems are analysed .These are nouns derived from
pattern I (fa3ala) , II (fa3'3ala) , IV (aBala) ,V (tafa3'3ala), vI (tafa3ala),
VIII (efta3ala) and X (estaf3ala) and from the quadrilateral verbal root
(fa3lala). Nouns derived from these verbal patterns have the 6ighest
frequencies in a co{pus research of 816 words.
82

Nonns derived up to pattern II are measured (taJ3eel) ', to pattern

IV @fieU, to pattern Y (taJ3'3ol./ ,nouns derived from pattern YI (tofa3ol),


from pattern VIII (eftdefi and nouns derived up to pattern X are
measnred esteJ3At.Each of these pafierns has its semantic connotations and

references.

fa3'jala are measured taf3eel


Nouns derived up to the pattern
(125 words).These nouns have the core meaning of exaggerating the
action and having it been done repeatedly or excessively or by more than
one agent. Another important semantic feature for nouns coined up to this
pattern is atfibuting the qualities of the action or root verb to its recipient
or object .Some of these creations are not brand-new derivations ,but it is
only their usage and the frequency within political discourse that grve

them their importance. As in : tamyye3 "softening,liquefaction" ,ta3Seer

"to make contemporary , contemporanate" , tagzeer "to root,to radicalize",


tahweed "Judaizing" , taghyyeb "to absent,make somebody,or something
absent", tATbee3 "tO normalize", tadweer "CyCling", tathweer

"revolutionize", tamseer "Egyptianizing",taghreeb "alienating" and

tasyees "politicizing". Some of these examples have English counterpart as

in tamreer, Iasyees , tahweed , tadweer,etc.Others can be said to be pure


Arabic creations as in tasbeer, ta3Seer, ta?Seel, tahgeer,ta3Seer, taghleeb,
tahreet (to render Kuwaiti),etc.
Another well-used derivational pattern in the sample is the noun
pattern ef3al . This noun pattem is derived from the quadrilateral root
aJ3alo. The most important semantic connotation of this pattern is to have
the agent exposing its object for the action of the verb . Examples afe.

e3mdl "enacting* , efshAl "frustrating,causing to fail,thwarting" , e3mdr


"rebuilding ,reconstruction, restoration" .There are not many new creations
following this pattern (59words). The newest creations are e3mdl, efshal,
e3mdr and ehdath (to make happen, to effect).
B3

Nouns derived from pattern yr ,taJh3ala , are measured tafa33ot (51


words) .Nouns coined to the pattern tafa33ot has the semantic connotation
of stressing the effort underlaken to do a desired action or attain it
e.g.takayyof 'adaptation' . They can also be used to show the gradualib, of
an action taking its course e.g. taDakh'khom'inflation'. Sometimes these
nouns are used to show the adoption of the agent to certain qualities or
characteristics existent in the noun as in tawaft'hosh 'brutalization',
barbarity, brutality' and tasaft'ftor'to turn into desert'.Some of these nouns
are brand new creations. For example: tasoft'ftor, tashayyo? 'to
matenalize, to become a 'thing' , taDavwvo? 'to adopt the characteristics of
light, to becorne phantom-like', tarabbofi profiteering,, tagazzor 'to be
implanted, rooted' .

Another pattern that has its role in the derivational process is


hfa3ol(45 words) which creates nouns derived from the quintuple verb
pattern tafa3ala.Nouns coined to this pattern mostly refer to actions where
more than one agent participate in or undertake a process together.For
example: ta3dyosh "coexistenc" , tashdTo? "(of countries)to be coastal
neighbors,to coast over" .Or else they might refer to actions where the
agent is exhibiting the qualities requisite for doing the action e.g. taqddom

"to go into a state of being outdated", taDaghoT "to be in a state of


compressibiliqr, annexation, to cause to squeeze" .

Bstel3iil is a noun pattern derived from the hexagonal verbal pattern


estafiola. Nouns coined to this pattern (44 words) have two main semantic
comotations :first to do an action or assume its appearance, and secondly
propelling the recipient of the action to do or go into a certain process.
84

Some of the innovations in MSA following this pattern are : esteyTdn

"seeking habitation in a certain place,often illegally,, , estenhdD " seeking


advancement, mobilization" , estensdkh "cloning" , este3rdb "seeking to

be an Arab, Arabicization,etc".

The only case where active usage of the trilateral verb pattern
fa3ala is employed is to coin agentive nouns up to the measure fa3el
(4Owords). Four nouns are voguish .wd3ed "promising" dd3em
,
"supporting" , 3adem "waste" , kd?en "existing ,material, substantial,
real".

Efte3el is a noun pattern (32 words) which have its place in the
sarnple. A noun coined to this pattern and adopted by almost all languages
in the world is enteJhDah which has been borrowed or fiansliterated into
English intfado .Nouns following this pattern denote actions that are
sought or done with keenness or effort . Example s. enteJdDah ,,upheaval",

eghterab "alienation" ,and ehendz "treasuring, amassing money"


An important pattern that has been employed to create most of the
new Arabic nouns and verbs is fa3tala .This is a quadrilateral verb
pattern, that has its nouns coined up as
fa3latah .Nouns coined to the
patternfa3lolah provide most of the recent items in Arabic vocabulary (34
words). These nouns have the core semantic feahne of enforcing the action
of the verb , its characteristics or requisites upon a certain recipient, be it an
animate or inanimate recipient e.g. shayTanah "demonization", ?ansanah
"humanization" , masrahoh "theatrizatiofl" , amrakah "Americani zation' ,
qawlabah "mouldingframing", maykanah "machinization", farnasah
"Frenchification", shakhsanoh "personification", khaskhasoh
"pnvitization", ?aslomah "Islamization", 3aqlanah "rationalization",
sa3wadah (to render saudffiom the proper noun soudi Arabia and
b alq onah "Balkanization" .
85

J Metric Pafterns

MA
124
100
80
60
40
2g
0

t"s ?t bbe t"E


Fig. 4.1 Numerical repre.sentation of metric patterns in the sample.

An innovation that mostly characterized MSA is using arti{icial


nouns .This is the form called almasdar alsend3y and it is created by
adding the suffix -eyyalt to the root whichever part of speech or metric
pattem it is. Hijazy (1978,a)defined "artificial nouns" as :

clbl+jll.,J' 4JlJl .rs o*6 l+"ei d3 (4) qHl+ t-;r:i-tt )]^-.Jl g *eE -ll -r.r.o.ll"
YVr-'o ". e).r}l ;Jra3 tJn+lt .J I- oA iA el -*i ,n, q3Alr^lt3

Abd Alhakim (1999) states that this pattern of derivation was not
unknown altogether to Arab grammarians. Despite the fact that usage of
this category has just recently been pinpointed , the pattern itself was
known and used by old Arabs, though not as frequently and significantly as
it is now. Well-known Arab grammarian, such as Alkhalil Bin Ahmad ,

Sybaweih and also Alfarra? all gave examples for artificial nouns in their
anthologies.But they did not categorize them separately as a pattern for
noun formation because their number and usage were very limited by then .
86

Artificial nouns in the sample is so big (l 19 words). As indicated


above artificial nouns are used mainly to indicate qualities, movements, or
just abstract ideas and absolute thoughts. Examples.. manTeqeyyah
"logicality, logicalness" , naj3eyyah "pragmatism" entdgeyyah
"productivity" , estemrareyyah "continuity" , Salefteyyah "righteousness",
meSDdqeyyah "reliability, credibility", maqbooleyyah "acceptability",
? ent e qa? eyyah "selectivity" and 3 ob atheyyah "absurdism"
Sometimes artificial nouns are pluralized and used as generic
collective nouns. In this case they refer to the collectivity of a category of
objects, ideas , movements ,etc. For exarnple: nashreyydl "periodicals"
,
ramaDaneyydt "things about/of RamaDSn" .Such usage is reminiscent of
the *isms usage in English which is sometimes employed to create generic
nouns such as Americanisms , Blairisms (of Tony Blair ,the British prime-
minister).
The notion of Arabicization in Arabic equals that of bonowing in
English. Most of Arabicizations in the sample (96 words) are used as nouns
or For example. ol?enfelwonzo (influenza) , brotkool
adjectives.
(protocol) , regeem (regime) , sosyoologeyyah (sociological) , sheek
(cheque) deebagoh ( composition ) , destooreyyah (constitutional).
Arabic adopted lexical items of many languages ,though English takes
the lion share. An example of borrowing from French is sheek ; from
Persian deebdgah and destooreyyah.Changes in the original forms of
borrowed words are mainly vowel changes Sometimes minor
morphologrcal changes occur.e.g. sosyoologeyyah where the suffix -icql is
replaced with -eyyah (both suffixes indicate adjectivaltty) programme
has been transliterated tnto berndmeg ,where /bl replaceslpl , letter
rrrangement of the original form is changed and the infix -n- is used.
Bureaucratic is transliterated into beeroqrdTeyah where /q/ replaces /k/ and
I t I replaces lt/, etc.
87

As is characteristic of Arabic transliterations can be derived frorn


once they are assirniliated into language.For example, mobarmagoh
(programmed ),barntagah (programming) are derived from bernameg
(programme).

Most transliterated words ending in the suffix -ism change it into the
Arabic suffrx -eyyah e.g. librdleyyoh for liberalism and radecdleyyah
for radicalism Sometimes words ending in the suffix -ocy are also
transliterated this way e.g. deemoqraTeyyoh for democrocy and
deb lom ds eyyah for diplomacy.

Translation is a powerful a process in many languages .It shows how

much a particular language is adoptive of new meaning and ideas. Arabic is


a very flexible language in this respect. Many words and expressions have

been successfully translated into Arabic (42 words) . For example: Toweel
al?ogal (long-term), almatdger almosalsqlah (chain markets),seeyrah
zdteyyah (C.V.) and alhaseb al?dly (the computer).
Sometimes a whole phrase or an expression is literally translated,the
result would be a 'calqued' expression where the words are Arabic but the
meaning is essentially English For example .eteJdq eTdr (frame
agreement),eqteSddeyyat alneqdd (Monetarism)gadwal a3mdl (work
agenda),gama3dt maSdleh (lobbies),etc.
Despite the fact that Arabic derivational morphology is based mainly
on affixes being annexed to the base ,and that most of these affixes (91
words) are to be bound morphemes whether prefixes ,infixes or even
suffixes.In MSA we find some free forms (nouns ,verbs or articles)
stereotyped and molded to stand for foreign (particularly English) affixes .

For example, the verb yo3eed and its noun e3adah have been used in
coining up and in translating verbs or nouns starting with the affix re- rn
English.
88

As in: e3ddat altawTeen "resettlement" , 3ddat tadweer


"recycling", e3ddnt e3mdr "rebuilding" , e3ddat haykalah "reformatting" .

Other Arabic words that has been used as "free affixes" are qdbel le (
-able,-ible)ghayr (non- ,un- ,in- ) , mota3aded (multi- ) ,shebh ( quasi- ,
semi- ,near, -wise) , shadeed (highty- , sfongly- ,extremely- ), 3adam
(non- ) , motazdyed (increasingly-) , ?alla ) . The two "affixes"
(the non-
which are mostly used in the sample are ghayr and e3ddal . The most
notable usage of the "affix" ghayr comes n . ghayr qabelah lelneqdsh
"undiscussable" where a double usage of two of these newly stereotyped
affixes ghayr and qabelah le exists.An important coinage using qdbel le is .

qdbelah lelbaqd? "sustainable, lasting". This example is considered a


direct transfer from English to Arabic.

n, \ o\" \o,
\\
Fig. 4.2 Numerical representation of stereogtped 'preJixes'in Arabic.

The effect of Greek translations on Arabic morphology is exemplified in


modern words having the infix 4n- (4 words) and the prefix ?alta (ll
words).The newest creations are ?alla selmeyyah hon-peacefril', and
?alla ?enheydzeyyah 'non-alignment' . Words having the infix 4n- are
few.e.g. : 3elmdneyyah'secularism' .
89

There are examples where apparent shifts of meaning occur(23


words) e.g. noktah which originally , meant an apparent mark (often a
blotch), in modern usage it has come to mean "a clever witticism" or "a
joke". Yomorer originally meant to let pass or go and it came to mean to
"pass a law". Talfeeq meant patching a worn cloth, it now means "framing"

( charges or accusations)Mardood meant " a returned thing" now it means


an "effect or impact". Yoftoyyed meant to make a person or a thing swerve
or divert from a straight course , now it means "neutralize" .

Blends also exist in the sample, but not abundantly (15 words). All
these blends -except only four- refer to bilateral relations between two or
more countries. Names of countries are annexed wholesale and hyphenated

e.g.: al s oo reyyah ql ?es rd? e el eyyah, "Syrianlsraeli" and


qlm aSre? eyyah <l reekeyyah, "Egytian-American" . Sometimes parts of
? am

the first name are clipped ,the two words in this case are not hyphenated.
Instead, they pasted together e.g.: ol?fro'orobeyyah, "Afro-European" and
albetro'kemya?eydl , "petrochemicals" .Few blends don"t refer to political
relations.Those are. al?amrdD alnafs-3oDweyyoh "psychophysical
diseases",al?ana<ldkhar "the me-him relations" and alra?smdteyyah
"Capitalism" .No significantly new creations has been noted in this
limited sample of blends.
Words where syllables or sounds are reduplicated exist in the sample
(8words).For example e.g.khaskhasah (privitisation) , za3za3ah
(slraking,convulsion), walwolah (sobbing,wailing) , balbalah (disturbance).
But despite rhyhmic repetition of syllables ,these forms do not have a
regularized semantic pattern as is the case with other metric patterns in
Arabic. i.e. they do not have preset or predictable meaning as is the case
with other metric patterns.This is the reason why reduplication is not
considered a word formation process in Arabic.
90

Certain word formation categories were not found nor incorporated


in the sample. These are coining ,analogic creation and metathesis and
mutation. These categories are almost non-used or absolutely neglected
and out-of-vogue in MSA. The reason for the outdatishness of these

categories is the criteria of eloquence and purity of language set by bo& old

and modern Arab grarrmarians.Following are figures showing frequencies


and percentages of usage of Arabic word f,ormation processes, ?s
exemplified in the sample :

I Wo rd fo rm atio n processes

ont^
\u
%a \
uru
1\, '" \

Fig. 4.3 Numerical representation ofwordformation pracesses


in the sample.
E tlerivation ElArtificial nouns I blending
E Arabicization I translation I affixes
I shifting

Fig. 4.4 Percentage of wordfurmation processes in the


Sample.

MSA is exploiting its resources within the limitations and


confinements imposed by the criteria of eloquence and linguistic
purity.Such criteria necessitate the nativity of the speaker of Arabic and
who is eligible to coin up new lexical items stipulates a time span (Citation
Ages: znd-4th Hijri centuries) for language items to be modeled and
parodied .Following these criteria processes such as coining, analogic
creation and mutation and metathesis are rarely, if ever used. The most
employed word formation process in MSA is derivation This is perhaps
because it saves the speaker the problem of predicting meanings of new

creations and provides him preset patterns for deriving new lexical
items.Further derivation in Arabic is a very regularized process , easy to
Iearn and to apply to whatever root the speaker has. The most dominant
metric patterns are ta/3eel and JE3el. Whereas the newest creations were
,-'.itned up to the patfern fa3lalah.
92

Another aspect of innovation is using artificial nouns for expressing

abstract ideas , names of political and literary or cultural movement . This


type of nouns had not had such usage and employment in CA.
Arabicization is also one of the word-formative processes used in MSA .It
comes secondary to derivation and translation . Arabic adopts lexical items

from many languages ,mainly English .This is ,perhaps, due to the fact that
English is an international language dominating almost all news agencies in
the world .It also has the supremacy in linguistic research and innovation.
Conclusion
93

Each linguistic system has its own means of enlarging its resources
and enriching its lexical repertoire. Word-formation processes are almost
the same in most languages. Differences lie in the frequency and
dependence each system lays on one or the other of these processes. Some

languages employ only certain processes, others opt for totally different
ones .A third group would use the serme host with different preferences .It
mostly depends on the adaptability of the morphologrcal system of a
language to certain processes rather than others.Another important
factor is
how far the speakers of tle language experiment in their usage of its
lexical
resources. Throughout his life ,the speaker continues to adopt speech
habits
from his fellows. At any moment ,his language is a unique composite
of
habits acquired from various people.

contrasting any two linguistic systems is arways done from


three
perspectives: similarities , divergences and overlapping
, categories
Arabic and English belong to two different language family
.English
belongs to the Indo-European family whereas Arabic
belongs to the
Semitic one. Each language has its own phonological
,morphological and
syntactic particularities. Orthographic medium is also different
in both
languages.Contrasting such two almost wholly different
linguistic systems
would ,then, entail looking for similarities more than differences
which are
readily discerned.
In analysing the sample , it was found that English and Arabic employ
nearly the same processes with minor differences in the labels
assigned to
some categories and in the subcategori zation of others. For
example ,
English word -formation comprises a large number of processes (fourteen
processes) : derivation , blending, compounding conversion
, , shifiing,
reduplicotion, idiomatic usoge , coining ,analogic creation, cltpping ,

initiolizations and acronyms , eponyms ,bacffirmation and borcowing.


94

Whereas Arabic word-formation comprises eight processes : derivation,


blending, Arqbicizalion , tronslotion, metaphoric usage of language ,
coining, anologic creation and metathesis and mutation .

As to processes which are similar or identical on both sides ;there is


Arabicization which is synonymous with borrowing in English . Only that
Arabicized items have by necessity to be assimilated into Arabic, whereas
in English this is not always the nonn. Two other categories that exist in
both languages are coining and analogic creation.The only difference is
that these processes are rule-sanctioned and collective in MSA whereas in
English they are rather spontaneous and individual processes.Secondly
they were vividly used in CA but not in MSA, whereas they are still in use
in Modern English.
Metaphoric and non-metaphoric usage is also a well-explored
process in both English and Arabic (though it is partially in examining the
sample , because it involves stylistic and idiosyncratic differences rather
than linguistic and morphologlcal ones). Metaphoric usage in Arabic
comprises the categories of shifting, idiomatic usage and metaphoric usage
in English.It is notable that, unlike Arabic, idiomatic usage is abundant in
the English sample.This is perhaps due to the fact that most idioms in CA
are culturally related and hence opaque to speakers of MSA. Idioms used
in MSA are mostly loan translations or calques of English or other foreign
languages, e.g. naSeeb al?asad (lion's share) , yDa3 al3arabah qabl
alfteSdn (to place the cart before the horse), etc.
95

Whereas names of categories might be the same in some cases such as

in blending and derivation.There are major differences in the concept


and subcategorization of these processes.For example blending in Arabic
comprises the processes of, compounding, blending and initialization and

acron)rms in English. For example, s.h.m stands for seknk ftadeed maSr
(Egyptian railways ) which is considered a'regular blend' in Arabic and an
initialization in English kahromaghnaTeesy is a blend of kahro (electro)
and maghnaTeesy (magnetic) and stands for the English blend
electromagnetic. Ra?smaleyyah is a blend of ra?s (head) and mdleyyah
(monetary) and stands for English "capitalism".This blend is done by just
pasting two words together , a technique which would be considered
'compoundittg' in English. Blending in Arabic is thus a very large and
comprehensive label that includes such notions as blending, compounding,
reduplication and acronymsa and initialization in English. Having one
broad notion of a process in Arabic paralled by four different processes in
English denotes that the quantification of usage of each process is different
in Arabic to the favor of English. Processes such as initializatron,blending
and reduplication do exist in Arabic but they are not so widely and

frequently used as to be categoized and labelled separately.

Derivation in Arabic comprises minor processes that are separately


categonzed in English .For example, in Arabic names of places and seasons

can be derived from e.g. tamSeer (Egyptianization) ,bastarah


(pasteurization), and ?oshta ( to have, pass winter ) . In English such

usage is labeled separately as " eponyms" .


97

Backformation is a process that is rarely used in Arabic . It is used


only with Arabicizations such as barmagoft 'programming' (derived from
bernameg 'programme') and Further talfuzoh (televisation) is a back
formation of teleefezyor (televison) ,etc.

On the other hand, an Arabic category which was a rich source for new
lexicon and have no equivalent in English word-formative processes is
metathesis and mutation.These two processes have almost gone out of
use in MSA due to eloquence considerations despite the fact that they can

be very helpful in coining semantically-related variants.

It is important to stress the fact that whatever efforts are taken to refine
sample of any idiosyncratic orientation still the choice of research corpus,
material and even analysis will bear some degree of subjectivity . The
results of this research then are not last-word-judgments , rather they bear a
speculative nature into qualitative ways of development of both languages .

Quantitative generalizations then are possible but taking into consideration


the variables and limitations of the research corpus .Romaine states the
difficulty of such a task,she says :

Estimates of the relative productiveness of one or


another gpe of word formation are subject to many
variables and consequently urcertainities .Not least
almong those is establishing the conect etymology of a
word Any single estimate of the frequency of
various typesof word formation will be skewed
because of the sample of words examined , the
etymological categories used , and the way the
categories are applied to the sample.In most cases
single estimates are usually idiosyncretic.Sp.S 3,82)
98

In evaluating the quantative evolution of both English and Arabic,


we notice that despite similarities in the categories and processes of word-
formation in both sides , each language has exhibited its idiosyncrasy and

characteristics in employing one or more processes over the others.


Derivation is the dominant process in both languages .

Process that come second in frequency of usage are Arabicization in


Arabic and compounding in English . Compounding provides a large bulk

of adjectival words in the English sample , whereas Arabicization stands

for many of the borrowings and names of foreign objects, cultural

movements and concepts . The rest of processes play a rather marginal role

in enriching language repertory on both sides.It is important also to note ,

as Katamba(1993) said that :

Productivity is a matter of degree .It is not a


dichotomy , with some processes being productive and
others being unproductive. Probably no process is so
general that it affects, without exception , all the bases
to which it could potentially apply. The reality is that
some processes are relatively more general than others.
Further productivity is subject to the dimension of
time. A process which is very genetal during one
historical period may become less so at a subsequent
period. Conversely ,a new process entering a language
may initially affect a tiny friction of eligrble inputs
before eventually applyngmore widely.(p67 )

Diachronichally,some categones which were rich sources for word-


formation in CA, have no equivalents and are almost no longer in use in
MSA.One of these is metathesis and mutation which is called in Arabic
alqalb andal?ebddl .
99

These fwo processes ,which were once employed to create words of fine
and nearby shades of meaning are not used for reasons related to linguistic

eloquence and purity in MSA and have no equivalent neither in Old nor in
Modern English .Other processes process are analogic creation and coining.
Due to considerations of eloquence and linguistic purity , none of these
processes is in use in MSA.Change in the quantification of usage of these

categories exemplifies for and endorses the fact stated by Katamba's ; that
productivity in word formation is a synchronically and diachronically
controlled variable.
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Series IV - Current Issues in Linguistic Theory.
Kluwer Academic Publishers. London .

Web sites:
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webmaster@us. en gl ish. u ga. edu.
Arabic References
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.;_;aEIl. +r -Jl 4.:ijJl {nS.

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Y . . \ F- -l:Y YallYl. ^(ryflUl <;J <t'-.2*Jl eJll '. a,^,,.. , i." ol ,cJgy
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Wright, W.,LL.D .(1983) A Grommar of the Arabic Language .


Revised by W.Robertson Smith & M.J. De Goeje.
'Chand Company Ltd.' .New Delhi .India

Elgibali , Alaa (ed.).(1996) Understanding Arabic ; Essays in


Contemporary Arabic Linguistics in Honour of
El-Said Badowi.
The American University Press. Cairo .
Appendices
Appendices
Page No.
Appendix l: English Tables

Table I . Derivation t17


Table 2. Compounding 140
Table 3. Conversion r57
Table 4. Borrowing 161

Table 5. Shifting 167


Table 9. Reduplication l7l
Table 6. Initialization and acronyms 172
Table 7. Clipping t73
Table 8. Coining 174
Table 10. Eponyms 175
Table ll. Backformation 175
Table 12. Blending 176
Table 13. Idioms 177

Appendix 2: Arabic Tables

Table 1. Derivation:

a)taf3eel t79
b)e8il t82
c)tafa3'3ol 183
d)tafa3ol 184
e)esteBdl 186
f)fE3el 187
g)efte3il 188
h)fa3lalah 189
Table 2. Artificial Nouns 190
Table 3. Arabicization 192
Tabe 4. Translation 195
Table 5. Prefixes 196
Table 6. Shifting 198
Table 7. Blending t99
Appendix One
English Tables
117
Derivation
Table .1. Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Activist A civil rights activist Wanyama 19,Mar
Wansah
Adventurism Reckless mil itary adventurism Uzi Mahnaimi l8.June.
Agitator A veteran liberal agitator R.W.Johnson l3,Feb.
Airliner Shooting down of an Iranian airliner Matthew 4,June.
Campbell
All-black He told the all-black congresation Tom Rhodes 25.June
All-female Ar all-female theatre Tom Rhodes l8,June.
All-out A weak into an all-out offensive Peter Conradi 2l,May.
against Eritrea,Ethiopia ..
All-out A week into an all-out offensive Peter Conradi 28,May
against Eritrea , Ethiopia...
Anarchist Anarchists threatened to. Tom Walker
.
2O-Feb
Ancestral Protecting ancestral land Matthew 28,May
Campbell
Android-like An early version of android-like Julian Ryall 23,April
device
Anti-ballistic Developing anti-ballistic missile Matthew 26,Mar
defences Campbell
antibodv An antibody to nicotine Ro,qer Dobson 4,June.
Anti- The most brazen anti-communism Brendon 4,June.
communism Bourne
Anti-Disney Cashing in on anti-Disney sentiment News Agency l3,Feb.
Anti-drug The organisation' s anti-drug John Harlow 28,May
campaign
Anti-euro to woo Anti-euro Danes Peter Conradi 4,June.
Anti-federalist utner antl-tederal ist states Tony Allen 2l,May.
Mills
Anti-Islamic Riots portrayed as anti-lslam c. Marie Clovin 23.Aoril
Anti-Israel He was considered anti-Israel Uzi Mahnaimi 2l,May.
Anti-mafia Anti-mafia snatch squad John Follain 4.June.
Anti-politician Portraying himself as anti-politician Matthew 23,Jan.
Campbell
Anti-pope Ulement Vll the antr-none John Follain l2,Mar
Anti-Russian secause ot rts anti-Russian content Uzi Mahnaimi 4,June.
Anti-Semitism Feulled anti-Semitism John Follain l9,Mar
Anti-ski King ugly anti-ski strips News Agencv 16,Jan.
Anti-smokins Anti-sqoking laws News Agencv 12,Mar
Anti+rust Under anti-trust legislation News Agencv 25,June
Apprehensively Men will be apprehensively assessing Mark Franchetti 26,Mar
their prospects
Archeologist The archeologist found wells Matthew 28,May
Campbell
archetypal An archetypal know-it-all technocrat Tony Allen 25,June
Mills
118
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Assailant One of the assailants struck a match R.w.Johnson 4,June.
Astrologer Giving astrologers a glimpse of.. Matthew 28,May
Campbell
attachee She is a press attachee Susan Bell l6-Jan
Attacker One of his attackers Jon Swain 9,April
Authoritarianism A trend towards authoritarianism in Mark 26,Mar
Russia Franchetti
Authoritarianism I.egi sl ators of authoritariani sm JohnFollain l8-June.
Back-ender The usual substantial back-enders News 6,Feb.
Agencv
Backer The backers of the Millenium Dome News 13,Feb.
Agencv
Backpacker From backpacker to veterans ,tourists Michael 23,Apr|l
flock... Sheridan
baqful They come with bagfuls of stuff Jon Ungoed 4-June.
Baggy Dressed up in baggy petticoats for a TV News 26,Mar
spoof Asencv
Banker Including bankers David Or 9,April
Baptist A Baptist preacher who.. Matthew 9,April
Campbell
barbaritv Cannibalism is one of many bar6arities John Swain 2l,Mav.
Bear-hugger Animated bear-hugger Michael 18,June.
Sheridan
Belongings Carrying their belongings News 9,April
Agency
benefactor Scandal surrounding benefactors Peter 6,Feb.
Conradi
Bilateralist This tension between prodib pederalism Stephen l6,April
and bilateralist's instincts Grey
biochem st A biochemist who was waltine Tom walker 5 -Mar
biochemistry The biochemistry of wine Abi 20,Feb
Daruvalla
biographer Ben Pimlott,her biographer Christopher 7,Jan
Morgan
Bioloeist He was a geologist and a biolo.qist John Follain 23.April
Birdy She worried about birdies Tony Allen- l8,June
Mills
Bomber Two bombers were destroved Michael 27,Feb.
Sheridan
booster With a vaccine and a booster thay can Roger 4,June.
stay offit Dobson
Break-dancer Rappers and break-dangers mingied with Tony Allen 26,Mar
girls Mills
bubbly Romans beat French to the bubbly John Follain 20.Feb
Buddhist Drawn from the Buddhist clergy Michael 13,Feb.
Sheridan
Bureaucratic Certain bureaucratic jobs were fiGd Stephen 16,April
Grey
119
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Burly He was a burly toolmaker News 7,Jan
Agencv
Campaigner A human rights campaigner Michael l9,Mar
Sheridan
candidacy Announces her candidacv Tom Rhodes 6,Feb
Cannibalistic In ritual cannibalistic practices John Swain 21.May.
Capitalise Bush tried to capitalise on his service Tom Rhodes l8.June.
Capitalist A venture capitalist company News 26,}ld.ar
Asencv
Captor To cook for their captors Marie Clovin 28-Mav
car0etbaqger As an out-of-state carpetbaqser Tom Rhodes 6.Feb.
cartoonrst Invented by a Belgian cartoonist Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
chador In the flowing black chador Gabriella 20,Feb
mandatory for all women Bianchi
cheery With a cheery demeanour Tom Walker t6
chips Undetectable chips installed during Uzi 21,May.
manufacture Mahnaimi
Cinematic A cinematic version of the novel News 20,Feb
Agencv
Claw-like Its claw-like hands Julian Ryall 23.April
Cleaner He provided cleaners for department Jon Swain l9,Mar
heads
cleaner He was found by a street cleaner Mark 23,April
Franchetti
clubber The clubber's dance of death JohnFollain l8,June.
Co-accused Shares the dock with his co-accused David Orr 5.Mar
codify Credited with codifying the John Follain 20,Feb
chamoasne-maker's art
Co-funder The company's co-funder News 27,Feb.
Asencv
Colonialist British colonialists stole. . Jon Swain 9-Aoril
Columnist Observed a columnist in yesterday's Michael l9,Mar
edition Sheridan
Comemorative " Taking comemorative photographs " Michael 6,Feb.
Woodhead
communist He was a communist agent Matthew 20,Feb
Campbell
confrontational It is very confrontational and painful Abi 20,Feb
Daruvalla
conservatlsm Queen of German conservatism Tony Allen- Zl,May.
Mills
Contractual Unspecifi ed contractual obligations John Follain 30-Jan.
Contributor Britin is a big contributor Stephen 2,April
Grev
Co-ordinator Said the political co-ordinator Mark l6,April
Franchetti
120
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Co-partenership Architectural co-partenershi p Stephen 27,Feb
Grey
Co-produce She co-produced Truth. John Harlow 25,June
corlectlve The group w'ants to ban corrective New-s 27,May.
ryIgery Agencv
Co-star Tyler co-starred Bruce Willis Maurice 25,June
Chittenden
Cosy Insight into the cosy cronyism Tony Allen- 5,Mar
Mills
Counter-e spionage I ncl ude counter-espiona.qe Marie Colvin 20.Feb
Counter-insurgency Counter-insurgency operations News 25,Iune
Agency
Counter- Kohl's former counter-intelligence Peter 9,April
intelligence chief Conradi
Counter-intuitive The idea is counter-intuitive John Goetz 2.April
Counter-protest The NRA is backing a counter-protest News 26,Mar
Agencv
countersuit To launch a countersuit against Jonathan 6,Feb.
Leake
Counter-terrorism Counter-terrorism unit Ismail Khan l8.June.
Countless Filled with countless magazine covers Marceau 2.April
Co-write Who later co-wrote the script of.. R.W.Johnson l3.Feb
criminalized Serbia has become a criminalized Tom Walker 16,Jan.
society
Cronv His pot-bellied cronies at his side Tom Walker l6.Jan
Cronyism African malaise of comrption and Peter 2l,May.
cronyism Conradi
Cultist The doomsday cultist News 7,Jan
Asencv
cybernaut Christobel 16,Jan.
Edwards
Cyber-police Are staying ahead of cyber-police Michael 4,June.
Sheridan
Cyberspace Moves to cyberspace Matthew 27,Feb.
Campbell
decapitate Many fighters were decapitated Jon Swain 28-Mav
Decommissioned When the space station was Jonathan 26,Mar
decommissioned Leake
defector Magid is one of a few defectors Jon Swain l3,Feb.
who...
defender A defender of her father's scandal- Tony Allen- 2I,May.
stained record Mills
Dehumanisation Protesters denounced the of News 23,April
"dehumanistion" conditions Agencv
dehydrated The dehydrated group of people was Mark Austin 5,Mar
safe
121
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Democratize The mainland is democratized Michael l9,Mar
Sheridan
Demonise To demonise white settlers R W Johnson l9,Mar
Demonstrators Attackine demonstrators Tom Walker 2-Aoril
departmental He provided cleaners for department Jon Swain l9,Mar
heads
Depressuri zation A cabin depressurization would cause Tony Allen 12,Mar
her breasts to explode Mills
De-programmer to "de-programmer" Using a persuade John Harlow 28,May
his son to...
deregulation Airline dere-eulation Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
Destabilise To avoid destabilizing the peace News 23,April
process Agencv
detainee lndicted for killing eight detainees Stephen 23,April
Grev
Developer Farmers sell to develoners Tom Rhodes 30-Jan.
dictatorship To enforce a dictatorship of law Mark 2,April
Franchetti
Diner A lucky elite of French diners News 72,Mar
Asencv
disinformation Using the general as a conduit for Marie Clovin ?,Aprit
disinformation
dismembered Have dismembered 50-000 men John Swain 21,-Mav.
Dispossess An armed struggle to repossess whal Peter 2I,May.
the British dispossessed us Conradi
Disproportionate The disproportionate ownership of Jon Swain 25,June
farmland
disrepair The parts of the fence were in serious Tony Allen 28,May
disrepair Mills
Distributor Distributors have resorted to giving John Harlow 21,May.
awav tickets
Disunitv To cause disunitv amons our oeoole R W Johnson l9.Mar
disused Stored in disused missile silos Tony Nlen- 2l,May.
Mills
Dizzy At a dizzying space Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
doomsayer Doomsayers were insisting that.. Diseph 7,Ian
Gadher
Eatery Customers flock to these geurilla News 5,Mar
eateries Asencv
e-commerce A speech about e-commerce Michael 23,Apil
Sheridan
Economist The party's favorite economist Michael 23,April
Sheridan
Egalitarian A programme that is egaliterian and Tom Walker l6,April
transoarent
122
Derivation
!Vord Sentence Writer Date
Eggy Produced more eggy conoctions to Susan Bell 30,Jan
music
egolsm Destructive forces of egoism Marie Clovin 27,Feb
embattle Their embattled stronghold of.. Michael 30,Jan.
Sheridan
emblematic Transfer the name to a less News 2l,May.
emblematic site Asencv
Embolden Emboldened by his success Marie Clovin 2,April
emlgree Emigres in Parazuay John Follain l6.Jan
energise A newly energised Gore Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
enforcer The party enforcer go from door to Marie Clovin 28,May
door
entertainer To ferry actore and entertainers Nicholas 4,June.
Hellen
Enthusiast Gun enthusiast have ridiculed.. News 26,Mar
Asencv
Environmentalist He has been sr,'aged by News 26,Mar
environmentalists Aeencv
Escapist The lenghty melodramas and escapist Nicholas 4,June.
comedy Hellen
Euro-federalist His remarks electrified France's Euro- Tony Allen- 28,May
federalsits Mills
europhile Kohl, Mitterrand and their fellow Tony Allen- 28,May
Europhile,Delors.. - Mills
Euro-scepticism The new age of euro-scepticism Tony Allen 28,May
Mills
evacuee The ship sailed with 480 evacuees Duran l l,June
Aneiki
eventuality I"ve done my studies on what the Tom Rhodes 2l,May.
eventuality is
Exhibitionism A trashy age of laddish exhibitionism Tony Allen- 12,Mar
Mills
Ex-husband Veronica's ex-husband Christopher 72,Mar
Goodwin
Ex-minister The appointment of ex-ministers for Stephen 26,Mar
two years Grev
expectantly Milled around expectantlv Suzan Bell 30,Jan.
exponentially Growing almo st exponentially Stephen 27,Feb.
Grev
Ex-president Implicated the ex-president Christopher 12,Mar
Goodwin
Extramarital About his extramarital affair Matthew 76,Ian.
Campbell
extremist Albanian extremists and security Tom Walker 27,Feb
elements
Ex-wife The ex-wife of former president R.W.Johnson 23.April
123
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Falsify The owner was fined for falsifying Tom Rhodes 23,April
records
Fascist Contempt for Fascist Germany Peter 12,Mar
Conradi
Federalism This tension between Prodi's Stephen l6,April
Federalism and bilateralist's instincts Grev
Federalist He launched his federalist fusillade Tony Allen- 21,May.
Mills
Feisty The feisty New York citv Tom Modes 21.Mav
Feminist French feminists condemned her Tony A.llen 12,Mar
Mills
Festivity Organisers of festivities News 7,Ian
Agencv
Fictionalize A fictionalized account of life in a Tony AJlen- 26.Mar
town Mills
fiefclom A system that was essentially a Michael I i,June
fiefclom of Kim Clan Sheridan
Fighter Installed women in warships ,fighter Matthew 9,April
ie!q Campbell
Film-goer Film-goers have been cool John Harlow' 2l-Mav.
Fistful Make a fistful of money John Harlow 2-Aoril
Flatly He flatly refused to Michael 26,Mar
Sheridan
Flatten The blast flattened buildines Don Hunter 2l,May.
Flyer China grounds British flyer Michael 25,June
Sheridan
founder The founder ofthe church of.. John Harlow 27.May.
Fraternising Rules about fraternising-an Matthew f
g,April
euphemism for sex Campbell I

Frenchify The more Frenchified south pavement Marceau 2.April


Frontrunner Bush,the Republ ican frontrumer Tom Rhodes 5.Mar
Fruit picker An Australian fruit picker Paul Ham 25"June
Full-frontal Full-frontal pictures Michael 25,June
woodhead
Fundamentalism The alternative would be Michael 26,Mar
fundamentalism Sheridan
Fundamentalist An Islamic fundamentalist regime Michael 27,Feb
Sheridan
fundraiser An unpublicised fundraiser Matthew 27,Feb.
Campbell
funless Greenwich fu nless follies Tony Allen- 4,June.
Mills
Galvanize The issue could galvanizethe Tom Rhodes 30,Jan.
opposition
gangester A notorious racketeer and gangester News l6,Jan.
Agency
124
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Geographer An unemployed geographer Mark 9,April
Franchetti
Geologist He w-as a geologist and a biologist John Follain 23.April
slobalise Designs to "globalise" religion Marie Clovin 27 -Feb
gralny The airing of grainy clips David l6
Leppard
Gritty McCain , whose gritty Matthew 20,Feb
determination. . . Camobell
gyroscope A failure in one of three glroscopes Jonathan 26,Mar
Leake
Hacker Hackers launch virus plague Diseph 7,Ian
Gadher
Hawkish Described as being a hawkish Mark 2,April
reactionary Franchetti
hedonistic A hedonistic free-for-all societv Christobel 16,Jan.
Edwards
Helper Bush approached his thther's old Matthew 23,Aprll
helper Campbell
Heroism Memories of British heroism Tony Allen- 27,Feb.
Mills
homophobic In a series of homophobic iibes at.. Paul Ham 19.Mar
horticultural The farm,a horticultural paradise Peter 28,May
Conradi
Hostage-taker Concessions to hostage-takers Sophie 28,May
Foster
hotly lsrael's hotly disputed history News 7,Ian
Asencv
Hugely He is muscling on in the hugely Tony Allen- 4,June.
lucrative business of.... Mills
Hypnotise After being hypnotised by.. Karen Mac 20,Feb
Gergor
"immunisation " He said his men underwent a special John Swain 21,May.
immunisation "ceremonv "
Imperialism American culture imperialism News 23,April
Agency
Inconclusive After inconclusive elections Nieel Glass 30-Jan.
Incrementalist He is an incrementalist News 23,Ian.
Aeencv
indiscriminatelv To fire tear sas indiscriminatelv Tom Walker 2-Aoril
indistinguishable Wild groups indistinguishable from John Swain 2l,May.
rebels
lndustrialist He olavs an industrialist John Harlow 2.Aor1l
nformant A network of spies and informants Tom walker 7 -Mav
infrastructure The infrastructure remains generally Peter 21,May.
eood Conradi
Infra-structure Of the enemy infra-structure Matthew 26,Mar
Campbell
insider Savs a White House insider Tom Rhodes 6.Feb.
125
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


insufferably Her book is insufferably arogant Tony Allen- 26-Mar
Mills
Intergovernmental The intergovernmental instincts of Stephen 16,April
most EU governments Grev
lnter-institutional Watching out lor inter-in stitutional Stephen 26,Mar
relationships Grey
Interracial Ban on interracial dating Matthew 23,April
Campbell
lnter-racial Ban on inter-racial dating Matthew ?7,Feb.
Campbell
Intractable The province's intractable hatred Tom Walker l3.Feb.
lran-contra Raised lran-contra affair News 7,May
Agency
irregularity An indictment detailing irregularities John Follain 30,Jan.
which...
Josger He broke his cover among Joggers John Follain 4^June.

Jokinsh It iokinqlv refers to it as


. Tom Rhodes 23-April
Know'ledseable A man who is knowledgeable about . Marie Colvin 20.Feb
labrador The White House Labrador mistook Matthew 23,Jan.
him for... Campbell
Laddish A trashy age of laddish exhibitionism Tony Allen- 12,Mar
Mills
landless The government could not resettle Peter 27,May.
landless people for ... Conradi
Laughingly What they called laughingly a" long John Swain 2l,May.
sleeve"
Multiple rocket launcher sYstem Tom Rhodes 30,Jan.
Launcher
launderer Arms trafficker and money launderer John Follain 30.Jan.
law'lessness To create a state of lawlessness Tom Walker 2.April
He had leftists murdered bY Michael 13,Feb.
Leftist
Sheridan
legitimise To legitimize his son Tony Allen- 5,Mar
Mills
Uzi 28,May
L**tst I A Marl<ist-Leninist body founded in
I 1967 Mahnaimi
The hordes of Bible literalists News 7,Jan
literalist
Aeencv
Fight the tobacco lobbYists Matthew 23,Jan.
lobbyist
Campbell
lobotomise He ends up lobotomised Tony Allen 16,Jan.

A long-delayed pension Tony Allen 26,Mar


Long-delayed
Mills
To create a core of loYalists Matthew 4.June.
Loyalist
Campbell
The luckless mayor of Paris News 12,Mar
Luckless
Agency
Stephen 30,Jan.
Machination Have no knowledge of financial
machinations Grev
126
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Mafia-like Runs its mafia-like money Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
malfunction Computers that would malfunction at Diseph 7,Ian
nisht Gadher
N{alnutrition Dvins from malnutrition Tom walker 26,Mar
Managerial Beset by managerial inaptitude Jonathan 26,Mar
Leake
Margaret Tatcher- With a Margaret Tatcher-like taste Tony Allen 25,June
like for... Mills
Marxist A Marxist-Leninist body founded in Uz\ 28,May
1967 Mahnaimi
Materialise These documents failed to materialise Matthew. 4,June.
Campbell
SPD won a rnayoral vote Peter 6,Feb.
Mayoral
Conradi
Meaty US militants in stout defence of John Harlow 2l,May
obesitv
R W Johnson 26,Mar
Mecha"tred | Wtrat to do with the mechanized farm
- I

I eouroment
His share of profits and John Harlow 21,May.
Merchandise
merchandising
Meteorologists recorded rainfall Jon Sw'ain 5 "Mar
Meteorologist
The white Methodist church Grace 4,June.
Methodist
Bradberrv
Micro-electronics With micro-electronics industry Mark 16,Jan.
Franchetti
A British microlight pilot Michael 25,June
Microlight
Sheridan
mlcroscope The most sensitive electron Uzi 4,June.
microscopes Mahnaimi
They propagated microwaves Jonathan 4,June.
Microwave
Leake
News '7,Jan
Millenial Joined a millenial throng on the
fabled hillside Aeencv
Minicab firms trebled rates Christopher 7,Jan
minicab
Morean
fo minimite the potential for friction Paul Ham 12,Mar
Minimise
A television mini-series Matthew 23,Aprrl
Mini-series
Campbell
Tony Allen- l8,June.
Ministerial 17 ministerial commisions
Mills
They bundled him into a whlte Matthew 23,April
Minivan
Campbell
Stephen
g,April
Mini-village A closed mini-village
Grey
He appears to have mtscalculated tn Michael Zl,May.
miscalculate
thinkine that .. Sheridan
127
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Misdirect The companv misdirected funds Tom Rhodes 27.Feb
missovernance There has been missovernance R W Johnson 19-Mar
Misinformation Feeding misinformation to the west Mark 19,Mar
Franchetti
Mismanagement Allegations of nepotism and Stephen 26,Mar
mismanasement Grey
misrepresent That he misrepresented facts Nick 9,April
Fieldins
Misspend He has admitted to misspent' Youth ' Tom Rhodes 23,Jan.
Misuse lncludins misuse of power David Orr 9.Aoril
Mobilisation A fabulous movement of mobilisation Tom Walker 27 -Feb.
mobster King of mobsters News 16,Jan.
Agencv
modernise The modernizingtrends of many Jews Tony Allen- 19,Mar
Mills
Modernistic Bring to Syria a modernistic vision of Matthew 4,June.
its place Campbell
Monarchist Has apalled monarchists Alastair 2O,Feb
McLeod
Money-changer The money-changer resisted Tony Allen- 5,Mar
Mills
Monkhood Women don the robes of monkhood Michael 23,April
Sheridan
Monoethnic Monoethnic cantons are the only Tom Walker l3,Feb.
solution
Monotheistic Monotheistic reli gions Marie Clovin 27.Feb,
motoflse With three motorized dinghies Mark Austin 5,Mar
Motorist Kine the black motorist Tom Rhodes 27 -Feb
mountaineer All seasoned mountaineers Mark
Franchetti
Mourner Thousands of mourners at Marie Clovin 23.April
Mover The prime mover in the camPaign Tom Rhodes [6,Jan.
to...
Mov e-goer Vulnerable movie-qoer John Harlow 21-Mav.
Multibarred Expected to use nrulti-barred rocket Iqbal Athas 23-Aoril
Multi-cultural The agency' s multi-cultural mission New-s 4,June.
Agencv
Mul millionaire A multimillionaire Nieel Glass 3O.Jan.

Multinational Answers to a high-octane Tony Allen- 2,Aprrl


multinational mystery Mills
murky As murky as secret political slush Tony Allen- 7,Jan
tund Mills
Mvsticism Preaching mysticism Tom walker 26,Mar
Mvstifv The local bishop was mystified Tom walker 26.Mar
Nationalist By bribing nationalist generals Michael 2l,Feb
Sheridan
128
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Nationalistic It runs through the psyches of two David Orr 26,Mar
nationalistic lands
Neo-gothic Neo-gothic ornamentation Mark 7,Ian
Franchetti
Neo-Nazi Provided intelligence on neo-Nazi Mark 19.Mar
groups Franchetti
Nepotism Allegarions of nepotism and Stephen 26,il'/.ar
mismanagernent Grev
News Agencv 30.Jan.
No-hoper Was dismissed as no-hoper Matthew 23,Ian.
Campbell
Non-combatants To protect non-cornbatants Colin Smith 28,May
Non-conventional His draem of non-conventional Marie Colvin 20,Feb
arsenal
nondescript A nondescript two-storey villa Mark 16,Jan.
Franchetti
Non-essential Evacuating all non-essential Peter 7l,May.
diolomats Conradi
Non-executive A non-executive director Tom Walker 4-June.
Non-qovernmental Non-governmental organisations R.W.Johnson l8,June.
Non-neqotiable That is non-nesotiable R.W.Johnson 25-June
Non-politicised It became diffrcult for their black Jon Swain 9,April
labour force to be non-politicised
Non-proliferation Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons Peter 4,June.
Conradi
Non-secret With the help of all its secrets and Uzi 23,Aprll
non-secrets organisations Mahnaimi
Operatic Fond of operatic uniforms Michael l3,Feb.
Sheridan
Operatives The parfy's razor-brained operatives Matthew 3O,Jan.
Campbell
Opthalmologist He was training as an opthalmologist Matthew 4,June.
Campbell
Organizer An electronic personal organizer Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
Outcry She has been helped by an outcry Tom Rhodes 9,April
over...
Outlast Saddam outlasted another American Marie Clovin 2,April
President
Out-of-towner Portraying him as a carpetbagging Tom Walker 27,Feb.
out-of-towner
outpatient The hospital will open for outpatients Stephen 27,Feb
Grev
outrage It has outraged American Uzi 18,June.
congressmen Mahnaimi
Outrigger Navigating themselves on outrigger John Harlow 28,May
canoes
129
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
outspend rle could easlly outspend McCain Matthew 23,Jan.
Campbell
outwil A concluslon is essential to outwit the Uzi 4,June.
threat Mahnaimi
Oversized ubese people dressed in an oversized John Harlow 28,May
tribute
Pacifist wnose pacrtlst vlews were forged Tony Allen- 18,June.
Mills
Paid-up unly pad-up party members can vole Tony Allen 26,Mar
Mills
painkiller An addlctton to painkiller Matthew 5,Mar
Campbell
Palatial No details emerge from within the Michael l3,Feb.
palatial villa Sheridan
_papacy A theme of hrs oanacv Marie Clovin 27
Parachutist "Feb.
Ijeplcted as a parachutist Tony Allen 25,Iune
Mills
Paradoxical The paradoxical paramount figure in Michael 13,Feb
Cambodia Sheridan
Paramilitary He is a paramilitary w'ho served with Jon Swain 19,Mar
Arkan
paramount The paradoxical paramount figure in Michael l3,Feb.
Cambodia Sheridan
paratrooper By a former British Army paratrooper John Harlow 28,May
patriotism Values of patriotism Stephen 23,April
Grey
Personify Who has personified the nation Michael l3,Feb.
Sheridan
Pet-minder Covering pet-minders News 6,Feb.
Asencv
Phenomenal Is of phenomenal interest Michael 18,June.
Sheridan
Phoney The phoney war ends Maffhew 23,Jan
Campbell
pilferer The smoothest pilferers of Hcllywood Paul Ham 6,Feb.
planner Its military planners are.. Peter l8,June.
Conradi
Plotter The portrayal of coup plotter Stephen l6,April
Grey
plucky His plucky honesty and disdain for.. News 23,Jan
Asencv
Policy-maker Western policy-makers decided that Tom Walker i3.Feb.
Politicise He toured villages, Ii oliticizing John Swain 21,May.
students
Pollster Asked by pollsters,.. Tony Allen- 26,Mar
Mills
Polluter To ensure that the polluter pavs StephenGrey 26,Mar
130
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
populism To match the populism of.. Christobel l6,Jan.
Edwards
populist The ageing populist from Leipzig Tony Allen- I6,Jan.
Mills
Post-election The danger of post-election violence Tom Walker 18,June
Post-feminist In a post-feminist battle News 13,Feb.
Aqencv
Post-reunification As a post-reunification symbol Tony Allen- 5,Mar
Mills
Powerbroker Powerbroker of Yeltsin's regime Mark 26,Mar
Franchetti
pow-erless The police seem powerless to stop Marie Clovin 28,May
them
pra.qmatism Pragmatism must prevail Tom Walker 13.Feb.
prankester Student pranksters have claimed.. News 30,Jan.
Agency
Pre-arranged That there was nothing pre-arransed John Goetz 2,April
Pre-emptive Government favored pre-emptive Tom Walker 19,Mar
action
Prejudicial Passages that were prejudicial Tony Allen- 25,June
Mills
Pre-revolutionary Pre-revolutionary mansions Mark 7,Jan
Franchetti
Pre-season His pre-season training game Tom Rhodes 4,June.
Presenter A television news presenter News 26,Mar
Agencv
presidency Would be the hallmarks of its Tony Allen 28,May
presidency Mills
pressurise Community trying to pressurise Matthew 16,Jan.
Clinton into... Camobell
Pre-war Less than half its pre-war total Tom Walker l3,Feb.
Privatisation Freedom of press and privatisation Gabriella 20,Feb
Bianchi
Privatise His part in privatisation John Follain 30,Jan.
Prize-winner A Nobel peace prize-winner John Follain l9,Mar
Pro-Arab Who was copnsidered pro-Arab Uzi 27,May.
Mahnaimi
Procedural Procedural and transparency rules John Follain 30.Jan
Pro-choice Pro-choice on abortion News 23,Jan.
Agencv
producer The French luxury goods producer News 23,April
Agencv
Pro-.qovernment Pro-government mil itias Jon Swain 28.Mav
programmable He is as programmable as'the Matthew 30,Jan.
electronic pilot' palm Campbell
Pro-Israel He is pro-Israel News 23,Jan.
Agency
131
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Pro-Mueabe Fears ofa pro-Mugabe coup R.W.Johnson 18,June.
Pro-Soviet The former pro-Soviet president IsmailKhan 9-Aoril
Drotegee A former orotes6e of . Marceau 2-Aoril
orotester Hurled stones at the Drotesters Tom Walker 2.Apr1l
Prototype The protype can walk at speeds just Julian Ryall 23,April
over l moh
Pro-western Loval to the Dro-western president Tom Walker l9.Mar
Psychiatrist A Parisian psychiatri st Tony Allen 12,Mar
Mills
Quasi-libertarian He is a quasi-libertarian New-s 23,Jan.
Aeencv
Quasi-religious He became a quasi-religious icon Matthew 23,April
Camnbell
questroner He greeted with a stare the would-be Michael 23,April
questioners Sheridan
racer Rather than the racers John Harlow 28.Mav
Racism To confront racism Matthew 23,April
Campbell
racist Evidence of racist -anti-white attack Tom Walker 2.April
racketeer A notorious racketeer and sansester Tom Walker I6,Jan.
rapper Rappers and break-dangers mingled Tony Allen 26,Mar
with girls Mills
reactionary Described as being a hawkish Mark 2,April
reactionary Franchetti
Redesigned The more redesigned vice-president Matthew 5,Mar
Campbell
Rediscover Rediscovering his credentials as. . Matthew 23,Aprrl
Camobell
Redistribute Redistributing the vast budget Matthew 30,Jan.
surplus Campbell
Redistribution Buying up land for redistribution to Peter 21,May.
black farmers Conradi
Redouble Soldiers redoubled their watch Michael 30,Jan.
Sheridan
Redploy His troops were redeployed towards Mark 6,Feb.
Franchetti
Re-education Re-education sessions R.W.Johnson 25,June
Re-elect To be re-elected without difficulty Tom Walker 27.Feb
Re-establish Re-establishing American presence in News 9,April
Belgrade Agencv
Reformer To stop reformers takins power Marie Clovin 23.Aoril
Reformist The most reformist group Gabriella l3,Feb.
Bianchi
Refreeze Waiting for them to refreeze James Clark 23.April
Refund He is offering a full refund to anyone John Harlow 21,May.
whose ...
132
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Refurnish Demanding that the navy refurnish Matthew 9,April
the submarine fleet Campbell
re_qroup Russian forces needed a pause to Mark 7,Jan
regrouD Franchetti
Rehouse Others w'ere temporarily rehoused in Don Hunter 27,May.
schools
Rehydration To pay for oral rehydration salts News 9,April
Aeencv
Reisnite Reicnite New York lerror Tom Rhodes l8,June.
Reimposition Any reimposition of authority from Tom Walker 13,Feb.
Belsrade
Reintegrating [iN's intention of "reintegrating" Tom Walker 2l,Feb.
Kosovo
Reinvent To reinvent a 19"' centurv cultural Tony Allen 26,Mar
icon Mills
reissue The book is now beine reissued Tom Rhodes 23.Jan.
Rekindle To rekindle interest in Bush's oast Tom Rhodes l S.June
Remake In the remake of the 1970s film Tom Rhodes lS.June
Reopen Threatens to reopen controversy Peter 12,Mar
ovef... Conradi
Replay The echoes and images replay in our Jon Swain i9,Mar
heads
repossess An armed struggle to repossess what Peter 21,May.
the British dispossessed us Conradi
Reprogramme If he is robotic ,he has been Matthew 30,Jan.
reDrogrammed Camnbell
Rerun The race may have to be rerun Tony Allen- 23,Jan.
Mills
rescuer Medics and rescuers were landine Mark Austin 5,Mar
Reservist Includine reservists such as Bush Tom Rhodes l8-June.
Resettle The government could nopt resettle Peter 21,May.
landless people for... Conradi
Reshane To reshape the Islamic poitical svstem Marie Clovin 23.April
Reshuflle A cabinet reshufile will do little Tony Allen 26,Mar
Mills
restructure To led the country through austere Michael 4,June.
restructuring Sheridan
Resurface The obsecure politician has resurfaced News 2l,May.
in ... Asencv
Retake Fighters retook the city Mark 25,June
Franchetti
rethink Farmers are rethinking their support Peter 21,May.
to the MDC Conradi
Retrial To win the right to a retrial Nick 9,April
Fieldine
Retrorocket Fuel lines feeding the probe's Jonathan 26,Mar
retrorocket Leake
133
Derivation

(entennp Writer Date


Word
Tony Allen- 7,Jan
reunification Architect of Gerrnan reunlticatton
Mills
Mark 19,Mar
Reunify The country was reunitied
Franchetti
Matthew 28,May
revitalise The architect of a revltahsed
.rmnqion Campbell
News 4,June.
Rightwinger His credentials as a rightwtnger
Aeency
Matthew 20,Feb
tusible Produced only risible tantastes
CamPbell
Matthew- 30.Jan.
robotic If he is robotic .he has been
.o^t^orqrnrt1ed Campbell
Tom Walker 20,Feb
Roiter German roiters hijack protest agalnsl

Paul Ham 6,Feb.


Romanticized To play down any romanrelzea
imqoe nf the theif
Fn+qnoled in the tail rotor Mark Austin 5,Mar
rotor
Royalist A roylist politician Michael I tl,Feb.
Sheridan I

Mark 5,Mar
sadism The torture was Pure sadtsm
Franchetti
Jon Swain l3.Feb
Sadist tvlaiid is a Sadist
Juliette 20,Feb
Scepticism Cause me considerable scePttclsm
Terieff
Michael 25.June
schizophrenic Those who knew him as a
cn.hiznnhrenic Woodhead
John Harlow 2l,May.
Scientologist Hundreds of scientologlsts were
h'rsced tn Holvwood
In the chrrrc.h of scientologv John Harlow 28.May
Scientology
John Harlow 28,May
Seasonal We have seasonal constderattons to
1nalz q!
News 7,Jan
selflessness Each act of selflessness contlnues
tn Agency
Qerni-ar rtom rtr c weaoonS Tom Walker 18-June.
Semi-automatic
Michael l8,June.
Semi-divine The intentions of the seml-dlvlne
Vlm Sheridan
What used to be semi-teudal ldylls Peter 2l,May.
Semi-feudal
rne+cmnrnhose into... Conradi
11./e are in e sfate of semr-Serge Jon Swain 9-Aoril
Semi-seige
News 27,May.
senatorial Concerned about his senatonal
o*kitinna Asencv
Jon Swain
g.April
lJo l'iAraA hz'r (enseless
Senseless
Jon Swain 5,Mar
sensor Many sensors (fbr ratntall rates) were
rrrochPrl au/tv
Peter 21,May.
Separatist Muslim separatist rebels have been
hnldino ?l holidav makers Conradi
NewsAgency l3,Feb.
Sexist To fieht such sexist abusq
134
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
sexualize Reflecting the sexualization of Christobel l6,Jan.
existence Edwards
shapeless She is famous for shapeless clothes Tony Ailen 2l,May.
Mills
Shopper Shoppers snapped hangover cures Christopher 7,Jan
Morsan
sizeable There is a sizeable minority with Tom Walker 18,June.
machineguns
Slipperiness It is prone to slipperiness Christobel 16,Jan.
Edwards
snowboarder Described as an avid snowboarder Matthew 9,April
Campbell
Socialism He talked Socialism Michael 13,Feb.
Sheridan
socialist The official socialist cadidate Tom Walker 27 -Feb
souflle The soufll6s has risen John Follain l6.Jan
speciality Her speciality used to be quantum Tony Allen 2l,May.
chemistry Mills
Spin-off Jobs ,investment and other economic Tony Allen- 4,J'une.
spin-offs generated by the Mills
programme
Stabilize An aid operation was stabilizing Jon Swain 26,Mar
Kosovo
starlet She turned a film starlet Allan Hall 5,Mar
Still+raumatised To administer the still-traumatised Jon Swain 19,Mar
and upended territory
strategist Her chief strategist Tom Rhodes 6.Feb.
Stretcher They carried her on a stretcher Jon Sw-ain 26,Mar
Stripper As well as strippers from the News 23,April
Sexodrome peepshow Asencv
Stylist A Moscow stylist New's 28,May
Agencv
Sub-automatic Sub-automatic particles can exisl Uzi 4,June.
Mahnaimi
Subcontinent The Indian subcontinent David Orr 19,Mar
subcontract The company had been subcontracted Uzi 21,May.
to help them develop... Mahnaimi
Subculture Portrays a criminal subculture News 20,Feb
Aeencv
Sub-machinegun Uzi submachineeuns Tom Walker l8"June
Suburban He is a suburban catholic Tom Rhodes 27 -Mav,
Sub-zero In the sub-zero temperatures Suzan Bell 30.Jan.
sucker Whales are found with sucker marks Tom Rhodes 23-Aoril
supermodel Several suoermodels John Harlow 18-June.
Super-rich Headquarters of the American super- Matthew 27,Feb.
rich Campbell
superstructured Her surgically superstructured bust Tony Allen 12,Mar
Mills
135
Derivation
Word )enlence Writer Date
Supremacist vlolence IrOm whtte sunremacist Tom Rhodes 25,June
sympathizer r ne ma]onty ot socialist sympathizers Tony Allen 26,Mar
Mills
Tacky Enrnuslastrc even during tackier times Christopher 7,Jan
Morgan
taxable bermans hrd their taxable assets Tony Allen- 76,Jan.
Mills
Tearfully Vlllagers olead tearfirllv tn Jon Swa n l9,Mar
technicality Un a tegal technrcalitv Jon Sw'a n 30,Jan.
Televise r o rlght back rn a televised debate
Matthew 3O,Jan.
Campbell
Teller r ney toldteiler to put the cash in
a Matthew 9,April
her backnack Campbell
tellingly I he event was tellingly dubbed I News 23,April
Occupation Day I A*.nru
Terrorise Terrorising Zimb abw e's countrysid e Marie Clovin 28,May
Therapist Marital therapists have known Roger 4,June.
Dobson
Thuggish-lookins A thuggish-looking man Paul Ham 25,June
Ticklish To examine the ticklish questio; of Allan Hall 5,Mar
timeless Timeless tension between Muslims News | 1,Jan
,Christians and Jews Aoennrr I

Tinker To stop him tinkering with citizens- News 26,Mar


rights to bear arms Agencv
tormentor A tormentor of dissidents Mark 26,Mar
Franchetti
touchy Queen faces a touchy problem with Christopher 7,Ian
Blair Morgan
toughen We need to toughen things up Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
Tradeable Think boys are a tradeable News 5,Mar
commodity Aqencv
Trafficker Arms trafficker and money launderei John Follain 3O,Jan.
trainee The former White House trainee Matthew 26,March
Campbell
Trashy A trashy age of laddish exhibitionism Tony Allen- 5,Mar
Mills
traumatise To administer the still-traurnatised Jon Swain 19,Mar
and upended territory
typify Gore's image is typified in a photo Matthew 21,May
taken by Campbell
Ultra-conservative He is an ultra- Tom Rhodes 21,May.
conservative,ideologue. .
Ultra-nationalist Leadrer of ultra-nationalist Mark l6,April
Democratic party Franchetti
Ultra-orthodox Ultra-orthodox Jews demanded that John Follain 19,Mar

unabated Cleansing continues unabated Tom walker 5,Mar


136
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Unacceptable Cash-for-access is unacceptable Stephen 26,Mar
Grev
unaided Ferver man reached the pole unaided James Clark 23.April
unambiguously Whose account w-as unanibiguously Tony Allen- 5,Mar
entitled ,.. Mills
Unanswered Left numerous questions unanswered Tonv A]len l6.Jan
unassigned The remainder land w'as unassigned News 23,April
Agencv
unattached Leads the unattached life of a monk Michael 13,Feb.
Sheridan
Unauthorised The moment unauthorised pictures Tony Allen- 2I,May.
appear Mills
Unblinking His unblinking demeanour Mark 16,Jan.
Franchetti
Unbooked Travel agents with unbooked hoildays Christopher 7,Ian
Morsan
Unbridled Exercised unbridled power Michael 19,Mar
Sheridan
unbroken Mugabe's unbroken ZA-year- Jon Sw-ain 25,June
stran.qlehold on power
Uncensored Uncensored pictures John Harlow 18-June.
Uncharacteristically An uncharacteristically gentle Tom Rhodes 2l,May.
Guliani expressed ...
Uncompleted Uncompleted projects Stephen 27,Feb
Grev
Uncompromising A man of uncompromising views Peter 2l,May.
Conradi
Unconcealed Unconcealed distaste for. Nieel Glass 30.Jan.
Unconfirmed Received unconfirmed repots Jonathan 9,April
Leake
Unconstitutional Declaring the decree unconstitutional R.W.Johnson 4,June.
Undaunted Undaunted by a warning Michael 27,Feb
Sheridan
Undeclared In an undeclared civil war R W Johnson 26.Mar
undemocratic An undemocratic tool of.. Stephen 23,April
Grey
Undercover Planned dozens of undercover Mark 16,Jan.
operations Franchetti
Under-equipped Who killed under-equipped U N William 28,May
peacekeepers Shawcross
underfunded The relief effort was underfunded Jon Swain 5 -Mar
Underpower The killer cells are underpowered Roger 4,June.
Dobson
Understandable This was understandable Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
understated An understated argument for.. Mark 7,Jan
Franchetti
137
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
Underw-helm He is underwhelmed by Hague News 4,June.
Agenr:v
Undenvorld Underworld Albanian gan.qs Jon Swain 19,Mar
undetectable Undetectable chips installed durinu. Uzi 2l,May.
manufacture Mahnaimi
Undeterred Undeterred ,he is planning.. News 28,May
A.sencv
undiagnosed Thousands of undiagnosed cases Jonathan 6,Feb.
Leake
Lrndisclosed A meeting at an undisclosed location Michael 26,Mar
Sheridan
undisputed The undisputed truth Michael 23,Aprrl
Sheridan
unearth Archeologists unearthed arrowheads Tom Rhodes 30,Jan.
Unease Caused the singer unease John Harlow 28.IV{av
Unelectable A republican may have proven Tom Rhodes 2l,}day.
unelectable
Unending Lost in enending wilderness in Britain News ?3,Ian.
Agencv
"unethical" He condemned as "unethical" the Stephen | 2o,Mar
selling of..... Grey I

Unexpectedly SPD unexpectedly won a mayoral Peter 6,Feb.


vote Conradi
unexplainable Hqr recovery was unexplainble John Follain 2,April
unfailinelv Has beeen unfailingly polite Paul Ham 6,Feb.
unfavorably The EU's records contrasts Stephen 18,June.
unfavorably with Britain,s Grey
Unfinished To direct his unfinished science- John Harlow 7l,May.
fiction
Unforgettable That unforgettable week Tony Allen 28,May
Mills
unfulfilled Her ambition remains unfulfilled Mark 25,Iune
Franchetti
Unfussy Imposed unfussy imperial order News 23,April
Agencv
ungovernable To prevent community from being Tony Allen 21,May.
ungovernable Mills
Unguarded It appears to have been unguarded Matthew 26,Mar
Campbell
Unharmed AII were unharmed Jon Swain 28.lvfay
Unidentified Unidentified fighters led me Mark 7,Jan
Franehetti
Uninhabited The area is uninhabited Mark 4,June.
Franchetti
Unleash This trend will unleash a revolt Matthew l6,Jan.
Campbell
unlisenced A group ofunlisenced restaurants News 72,Mar
Agencv
138
Derivation

Word Sentence Writer Date


Unload It was unloaded at the railway station Jonathan 9,April
Leake
Unmistakable Their unmistakable style Matthew* 9,April
Camobell
unnamed A bank transfer from Tarek Azizto Peter 21,May.
unnamed Russian Conradi
Unnoticed Thev died unnoticed by the world .Ion Swain 28.Mav
unoffrcial Clinton's role as unoffrcial manager Tom Rhodes 6 Feb
unopposed Streaming dow'n into Kosovo Tom Rhodes 30,Jan
unopposed
unopposed He will win the seat unopposed R.w.Johnson 4,June.
Unparalleled His appeal will be unparalleled Matthew 23,April
Campbell
Unperturbed He seemed unperturbed R.W. 23,April
Johnson
Unplatable The alternative was unplatable Tom Rhodes 18,June.
Unpopular Unoooular lemale ministers Marceau 2,April
Unproven A mixture of unproven allegations Stephen 30,Jan.
Grev
unpublicised An unpublicised fundraiser Matthew 27,Feb
Campbell
Unquestioned Vehicles pass unquestioned Peter 18,June.
Conradi
Unreadable To make any document unreadable Mark 7,Jan
Franchetti
unregistered An unregistered Soviet cargo Tom Walker 23-Aoril
Unrepentant The committee is unrepentant News 27,Feb.
Asencv
Unrhvthmical The first one is unrhythmical John Harlow 4,June
Unruly In refernce to his unruly past Mark 16,Jan.
Franchetti
Unseat The communist party try to unseat R.W. 23,Aprrl
him Johnson
Llnsmiling With his unsmiling expression Nisel Glass 30,Jan.
unspecified Unsoecifi ed contractual obli.eations John Follain 30-Jan.
Unstoppble Make him unstoppable in the battle Matthew 27,Feb
Campbell
unsung They died unsung and unnoticed bY Jon Swain 28,May
the world
Unthinkable It was unthinkable that a man.. News 21,May.
Asencv
Unthinkingly The drug makes them kill John Swain 2l,May.
unthinkinely
Untold Discloses untold secrets Michael 27,Feb.
Sheridan
Untouchable An untouchable black elite Tom Walker 23.April
untroubled Seemed untroubled by the ghosts Tony Allen- 19,Mar
Mills
139
Derivation
Word Sentence Writer Date
unwanted Borne him an unwantedson Tony Allen- l9March
Mills 5 .Mar
Unrvelcome He acquired unwelcome popular-t1, Peter 4,June.
Conradi
Unwillingness Sacrifice has an implication of Tom Rhodes 30,Jan.
unwillingness
Unwind Ladies heiping the leader ro unwind Michael 4,June.
with a massage Sheridan
Unwise EU w*as unwise to.. Stephen 27,Feb.
Grey
upbringin_q Wrote a book about her upbringing News 4,June.
Agencv
Upcominq The upcoming sale of his cornpany R W Johnson I6,Jan.
upgrade Spent billions to upgrade comp,rters Diseph J,Ian
Gadher
upgrade Upgrading the security Christopher 12,Mar
Goodwin
uphold Clinton can uphold America's Mark 4,June.
strength Franchetti
Uplifting Offer a kaleidoscope of uplifting Tony Allen- 4,June.
experiences Mills
Upstart Pay attention to upstart oemphiles John Follain 20,Feb
from ltaly
upsurge We've seen an upsurge in ringing Maurice 7,Jan
Chittenden
uptown Uptown girl fights upwind nuclear Tom Rhodes 7,May
plant
upwind Uptown girl fights upwind nuclear Tom Rhodes 7,May
plant
visibilty Visibilty was near zero on the ground Mark 30,Jan.
Franchetti
voter Voters defy terror Jon Swain 25,June
weaver The weavers have pressed on Peter 2l,May.
Conradi
Well-kept Being in on a well-kept secret News agencv 12,Mar
Westernise To shoot westernised films in Britain Nicholas 4,June.
Hellen
Windowless A windowless dining room News 72,Mar
Agency
Womanising His generosity and womanising are John Sw'ain 21,May.
well-known
Workaholic Acclaimed as a workaholic Tony Allen 25,June
Mills
140
Compounding
able .2. Co n
Word Sentence Writer Date
Acid-tonsued The acid-ton.qued Brussels Stephen Gret' 28Mav
Adolescent- Adolescent-standard poetry 4June
standard
Adonis-like An encounter with the Adonis-like News Agency 16Jan
act0r
Adrenaline- The lure of an adrenaline-charsed life Matthew 9 April
charced Campbell
After-dinner An expensive after-dinner drink Marceau 2 Aorrl
airbase A nearby airbase was turned into Don Hunter 2lMav
Air-based Air-based nuclear weapon Peter Conradi I SJune
Air-conditioned Subterranean air-conditioned vaults Michael I 8June
Sheridan
airstrikes Nato airstrikes Tom Walker 1 6Jan
All-American The main difference between his version News Agency 23April
model is the price and the all-American
All-conquering His once all-conquering party Tony Allen- ?7,Feb
Mills
All-out A week into an all-out offensive against Peter Conradi 21May
Eritrea . Ethiopia...
All-out The governor-general "all-out" war Duran Angiki 1 lJune
declared
All-too-close After an all-too-close encounter with.. Michael 25June
Sheridan
American- An American-educated rightwinger Christobel l6lan
educated Edwards
American- American-financed forces News Agency 25June
financed
American- With American-supplied technology Uzi Mahnaimi 1 8June
suoplied
Android-like An earlv- version of android-like device Julian Rvall 23April
Arms-for- ln pursuit of the arms-for-hostage deal Matthew I lJune
hostaee Campbell
Ashen-faced When he w-as ashen-faced Jon Swain .26Mar
Attorney- The attorney-general Tom Rhodes l8June
eeneral
Award-winning The award-winning film Maurice 25June
Chittenden
Babv-faced The baby-faced Russian conscript Mark Franchetti TJan
backache Backache and other disorders Jon Sw'ain 16 April
backdrop To provide the backdrop to dance Nicholas I lJune
sequences Hellen
Backfire His denunciation appeared to have Matthew .5Mar
backfired Campbell
backlash To draw a backlash against the Michael .26Mar
government Sheridan
141
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
backlog The EU has a backlog of uncompleted Stephen Grey 27,Feb
proiects
backpack They told a teller to put the cash in her Matthew 9 April
backpack Campbell
backstab A scandal sheet recycling backstabbing Michael 4June
at the top Sheridan
Backtrack The government had to backtrack Alastair Mcleod 20Feb.
Bad-mouth Baseball star bad-mouths himself Tom Rhodes I lJune
Ballot-stuff To draw a line at ballot-stufling R W Johnson I SJune
Basket-load Millions of cubic earth were moved in Tom Rhodes 30 Jan.
basket-loads
Battle-readv Troops were battle-ready Tom Walker 27.Feb
Bear-hus Grabbine him in a bear-hus R W Johnson 4June
Behind+he- Four years of behind'the-scenes Stephen Grey 23April
scenes manoevering
Bell-ringer Bell-ringers in 5,200 churches Christopher TIan
Morgan
Best-informed The best-informed commentators Stephen Grey 23April
Bie-budeet A bie-budset television series John Harlow 28Mav
binhright Two nations claim Kashmir as their David Orr .26Mu
birthright
Black-on-white Black-on-white violence Jon Swain 9 April
blockbuster The latest adaptation is a blockbuster News Agency l6Jan
bloodbath Another shortJived bloodbath Jonathan Leake 9 Aoril
Blood- Blood-contaminated items Jon Swain .19Mar
contaminated
Blood-curdling The blood-curdling yelps of the farmer's David Smith 2lMay
dogs
BloodJusting The most blood-lusting force Matthew 9 April
Campbell
bloodstained Depict bloodstained P.o.Ws Michael 2lMay
Sheridan
Blue-blooded As prominent and blue-blooded as.. Michael 25June
Woodhead
bodyguard Ernst and his bodyguard Michael 25June
Woodhead
Bombed-out The floor ofa bombed-out house Mark Franchetti TJan
Bomb-proof A massive bomb-proof steel door Michael l8June
Sheridan
Born-aeain He is the born-again sovernor News Asencv 23Ian
Box-office In the box-office terms New Agencv Feb.6
brainstorming The meeting was brainstorming Tony Allen- 2lMay
Mills
brainwashed RUF has distinct brainwashed units Jon Swain 2lMav
Breakneck Eieht lanes ofbreakneck traffic Marceau .2 Aarll
Breast-baring Breast-barins chorus-line tradition- Tonv Allen .26Mar
142
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
British- British-designed submersibles Tom Rhodes 23April
designed
Brussel-based The Brussel-based research institutes Steohen Grev .2 April
Bug-buster Well-meanins bus-busters Disenh Gadher TJan
Bug-eyed The bug-eyed twins.. Christopher 20Feb.
Goodwin
Bullet-proof ln a bullet-proof case John Follain .lZMar
Burnt-out Streets lined with cars burnt-out Don Hunter 2lMay
bushmeat To eet bushmeat offthe menu Jonathan Leake 9 April
Buv-back A Niserian debt buv-back scheme Nick Fieldine .2 April
Camera-clicker Her books lure camera-clickers to.. John Follain 25June
Cameramen Televi sion cameramen outnumbering Tlan
crackoots
Canyon-sized With the Canvon-sized ego Jon Swain 25June
Card-carrvine As a card-carrvins Zanu-PF member Marie Clovin 2lMav
carload Two carloads of... Tom Rhodes 25June
Cash-for-access Were at the centre of a cash-for-access Stephen Grey .26Mar
scandal
Cash-strapped Zimbabwe was cash-strapped Tom Rhodes 23April
ceasefire He had truck a deal for ceasefire Mark Franchetti 30 Jan.
Celebrity- The celebrity-packed list of... Tony Allen- .5Mar
packed Mills
Chainsaw His victims were chainsawed to death Tom walker l6Jan
Champagne- Former minister of culture with a Tony Allen .26Mar
and-caviare champagne-and-caviare profile
Champagne- Failing to throw the shampagne-sodden Marceau 2 April
sodden Darties
Cheerleader A committee of school cheerleaders News Asencv .5Mar
Cheroot- Cheroot-smoking twins Michael 30 Jan.
smoking Sheridan
Child-proof Child-proof safety locks .26Mar
Cinema-goer Parisian cinema-goers were happy to Marceau 2 April
agree
Clampdown A clampdown on narcotics Mark Franchetti 30 April
C aw-like Its clawJike hands Julian Rvall 23Aoril
C ean-uD It would be billed the clean-up for News Asencv Tlan
climbdown It blames the climbdown on pressure Stephen Grey I 8June
from Clinton to...
Closely-fought After a closely-fought content Matthew 20Feb.
Camobell
Close-up Such close-up is of... Michael I SJune
Sheridan
Club-hoppine A club-hoooins financial wizard Tom Rhodes 27.Feb
cockpit He was alone in the cockpit James Clark Feb.6
143
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
Code-named An army unit code-named "Maitar" Matthew .26Mar
Campbell
Code-word A code-word signifying that.. Matthew 23April
Campbell
Cold-blooded Halt such cold-blooded assassinations Tom walker .5Mar
Commander-in- Clinton,the commander-in-chief Jon Swain 9 April
chief
Computer- The entire computer-dependent world Diseph Gadher TJan
dependent
Concrete- Concrete -floored hallway Paul Ham 25June
floored
Cordoned-off Sitting in a cordoned-offarea of the Tom Walker I 6Jan
lobby
Cost-effective What we achieved is cost-effective Mark Franchetti TIan
counterattack Israeli counterattacks are. . Matthew .26Mar
Campbell
Counter- The idea is counter-intuitive John Goetz 2 April
intuitive

Court-appointed A court-appointed accountant John Follain 30 Jan.


crackdown Arrested in a crackdown Mark Franchetti .5Mar
Crash-land It is to crash-land satellite to prevent it Jonathan Leake .26Mar
from spiraling out of control a
crimebuster India arrests its crimebuster David Orr .2 April
Crime-ridden Crime-ridden,hel l-hole town Paul Ham .12Mar
Cross-border To run cross-border missions Tom Walker 27.Feb
Crowd-pleasing She little experience of crowd-pleasing Tony Allen- 2lMay
had Mills
Cut-back A cut-back in relief operations Steohen Grev 23April
Cut-off To join the fissile material cut-offtreaty Matthew .26Mar
Campbell
Cut-price Tested a cut-price rocket Tony Allen 1 lJune
Cyber-police Are staying ahead of cyber-police Michael 4June
Sheridan
Cyber-sawy savvy youth have their attention on.. David Orr l9Mar.
Cyber-
Dark-haired A dark-haired man Tom walker .5Mar
database To keep a database of government Mark Franchetti .26Mar
actions
Dazed-looking The dazed-looking boy Matthew 23April
Campbell
Decade-lone A decade-long country hold on the Mark Franchetti .26Mar
Deep-water Discovered a deep-water octoous Tom Rhodes 23Aoril
Diamond- With his diamond-studded gold watch News Agency 30 April
studded
diehard The most diehard dancers John Follain l8June
144
Compounding
Word Sentence
Writer Date
Diesel-electric I,,rsser-etectnc su bmart nes Peter Conradi I SJune
Double-decker
Abi Daruvalla 20Feb.
Downdraft _Druwn oy rne oowndratt
,others slipped Mark Austin .5Mar
download AVallaOIe tO downloarl nn fhe int John Harlow 25June
Down-to-earth ueDare towards down_to_earth issues
Christobel l6lan
Edwards
Draff-dodeine Accusatlons ot dratt_dodging Tom Rhodes l8June
Drawn-out America's drawn-out electionJ Tony Allen l6Jan
dreadlocks An alien with dreadlocks John Harlow 2lMay
driveway I ne grass dnveway winds past.. Tom walker .26Mar
Drop-out A drop-out from Dallas college Tony Allen- I lJune
Mills
Drug-abuse A drug-abuse Tom Rhodes I SJune
Drug-crazed A random atrocity by drug-crazed Jon Swain 2lMay
youngsters
Drug-tuelled Drug-fuelled sex orgies Michael Feb.6
Woodhead
Drug-runnins The Albanian drug-running routes Tom Walker l6Jan
Drumbeat A steady drumbeat of violence from Tom Rhodes 25lune
White
Dumb-found Dumb-found millions of his countrymen Tony Allen- | TJan
Mills I

Duty-free A duty-free centre Nick Fieldine 2 Api'l


Earthmoving Mining and earth-moving equipment Tom walker 4June
Electric- The diesel and electric-powered vessels UziMahnaimi l8June
powered
eve-of-poll ln an eve-of-poll interview R W Johnson 25June
Ever- The ever-fashionable designer News Agency 30 April
fashionable
Evergreen The radical changes to an evergreen Tony Allen- .26Mar
fixture Mills
Extramarital About his extramarital aflair Matthew l6Ian
Campbell
eyewrtness One eyewitness said.. John Harlow 2lMav
Fact-findine On a fact-finding trek Jon Swain 25June
Falt-footed The police looked flat-footed by his Paul Ham Feb.6
escapades
Far-flung Justice on the far-flung island of Penang Michael 2lMay
Sheridan
Far-rieht The far-right politician News Asencv 28Mav
Fast-crumbling Kohl's fast-crumbling composure Tony Allen- TJan
Mills
Fastest-growing Britain's fastest -growing church TJan
Fast-flowine The fast-flowing ice James Clark 23April
Fast-food- The fast-foodJoving President appears News Agency 16 April
lovine to. .
145
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
Featherbedding There is a featherbedding in our Mark Franchetti TJan
embassies
Featherweisht Featherweieht champion Adam Nathan 25June
Federal-minded Of federal-minded states Tony Allen- 2lMay
Mills
Female-friendly Building female-friendly fl eet Matthew 9 April
Campbell
Fiction- computers Fiction spinning John Harlow 4June
spinning
Fifth-srader She save a readins to fifth-sraders John Harlow 25June
figurehead A fun-loving figurehead Michael l3 Feb.
Sheridan
Film-soer Film-soers have been cool John Harlow 2lMav
firefishter F refiehters put out the flames Tom Rhodes 23April
Fish-eatins F shins-eatins birds Juliette Terieff 20Feb.
Fish-out-of- She realized her fish out-of-water News Agency .26Mar
water amusing experiences might make an
book
flagbearer Bush's nomination as the party Matthew 20Feb.
flagbearer Campbell
Flas-wavins To pick up flag-waving followers Tom Walker lSJune
Flat-rate His championine of a flat-rate tax Nieel Glass 30 Jan.
Flea-market The average French flea-market News Agencv 23April
Flood-warnins A flood-warning system Jon Swain 5Mar
Flv-on-the-wall I wish I'd a fly-on-the-wall camera Tom walker I lJune
Four-month-old A four-month-old sirl News Aqencv 30 Jan.
Frame-up A charge he calls a frame-up Michael 2lMay
Sheridan
Free-divins To break the world's free-divine record Colin Smith I lJune
freefall The local dollar went into freefall Tom Rhodes 23April
Free-for-all A hedonistic free-for-all socieff News Agency l6Jan
freelance Pictures taken by a freelance Tony Allen- 2lMay
ohotosraoher Mills
French-Italian- It is a joint French-Italian-German- News Agency l6Jan
German- American project
American
Frontrunner Bush .the Repub frontrunner lican Tom Rhodes .5Mar
frostbite They are suffering frostbite James Clark 23April
fruitpicker An Australian fruit picker Paul Ham 25June
Full-paee A fu ll-pase newspaper advertisement News Agency l3 Feb.
Full-price A full-price air ticket Stephen Grey 9 April
Full-scale Trieeer full-scale war UziMahnaimi 28Mav
Fully-frontal Featured fully-frontal shots of.. . News Agency .13 Feb
Fundraise Embarrass him over a fundraising Matthew 30 Jan
scandal Campbell
Fuzzy-haired Kim is fuzzy-haired Michael 1 lJune
Sheridan
146
Compoundirrg
Word Sentence Writer Date
Gang-rape Ordered 10 ofhis body-guards to gang- News Agency l3 Feb.
rape Meison
German-built German-built vessels Uzi Mahnaimi I SJune
Gilt-edeed Sittine in a sih-edsed cha.in Marie Clovin 27-Feb
Globe-trctti A globe-trotting photographer John Harlow 25June
Gioves-off Polis showed that the gioves-off Gore Matthew 30 Jan.
had reclaimed a lead Campbell
Go-between He reveals secret life as a go-betrveen Matthew l6Jan
Camobell
Gold-foil With eold-foil wrapped chocolate NickFieldine ,2 April
Good- The polling was good-humoured Jon Swain 25June
humoured
Gcvernment- A government-appointed psychaitrist Davidleppard l6Jan
appointed
Government- His government-backed rival Ctristobe.l l6Jan
backed Edwards
Government- The governor-general "all-outn war Duran Angiki 1 1 June
seneral declared
Guard-dog He is said to be "guard-ciogging" the News Agency 30 April
area
Gun control The largest demonstration for gun R W Johnson .26Mar
control
Haif-heartened The worst of all worlds is half-heartened William ZlMay
intervention Shawcross
hallmark Would be the hallmarks of its Tony Allen- 2lMay
oresidencv Mills
Hand-picked One of Kohl's hand-picked favorites Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
Hand-rung Collection of hand-rung bells Christopher TJan
Morgan
handwoven Besan sellins handvroven hammocks Peter Conradi 2lMav
Hang-over Others were left with the hang-over of Maurice TJan
failins to. ... Chittenden
Hard-earned Hangins over her hard-earned dollars Tonv Allen 23Jan
Hard-foughl In a hard-fought war Andrew 27Jeb
Sullivan
hardliner The hardliners have lost control of the Gabriella 20Feb.
parliament Bianchi
Headohone Heard the voice in his headphones Peter Conradi 9 April
heartbeat Aspiring to be a heartbeat away from Matthew 4June
the oresidencv Campbell
heartbreak .Half-hearted attempts to John Follain 25June
heartland The Queen is to travel to the heartland Paul Ham l2Mar
of Australia
Heart-throb The Hollywood heart-throb News Asency l6Jan
Heary-handed In a heavy-handed attempt to find a TomRhodes 6.Feb
connection....
147
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
Hearyweight Relieci on his heavyweight reputation Gabrieiia 20Feb.
Bianchi
Hedgehog He is beginning to resemble a hedeehoe News agency l2Mar
Hieh-altitude Hieh-altitude bombers Tom Rhodes 30 Jan.
High-energy A high- mix of cereal and vitamins News Agerrcy 9 April
energy
High-level corruption An embarrassrng high-levd Miehael 4June
Sheridan
High-octane Answers to a high-octane multinational Tony Allen- 2 Aprrl
mystery Miils
Hieh-profile Misled hieh-profi le clients Tom Rhodes 27,Feb
Hish-rankins Hieh-rankins officers MarkFranchelti l6Jan
Hieh-rise blocks The hieh-rise apartment Marklranchetti Feb.6
Hieh-soeed A wdVe ofhieh-speed aiccidents John Follain I 8June
hinterland Through the American hinterland Matthew 9 April
Campbell
hit-and-run The repeated hit-and-run attacks Mark Franehetti 9 April
hitman He became a hitman for secret police Tom Walker l6Jan
Hold-up The most successful hold-up artists in Matthew 9 April
America Campbell
holidaymaker Rebels have been holding 2l Peter Conradi 2lMay
holidaymakers
Honeymoon A honevmoonins French couole Tom Rlr,odes lSJune
Hostage-taking turned hostage-taking into a business Mark Franchetti l6 April
Soldiers
House-to-house Fierce house-to-house fi ehtine Mark Franchetti 30 Jan.
Human- will use human-powered sledges John Harlow 28May
powered Contestants
l-chosen His remarks aoneared ill-chosen Stephen Grey 28Mav
ll-eauipoed Ill-esuiopd to handle an attack Paul Ham 28Mav
ll-fated An ill-fated ooeration News Asencv l5Jan
Import-export Running an import-export business Marie Clovin 2 April
Indian- Villagers Indian-administered Kashmir David On .26Mxr
administored in
Intelligence- Receiving intell igence-based Peter Conradi 2lMay
based infurmation
Intelligence- charge of intelligence-gathering In Mark Franchetti l6Jan
satherins operations
Internet- Internet-inspired consumers Tony Allen- .26Mar
inspired Mills
Italian- Crreek lsl and The ltalian-occupied Brmdon 4June
occuDied Bourne
Jailhouse Near the iailhouse Torn Rhodes 25June
Kev fizures Arranse meetinss with kev ficures Stephen Grey -26Mar
148
Compounding

Word Sentence Writer Date


kickpback Millions of pounds going astray in Jon Swain 16 April
kickbacks
Killer cells The killer cells in the blood Roser Dobson 4June
Kiss-and-tell Her kiss-and-tell account of her relation Tony Allen- TJan
with.... Mills
Knife-edge Leave the country on a knife-edge of Jonathan Leake 9 April
unceraintv
Knife- A display of knife-sharpening Susan Bell 30 Jan.
sharpening
Knockdown It has been sold for the knockdown price Tony Allen 1 lJune
of...
Know-it-all An archetypal know-it-all technocrat Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
Landmine Killed by a landmine Michael 30 Jan.
Sheridan
Landslide Predict a landslide victory R W Johnson I 8June
Laser-guided Laser-guided rockets Matthew .26Mar
Camobell
Law-and-order The solution to law-and-order problems News Asencv 9 April
Least-known The world's least-known despot Michael I 8June
Sheridan
Left-of-centre His left-of-centre rival Christobel l6Jan
Edwards
Leopard-crawl He did aleopard-crawl along the side of David Smith 2lMay
the house
Life-lons A life-lons handicao Nisel Glass 30 Jan.
Liehtweieht He is a liehtweight incapable of... Tom Rhodes 2lMav
Lip-shaped Lio-shaoed sofas Mark Franchetti Tlan
Little-known The little known culture in Tigris Matthew 28May
Campbell
Lock-pickins Lessons in lock-picking News Agencv l3 Feb.
Loggerhead A radio station at loggerheads with Mark Franchetti 4June
President Putin
London- A London-registered firm Stephen Grey 30 Jan.
reeistered
Lone-debated To suoport a lone-debated change Tonv Allen I lJune
Long-dormant Adjusting to long-dormant threats of.. Tony Allen- 28May
Mills
Long- The long-established convention in Tony Allen- 25June
established France Mills
Longest-ruling One of the world's longest-ruling Matthew 1 lJune
dictators Campbell
Long-lens Long-lens photographs of her Tony Allen^ 21May
Mills
Lons-runnins A lons-runnins comrption Tonv Allen .5Mar
Long-serving The city's long-serving mayor Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
149
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
Long-standing Citing a long-standing relation between News Agency 2lMay
the mayor and an aide
Long-term A long-term relationship Tom Rhodes .5Mar
Long-veiled The long-veiled secrets of free masonry Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
Low-lvins LowJying areas Jon Swain .5Mar
Madame-" "Mad ame-you're-all- a-bunch-of-" " Tony Allen- 25June
you're-all-a- reflecting her attitude to "idiots Mills
"bunch-of-idiots underlings
Mafia-like The mafi a-like operations Tony Allen l6Jan
Make-believe The make-believe world of the media Michael lSJune
Sheridan
Makeshift At a makeshift camp Jon Swain .5Mar
Make-up Political allies in full make-up News Agency 9 April
Man-eatins The man-eating Geo tribe Jon Swain 2lMav
manhunt A manhunt ensued David On .5Mar
Mass- The mass-circulation newspaper Michael 25June
circulation published a photo$aph Woodhead
mastermind It is believed he masterminded the Jon Swain 2lMay
gqm traders murder of two
meltdown Economic meltdown David Smith 2lMav
Memory- The memory-destroying disease Matthew I 6Jan
destrovine Campbell
Mid-twenties !4 1heir early mid-twenties John Harlow 25June
Military-style The victim of a military-style operatio; David Smith 2lMav
militiamen A handful of militiamen Mark Franchetti 9 April
Milk-run It became as routine as a milk-ruffi 28May
Mind-boeeline Thlications are mind-boggling Jonathan Leake 4June
Mischief- Socialist elements have been mischief- Stephen Grey 23April
making making
Mixed-race The nation's mixed-race population Michael 2lMay
Sheridan
Money-changer The money-changer resisted Tony Allen- .5Mar
Mills
Mother-to-be AJfects the mothers-to-be John Harlow 25June
motorbike He roars up on his motorbike News Agencv 23Aprrl
motorboat On board a motorboat Matthew 23Aprtl
Campbell
motorcade Driven in his high-speed motorcade Michael .26Mar
Sheridan
Movie-goer Vulnerable movie-goer John Harlow 2lMav
Much-abused She replaces the much -abused Marceau .2 Aprrl
Catherine
Much-needed Qrye it much-needed respectabilitv Nieel Glass 30 Jan.
Much-revered His much-revered predecessors Matthew l6Jan
Campbell
Much-vaunted The country's much-vaunted land Uzi Mahnaimi l8June
150
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
mugshot The police released a musshot of a man Paul Ham 25lune
Multi-million Multi-million oound fiascos News Asencv l6Jan
Multi-million- Multi-million-dollar claims Juliette Terjeff 20Feb.
dollars
Muscle-bound Arnold the muscle-bound hero is a Matthew 27,Feb
backer Campbell
nationwide A nation-wide manhunt Paul Ham 25June
Near-certain As he heads for near-cenain victory Mark Franchetti TJan
Near-fatal Suffered a near fatal blow Tony Allen- TJan
Mills
Near-historic A boom in American economy Tom Rhodes 30 Jan.
Nickname It has been nicknamed Mugabwe Jon Swain l6 Aoril
Nisht-fishter He commanded a nisht-fiehter squadron Uzi Mahnaimi 1 lJune
nightpost To discourage racing between John Follain 1 8June
nishtoosts
No-holds- It offers a no-holds-barred account of... News Agency 28May
barred
Now- Its now-abandoned ban on.. Matthew TMay
abandoned Campbell
oddballs They had their share of oddballs Michael 25June
Woodhead
Off-bounds Off-bounds for Stasi officers Mark Franchetti l6Jan
Off-duty Off-duty Nato soldiers Jon Swain l9Mar.
offshoot One of the Zanier offshoots of . Michael 30 Jan.
Sheridan
Offshore To set uo offshore companies Nick Fieldins 2 April
Oft-stated Bush is disregarding his oft-stated lack Matthew TMay
of interest Campbell
Oilfield An oilfield in California Matthew 28May
Campbell
Once-dreaded East-Germany' s once-dreaded secret Mark Franchetti TJan
police
Once- In the once-formidable alliance Tony Allen- 2lMay
formidable Mills
One-sided Givine one-sided briefings Mark Franchetti l8June
On-screen Despite his on-screen license to.. News Aqencv 30 Jan.
Open-and-shut It seemed an open-and-shut case Tony Allen- 4June
Mills
Open-palm Leaned from the window giving the Tom Walker .2 April
open-palm salute
Outbreak Before the outbreak of war Peter Conradi l2Mar
Outcrv An outcry over financial windfalls Edward Owen .l2Mar
Outcry She has been helped by an outcry Tom Rhodes 9 April
over...
151
Compounding

Word Sentence Writer Date


outlast Saddam outlasted another American Marie Colvin 2 April
President
Outnumber Television cameramen outnumbering Tlan
.crackpots
Out-of-state As an out-of-state "carpetbagger" Michael 30 Jan.
Sheridan
Out-of-towner Portraying him as a carpetbagging out- Sylvie Deroche 27,Feb
of-towner
output Manufacturing output fell last year David Smith 2lMay
He outran them Paul Ham Feb.6
outran
It was overblown Diseph Gadher TJan
overblow
The drift from overcropped rural areas Tom Rhodes 23April
overcropped
Diseph Gadher TJan
Overhaul Overhauling comPuter sYstems
Run the flame overland from Greece News Agency 27.Feb
Overland
Cresson was overpaid for.. Tony Allen .5Mar
overpay
Over-reliance on fossil fuels Matthew 28May
Over-reliance
Campbell
Squatters who overran white-owned R W Johnson .26Mar
oven-un
farms
Obete people dressed in an oversized John Harlow 2lMay
oversized
tribute
Overturn Thp nnnrriction was overturned Tom Rhodes I 16Je!
Matthew .5Mar
Painkiller An addiction to Painkillers
Campbell
25June

pavoff Receiving PaYoffs from Iraq Peter Conradi 2lMay


John Harlow 25June
payroll It covered the comPanY's PaYrol!
Thp npqnpkPener forrnd that News AgencY l6Jan
Peacekeeper
News AgencY 23April
peepshow As well as strippers from the sexdrome
^penchnu/
Matthew 23April
Pepper spray Held back with PePPer spray
Campbell
Anqrf *nm neqt-enntrol suns Tom Walker 18June
Pest-control
Escorting the Petrol-carrier Marie Clovin 2lMay
Petrol-carrier
Marie Clovin 2lMay
oickup Q.i-
^f ,ro onf intn a niclnrn truck 28May
It was like play-acting tbr the role oI Marie Clovin
Play-act
"'ifo
'|.La o* michf he fnken t'or a Dlafirung Tom Rhodes 23April
plavthing
\l/pcfcrn nolicv-makers declded tnat Tom walker 13 Feb.
Policv-makers
Matthew l6Jan
Poll+ested The father's performance wlll be poll-
tested Campbell
(-*azntr thp nnmned-otlt caDltal Mark Franchetti l6Jan
Pomped-out
Tho Qarrdi-hnrn ferronst Uzi Mahnaimi l8June
pop
Tom walker .26Mar
Post-millennial To out post-millenntal dtstlluslonment
Tony Allen- l6Jan
Post-war The most volatile crisis in post-war
Germany
Mills
152
Compounding

Word Sentence Writer Date


Pot-bellied His pot-bellied cronies at his side Tom Walker 16Jan
Powerbroker Powerbroker of Yeltsin's regime Mark Franchetti .26Mar
Prawn-flavored A ban on the prawn-flavored crisp Steohen Grev .26Mar
Pre-emptive Pre-emptive nuclear attack Uzi Mahnaimi I 8June
Prime-time France 2 channel's sagging prime-time News agency l2Mar
line-uo
Prize-winner A Nobel peace prize-winner John Follain 19Mar.
Prosecutor- The prosecutor-general Mark Franchetti I 8June
general
Pull-out Uzi Mahnaimi 30 April
punchbag Turning Bradely into his punchbag Maffhew 30 Jan.
Campbell
Quick-tempered Being quick-tempered Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
Rabbit-sized A rabbit-sized Maltese pooch 4June
raincoat Two men in raincoats Tony Allen- I SJune
Mills
Rank-and-file Some British rank-and-fi le soldiers News Agency l6Jan
Rat-infested To die in a rat-infested jail Matthew 20Feb.
campbell
Razor-brained The party's razor-brained operatives Matthew 30 Jan.
Campbell
Razor-sham A razor-sham Republican maiority News Agencv 23Jan
rearguard He carried out a desperate rearguard David Smith 2lMay
action
Record- A record-breaking fl ight Michael 25June
breakins Sheridan
Red-hot A red-hot metal Jonathan Leake .26Mar
Rent-free Provide rent-free accommodation John Harlow 25lune
Republican - Republican-minded minister Alastair Mcleod 20Feb.
minded
Riehtwinser His credentials as a rightwinger News Asencv 4Iune
Roadblock A roadblock of the Croatian Defence News Agency l6Jan
Force
roadsweeper One man was a roadsweeper News Asencv 30 Jan.
Roundabout A large roundabout of strategic Mark Franchetti 30 Jan.
importance
Round-the- The first solo round-the-world flight Michael 25June
world Sheridan
runaway People experienced runaway infl ation David Smith 2lMay
Run-of -the- The plans were fabricated from run-of- John Goetz 2 April
mill the-mill intellieence reoorts
Saber-rattling The saber-rattline in the Mediterranean Tom Walker .19Mar
153
Compounding

Word I Sentence Writer I Date


safequard I To safeguard his ovrn security Uzi Mahnaimi 1 lJune

sandbag Others set up sandbagged gun Jon Swain 2lMay


placements
Satellite- A satellite-launching rocket John Harlow 2lMay
launchins
Ssandal- The scanciai-piagoed French oil Tony Ailen- Tian
comDanY Mills
Scandal-prone Scandal-prone White House Matthew 28May
Campbel!
Scandal-stained A defender of her father'sscandal- Tony Allen- 2lMay
stained record Mills
Science-fiction To direct his unfinished science-fiction John Harlow 2LMay
film
scriptu'riter .His scriptrvriters said that.. Nen's Agency 9 April
Sea-faring ln his classic searfaring novel Tom Rhodes ZJADTII
Sealed-ofI' A base , massive sealed-ofl'compound Mark Franchetti 16Ian
where....

searchlights Vehicles containing searchlights Tom Rhodes 23April


Secretary- The Nato' s secretary-general Stephen Grey 23April
eeneral
Self- Divert girl s from self-development News,Agency 5Mar
development
Self-immolated Irnages of seif-immolated monks Michael 23April
Sheridan
Self-inflicted The wounds have been self-inflicted David Orr 2 April
Self-proclaimed A self-proclaimed BaPtist Tom Rhodes 25June
Self-rule Self-rule plunged the country into Jon Sw'ain 2lMay
comrption
Self-stvled The self-styled crimebuster David Orr .2 April
A sex-laden selection News Agency 30 Jan.
Sex-laden
A glimpse of sex-obssessed military Matthew 9 April
Sex-obssessed
Campbeil
Two main shareholders in the company Nick Fielding lSJune
Shareholder
Sheep-farming The sheep-farming country Paul Ham .l2Mar
Before the climatic shootout Tom R.hodes l8June
shootout
A local shopkeeper Marie Clovin 28May
shopkeeper
The shortlived attempt by tbrmer)'lazis Nick Fielding 4June
shortlived
She is a keen showjumPer Christopher 20Feb.
showjumper
Goodwin
Showpiece A sliowpiece of Franco-German Tony Allen- TJan
solidarity Miils
Hundreds of sightseers and hooligans Tlan
sightseer
The silver-haired Pilot Matthew 27,Feb
Silver-haired
Campbell
154
Compounding

Word Sentence Writer Date


A J^* \I^+L^-
Single-handedly Hamed single-handedly raised the rludili 1\d(ltdlr 25June
spoftrs profile
Skv-hish SkV-hieh unemployment David Smith 2lMav
slauehterhouse Those clubs are slaughterhouses John Follain 18June
sledgehammer Sledgehammer punch Matthew .30 Jan
Campbell
Slingshot Stones from slingshots Matthew 28May
Campbell
Smokescreen smokescreen regud the issue as a Many Grace 4June
for him to pursue grudges Bradberrv
snowboard They go on snowboarciing hoiidays Matthew 9 April
Campbell
Soft-spoken Her soft-spoken femininity Matthew .5Mar
Campbell
Sousht-after A much sousht-aftq rnedia Dundit News Agencv 16 April
soundtrack A soundtrack of chewing noises Susan Bell 30 Jan.
Soviet-style A Soviet-style buildine Mark Franchetti l6Jan
Spanish- A lpanish-speaking officer Matthew 23April
soeakine Campbell
speechwriter A former Reasan soeechwriter News Asencv 2lMav
speedometer A bicvcle with a soeedometer News Aqencv 30 Jan.
Split-level To live in eleeant split-level apatments Mark Franchetti TIan
sportswear Adidas sportswear conglomerate Tony Allen- l6Jan
Mills
Sprine-cleanins In a frenzv of sprins-cleaning David Orr 19Mar.
spymaster A French spymaster Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
standoff The seizure ended a standoffin which.. Matthew 23April
Campbell
standstill Shopping came to a standstill in the Tony Allen- 2lMay
centre of... Mills
Start-up An explosion of start-up internet Michael ,19Mar
ventures Sheridan
State-controlled Commentators on the state-controlled R W Johnson TMay
radio
State-owned A state-owned petrol stations Tony Allen- TJan
Mills
statesman He matured fronibon vivant terrorist to Michael lSJune
statesman Sheridan
State-sponsered Mugabe's state-sponsered violence William 2IMay
Shawcross
Still-distant In the still-distant prospect of . . Matthew 27,Feb
Campbell
Stockpile Shells stockpiled from turtles Jonathan Leake 9 April
streamline A streamlined fisure in wetsuit Colin Smith I lJune
Strife-torn Moved from the strife-torn island Duran Ansiki 1 lJune
155
Compounding

Word Sentence Writer Date


String-pulling Warned that such string-pulling could Tom Rhodes Feb.6
backfire
striptease Perlormed in public with a striptease Tony Allen- .l2Mar
Mills
Syrian-inspired On Syrian-inspired terrorism Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
Talent-soot He could talent-spot for studios Tom Rhodes 2'7,Feb
taxoaver Larse benefits from the tax-paYer Steohen Grev .26Mar
tearsas To fire tearsas indiscriminatelv Tom Walker 2 April
Technology- Technology-loving Al Gore Matthew 30 Jan.
lovins Campbell
Test-fire lsrael has test-fired cruise missiles Peter Conradi l8June
TestJaunching Criticised Israel for test-launching a Uzi Mahnaimi l8June
missile
Texas-based A Texas-based sroup News Asencv 26Mar
Texas-sized enjoys a Texas-sized lead over his Bush Tony Allen 23Ian
rivals
Tie-break There is some doubt about tie-breaks Tony Allen- l8June
Mills
Tin-roofed In a tin-roofed bunealow Tom Rhodes 20Feb.
Tip-off After a tip-offthat alcohol was served News Agency TMay
without a license
Top-rated Top-rated films Christopher 20Feb
Goodwin
Tough-minded Tough-minded landlords R W Johnson .26Mar

Trade-off There is no trade-off between..and.. Jonathan Leake .26Mar


Trouble- Invitation to trouble-plagued world Tony Allen- I lJune
plagued exhibition Mills

Truelife A truelife alternative to television John Harlow l8June


turnabout A remarkable turnabout for a premier Tony Allen- 28May
Mills
Two-bedroom A two-bedroom flat Mark Franchetti l9Mar.
Two-way The two-way traffic Mark Franchetti l6Jan
Under-equipped Who killed under-equipped U N William 2lMay
oeacekeeoers Shawcross
Underpants He was dressed in underpants Matthew 23April
Campbell
understatement Panic is probablv an understatement Duran Aneiki I lJune
unsung Carev praises unsung heroes TJan
uobrineins Wrote a book about her upbringing News Agencv 4June
uphold Clinton can uphold America's strength Mark Franchetti 4June
uplifting Offer a kaleidoscope of uplifting Tony Allen' I lJune
experiences Mills
Upper-crust Upper-crust English spies Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
uDroar He caused an uproar 18 month ago News Agency 2lMav
156
Compounding
Word Sentence Writer Date
Vote-rigging A vote-rigging seat in parliament Tom Walker 75Ian
Voting-rieht Voting-rights activist Tom Rhodes 25June
warheads Sites of the warheads and ballistic Marie Clovin 20Feb.
missiles
warlord Serbian warlord dies Tom walker l6Jan
warship Installed women in warships,fighter jets Matthew 9 April
Campbell
War-torn War-torn areas of the Congo Tom walker 4June
War-wearv The withdrawal of the war-weary army Iqbal Athas TMav
waterfront The waterfront cafes and food stalls Michael l3 Feb.
Sheridan
Weieht-loss Endorsing the weight-loss system News Agencv 2l.Feb
Wel -founded The fears are well-founded Uzi Mahnaimi 30 April
Wel -kept Being in on a well-kept secret News agencv l2Mar
Wel -meanlng Well-meanins busbusters Diseoh Gadher TJan
Wel -off A well-offlittle bov News Agencv 9 April
Well-run Well-run countries are threatened bv.. William ZlMay
Shawcross
Western- A Western-educated doctor Gabriella 20Feb.
educated Bianchi
wetsuit A streamlined figure in wetsuit Colin Smith 1 lJune
Wheat-flour Allergic to wheat-flour products News Asencv 30 Jan.
whereabouts Unaware of a bombed-out house Mark Franchetti TIan
whirlwind A whirlwind romance John Harlow 28Mav
Whiz-kid financial rendez-vous with the whiz-kids David Orr l9Mar.
His
Wide-ranging The CIA bungling had wide-ranging Marie Colvin .2 April
repercussions
Wife-swappine French wife-swaooins clubs News Asencv l6Jan
windfall An outcry over financial windfalls Edward Owen .l2Mar
Window- Making window-shopping possible Julian Ryall 23April
shopping
Wired-up The city promoted itself as wired-uo David Orr .l9Mar
Witch-hunt A witch-hunt of the present elite Tom Walker 16 April
Woman-about- She became a sexy woman-about-town Tony Allen- .2 Aprll
town Mills
workforce The unknown losses among the Asian Michael 2lMay
workforce are ... Sheridan
World-famous To the world-famous Rizzoli Institute .26Mar
Worldlv-wise He is a worldlv-wise person Uzi Mahnaimi I lJune
Would-be He greeted with a stare the would-be Michael 23April
questioners Sheridan
Zero-tolerance A mayor whose zero-tolerance Tom Rhodes 2lMay
policies...
100-metre-deep In the lOO-metre-deep lake Nick Fieldins 4June
20-year- Mugabe's unbroken 2}-year- Jon Swain 25June
stranelehold stranglehold on power
157
Conversion

Table.3. Conversion
Word Sentence Writer Date
alr The story was aired on September last Tom Rhodes 23,Jan.
vear
alert Rwanda was alerted Jon Swain 30,Jan
backfire Warned that such string-pulling could Peter Conradi 6,Feb.
backfire
backtrack The sovernment had to backtrack Alastair Mcleod 20 Feb.
badmouth Badmouthine his director John Harlow l S,June
beauty He has been dating a string of beauties News Agencv l6,April
bill It would be billed for the clean-up News Agencv 7,Ian
bloodstain Disclosing his bloodstained past Susan Bell 23,Jan.
boo She was booed and soat at bv crowds Peter Conradi 72,Mar.
brainwashed RIJF has distinct units brainwashed Jon Swain 2l,May
brave Candidate braves murder threats Tom Walker 4.June
breakneck Eight lanes of breakneck traffic Marceau 2.April
Budget The film has been budeeted at $135m Peter Conradi 6-Feb
Bus Hundreds of scientologists were bussed John Harlow 2l,May
to Hollwood
Buv-back A Nigerian debt buy-back scheme Nick Fieldins 2-Aorll
carpetbag Portraying him as a carpetbagging out- Sylvie Deroche 27,Feb
of-towner
Cave Why Milosevic caved in Tom Rhodes 30.Jan
cement Helped to cement their appeal Christopher 20,Feb.
Goodwin
Chair The republican chairing the committee News Asencv 7.May
Cheer Many South African would cheer a News Agency 7,May
stand on principle
Clampdown A clampdown on narcotics Mark Franchetti 30.Aoril
Clean-up It would be billed for the clean-up News Agency 7.Jan
clich6 Its dialozue clich6d John Harlow 2l.Mav
Climbdown It blames the climbdown on pressure Stephen Grey 18,June
from Clinton to...
closet She has spent much of her life closeted Tony Allen- 2l,May
in laboratories Mills
Close-up Such close-up is of... Michael l l,June
Sheridan
Code-breakine To learn code-breakins and sabotase Peter Conradi l3-Feb.
codename Codenamed lush ,the operation set out Mark Franchetti l6,Jan.
to ....
Comeback The idea of a political comeback Matthew l6,Jan.
Campbell
corner They are cornered Mark Franchetti 6-Feb.
Countenance He refused to countenance the prospect Tom Rhodes 2l-Mav
counter To counter the anarchic forces of,.. Tom Walker l6.April
Crackdown An international crackdown on the trade JonathanLeake 9-Aoril
Cut-back A cut-back in relief operations Steohen Grev l6-Aoril
158
Conversion
Word Sentence Writer Date
Cut-off As a cut-offdate Tom Walker l3,Feb.
Cut-price Tested a cut-price rocket Tony Allen- 4,Juns
Mills
diehard The most diehard dancers Stenhen Grev l$Jrrne
distance Leadership began to distance itself from Tony Allen- 7,larr
him Mills
dizzy Lt a d\zzying pace Tony Allen- 27,Feb
Mills
doctor CDU used doctored death notices Stephen Grey 30.Jan
dog The Chechen's doqsed resistance Mark Franchetti 30.Jan
downturn Inevitable economic downturn Matthew l6Jan.
Campbell
drain A battle that would drain resources Matthew 30,Jan
Campbell
Drop-out A drop-out from Dallas college Tony Allen- 4,June
Mills
druq Drugsed her with hashish John Follain 4.June
Drug-crazed A random atrocity by drug-crazed Jon Swain 21,May
vounsesters
Dynamite Thev are dvnamitine the cinema News Agency l3.Feb.
elbow Elbowine each other out of the way Susan Bell 30.Jan
fable The fabled pink citv of Jaipur David Orr l9-Mar.
fan It fanned the flames with mysterious Stephen Grey l6,April
reDorts
Father He fathered at least 15 children 13,Feb.
file comrption allegations have been filed David Orr g,April
asainst 85 people
Firebomb The house had been firebombed Jon Swain 25.June
lound A historian who is its founding director Stephen Grey 2.April
Frame-up A charge he calls a frame-up Michael 2l,May
Sheridan
free To free the boxer Tom Rhodes l6-Jan.
Gloves-off Polls showed that the gloves-offGore Jon Swain 30,Jan
had reclaimed a lead
Ground China grounds British flyer Michael 25,Iune
Sheridan
Guard-doe He is said to be "guard-dogged" the area News Agency 30-April
gun He was zunned down Tom Walker 5.Mar.
hideout To smugsle prisoners to safe hideouts News Agency 7 -Jan

Hold-up The most successful hold-up artists in Matthew 9,April


America Campbell
Honeymoon A honevmoonins French couple Tom Rhodes 18-June
Keep Oblised to Dav for their keep... Abi Daruvalla 20.Feb
Kickback Mitlions of pounds going astray in Jon Swain l6,April
kickbacks
Knockdown It has been sod for the knockdown price Tony Allen- 4,June
of... Mills
lectured She lectured on photography John Harlow 25.June
159
Conversion

Word Sentence \ilriter Date


Lobbv It was not a lobbvins asencl Stephen Grey 2-Aoril
low Near-historic lows Tom Rhodes 30.Jan
Make-believe The make-believe world of the media Michael l l,June
Sheridan
makeshift He carried her to a makeshift hospital Jon Swain 26,Mar.
Market Continue to market herself with sex John Harlow 27,May
mastermind It is believed he masterminded the Jon Swain 2l,May
murder of two gem traders
Meltdown Economic meltdown David Smith 2l-Mav
mill Milled around expectantly Susan Bell 30.Jan
muscle He is muscling in on the hugely Tony Allen- l l,June
lucrative business of. ... Mills
mushroom CDU crisis could mushroom into a crisis Tom Rhodes 16,Jan.
of partv democracv
near As the pull-out nears .Hezbollh is Mark Franchetti 30.April
Net They often net more than $100,000 Matthew 9,April
Campbell
nursemaid Nursemaiding the president child was Tony Allen- 25,June
not... Mills
Obscure He accused him of obscuring the origins Nick Fieiding 2,Aprii
of...
Offset Gore is desperate to offset Bush in the Michael 4,June
south Sheridan
Orchestrate GrchestratinE the bombine of blocks Mark f'ranciretti 30Jan
Output Manufacturing output fell last year David Smith 2l.May
outwit A conclusion is essential to outwit the Uzi Mahnaimi 4,June
threats
Overtone It had overtones of smoked salmon Susan Bell 23-Jan.
parcel He parceled the money into seven Swiss Stephen Grey 30,Ian
accounts
Pavoff Receivine oavoflb from Iraq Peter Conradi 21.Mav
pen While oennins an eloouent bioeraphv Tom Rhodes l6.Jan.
perfect Neutron bombs have been perfected Matthew 26,Mar.
Camobell
Phone The result is phoned in to headquarters Matthew 23,Jan.
Campbell
Pickuo Six of us sot into a oickuo truck Marie Clovin 2l-Mav
Pocket After pocketing the money ,the rebels Jon Swain 2l,May
shot him
Poll-out To ioin his familv after the poll-out UziMahnaimi 30.April
pose She was asked to pose for Playboy Abi Daruvalla 20.Feb.
premlere A film of her life was premiered last Peter Conradi L2,Mu.
week
pressure He was pressured into.. Matthew 20,Feb.
Campbell
Putdown In a memorable putdown during a Matthew 20,Feb.
debate Campbell
160
Conversion

Word Sentence Writer Date


Quip He had quipped Matthew l6,Ian.
Camobell
ransom After being ransomed Mark Franchetti l6.April
Resurface The obscure politician has resurfaced News Agency 2l,May
in...
Rethink The huge fees also forced a rethink News Agency 6,Feb.
among...
Route Money was routed throueh banks Nick Fieldine 2,Aprrl
Run-up In the run-up to the last elections Peter Conradi 6,Feb.
sandbag Others set up sandbagged gun Jon Swain 2l,May
placements
savage He has been savaged by News Agency 26,Mar.
environmentalists
Second It seconded economic policy to the News Agency 23,Jan.
Federal Reserve
sense The unions sensing his weakness Tony Allen- 26,Mat,
Mills
Shoot-out Killed in a shoot-out with police Matthew 9,April
Campbell
slug The two parties has been slugging it News Agency 23,Jan.
over a century
snowboard They go on snowboarding holidays Matthew 9,April
Campbell
sober The conclusions are said to be soberine Jonathan Leake 26.Mar.
Soldier His former colleagues soldiering on at News Agency 16,April
the White House
Spin-off Jobs,investment and other economic Tony Allen- 4,June
spin-offs generated Mills
Sport Sporting a traditional sulu skirt ,he Michael 2l,Nday
put... Sheridan
spraY Sprayed the lobbv with automatic fire Tom Walker l6,Jan.
stage Women will stage their protest on May News Agency 26,Mar.
,14
standoff The seizure ended a standoffin which.. Matthew l6,April
Campbell
standstill Shopping came to a standstill in the Tony Allen- 21,May
centre of.... Mills
Star Virginie the dimpled French !ngenue News Agency 2l,May
who starred The Beach
stockpile Dealers stockpile drugs before the Paul Ham 30,April
games
storm Mugabe stormed before a gathering R W Johnson 19,Mar.
of.....
streamline A streamlined fizure in wetsuit Colin Smith I l.June
Surface Concern surfaced on the front page of David Smith 21,May
Bild
tail With armed colleazues tailine him John Follain 4.June
tap Israel tapped Clinton e-mail Uzi Mahnaimi 2l-Mav
161
Conversion&
Borrowing

lVord Sentence Writer Date


Musabe stormed before a gathering oL R W Johnson l9,Mar.
storm
A streamlined figure in wetsuit Colin Smith l l.June
streamline
Concern surfaced on the front page of David Smith 2l,May
Surface
Bild
John Follain 4.June
tail With armed colleagues tailing him
Israel tapped Clinton e-mail Uzi Mahnaimi 21.May
tap
Matthew 23,Jan.
thunder He tttundered into his oflicial plan
Campbell
f ne pemocrats have never toyed with News Agency 23,Ian.
toy
the left
at heartstrings Matthew 23,Jan.
Tug at Tugging
Campbell
News Agency 13,Feb.
turnout A low turnout would guarantee Mugabe
victorv
Turnover ftis Utsitte,ss tras an annual turnover of Susan Bell 23,Jan,
?5O rnillinn
News Agency 4,June
upbringing Her mother wrote a book about her
rrnhrinoino
Frc e.rrrced rn unroar l8 months ago News Agency 21.May
Uproar
After the rzideotaned heattns ot Tom Rhodes 20.Feb.
Videotape
Nigel Glass 30,Jan
Voice Joined in voicing alarms at the entry
nf
Thqt rrres the warm-uD SusanBell 23-lan.
Warm-up
Tom Walker 20,Feb.
weather The government have weathered me
cfnrn
Jon Swain 5,Mar.
winch The family was winched tiern-Ilellgg

Table.4.
Writer Date
Word Origin Sentence
Jonathan Leake 6,Feb
abattoir French Offgoes the animal to the
abattoir
John Harlow 28May
abseil German Will escape bY abseiling down
the waterfalls
Mark Franchetti 16,Jan
Ahmici Sanskrit Men are sought ibr Ahmtct
erimes
John Harlow 4June
amateur French Put an amateur writtng
4June
anathema Latin > His stand is an anathema to
Greek nnnservnfive zealots
It predicted nuclear Eguardo 2lMay
fumageddon Greek
Armaoeddon or worse Goncalves
An unfashionable News AgencY l2Mu
arrondissement French
o* nrlicsrtment
Tony Allen- 26Mar
Avant-garde French On avant-garde tashton shows
Mills
Tony Allen- 4June
baccalaur6at French He spent Years stuclYmg ror rus
baccalaur6at Mills
162
Borrowing
Word Origin Sentence Writer Date
beaux French Searched malls for young News Agency 5Mar
beaux
bellicose Latin A history of bellicose News Agency 2lMay
behavior
beret French United Nations blue Uzi Mahnaimi 28May
berets
bistro French An illeeal bistro News Agencv l2Mar
bizarre French> Which details their Christopher 26Mar
Spanish bizane fetishes Goodwin
boa Latin He had shown offa new Allan Hall 12}'4w
feather boa
bog Irish and The army is bogged Mark Franchetti 30,Jan
Gaelic down
Bon vivant French He matured from bon Michael 18June
vivant terrorist to Sheridan
statesman
bonanza Spanish His limited role in the Matthew 30,Jan
economicbonanza Campbell
Bougainvillea French A sprawling Tom walker I lJune
bousainvillea
bouquet French With a bouquet of Michael 26Mar
flowers Sheridan
boutique French Hawking at a boutique News Agencv 26Mar
bungalow Hindi ln a tin-roofed bungalow Tom Rhodes 20Feb
bureaucrat French A Parisian bureaucrat Tony Allen- 26Mar
Mills
cadre French Public security and party Michael l8June
cadres Sheridan
camouflage French He prefers suits to Uzi Mahnaimi I lJune
>Italian camouflase fatizues
canoe Spanish>Hait Navigating themselves John Harlow 28May
ian on outrisger canoes
canton French Monoethnic cantons are Tom Walker l3Feb
>Italian the only solution
canvas French Whose canvas Matthew 26Mar
symbolized an age of Campbell
risqud frolic
cargo Spanish With its cargo of crates Steohen Grev .9Aor
Champagne- French Former minister of Tony Allen- 26Mar
and-caviare culture with a Mills
champagne-and-cavi are
profile
chauffeur French The chauffeur of the David Smith 2lMay
leader ...
cheque French Clinton reached for his News agency 4June
cheque book
Cherchez la French "to find the man,cherchez Tony Allen- .9,Apr
femme la femme" Mills
163
Borrowing

Word Orisin Sentence Writer Date


cockatoo Malay He has a pet cockatoo Tom Rhodes 27Feb
Conduit French Using the general as a conduit Marie Clovin 2Apr
for disinformation
contretemps French Ranging from contretemPs Tom Rhodes 6,Feb
over clemency to...
coup French Last vear's military coup David Orr 19Mar
crescendo Italian The sound of sharpening steel News Agency l2Mar
reached crescendo
cutslne French Tired of the bourgeois News Agency l2Mar
>vulgar comforts of cuisine
Latin
curricula Latin To include philosophy in its News Agency 2lMay
school curricula
czar Russian Drus czars of Russia Mark Franchetti .30Apr
De facto Latin It is in the de facto border that David Orr 26Mar
divides Indian and Pakistani
Kashmr
French Lunches were de rigeur for toP News Agency .3OApr
De rigeur
editors
French Like most space debris Jonathan Leake 26Mar
debris
French To make its British debut News Agency 5.Mar
Debut
The region of the deva-raj or Michael 13Feb
Deva-raj Sanskrit
sod-kine Sheridan
Latin Some developed diarrhea Jon Swain 5.Mar
diarrhea
Diaspora Greek The Albanian diasPora in Tom Walker | 27Feb
America
Hindi With three motorized dinghies Mark Austin 5.Mar
dinehy
Latin Feeding his ego and aPPetite Tom Walker .2Apr
ego
for wealth
enfant French Tenible Vladimir,the enfant Mark Franchetti
tenible of Russian Politics l6'Anr
entente French Revived entente between the Tony Allen- 2lMay
French and German leaders Mills
French Several of his entourage were RW Johnson TMay
entourage
detained
A controversial entrePreneur Matthew 2SIviay
entrepreneur French
Campbell
Italian Ordering nothing but esPresso News Agency 30Apr
espfesso
Latin They returned in euPhoria on Michael l8June
euphoria
Friday Sheridan
Italian To invest in DisneY-stYle News AgencY l3Feb
exttavaganza
extravaganzas
164
Borrowing

Word 0riein Sentence Writer Date


Fete French Feted by the Russians for his Mark Franchetti l6,lan
toueh stance
fondue French Stirring fondue and winding Allan Hall l2Mar
cuckoo clocks
fraternising Latin> Rules about fraternizing-an Matthew .9,Apr
French euohemism for sex Campbell
frolic Dutch Whose canvas symbolized an Tony Allen- 26Mar
ase of risou6 frolic Mills
gala French Raises $2m a night at gala Tom Rhodes 2lMay
>Italian events
gavotte French In its closing stages the war Colin Smith 28May
became a curious gavotte
Gourmand French The thinking French gourmand Susan Bell 30,Jan
>Celtic
oriein
Grand finale French As a srand finale he SusanBell 3O,Jan

grandiose French Election will stretch from Tony Allen- 26Mar


srandiose salons Mills
grotto French> He knelt in a grotto and his Dina Shiloh 26Mar
Italian hands trembled
Hindi > Urinates in front of her guru Michael 30,Jan
guru
Sanskrit Sheridan
Italian They have greeted her with Paul Ham 26Mar
gusto
zusto
Arabic Drussed her with hashish John Follain 1lJune
hashish
French Produced its first haute couture News Agency 23Apr
Haute couture
Jon Swain 5,Mar
havoc old The havoc has been
French catastrophic
German Last hurrah from Vietnam's red Michael .23Apr
hurrah
euard Sheridan
French> Described as prone to hYsteria David Orr .2Apr
hysteria
Latin
French Virginie the dimpled French News Agency 2LM:ay
Ing6nue
Ins6nue who starred ...
Latin Most towns on Clinton's David Orr l9Mar
itinerary
itinerary
jibe Danish In a series of homoPhobic jibes R W Johnson l9Mar
at....
Haltine Bush iuggernaut Mark Franchetti 16.Jan
iuggernaut Hindi
Tony Allen- I lJune
kaleidoscope Greek Offer a kaleidoscoPe of
uoliftine experiences Mills
Kindergarten German A small gym,and a Mark Franchetti 7 ilan

kinderearten
When it comes to eating Tony Allen- 26NIar
lasagne Italian
lasagne Mills
165
Barrowing
Word Origin Sentence Writer Date
limbo Latin ln Israeli border limbo Tony Allen- 28May
Mills
Mafia Sicilian Killed by members of Tom Walker l6,Jan
mafia grouo
mailis Arabic Until the mailis convenes Marie Clovin TMay
Mal de tdte French People who suffer from News Agency .23Apr
mal de tte
malaise French Analyzing its president's Stephen Grey l6,Apr
malaise
Mania Latin >Greek The mania for collecting News Agency 5,Mar
cards
manicure French The manicured lawns Marie Clovin 28Mav
manifesto Italian A cornerstone ofthe Matthew 4June
party manifesto Campbell
manure French The dumping of a pile of Matthew 20Feb
manure Campbell
massage French Ladies helping the leader Michael I lJune
to unwind with a Sheridan
massage
mausoleum Greek The familv mausoleum Marie Clovin l8June
Mea culpa Latin This less noticed mea News agency 4June
culpa was the latest
evidence of...
messiah Hebrew The messiah missed his Mark Franchetti 7 jan
rendezvous
metropolis Latin >Greek West Germany's Tony Allen- 26Mar
metropolis Mills
Mica Latin Arrowheads made from Jon Swain 30,Jan
mica
nlrvana Sanskrit At a supposed nirvana Michael I lJune
of... Sheridan
orchestrate Latin > Orchestrating the Mark Franchetti 3O,Jan
German bombins ofblocks
pagoda Persian and The Buddhist pagodas Michael .23Apr
Hindi are... Sheridan
paparazzi Italian Enthusiasm for papar a z.i Tony Allen- ZlMay
ohotoeraphs Mills
parachute French When his parachute Matthew 20Feb
opened Camobell
pariah Tamil Treating Serbia as a News Agency .9,Apr
pariah state
parole French Taking parole from the Matthew 20Feb
enemv Campbell
parole French Ministers considered a Tony Allen- 4June
nlea for oarole from .. Mills
Per capita Latin Relief efforts per capita Jon Swain l9Mar
pvzena Italian To offer her work in a John Follain I lJune
oizzeria
166
Borrowing

\ilord 0riein Sentence Writer Date


plateau French The Golan plateau Matthew 26Mar
essential to the defense of Campbell
Israel
plethora Greek The plethora of cheap William 2l,Ma
weaoons Shawcross Y
premrere French A film of her life was Peter Conradi lZMar
premiered last week
propaganda Mv orooasanda activities Mark Franchetti .2Apr
provocateur French Instruments of repression Michael 4June
such as agents Sheridan
Drovocateurs
psyche Latin It runs through the David Orr 26Mar
psyches of two
nationalistic lands
Quota Latin The army fell short of its Tom Rhodes 3O,Jan
ouota bv. ..
rabbi Latrn The new progressive Tony Allen- l9Mar
>Hebrew rabbi Mills
rapprochement French Pave way for News Agency .9,Apr
rapprochement with
Belsrade
realpolitik German An academic who shuns Stephen Grey 28May
realpolitik
renalssance French Mbeci's dream of an R W Johnson TMay
African renaissance
rendezvous French Fashionable rendezvous Susan Bell 30.Jan
replica Italian Buy a replica ofNoah's Wanyama l9Mar
ark Wansah
revene French Bush fell into a reverie Matthew 30,Jan
about... Campbell
robot Czech Japanese scientists are Julian Ryall .23Apr
developing a humanoid
robot
routine French It became as routine as a Marie Clovin 28May
milk-run
sag Danish France 2 channel's News Agency IZMar
sagging prime-time line-
up
saga Old Norse The latest saga started Michael 3O,Jan
when... Sheridan
saga Old Norse A political saga Tony Allen- .9,Apr
Mills
sarong Malay Strapped Alerio to her Jon Swain 5,Mar
back with a sarons
sauna Finnish Its indoor pool,sauna Stephen Grey .9-Aor
167
Borrowing&
shifti,
lVord Orisin Sentence Writer Date
secretariat Latin The scandal within the Tom Walker 4June
secretariat
sniper Danish A haven for Chechen Mark Franchetti 6,Feb
snipers
solo Italian>Latin The first solo round-the- Michael 25June
world flieht Sheridan
somersault French Somersaults over the Adam Nathan 25June
ropes
Status quo Latin Voters backed the status Christopher l2Mar
ouo Goodwin
steppe Russian They roamed the distanl Matthew 28May
Siberian steooes Camobell
subterranean Latin Subterranean air- Michael l8June
conditioned vaults Sheridan
surname French That his surname be Tony Allen- l2Mar
chaneed Mills
surreal French Addins to the surreal air Mark Franchetti 6-Feb
surveillance French Following a surveillance Mark Franchetti 19Mar
ooeration
Tattoo Polynesian Tattooed on her shoulder Tom Rhodes 20Feb
terracotta ltalian Sealed in terracotta John Follain 20Feb
amohoras
tOte French The t6te offensive New-s Aeencv .23Apr
tundra Russian To cross the tundra of John Harlow 28May
>Finno-Urgic western Alaska
oriein
Tycoon Japanese A business tycoon John Harlow .2Apr
vendetta Italian Launched a vendetta 26Mar
asainst the Sherif familv
whisk Scandinavian He was whisked away in Jon Swain 2lMay
a British helicooter

able.S. Shiftir,
Word Sentence writer date
aeitator A veteran liberal asitator RW Johnson 13-Feb
Air The story was aired on September last Tom Rhodes 23,Jan
year
beam The untold stories of Kosovo war News Asencv 30-Jan
bog The armv is boeeed down Mark Franchetti 30.Jan
bombshell The report is a bombshell for.. John Follain 3O.Jan
break Durine weekend breaks News Asencv 9.Apr.
brush Survived an earlv brush with bankruntcv News Asencv 13-Feb
carpetbag Portraying him as a carpetbagging out-of- Sylvie Deroche 27,Feb
towner
carrot As well as lavish financial carrots ,. News Agencv 27.Feb
168
Shifting

Word Sentence writer date


cave Whv Milosevic caved in News Agency 3O,Jan
chip Undetectable chips installed during Uzi Mahnaimi 7,May
manufacture
clip The airing of grainy clips David Leppard 16,Jan

Comb through To comb through eight of his novels David Leppard 16,Jan

commanding The Savoy hotel with its commanding Maurice 7,Jan


views of the Thames Chittenden
compound She strolled out of the compound with Marie Clovin 28May
Florence
cool Relations have since cooled Mark Franchetti 3OApr.
cool Film-eoers have been cool John Harlow 2lMay
cran Matthew
Tourists craning their heads in a museum 23,Jan
Campbell
cunous In its closing stages the war became a Colin Smith 28May
curious savotte
decimate Aids which is decimating societies William 2lMay
Shawcross
decorated Barak went on to become the most Uzi Mahnaimi 2lMay
decorated
depressurization A cabin depressurization would cause her Tony Allen- 5,Mar.
breasts to exolode.. Mills
dog Britain's role has been dogged by Jon Swain 2lMay
controversv
draft Draftins in dozens of extra officers Paul Ham 6.Feb.
Drag on The process could drag on till the Matthew 26Mar
elections Campbell
drown Supporters who were drowning beers in Tony Allen- 2lMay
the bar Mills
Drum up To drum up support for the Queen Tony Allen- l9Mar
Mills
earmark The portion earmarked for him was News agency 23,Jan
f 1.75m
eased Fishtine in Ctromv eased vesterdav Mark Franchetti 7 -Ian
engineer Who engineered the reunification of Tony Allen- 23,lan
Germany Mills
featured Invitations for featured painters to attend Tony Allen- 1 lJune
the soiree Mills
file Comrption allegations have been filed David On 9,Apr.
asainst. .. .

fix To pay for his next tix Mark Franchetti


.3o,Anr
fixture She became a fixture on partv circuits Allan Hall 5-Mar.
Flas down He flassed down a oassins oolice car Tom Rhodes 28Mav
flex As he flexed his political muscle Matthew 3O,Jan
Campbell
169
Shifting

Word Sentence writer date


flush Firms were flushed with money Maurice 7,Ian
Chittenden
flyrng Hit by a flying sex scandal Michael 6,Feb.
Woodhead
footage Television footage of dead soldiers David Leppard 16,Jan

footage Our T.V footaee was broadcasted Mark Austin 5.Mar.


forward His email is forwarded to his home Tony Allen- 19Mar
Mills
frame She frames her for the attack Tom Walker 16,Jan

fraternising Rules about fraternizing-an euphemism Matthew 9,Apr.


for sex Camobell
freeze The freezing offive bank accounts Nick Fieldine 2-Aor.
friction To minimize the ootential for friction Paul Ham 5.Mar.
implants Helped her design her silicone implants Tony Allen- 5,Mar.
Mills
indulge No suggestion that he himself indulged
Michael 6,Feb.
in.... Woodhead
kev Contacts with kev EU policv-makers Stephen Grey 2-Aor.
kickback An executive targeted with f,1.75m rn News agency 23,Jan
kickbacks
killing Hotels that hoped to make a killing had to Maurice 7,Ian
cut prices Chittenden
lead Bush enjoys a Texas-sized lead over his Matthew 23,Ian
rivals Camobell
local To gain the trust of the locals News agency 16,Ian

log He logged blood pressure ,heartbeat and Roger Dobson 4,June

massage The government was massaging the cost Tony Allen- l9Mar
ofthe trip Mills
misrepresent That he misreoresented facts Nick Fieldine 9-Aor.
Mushroom CDU crisis could mushroom into a crisis Tony Allen- 23,Jan
of partv democracv Mills
orchestrate Orchestratins the bombine of blocks Mark Franchetti 3O.Jan
overheads It saves on salaries and overheads News Agencv l3.Feb
paper Muslims and Christians papered over ther Dina Shiloh 26Mar
discord
DeDper Streetswere oeooered with bomb carters Mark Franchetti 6-Feb.
posting During Putin's posting in the late 1980s Mark Franchetti 16,Jan

riddle Cements and bricks riddled with Mark franchetti 7,Jan


microphone
Round up Before roundins up the plotters Marie Clovin Z-Apr.
rule Immrgration service has ruled that the boy Matthew l6,lan
Camobell
savage He has been savased bv environmentalists News Asencv 26Mw
170
Shifting

Word Sentence writer date


screen Screened by the foreign office Mark Franchetti 7,Jan
siphon To siphon money from Airbus into News agency 23,Jan
Germany'5 parties
slim His chances are slim News Agency 23.Jan
Smokescreen Many regard the issue as a smokescreen Grace 4,June
for him to Dursue grudges Bradberry
soften To soften her image Tony Allen- 25June
Mills
square He squares so many re publican circles News Agency 23,Ian
that he should take uo seometry
stoffn CDU should be storming back to popular Tony Allen- 23,Ian
favour Mills
Suck into Sucked into a futile Vietnam-style News Agencv 25June
tap The police tapped the family phone line Tony Allen- 4,June
Mills
target An executive targeted with f1.75m rn News agency 23,Ian
kickbacks
tell The terror tactics of Mugabe are David Smith 2lMay
besinnine to tell
Think tank The International Crisis Group ,An Stephen Grey I lJune
American-based think tank
Tie up Assad did live long enough to get Uzi Mahnaimi I lJune
everythine tied up
timeless Timeless tension between Muslims, News Agency 7,Ian
Crisstians and Jews
Tip-off They received anonymous tip-offs Mark Franchetti 30,Apr

unwind Ladies helping the leader to unwind with a Michael I lJune


massaqe Sheridan
volatile The most volatile crisis in
post-war Tony Allen- 23,Jan
Germanv Mills
volatile One ofthe world's longest-ruling dictators Matthew I lJune
Campbell
wattage The intellectual wattage to lead the free Matthew 23Jan
world Campbell
whisk He was whisked away in a British Jon Swain 2lMay
heliconter
171
Reduplication

Tahle-6- Reduo licatlon


Sonl Writer Date
Word
cancan The cancan is going htP-hoP Tony Allen- 26,Mar
Mills
Matthew 5,Mar.
crisscrossing Crisscrossing the country
CamPbell
QLo hac flin-flnnned rln lssltes rang.lng Tom Rhodes 6.Feb.
Flip-flop
Hell-hole A crime-ridden hell-hole town ruil or Christopher 12,Mar.
,.-o*-lnttpd Goodwin
Hip-hop The cancan is going htP-hoP Tony Allen- 26,Mar.
Mills
27,Feb
hobnob Being seen hobnobbtng wttn wearrny Matthew
rlnnnrc Campbell
fl*cn she iq forced to stt amrd hol-pollol News Agency 23,Apr.
Hoi-polloi
Matthew 30,Jan.
Hubble-bubble
Campbell
A ornnp hpnnh qhnwe fhe htlbhub News Agency 7,Ian.
hubhub
humdrum A humdrum oildeal Tony Allen- 7,Jan.
Mills
The policemen had shown a Pnm racle Michael 2l,May
Ill-will
Sheridan
2 channel's saggmg pnme-tlme News AgencY IZ,Mar.
Prime-time France
lina-rrn
News AgencY 7,Ian.
ragtrag Her ragtag brood believe that..
28,June
Roly-poly The leader is a roly-poly man wlth a oeep R W Johnson
holl.r lerroh
See-saw If the outcomes continue to Andrew
see-saw 27,Feb
between Bush an McCain Sullivan
Shock jock Alan Keyes ,once a radio "shock jock" Matthew 30,Jan.
Campbell
Matthew 16,Ian.
teetotal Before becoming a teetotal
Campbell
Tht Egyptt" delivered walkie talkies and Marie Clovin Z,Apr.
Walkie talkie
a satellite telephone
It is vo-vo dietine John Harlow 21,May
Yo-yo
172
Ac ro n Y m s &l niti al iz atio n s

T a ble.7 A crun & Initializutions


Word Sentence Writer Date
AOC The Australian Olympic Committe (AOC) Paul Ham 30.Apr.
Aids He often spoke about Aids Tony Allen- l9,Mar.
Mills
ARM The Australian Republican Movement's Paul Ham 26,Mar.
(ARM) membership
BSF France resistered 75 cases of BSF Jonathan Leake 6-Feb
CEPS The Centre for European Policy Studies
CIA The Central Intelligence Agency Marie Clovin Z.Apr.
CIO Mugabe's Central Intelligence David Smith 2l,May
Orsanisation (CIO)
CSE Citizens for a Sound Economy (SCE),a Tom Rhodes 9,Apr.
oolitical fu ndraisins committe
DEA The Drug Enforcement Administration in Peter Conradi 28,June
Washinston
DFID The Department for International Jon Swain l9,Mar.
Development
DFLP The Democratic Front for Liberation of 28,May
Palestine
ECB The European Central Bank (ECB) Steohen Grev 28-Mav
EPC The European Policy Centre (EPC) Steohen Grey 2.Aor.
EU EU commissioner for telecoms Steohen Grev 26.Mar.
Fifa Fifa inauirv into lraqi team torture Jon Swain 7-Mav
IDZ The Croatian Democratic Union gained Nick Fielding 18,June
control of....
TFTC A fictitious business Stephen Grey 26,Mar.
organization,"Industries For The
Communitv"
IGC The Inter-Governmental Conference
INC Supplied information to the Iraqi National Marie Clovin 2,Apr.
Consress 0NC)
IRI Subsidiary of Instituo per la Ricostruzione John Follain 3O,Jan
Indusriale
ISS On board the International Space Station Nicholas Hellen 4.June
IT Dr.Walton.an IT expert Diseph Gadher 7.Jan
KLA The Kosovo Liberation Army is Tom Walker 27 Feb.
MDC The opposition Movement for Tom Walker 2,Apr.
Democratic Change (I{DC)
mph The prototype can walk at speeds just over Matthew l6,Apr.
I mph Campbell
Nato Nato airstrikes Tom Walker l6.Jan.
NMD Proposals to develop a National Missile Peter Conradi l l,June
Defence
NRA An offensive by the National Rifle News Agency 26,Mar.
Association
OSCE He works for the Organisation for Marie Clovin 2,Apr.
Security and Co-operation in Europe.
173
Acro n y m s &l n itial izatio n s
iltt
word sentence writer date
PFLP Groups such as the Popular Front for the Uzi Mahnaimi 28,May
Liberation
PoW Depict bloodstained PoWs Michael 2l,May
Sheridan
RIIF Revolutionarv United Front (RIIF) Jon Swain 2l.Mav
RUF Foday's Revolutionary United Front Jon Swain 28,May
(RUF)
SAS Trained bv the Briitish SAS Paul Ham 28.Mav
scuba Scuba divine throueh coral reefs John Harlow 28,May
Sfor Matthew l6,Apr.
Campbell
SLA The new Sierra Leona army (SLA) Jon Swain 28-Mav
SLA The South Lebanese Army Colin Smith 28.Mav
SPD Social Democratic Party have been Peter Conradi 6,Feb.
reaoins the benefits
SPD Schroder's Social Democratic Party Tony Allen- 2l,May
(SPD) Mills
(TMK) Kosovo Protection Coms (TMK) Tom Walker 5,Mar.
Unesco To sien the Unesco treatv Jon Unsoed 4.June
TINHCR The tlN Hish Commissioner for refusees Tom Walker l3,Feb.

Table ,8.
word sentence writer date
Ad Plans to halt the ads News Asencv 23.Apr.
advert ln Italv's adverts John Harlow 2,Apr.
cvnlc Desoite the view of cvnics Tom Rhodes 2l-Mav
disco A Los Anseles disco music label John Harlow 28-Mav
t'diss" He accused Bradely of "dissing", or Matthew 16,Jan
disreoresentins -Iowa voters. Camobell
euro To pav the euro equivalent of.. Stephen Grey 5.Mar.
fresco Discoveri es of frescoes John Follain 25-Iune
gym She invested in business including gym Tony Allen- 2,Apr.
Mills
lntern The White House interns Matthew 27,Feb
Camobell
medic Medics and rescuers were landing Mark Austin 5.Mar.
memo Leaking her confidential memos to the Stephen Grey 23,Apr.
media
sub Sex war hits subs Matthew 9,Apr.
Camobell
supremo Her arrival as France's cultural suDremo Marceau 2-Aor.
174
Coining

Table.9.Coin
word sentence writer date
Lunge To lunge for the Queen's fingers Christopher 7,Ian
Morgan
Slush As murky as secrst political slush Tony Allen- J,Jan
fund Mills
Gag St.Mary church "gagged" Maurice 7,lan
Chittenden
suntotrng Guntotine female bodyguards Tom Walker 16,Jan
Spree Bank robbing sprees across Tom Walker 16,Jan
Europe
Bash While bashing Bradely's health Matthew 30,Jan
olan Campbell
Wonk Gore,a policy wonk who.. Matthew 30,Jan
Camobell
Bos The armv is boseed down Mark Franchetti 30,Jan
horrendously Died horrendously painful death Jonathan Leake 6.Feb
routing To complete their routing and Mark Franchetti 6,Feb
liquidation
Jaunt On weekend jaunts to Croatia Michael 6,Feb
Woodhead
canton Monoethnic cantons are the only Tom Walker lZFeb
solution
Sag France 2 channel's sagging prime- News Agency l2Feb
time line-up
trundling Sent them trundling round the Abi Daruvalla 20,Feb
countrvside behind
word sentence writer date
spumante Italv .home of spumante John Follain 20.Feb
hiooie A flvine of the hippie seneration News Asencv 20.Feb
portfolios Infatuated with plump portfolios News Agencv 20Feb
cronyism Insight into the cosy cronyism Tony Allen- 5,Mar.
Mills
ticklish To examine the ticklish question Allan Hall 5,Mar.
of...
cyclone A cvclone hit the resion Jon swain 5.Mar.
tizz Atizz over a Texas miss Allan Hall 5.Mar.
Sawy Cyber-sawy youth have their David On l9,Mar.
attention on...
Spoof Dressed up in baggy petticoats for Tony Allen- 26,Mar.
a TV spoof Mills
Glitch What started as a computer Matthew 26,Mar.
slitch-... Campbell
Walkie talkie The Egyptian delivered walkie Marie Clovin Z,Apr.
talkies and a satellite telephone
luwie One left-wins luwie moaned Marceau Z"Apr.
muzzle May be trving to muzzle it News Agency 9.Aor.
junket The castle was little more than a Stephen Grey 9,Apr.
iunket
175
Coining ,Eponyms&
Backformation
word sentence writer date
Regicide Fellow members of the Stephen Grey l6,Apr.
commission were plotting regicide
humanoid Japanese scientists are developing Julian Ryall 23,Apr.
a humanoid robot
infighting Outbreak of political infighting Stephen Grey 23,Apr.
with the intellieence services
Hoi-polloi Often,she is forced to sit amid News Agency 23,Apr.
hoi-polloi
nappy To buv naonies or clothes Mark Franchetti 23.Apr.
Hack It entailed hackning into White Uzi Mahnaimi 21,May
House comDuter svstems
oooch A rabbit-sized Maltese pooch News Agencv 4-June
skiwy She did not wish to be a skiwy Michael 18,June
for her mother-in-law Sheridan
underling Reflecting her attitude to Tony Allen- 25,June
underlinss Mills
bulldozer Ordered to use a bulldozer to Tom Rhodes 25,June
bury the men

Table.l0 .Eoonvms
word sentence writer date
Bousainvillea A sprawlins bousainvillea Tom walker I lJune
bvzantine Forset the Bv zantine intrizues Mark Franchetti 16-Aor.
Gaullist To find a Gaullist big enough to Sylvie Deroche 27,Feb
block....
iockev Rivals iockev for power Uzi Mahna ml l l.June
mausoleum The familv mausoleum Marie Clov n lSJune
maverick Declaring himself the maverick Sylvie Deroche 27,Feb
candidate
odyssey That discovery began a family Tony Allen-Mills 5,Mar.
odvssev
pariah Treatins Serbia as a pariah state News Agencv 9-Aor.
Rubicon A financial Rubicon they would United states 6,Feb
never cross

able. I l.6ack lbrmation


bulldoze Most of it will be bulldozed Tom Rhodes 6-Feb
codify Credited with codifying the John Follain 20,Feb
chamoasne-maker's art
drug-craze A random atrocity by drug- Jon Swain 2l,May
crazed vounsesters
oersonifv Who has personified the nation Michael Sheridan l3-Feb
televise A televised hostage drama Matthew 23,Apr.
Camobell
vocate The seat beine vocated later this Tom Rhodes 6.Feb
176
Blending

Table.lZ. Ble
word sentence writer date
aerospace The French aerospace industry Tony Allen- 11,June
Mills
Afro-Lebanese The Afro-Lebanese's family Jon Swain 21,may
came from....
Arab-Israel In the Arab-Israel war of 1973 Uzi Mahnaimi l l,June
Arch-eurosceptic Hannan,the arch-euroscePtic Stephen Grey 28,May
member
Catholic-Jewish To promote Catholic-Jewish John Follain l9,Mar.
relations
cybernaut Persuading cybernauts to talk Christobel l6,Jan
of... Edwards
docusoap To star in a TV docusoaP Nicholas 4,June
Helen
e-commefce A speech about e-commerce Michael 23,April
Sheridan
Euro-federalist His remarks electrified France's Tony Allen- 2l,may
Euro-federalists Mills
eurogate Ruro gat e: cash-for-access Stephen Grey 26.Mar.
Euro-zone Plans to enter the euro-zone Peter Conradi 11.June
Franco-German A showpiece of Franco-German Tony Allen- 7,Jan
reunification Mills
funnel Money was funneled back to Tony Allen- l6,Jan
CDU accounts Mills
eeopolitical Russia's eeopolitical interests Peter Conradi 21-mav
intemol Arkan was wanted bv Interpol Tom walker l6.Jan
juggernaut Halting Bush juggernaut Matthew l6,Jan
Campbell
Kurdish-Iranian The assassination of a Kurdish- Matthew l l,June
Iranian dissident Campbell
laptop He likes to buy shares on a Matthew 9,April
lantop Campbell
Low-tech It is more low-tech John Harlow 28,May
organochlorine Contaminated with Damandeep 6,Feb
oreanochlorines and.. Sineh
Psy-ops The influence of psy-ops Tom walker l6,Jan
osvcholoeical ooerations units
radioactivity Measurins radioactivitv Tom Rhodes 7.May
radiological Professor of radiological Tony AIlen- 7,Jan
ohvsics Mills
Robbo-shopper Robo-shopper walks a Julian Ryall 23,April
desisnated route
Serb-Croatian In the Serb-Croatian war Tom walker 16.Jan
tamaulin Tarpaulin tents Jon Swain
Techno-rhythm Adding techno-rhythms to its Tony Allen- 26,Mar.
routines Mills
telecom EU commissioner for telecoms John Harlow l l.June
telecom EU commissioner for telecoms Stephen Grev 26.Mar.
177
Blending&ldioms
word sentence writer date
telecommunications Responsible for Stephen Grey 26,Mar.
telecommunications
telegenic This is a telegenic catasstrophe Mark Austin 5.Mar.
Webcam Some webcams are in public John Harlow l l,June
buildines

Table.l2.Idioms
Idiom sentence writer date
Behind-the-scenes Four years of behind-the-scenes Stephen Grey 23,Apr.
manoevering
Bull market America experiencing the longest Julliette Terjeff 20,Feb
bull market in its history
Dig in their heels He said : if the Palestinians dig in Uzi Mahnaimi 4,June
their heels on this point Jhere
will be no asreement
Down-to-earth Debate towards down-to-earth Tony Allen-Mills l6,Jan
issues
Eat his words Mitterand was forced to eat his Tony Allen-Mills I6,Jan
words
Empty promises Many empty promises were Gabriella Bianchi 20,Feb
made
Emptv victory Empty victory in fallen Grozny Mark Franchetti 6-Feb
Filling the shoes He is incapable of filling the Peter Conradi 21,May
of... shoes of Daniel
Flea-market The average French flea-market News Agency 9,Apr.
versions sell for... ...
Gloves-off Polls showed that the gloves-off Tony Allen-Mills 30,Jan
Gore had reclaimed alead
Hit-and-run The repeated h t-and-run attacks Mark Franchetti 9.Aor.
ln cold blood Barak had killed her husband in Uzi Mahnaimi 2l,May
cold blood
Law-and-order The solution to law-and-order News Agency 9,Apr.
problems
Leave no stone We're going to leave no stone Matthew 25,June
unturned unturned in this case Camobell
Make light of The government made light of Tom Walker 7,May
the deliverv
Neck and neck A new poll puts Gore neck and Tony Allen-Mills 30,Jan
with neck with Bush
No-holds-baned It offers no-holds-barred account News Agency 4,June
of...
Run-of-the-mill The plan was fabricated from John Goetz 2,Apr.
run-of-the-mil I intelligence
reports
Soft loan Soft loans and grants would be Stephen Grey 7,May
obtained
178
ldioms

Idiom sentence writer date


Splutter into their They had the French spluttering John Follain 20,Feb
flutes into their flutes
Stand on principle Many south Africans would R W Johnson 7,May
cheer a stand on principle
Think tank The International Crisis Group Stephen Grey 18,June
-An American-based think tank
Tit-for-tat Tit-for-tat bloodshed Tom Walker 13.Feb
To go cuckuoo Taoies soes cuckoo Tonv Allen-Mills 23-Ian
To leave somebody He was effectively left on the Matthew 30,Jan
on the robes rODES Camobell
Too big for one's Germany might get too big for its Tony Allen-Mills 7,lan
boots boots
Weak at knees Kissing Dicaprio failed to leave News Agency 2l,May
her weak at knees
Appendix Two
Arabic Tables
179
Derivation:a)taf3eel

Table.l.Derivation: a)Taf3eel
4L+Jl 4-clSll
ar rUJl
':.rits$
4;r;e ;c1;^\ t s.
:.rt"rl-
".13 Jl
r-s.15
,-'"-lL \ artr epl>J
Hl ':'YJL--
U"JU f g; r,'i"lt 1t.t &YJL:-J tlF.. dj-. E
--,t;*Jl -r+-":tt t,
.!yj tr c!-;; r-9^.. . dli.jle L.,J-li
Ol Lrl JS^j
, EI$IJ

(-J,Jl- f i.J}+ irJ ar.ill orrt J' eJjr'Il ".bY rf_H+l_d5 3uE
cLrJ YA d-rb u+-il LJL.las, .J*hl-r.+J$ll .:gL' ; JbaE
$ur
t"\. 'll eLiYl aJ\Sr *,1.*ll r*l e$:f{
g1,-.1LY { *;1,1-9"'ill -!u ;;^;il,tyl+lb5Ji Lr'"i.tl -Ll.u$l

i.i..],l!l 6t*,t dr J$s -u-$ -i ;rt c4r'; p1


+i \^ c! g+ 'l-f.-
lpU+Yt
rt cll

U,rJl-Y t :$ gl a..r octi e+ tr+l:l:l=:{ !llt

t}Ju r @l ricorn-UJs!.j64C JJ$


,
" -iJl zlsi
vJ\-.
qJss

gr"-.;L l\ Jl;
.!l,r l:.--o3!l ,-j Jg---t*-.i..ll Lll r!

ol .rl . +Jt .l-J .rti"lliCf+:asJ ^l


tll

.! rJ rA d5r5 '13 .- v-i!!+r'..,j J;J^-l


eL,iJ dlL5-t
J}JJ 1
cJ:-r,J \ I dlJLr +'$jl-,lJ"i Fjt a-Ut Jl3l JJ$lc"3+*ll t+lri (J.llJ

-t"l-
1T clal4JtS3 Gt ;"*Sl;*ilt_44{ JJ{+J
&rsi
tt ell)liJ\S3 4irl$l 6_;tt-,tl
c.uJtr C-uj
&vJ le- ' I s^] (rl p-tl L{Jtc Jli5 U+r 15 sJ-)r
3r"t- 1\
et,J ilts-l
.A pE a+l-rrj
d!-r',
6.ll cl I
D g.lai 9 dFttj 4ll rilt tr ^'!' *jl:- O#l-r
g*JI- l -;tii tr^;^l . -r L]:..J
I'l L}JI ; J*^
i*rs u
g,*-;ut. I qf.l8a^J^l iltlJ e-,ii^t 4.EJl (3l!ts'$ J'J! )l '^ r'^ }-Jil
il-t--oll
J4-t3
r#,p1 T ct iJ i:ls-r
4! J I r+ll drlel5)l ' :'Jo.-' (llg5.l
*rutt I cgua*t>J
dju
lg
f .rl.s3 +9!! Lr#!
D;'rt.lV T +tlll r+"
1-frlrjtl 4++ L,J+b
lll.Er ulJl
U"JL etiYl:JlSr J+S^JI
r .- dl'.-
4i \^ a-rg s*Prlt '-r. tt i crr lq+\ -+"tt]-t .+tiri:u;,f ,? :-: .UtJ$
uljl rulr /aJ )!r a.P' -Y (7-
| ,r+ 6'-e-$
U,rJL
J+.'J'l\
't V

irly
elU ePl>J
++-$ $c @
ffi.r.-.ll .* q-
d+rr

,LrJ tr
_!r rJt$ulrlr nl-e e LJalJt
-+ U- -lt.t
,il-,rj t I e+U e*l-pJ + *l--ts + + t fj'Tji f, -kl 'PJ$
t,
o-i:-P
.LpJ v
9L lI
etr)l trJKj
f.a,o U:'l ffi .ll .a:n.
n+-.t,
r+!lj
c! \A -Jjt*.,+$il +b
^1

-uJ +$-i
t-L,rJ v eLill iJ153
(ijgJl
.,ju" *a;-*ll -!-illrP .-Jla j
.l,J'o .r+Jdl -u-dl *. ''F'' i'f*-TilFi i;ir r.u.st
t t erlje r^=. '13'".-
"L-,.,J
+-Jl lrc es- Y-, e:l \ 1.6-,14*Jl
,r i qi$J lJj
-lr. -* I I 6'lJA
-3r1t- U,+ijt ,rlJ.'' crl-,,\4\ +:jil1f! Fsr&rup an, *-r>
.il-r.J \ A
- . l. :lt ^'.r .'... i'r r ill dr*-}j
f d\ ir- i ll ,-.r^-i
U"JU
LJAJT- \ V 1sb r:at-rrJ flr*e""rurt-g2-,'1 -)sj'-.',.F:
<^
=_
+JJ.rl
180
Derivation:a)taf3eel
{J. l3l d.rrj. I
t -jlll 4-rKll

9"L o
,+J..iIl :-*1t .+' alLll JnI J,.j ol Lr arJ,,,: !J !$J

c!J\\ ;hJl j.:.- r^-1 ,r-*ill +:15o p;L,n$ a-,t-l ell.;


JJLo ,*Jilf :-r'lt .+" lrs'lt er^d,l,, U^-ill,r +ti-ijl iJ.-lg
e ej*tl
g"JI- 1 ..ul ul
L-ilj t- J*
t{+tJiJ elj-i-Yl ,}e^,i+,jki" JA U js uH{+
t,

ta JlJi:-,lJ
U"j-Y t rj",ll _;aL r--i 4!r.Jl &r-nJl cslUl2tS! (.lJ-s
+Jc\\ (5^e 6JJ+ 3rl3$ +r:\-3 GJIJ| orA U+|n ? $lIuU

t),JL \ c9-*+ s$ r.-l ..1


""+i,.i+
ebtYl'ortJl oi3$ , T'IUJ
t - , I . 5 . . , \t
rr.g 1 p9rl;l
61b oJg
Ll4c J
U[r$l de! Cllou
JlJill lrA 4J"ji j.j$lyl ,a:<,tt ,.ilJ(,*
U,'-;L \ V ?J;-. p;rl;.| rL5=2
Jt .i.r,
s*
l1 eLnyt iltsr 4r'jJJrs. Yt ;*!'iYl ,+
,_ftJ^till U+J"tr
-9r"L
J#JJ 1'l sg3Li-.!l ,r+=: ru+L -!i+a: tu cJS-l JJ.lr
d-o crU a*l>J l1El.iill *i. 4#!l ,JSllil+ &' i (JiJsr
c,rL+l * .,lrflJ*,,Yl ','
ill Jlr.4l
g*-;L Y t Js",.}
Lli \\ ,r+6Cl t-' ..dr J$ cl^ ee36-l frs:lJl i+i*ii O-r-l+ 4Jrl

U"j-\ t ,s iLlS^ L J.i^ 1-pj,0" etJl a+l


-rJ e.'r ^+lEl
&r+l
.(\
..s[ a*l>J lL:-JlLjl dr-j dr.l
LJii v etn-il ills_l crljl e^5 a+"1
9.t^ o
.+J.ill >r-r'll "+. 4-l+_rl .,liLi , r.,Li
g!yl li 6rU ppl;l o+Ul c.u+ 6lin J &Ji c#lJ
J#Jl\I (5"+ e JJ+ .a-L^,n+ll6rr'L 615 Fitt i;l-ill gl*Fll $'lJ alt.5r
t,

sLll 19lr+llilFl JiA t+-rr OLtill'ia JJ+]j J:{IJ


LiaLJ '^- ' i+--rJJ c-r3Jiis"ts.l ..t e}j
J+.*II
gp-;L \V .."<.i erll! iJrl .,,lill gp_, O-ll cr":E LlJsJ
g31^-,)Il,r5; 15^ lrtll t+JJr3 +_)D
.:+-gII
g"Jl^ f GJ"i"ll Cl+i .r-Sl J*-nll &YJtr.oJ j;=.Elt c-.,VrL.^ JJ,Aal
:*J',ll 4;l^'ll j*td Jl a{+J. .-,.,ul ,_Ll;
(}JL l a-sb eslj
&d\^ .'+-"' JJIJ. c\rTt ot^r'i * * iii^ll ,jt$ e$]t*i e$'l
dh.fYlrl,l rp ; .l.$: ctl'Ji'i: c.r!cl-$ & aF. Jlltl
3l.U 11
+*"1-,r-/l .'a1+:i^11,..+l'i ..tJti
,,Lo a-gU e,ol>J
c!-;r] \ 1
;t jl*:.=l i,Lrta ade '.r^'i d^il
"ll
ll .A -dJt -r-rrll .+"
a;U^t 645 ,+3F ,i-dt +rt -tr;n:
U*JL
9-1^ \ 1 u+bSt j.r-
.u=l
"J'
,-#llja.rll ;p, e*-
r+. e 11 ,
I -lrle :z r q,:
gJJ.
p;;lt &Fll dr,4!,I t}j-t-
J#J '11 qg3Li-il ,=;s; .3 t .-pji Lie sfu.:-ra",l.-+-,rll tj1.= *-.1-. *Jn
c!_,,J rt ;bJl jr-.:^-l .-*ilt lrtJl !44 ' ,ll:j
"J" gttt
c!-r.,1 v g!-.p r-9^.- _.:tCl: llJrYl e+! e*'lr er6 -J

d+J v ,.ru_) gt.s J!|sl ti_dl !fli:,!-i5 . -, i.ii

tl- o
"p#J.,ilt
_t-rJt +' f. ; At"!t*1;+n da! l+P
uill

glur-.;L I V {-r. J+.r4 x;el-;J .rt.'i-.; 4$l+J6 Y Ur,.fi UtS.3


-;t-.pi r
o erU a*l>J ,l l.ea+-r d.Ul "lC
-i,t"',;'$Yt a:Jrl
grr-,;L lV cl:ti .r^-t Al , a+", c-lt-t*:tt rr+ .*fl4FL !H_Ej di-}rl
ei-3'r.usl LS^ll +-Fll dJSfi
a,j- r.!+ ,JL<;'i
ddj I I -Jc
9L\1
"fJdl
olji aL* -'1S;
.. # l! ,J' i--t'tt c+-l$
d$-
d+Js

JL Y1 oSlN: lll-J u+jl $*,j+,J4r" ,;Jc..-t'

.!-"J t t ctJ ilts_r i*p':Kld4!,rt..e+ dJ$


&d\\ ctlJ;36, it"+^ cul:4::A-q+iil 9i.)ll
181
Derivation:a)taf3eel

&lr3l +rsll 4L.Jl 4..gll


gFJL f \ J-rjl .u. 5)l'- lc<l(-. ,,oJ i-LJla+i. ggf &tJl S--ij )"j,-.ll
tJ*J\^\ f G+JJJ,i'll Jti^ i^J.;dl o.:r gLi rJ,. dJi:l- I .!16
:r. JJY' rljri! jLl ;r-i ll e^!l ftlal lJS q16
dJll 1r utr ei_9c; J^rl .J -itJl .rjl3Jl JLJI .U6:J eJ6 cJlr
'\t ;bJl ir- '^-l !Irl- lJ-l LrS= 131 +$ JlLEl

4! ll
'"1- uts r-i3c_,1 J^:a.J (Jj.LJl (JjlrJl ,.:lJl l":ft_r e$ .lLgl

3r-l- 'll dil.$-Yl , \J;'(


,-ri6 -fot.t qc!\r

LiJj YA .9q_,2J1 .-i33*,/l .rrc d;L&ll Jt^Jli-Ll uHrS3 g4r$


-.21-.;ai
Yo 631J1 -jc kilS LJ-LrJrJl ilryl 4*"Al LpiJSi U+JS
-,;l,lJ$ t A -.t dl,rJ. t:\-.,
J.-J
r olult ;t.' J -#b- .r,;(i art -j . i,,(',
*-L 1I cL,rJ iJS-e ajjdl sl+LI4+S ar$
$b- nsU a+Alj iralJl +') dlblJri$t ,r.r.t^3

nr.i
"rf
. .+Jt CpJ u-r,till ;l"3 il:b tJ \41

4J^ rss,ll 6!_ji.i^ll -l*.1 I.l*J


:+-* 1 .lrE prol_.pl

U*Jl- \ t et',JtiJs, .-J/laf ciJ J$Sll:,+:"3


C|^ 4.r;i3
:r- -rl I ;-.20 j 3,!
jrtc Grsr l.{+J"ir l.d5"3r iifl
. ;*rr d+- i O*sl
U"JL\ i etpYliJlS3 -*5 t-l-ri^ cl.,-J"3 "t' ek-Yl .!J";
U"Jl- \ V g*ljs.gJl aLa ilJl ';qill3 j*"Slt J.S.61 e.^+ ArJts- )lj^i
.ls +*+j5-l ai;rt.rrj-e OJSII lrA dI-: 4+-,:!
-;ll-L lY
-las,l

.!i \^ .sr".rjl .i$jl rio .d-,;..Jl -i!J ll tJi.,S dlja UJS; e))^&tl

J+t} \ i.ll- ":: iyl- .*i:il.:t*$ r-.rC s , tJulll

gu,-1L I V ,. u(.?, erllj ci-,1',ll r; 4"6tr'JlCJjl 4J^n


fl1- ":i ir^\-, .;tiltlF... p'vt .l:qsgr^ i! j.9r
'rl-rt\rr
&_il . "tLlll +" Cljli lJlJdl r:ljl"c
e9fll aJlr
"t'
.rl ol \ .rU a$l).) .+ "L!.ll
,=4J^Jl ,.+JCt
{JJ i.d-l

grr-,;L \V PE a*l>J te t;ae3,r;t*,1!t i3:L^ gU!*


g-!f!:l-l +ri
:r-:l Y cteYli'lLS3 ,,p--r*:ll-r rb3dl etjsJ ue ltJ'+ dJr{l
J- 11 pU apl-rrJ t+llc' ,3-r- l- Ol..x dr #-J#ll d'- xi
J#JJ I I crjtijl .'F+ c.,!jl drt i+:+tll-t Afl'i 6S3l d#-,J

U"JL \ gbl-r; rns-o .+jt f yllt ej"i JlJl r.,. tl-9'rl r.,.J JF-9'l

r^--1al . :1.. t.,r-,. ,-tSt AJIJ t$$.r ti;*3i fu.1 dS r-!^.1! sjE'
LpJL'l V d;l!
(}JL I. r-i[ ^rll
(- \c
trl
J-. @;rErt"t-Vl dbc^,ir .9ti. 3o u js d$t-f
tAj 'ii-!J
; i:iS^tt o.rr-e pril. I dlll
"-iiL3l ,Je
r&j 'irL-f
i.>+ \o L93Ul .,lc ,U1
.+rl.
.fl ol \ ;-pj eJ j.rtc
;1_d a;.ita{a il'-i
gi.lL lV g"l-9s.grll pL-o i"Jt -:ilJ| e. liJlj,l+jdltfi .+-'l
6.11:- sL. cfY Ul-r', +l-i
.il>i t,t el-,!^ u+-,t11 '-rfL''
_'JLo ,+J':Jt >_,:Jt "+' .9 j,-L-Jl ol J r;ai dllAy
182
Derivatia n. blef 3&l

Tab e.l.Derivation: D)[ 3et


4L+ll 4.Alsll
ct-"lri$ cnlS$
;l-l+i
^JU
aJA yl rW
agYl rrl_.;l-3-Yl
oU+l
JJ
-P"qYA
aru e$ ;l .:L-,1

o 6rti 3rol;l i-tt-*tt kdL rti''.Yl Jl [c'r d+: oQl


-;l;i\
.rl "lY aru eS ! 6i'lHl
"+
.r15;,.i .JS eU .r-Fl 6i a-t]l
4JJ+JI+ J:U3-Y| cliil
dr-rj\ I .jj e$ yl JJ{+^11 eliil
+ltl.li _- _E -+ b9__$ Pl^+l
;l;iYo arur$ JJt
&lr=l
ildl \ 6:uy Cr--!t .+' ,$:lt .:tr-Y crai oreL6 dJLA
e{!t! 1)Jlql"" jlJ-l
.!-r,Jv JJS'
Jt-'i\r +F. t=u!-J'..trjrsLxxi.r "+
elS=l

.iriv
J-)si
JF u${!4g:td$xl dil-l
.!iv JF lsr>- ,l^ qJJiY 6l>l
o t.Jl .r-." t^- o
./-,-l
9"1-
Fe .:l-rt^;ll a;e3',ll k+l-l f l--b:l 2l--:il
-*Lo -r!Ul "lJ.rl clil
1-i;-;l\ A c_:_i_,rll .+' &Lill JLJl C.sl$l LF u'''J)l Ct lsjr 4!er^ e)t5r
t,+il
t rd
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Deriv ation; eJesfef36l
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b3el
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j+Y \ JJS' "1-b:lr
;l-;o\ I rl.bilUlSJa a5Fioq*FF.'l.+rrr!l:{C a.IJ
gl \ ;_.;ra;9J j$c 4itEJlr S"il -rE{l e.J- erl-r
E!.
---Oo4+.[S1 a* t;-ll r-l-l o+
1ljit a-l-l
d-\ 1 r"U apl-rrj
g1r-.;L\ V #Jld.* -,19;i:Jl.;,*iljic)l ksr ,-r *tr u6lJ
"r"iljl
t.yl:-
d-'11 . ;."91 rs,l pJ 4Jl^'l 4SlJl d',lJl..,,^ll dl5Li
l. r &
.P"q\ f -)-)sj
e4lt$t &Urlt -LU.r++ -116 Ul9ti!
rile
g*-;L\ i nsE apl-rrJ J"l"f c',.'a- :yirl.e,Jl ob.$[c
O_rlit+itJl o" F ct+b-A_ e(Cb
(}JL\ Llb!1 J^s^
JilJits'l I rJtJ el+;
a-"ltJl o1;oll ;-9.$ o.:[cl l$"
ur-Cl
&te
J#}\ Y &Au !+Ji
c!-rl\ A L.j*,rijlulJ.= i &titt: fb{-jfil &lr
3--ls
gr..;L\ V esU agl;J
0# {jut3!:d
4lcLi
Ll"J\-\ rsE e;ll;J ttsll al-r.ll-l4.Iet-i 4$Ji" I i-9e

4vJv a"U e*l-rr] .+4tr'.8 O:s* d.,.1!

a+'t$ j$+"JSll a'J


$-l \ '23a$:..s1
caJc.E

.t\ r
.r,r" c:#3JJ+ GlSt, 4-i5tsll tu^lLll,-clr-Y o31S

pU epl-rrJ . tJl tls (3Jl'Jl U LJl5 JsJ 6iY


ou .r l.

jlJ.tsl \ JF l-dDt ; a;;u !-,;ry ill!.r-ji# --;L


dtr3 hd 4iitlll 4-rl.-J .llr
1;uJl'l ' -)ja;i rtsl
dDtSt-rtl druare dtu
rr- JJYl J-)- e$Vl!$l+)-, 9:. j;Jl
r88
Derivation: Dfa9el
g)efte3dl

.s-1;+ll0rl $A 4;^3+.o 4J.i iin crb-. t6ll crsll LF. LA


-rj-l1
g*-;L'l V c]'-i!lalrl.l.rc .. jF Jl -i.Sl g3l,'ill a-Gl ei.lta

J#$ r' 6sU p;rl_,pl


4++l-Jl,JjJt,+ U ','rlJ
3l_.pYl.ei_.2
orcl3 agrljil 4iti. {J-;$ oV da} "lrl*l
-2.ll;+!'l\
.P"q\ { p)l- I 4.:ir- Jt'-l-.' tjrJnYlg," jljlte-t
-r+"; tt .+l"r
J}.'r\T c .Li Jl -sr
,vJJ9-) 4j.1Sl 1-!J$,rs.g^al9 all-l

3et
+tslt 4LrJl 4-llSll
e*r3t
tl- o 6111 71ol;l 4lj- 1j3!l sjd 1- owl
"Jh=I
jr^,Jt llll
o! all I 6:ly r:tr-ll.r.,e t++-rl9Slll ,Jr-: ef--#l t+l']l 3t'ri r
c!-plv c!-.p.:j,.-^ di'ii^ll Jt .$Yl ur f 9 &l.t-l .iGl
F. -:*Y _;otc .u=l ++i\ Gl-il jlsl dl,il
#Jur 6rU 6;ll_21 LlL"rVl cjt+-,:-l .; ;[-^^ll .il$+l .-rlii.,l
grr-,;Li 'l
6sU ;.;ll_,pl
crti,J$_l crl.rlai;l i-- rta$l
.P.q]i rfillJl Jrlill J+r at^,rs jlji:l lra3 jl_i=l
(}Jur J,lx ecrJl:tll OiE rrl+J-leli-" Vl GS'l
JPJr' r+' l+JlCp-i ,1atl ea.=, ri &r'i d Ul-lrl OS.i Y 4*lll LJI-Fll
.itaJl
U'.JLY\ -U-pil +t 6LjYl rJ)iil J)tjil
.-i! rill
(}Jur aJfJ !,c:i J^ii ,o "s-iir -jll +nsll .3Y)jiYLr l$ dDiil
.!-r,lv c!-p r-r.^ .e-Sill ctl>_lYte+. ol-l'-i
}J+'l^ etnj +I5_r 4$lr*ll 611 eIJlilI f$-j+ i'.b.$ rS-.rl
.rl oll 1 gial1l .tsr ctlll a.t^,,Lr^ dil"l j3,il J.lji.&l
1.2.JI-l -,;
*rS r^rl .,c,lit*Yl elS.rll crlS I;+JJISIII 2t-il-l
;l-.psY o J-)5i .9rs*tt lY ' i-ic'l l.i]
r-,113 pcrl4Jr+ J3.,r!. i-icl
JJU}1 ,cJrrll 'i\-
vJ .. \J
j
JJr-ll d&3 ei3*r eiSlA- dil-icl
.',Lo Jjsj r.'ll gc .JljbVlJ tU:Il -.rjl"i .Jl-Fel

F" -*1
. :'..9g.rnrl JUb-Vl dilj,i-. Jl,j+il .rL..ii!l -,fi3il Jliiil
,.rtlV i >r..1't-rt lt 4+-illd erh:!l_r 9l!91

LJr,JLf l pl_,pYl.9l_1 a;_,;t;-Jl I (iitL3 j$& r*-lL^3 Jt.$il


4r!t crtJJYt O r..:^J ds.,i rt ill
.!jlv c!J++ JJ^--
(3tltillLxll .,,.,,..,1 FXI
:r" g\ 1 JJS'
dliA ;ur -urx$l l
.+,_ik _rjJl lil5sl
J,rlli\ A "r
..u orl
'l+JJ
dtl++ll.jl- urlsSYlu cJ_etslt g' Sjl^le
..,r- jKl
-9iL
o rJ.Jl !-," r -r @Jl-HIl- lcir^llllr!- (}dl
J1
ji15.t
gr"-.;L\ V ,
VJ\ *l *,'uJl 'L-oc . ceJlj dilSi.Vl L.re dFlJ*,|115"1
.u o'l 1 1..1.bl-r-,;
r- o u.ull crlrhiJtl l-r,,s: ll$.1

:lJl' JJ* ar o15.Yl3 JS.S\ ''tlJ+llrl '''e r-f 01jl.l


qJi3ile t{j^l-j 4;tiiil
(}Jur auu !tas^ J^si &1+-
Lr . t
LFJt 9tl.ll
t}JLT df,+,JJ$ -"
O"Jt f 6sb 3;ll;l 4rril-ffll drlel:r'Yl '&u- !r el-3il
189
Derivation: h)fa?lalah

h
4L+ll &lsll
CiJtrll +lslt
4^Ll
:r:;Y I se3ti_./l ,r;-: rjJl 4^Ll blisl ,i^^"6,rj]l
.Jliill 4+.i' kjl as;n)l 45,
grr-.;Ll \ A-1jll -u-dl +' .9 _*l^ll
all.* a+-:
a--tt .rU:tSt a+--l or[al
rJ,JL'l ' ,r--tii a-;^l !
r:tl il)il oj3+ 4'd\S^l oJ'l!
cU cjl \ rs'
"r:1;; d_:)dr:."++lij!J_ 4$i
Jjq\ I J.Fo
d-itl ri4+li \ 4+llt
i4\^ .*Jdl , i'.,Jj rr:.1

"ri .rf
. J-)s
Jiv 4.rtl ,i".til al fol g dl.Ln
-d!!&+
.,J.J LSEI9 oJJ+ -t
jiL,
OJJ+
dJJ\ oiob
4luall (i Jl&rr
d.\1^ rJt.- .^-. {J d::+
elJ 4l e tt d.u3 4.tlf +l$ 4:\'sall oJt ' il Ps
grr-.;L'\ V J-):i ".ct
.r.r oll ,r..1-r ei33; r^:- 4eieill 6Ju-,;1 eJicr
r^s^ rbYl Ps-rtl (+ 4JJIla^ll 4lsJ.sll
4lili,
J.,J\ 1 ";a1;; d-r-l:
4+r3-;Jrt c'lc| t-1"#
JIJJYI qe3L-,jl o+:
J_;;a!l li.',t"'lst 9Jc.Jl ll:-l 4i$J
3;Ll \ JJ^$' -l .J+

o aJl-, Urr:l-,;rrl
s dla a+J''> a:$_l
;l-.;a!\
)l tsr$)l &-F j sjs (rr eF-s
.lJ'o JJ:^ lt -t/ , ,
0 !.@)
J,,"bJ JJAj
4.J.asr!
J-o J.l+tt 6lJl r.- tg$l JA Jrtill Jl iPlt clt (s-n-''r c'5r'!trr l*
rE
4+-1'r^Jl4J.l-tll
.1r5,
. tl
r q lLJ'
oJ r,6!ll
\ J
,Jl bllJ Ul^J 4^ili
da rl\ A _=:->
4ilic
4-ll!,dl 4-:i'ullll c.llltlu^lr u'DJ
;dr I .si:iljf,+ a-l1c
dJt-l . I JF
<tsfa.,.ur ri dl'iilt iJi 4sl3!
}J+\ \ 4;U
4-,ij
.J:rJr t
J}-rJ\f
;trJll ,JfJ I
c9JtsJIl cf,j
Hf'ett =-.t fl,f.l- ",-rJii'
dLl.l-bjr q
^ilt r.r-ll .L'i-Vl
(--gr.grr
ffi qlJl.glr Gs' u.-
i:-;ii :;
L.JP Y*
m 4_l$i
L.-
r+yj' JJ! -q

..is-:1.!"1+ 4jFlrF 4+l.lg


.!jlv .!-l++.r^- *t- I ql^ 4s-6
I 4!J tf ar q-DJ) et (f
cL-r.,] v 4-t+'-l^.. ffiT4!J>i {-EJ> @Y 4-iiJS
diiv L!;t,' U^t'
l$r
er
a-:Jltr
-P"q\
\ .t't 4-i @t
,[l$ ,tslt4.r-.pr
ourilt+5+" 4lSJ^
c!-l'Jt t flJl sic' '^- ^ t.r1l , o, p.rx."ll U'ttJo 4$liA
tl-o J-):i 45rA
c!-PJt I .-l^'
.J:-,++ 4i4A
;al;il o ..-Jtll , ;'"9 .trs.l ryJ*,'r:?{il; iii.i al,rl-l
4lt-u^Jl {}-.j'lrj C'f:
6sU 6;rl;l
-tit'o
190
Artificial lVouns

Tuble.2.A iul Nou NS


4ilsll
tJLlJTl ___----ji. tl 4.l+ll
rr r ^lt .1...^,'J..\l, 4.119rrl
i , i."91:,o:l
',;'r-trJl "f -)dl A-sl-f:Jl
'l V eL.riJ 4ISJ gt!rt-,1
Uu,JL
J-,r+ rA
rb' 6lj1." 4rDl6-,1
g*';L \ t +J JAL )^'l 4Jl1S*11

-."t-)tll .:-:l I-l


! ItJar f

dJi 1r -t- 4rJi1


gltr-;L 'l V -d;b r^-1 :lrl ' '1"' I tuI;il
gu-;L'lV eiE tk ' dji6- I
tbj v r#J O^,'s ry !sr. Yl
d. \\ JJi.^'l +jltii=Yl
d- \1 1-9""$ :^s.l iJl .--rrirj 6l+;JYl
rrllV rr-, gipli.u t''" a;r'ler-;Yl

ffi
rl;
Jf-ll 1 iu if lll q-i-.1&Yl
J!,.q \A du elrl 4.lS" ljt$Yl

;ll+ t f+:$ ar+"'= tkn' d+ifYl


ctl:J ai6: el+rjsNl
rr.gl
cJc-PJ v .#J U.^ J^s' ori- ljjl

1 gr'-f'tll J^=^ a-r-tirY


'rtir\
'rtrY
\ -6tt- f";f a+^U 4..i6.1i3i)l

c]:-rrj o -ib.l^rl ul;Yl


;'l.l-,1a!
IA eu r*l-pJ +FJ
a+'fll
.!rJ v .!-r+ rr^-' ,1ti!l,"ill

"tl "r
Yl .s-rB-Jlu+j aghl-ill

45't#eG5;:F
ryt -
\^ .-iJ,i -!i'Lf --Je 'r
a;:r;lt
- 4JIJS

ffi
-Pg
)"tJ+ \
o .srul & gs:
/6tiEll
\ erlb 4+,il$ll
i+,(
(}JL I eu opl>l tr;t-tl 4rl- l-ill
Jo
I \ -,19n$ ':sl iJl crt-r r.S @
tr\l\ '"1-
l, vu Jr'-"
eu *l>l
I a:i:.s aKg +.rr.Il
.i+'-.jl
4 ffit(lL}.ln
'.rl-u\
t
t JAL&. lrrrtt rr.rlt
'.rtrl
UrJl- \'
g.aUJ rl.-
lr
-;;riT";rilGi+ lr-r;it
&>J o .-gr.Oe **1t 4$ill
--J'-
L,,JU T
gU delrt
q!$ sl; .:^"
---_-_-; 6;"ii --4+S'J^1+r]l
ttt
rE- YA '^+L{jr-
' : .-
dJur I cJ)+jJ-
, ,, , ,
@ ult^rll cI+: ur->
o l'old qll -i Jl
q^Jt gr l--r-l*
4++Jlt
4+l-iil
< ff..ffGTiF a-r.lJl
d,Jl-\t l- 4+dl
,!-,,J o .glr":t *'&llt c.,S-,l-'ll
.grt&Jt+r";rl .----.-8tst--fur:;tt Lt-ltJt
ti:l\ t -Y
j$\.3;^ 'l-' ' :
Ol;-Jl
r.rtrV
,jd-rl.FJl .1 ai't:ll a.r*rlrsJl Er
-+-illl
-"'*u (J;JIt+r eir+ il -
LJ"JI^ \ "1"1;;:^.' .
.ff'J' . ell ,

.l:-p] v ,rrir_; gru::r*


-ts.
-------;G-n-;7 d'i. ti.'ill

ui\\
rrl
ia]ts, ,qil tul"r,"...ill

UrJL f (*jiJ !'* Y


191

Artificial Nouns
q!rs! 4L+ll 4-clSll
&--)EJl
O!.Vl ?t>-: +:rtUtcSr,i 4*fr 4riill'll
dr>J v c#J tjrl.r J^si
gu-1L I V q-r"ll.'jl:4^ldl 0# osrq siill 4+.JtJt
:+JE.Le
dii Yr ;l+Jl j.r-.r^:l 4ji-Fll cfl;.lJl -r.re3 4r.1Jl

4rlv r-l;:+ :3,^.- a;gll 4-,Sl 4ii'll3 +d*Jt u,o ait= o J.J,, 4-,idl

d;-p.l o d -+Jc .,+=rll


4++Jlr,-il"]ll cJj; j 4rr.-rll
4ij-:rll
v-l;! \ o .s_rUl & .:LLi^liJ "j{+. Vt ora d a.r-;,-:'Jl fB ;-r};
4$li"ll
F"-*\ 3l-jnYlLil; d"$o!lJ 1$i'JlJ a-S..ll cr^Al
J+\ f .r^J*dl p'rltyl r^s^
4JJ"-irJt 4ls^i^ d-J 4J":itil
i +$lill: q.;lJl Jl--$l 4!$1ill
.P"q\ =pU.'it*
cj:-rl v g!-.r_*f r3^-- +J'tr-dblr: -rb<.,!l,J t+rrt ; 4Jctill
4;jl+.:jllll J 4Jlii-Yl e4; rl-u 4+jtJ:jl)tll
3l-L \1 .f eiu39.r^:l
-,1sll
4+lla1;Il4r!* q-l ?:* a;ll11;lll
L),JU T a+J !!AS. J^;i
\A g$- g1-., t^- " 4.rrgr- "ll e\ -:.q Yt
a;rjr- ll
-).,g
drl+'+F -u.s-: d-/l c.,l+stilYl ,ilc .-.,liiYl (f1++!l
r:lJ+ I .l_,pYlcrl_l
'JJLll
4+i^1.5 dli Cf 4J- Ji.-ll 4+lJi*I
LLil \'l asLi r+l_pj
.P"q\ t ./Clp;rlyl ."- J-,VtrsF-1"I"111
U"JU f -.2.[c :^s'l .*lt d-rl.+ a:" :Fl].+4"' I 4JoJJ,.i^!l
{SLll
JJut tuli U.r,s .t\+ 4t^filr-'.r*ltso$l@
gu-;L \ V cbl-g r^-l ,l,l '
'"r'' ,lrt ,$;" aX crlg:^lt.$ CFfiC
di++r"Jl

pt- -it-^ +$Ull:4;jli! i-:$l 4+jHl


i+l1 +rSll
d. \1 -13ap.url O$JUI0#4+$lt&.rSl
o+JJl a.r.^.'il!l a-,l*fr 6l:;r: 4r."iill
dJi \^ (5+ tt r ,:.iJ cjtn+
4r'illl
utr\ I g"+til !.'- +rt-tt arg:tt-, tui- UYI .$ C++
.!-xl v .-1 .- GFCI Cl'Jrr +.,;ydr tiSjj!:- 4+Jkjt

j"q]i "il-,,++ us-


./-r+1" I p'"rel-;t $4f4Llifl
qL-Jl 4ljt
4J+4ll
4it-Jl
T .e:iJl6t+r +pr-,'-Yl
t}JL qjl5. ir 4$tJl
oJJ _1r l_.)trrr (-
-ffiIi +'-itio.,- oli.6ll rL 'ur

apqsll t 4+JJ{+ll I \E ^... UrJ$r ss+'tlr 4+.J{dll


J]lJs - J+-- p;al-.;{ -r1--X-,1 J-Yl e

4J:Pll .+ LIJJI erJr$r qrl!)^r rils^l


1r-l-,1p 'lA eu cpl>J
4+ll !+lJ 4+ltr-A 4lsr t_lY a.r^.1
r
t-l"i- u6si J^':i
L!, \^ ^+J
d-!^.r*-,,11 ,-iJ.' 4J^5il J.Li Ltr G.9 4jJlr,o 4J93t P !:l-i
t ffi .il-jtYt tj^i,-ilJicl 4it-l-sr..l
JJIJP .l_,pYle;lt
IjSl r-rL:.,ri)i-; pt 4+llr Jrc t--eJj' 4.!llj
_,pLul i eu aplyl -!
4!ib'
gl_.pl rl4!$J I - (l^ 4l+Jri' r+'i'rJ
cjr rl o 6sl-i J\

utssl +l"l+ c.url't 4+$lr


a-..lFl oJA
gr,.;LY \ r'J-r-il J+c
6)l'- 4.r,ci.r
(}Ju r a"Uapl:J c:Ljl)l 1'1 eb.rll erlli{.c' }Jrl r+s J#
4r ct'r
L}JU T ei-g r.sl ls-ua9 cl\!"Ll-).'!ll
"fJrll gx*l
q.c.r^s'rr 4-nli
LAIJo L^ gl-,2l 'd
(}Jt f -ylc .r^-l
ltlJ
q+rsJ Lrt: q+ti_.r
l tJ-lru^lr
JJl;,ls I efl: apl-:ri dj=tiL-b.J
lAttraU lLJ! lJti' gJstgJ
}J+ri J-)si ^l S - '1 rJ)ti
J .r$l=:-l
iq\ t .9-91^&Jla;;9 -=i ;l: 4F.L-
.G!lFL19 J56ar'l
'J-'Jl ,r.rt-
'
g*-1Ll \ 61+il-r
)lJs i .l_pYlc;l,r q+irl-+ 4l&!
t , r;Llll .+3, dljfi Ju'J.c*
c!-r,J I
a+^lba+lW 4+'i
Jjt\o .s-rUl
"J'
t92
Artificia/ IVouns&
Arabicization
4I+Jl 4-lKll
*.r rtfll c.6lsll
U";L T \ ltr^
,r;.1-1-9''lill O*6JwI rrbt 4:J+.^t{ d.t!g"rJ eil 4.r--,.i

ul 'r! I Cr- cJi-


--- "aFlTl r-p-''" :l e+llt
o$s-.l 6US-,i

eJl-Jl rsHltl1|!- e+l-ll


1-
qr-l-
-P"q\A ;L::l+ll rJn-jl +e
,:q-l-, .rt-Liil crl-rril dlftl0..954 61JJ
.!jl r t ,r-LJt s-ic t ^- "
}J+\^ ;U:ptJ r -;$ r+" 4JJ-M 4JJ-
*sj dL+ rl-iil a1.r-9ac r-r cD$ '''-l +r eP
;'r"Li.,J
g! vl \A ,-it,i iol! ptc.,ug-ttg\r:r+:Ilf 4+tilio

g";L \V cL-ati.u-l ,itl . 'l'.', t:36+ f+- :a r-l-l t"*


+{i e 4-ttJti
ap_.f
-.1,r.1-.1a!'ll
,;ll"ll 59',=er_.; [Jta;^al,lry2!:{_!:C 4JL!
U";L \ i 6sE epl-,pl
ir..-lt.93iJt .ts a*1L! j3s'f

uLrV ctel ejlSj @; \$n]14+\t-6 .11{:4:l:r 4rlj.l-6

;l-lp t q:lti r^:l Jffi.tulr*ll@ +-i,,1!

JilJ+g t 6rti pgll;al ffi4:\isJdjtJl4.liu. 4#5


f ('}r: Utr+ 4JoJJ- !|, *r:"' 4r!3.
U"JU ;rol.c r^s'l
rlJL l' -;-r$ r.rl 1,l,-Jl..l 4;Urr-q g,"crli+ +ilr 4rJ3Js-o

4d\dl o f-sill ++-.:f- Lr 4+ J+^+ n-l-1.-


-;l-.pi I \ al_2o)tcrl-l
r3lsJ,ilt ola 4-rUdJe rls^r 9-*r^
g*-;L lV e . ajlSj
dlJl rrc d- -.,i1! 4+r+J 4$iili r-r-''' I +fr+_t
yJ-l+'ll ar_9c
a+.Fv
r:,o'$ usl rjj\lt 4+>Jlc t8 LF)t I rJ
Ll"Jl-'l +16lr*
etriJ 46, .llJb 4tiJl 4!r!$ r t:lr.,19 q-ulrs .=5
;;l-1.ts 1A 4JJ+*
\ o crjJl .jlc 4r^lLc 4+1 9$.J oJ+:l 1+c-t"tl er^D (]lrJlJ
-.;l-,pi q+tlr+ us 3t 6r un*' tuil,j.
.P"q\ I csJLJl r+" 6JtJ.
re- o.i6r. laLs*i^ 61J++i"
.A
6ll a.l I .ul-: ei331
. 1:lt
\A
*-n-ln ,.
.,1;l.,1;s rl+Llt -,1S;Cll- -t
ag).g)l (rl-rgsllr -9r?|"!-)* :* Llu !$l
JJq\ { gU,rlt -^
LJ\ IAJJPI .'lrr t'rJrr wt
4Jcj
trt-u\ \ groaJl J^.-
^j+ilt 4+r!lJ
til-uV etr:J dlSj .lT+o;tr ri$tr,JgrYt ot^l
4+'it-J
i .9rL,3u,i1 a;.;y u#+i'Er
>}+\

Table.3. Ar abicizatio 41
4iKll
tl.r rl-tll i.r:tSll
J s, I s-'
4+^teJJ N.. arsJ
';l"t
\1 ;'-ll 'f gS- -a
lr I 6rLl
pE oJ,-.I^ll UtiJJ{
p lL\t a*l-r.,J
4;+iilJi-'t
rsLi 3;al,,pJ Y*ri^,tg4'{,:=t+?i,1#1 'Jus
U"JL 1V I -..- irtL)l
';l"Uj IA *19Y1 c,Y15e
., di-'Yl
gLo j;*r q.)!
,,Jq lDr.ai )s ;r.lisl!l
.J:rJ t t cl.ll -rt A.r- EJJJ
---Er:lYidt+- .,.l ordl driJFiYl
UrlL i T et$. Yl iJl53
ffi
i^J^l a'!+ll .,9 tJ3arr tlP L}- uf'Flr,_
- EJ}YI
goJl- I -ti' ljiJi'ttl
'rb 'l t $-r.-t dlr.JYl
.! YA *+- JJll"
rJ
-i'.'ilSl-f.-
rudylij.llf iillr^ I++.JIJYl
J#J \1 ..Vl ,',1 ,Ll Ls-.:lr-'+Yl
LJii YA LLJa+ Ua.^ !+A
. 1 -^n l *'.t . at.r, t-i
.l
h

g9-e)-u1.1 e-j- .rt""r'* *'J -lr fir- i;-;i l:: -l . ql$l}t

J#.9j 1 ii
e+J+'c'JA' t-iHU.s: -;. aJjr+Jilj
63tr.,i,ll6.u lJr
rr"g\
t93
Arahicization

et-.rBll +KI 4lr+ll 4llsll


9*1L tV di',5!1 ,i,l .+t el16,tll aiJlJ.Jl ;f+. _,ri^ _*_l a-6JlL'll
.6
dd I .g*Jl ajL. dl:lll .,*,jl o$;,ill _13i.r
dbJl
+tJ I I Jl-.)-- aoJt*ll a.-bLJJ _rl}l 4+'l idl
U"j^\ i gU pr;ll_.2a1 c+tly_rlijt .^llcl_.p.. Yl ei$=: 4$t-p:-uJl
alj ol I
_,pLc .l^sl 45jdl ol--;1i^ll u^ {,-". j3#ll

LJ"JL l :-:+$ u-l 15!" qdt le lr- cl.4iJd Lc l++-rLtsllt 4lt 4ill !+jrs3ll
ro
l#_rj t _.;.tc -u:,1 *jitq+.-'; 63i$ll & aX.S^ o +$lt
L1*JU f 3r1f prol-.pt . . ets+ it$j+l-ei-*+iJ +stlt,,r"r 45$l:u_r^lt
JJI} \O ,c
vJ9 .1*ll ,lc ir^It ll fu-:L,.lJ 4J-LJrJl C-")[^ d;-Ljr.ll
$-\1 l-r$ r^-l ;
-91-Llt 4ls$-lrJl
aliill Ls-s LtrJl
U,rJL 'l V
6 sU pgal_.241 ajilll 4JYJ=5,j-Jl,Jl dJ;ill r(+ i.J^lJJl
JJI} \O ]-il:^.,l jlJ+J4Jl ++*lt y _.,*;
t<+":Si: 1**r.11": jl'p'. -e4Jl
UaJL \ t cL"YlillS-r eYlJii-Jt tl,i'iJ (r)l si-Jl
Er,L o
.,
(+-!"t c!^l -r+Jl:, -'t ^.'Uly di,Jl^Sll CliiJ d!^r}Jr
-)_j^"r
-,14l-.1as
ll dDJl et+; 6tjJ+JlJ u',,r.1J1 _e;tilt 6eliSll ,-i',-a (3tjri+Jl
.- .ill
;r:l 1 (Jtl++lt ejL 6t^351 al.rl oCa *Gj ilrl ,:ll.rtt ,rl,sll
3sL 'll euYlilsr Lill $J -.2an .u13
L;rirsllJil'l 4!-ri$lJ'll
O"Jl-'l _;t5An rsl a{l.J gfu L Jl .r+:l'*-ll Lltr jJ+l d.r .^ J..."ill
.f,lr+* ,*,j
:lr-* Y' elnYlijlsr ; Jslcl & *9.ersill t$Eiv liil-rljjl++ i-E rAl3olt
d- l1 Ol-tL J^lc JiJrl+^Sll i-;a;'J .r.4i .jll ot-3;ill ilrt-J-,;;ill
)ll )=l9 Yo t-ll r^=l g"rill u+,J!l dLljill 4x,',i( &'.iill
dri v g!;a;' .r-9^.- b-,sca tii" lll dL ir.tJSJt c.ilijsll dixiJlsll
i+ 1f gitl;-rlill .r-c. _rt.-* cj_:c .!+.-jSll .r_;.rs g!4rj$t
9J- 17 _l_r$ usl l.tlLill eLSrS .,jt;\tl ely:r:s
l#.'j1\ .3:lr. O^,.j1 u i.LaSIl tal+rJi^ll3 ditS+JSllr eY JS,i'lt dlL+JSII
6j)alt lXJ.SIl .n 4jl-Vt gl-i3Ylil.:l 4It*"Stt
:r. -* 1 e-;1.
Pr r.Lll lb -.r-rt d.L+lsll cl-f j
-,, ".i(ll
gP-1L '\V
,
nrE a+l>J
(}JL I .L9a$ :.rl ,s.+t1J*JJ4SIl o
-.2l J+ 6rLi-,1 .tur*rJ65ll
t-g'+

UrrJt- \f 9l
.rl_.p _.$ FJ^,ll cjt+-; a.-^-ii"ll JJJSII CUJS3 _;.rl3SIl

gr,.)L \ ' 6g.q,r--]i.r.-l 4r^1.".11 j3,li,^+l:Sll ;s!j3 drji.,+Lslt


(}JL T elu3; r -l 4;-3$rd-6llJ 4"j^)*,Yl 6JL:-JIJ .;yJl ,g ph- q-r$""iisll
jlJ+ Yo drtr..tlj d;r .JJr)t o+r$l el-r;*,; &t+.r+t oa#J 3JFi Y .r..jll
-.;;lJP '11 1.11'rllo11; Jjtll" I rlsi-!+ A$, qr.; ri$l
.+6ll
U"JU f GJ^i"llr1+ 4*SrUt, i*X^,iJll c,p +!+ 4JlJa3H i+,'SJlJl
g*-;L Yl .!c 61- dJ^JL G*,". t ddr
d,*_.,$
U'"JL \ I o-'r-,1-g"ill ji. ajlCl Jl .JJEI .J.1J.i a J-ir^ll
O,1L 1. _2:+$ r.sl jU+- ti;,.Il .llJt rrlj-'il !4flg.,; .jl+jp, l3;^Il
aS-'i" lsi^ll
r-t -.1L l ' -13a$.u-l iSSlSJ^lt \$- 6 4:Jd L"i l++iriS1ll dl 4leJl
t}JL \ .r.=.
l-ii 1^J^1 a+i aJl O_$l lrA Lj^'+J o:^xil
-,1;l-11s
l'l tJyil r+o 6).a cJ+ill ,rr-,J:"1 Undgo r+r$J L.f+. J+JJJ
194
Arabicization
foJEI +K!t 4L+Jl 4-.lsll
_,.r-tj r' e LnYl iJls3 _lAl-:"lt & ;.sJSill tj+Et! l"rilJ+r*l+ i.c'E St-,+:$l
g*-)L l ' -.2-9a$
r^rl ;J.$tl^Il aJ",ll 4FilliJ'jtJill An" L+J+JI j dlJFtry as" L+_r,

eL;,J I r c$YliJt53 4*lihll ;Jl+jl,'$s3 6*1-r;r e-b-p


.xl-rs t 6.ral_.pl LhLo l$_rr_l,>^ ur., u_rl-ill cj.rs_i_l-r, p" j cJ-6;-r;
g:r"-,;L I ' .pl;,;.r^r^ +Sl_l:ll 4-,ridtr i..lt'- dr15:-,1r._r .aliJS^ & .s-9r:i &t i- _r_r,
JP-L o C+U a*t-rrJ ('i,i<i., 6tJJ LJSsJI cr qisji
g \f ^+l,i,-iJ-,
..u. (.'a# 6JJ+ +-!l-i ojl.i,s '-! )Jl lJ

1l"L l1 etnYl c-DlS3 4S$S: erf-r*uY l-eilJi LL1-1 4Su\


-1'Jf-.;irl
'lA 6lU p-rlt;l ;JJE^ll !+j3i53ll dr"-sll ,=lc' !+ils
drll Y I elaYl{J15e S-:,=SI-V J:l a5:^
,+ oS,+hl ' - J("''rh
JJI-.;'rs 1A cll,l iJL(3 cl*_:. dr+l_p el,iilqgric Cfy *4 r*. e lJ+
cr:Yl .''-i t:lJl+Jl
LJ"JL 'I G.=. U3. A.J^l dtJs-Yt3t-lt ,:tl" , J.+r & leptin cl+ r't.ls

epslf. g4-rll ei.-$.r"-'i ++-:-i-. o.r*r ."5^ll U;till ! 'i-r


.P"q\1 +" c3-,:tt 4$r,i,6 Lr_rJl L-rti.ll;rS *-r_r aj;--i'"6 L';j.)
d iil
-rll.'J r. cLsl;t^1 -S+ c+h. .,i i r-:^ll e^Vl rr15+. i-,Lrr
-,1;l-'1.rs
'lA C+U a*l-rr] t*:lt l_,f.A.r O^ ,J"r:r # a.lt_ l;[a.r

g*JL IV p;al;,! rLi_,; +rrsl*;ar,";rll, a;r9.sJl3 4"rst n+Jl J*rill elt- a+l_p r+.r
d- Yl o jl$c .+-FVl d;Jl aJSJ.l+r,rL JiliJl i-rSstr.r-r

.P"q \A el4Yl e)15, {$$-rl;$ ,:t^.Li^lt+ l.dtCl.c O. r-lt i,$-s;J-.1


(}JL \
---.
Lii i-+"t ,r-13 p5_,1 etlii Z1$l_l aj+J
JJq lA e-Lrill oYlS_e !J.,Il iJ.'ll dr r-f .m J$-rS*Jl #Js-
U',JU fl *ylt .+t r+L .9l & cS-,L i-ls d)J.l c.6_.1L;3-,

\. '*-dll
*+Ui i'.J.l a3 )4 el" erLr.i L,L J+J*JI y.-l-
1-;*Ju "i+.1 c.tL
t't g!-;p -r3^.^ 4s:lg--r-
"L-"J
.i+-,,J t,t c!-r++ ! '. .i-.;''ll Jtlft 4srl-6pt IJ+JJH'-J", 4i$- 4l+JTSl-
jqYl ,"
vJ.
rrc.,i
'l,Jl . vJ 'tt Ji^J- j JiL:i
4r-J6;Jj- 4$ i.i-
Ltrl Y I qeJUJ +" LSJt-t .;tSIl {o'il g_ltjr^,Jl eL;3 $JUJ-
Dl+l i git.t _;rl-ill .uc Ltrttrll\ dLcl dll,i dt-,i
LIJIIV .Ju> >'-^ L*lsillr.+l-ill*r +lA ,-iA Y +lrt
jlJ+ Yo ctaUl;JlSj .ttliYl 6Jr- +$l-.r$tS Jl dL+ e$lttr
JiqYI c9j+$ r+" dJtt l_;^lSll AiJ C^ 1d1-s.4+ ..lel;i l-1g^lS

d- \1 eteYl cJlS3 4AJA+'i[ ort^.ia c1Yj*S erEil drY e45


J-*rs
cL rl Y'\ 63tljlll,l .+. iS.lg .jlrll3 JC+J !3JCi^S;j{+.1
..11l-1.ts Yo 3rE 4lt_;l 6.u&ll ,-.iiIJL 0|. dJ+Lll ;ti,lll ,l;s..stl d$s- rS

-)iq\r g*;lSl '-" 3fut ,-,f--l *h:l-96151& Dii,-t^ &t"".j


JJI# 'lA 6-s1-: pgl;l UllJl -tsI .+!-r 6J.:i6i Jq! ,.f aJ}|I
y-l- o
., JJVI:-i-$ d+^trtL - t{
Lilulj
Jisl+Js
jlJs Yo .s_rUl .rL ,JJ-flS Jl+L o^ -Fli3l_r_r,,* JIJL
J-o ct'r)ldllSr i.rt-*.yt icl,!.
at,'"
+ Oy-l-,;S;^.J' ,,FJt O_f-sJsJ.

J.rl# '11 ,J_:-_jl .p 6).- JE3\ 0J.1" 1,\ Jhi^t _ltKr


4+-. :l-r-.rrf$ 4St Ji+ cji."':[ &ldl'rA 4l=.:lr-l+
Jil-1.rs I A
"!L.+
*-till
JJql\ cs_.rllj .r+'6*j"t 1*l.rt-t Y t'..j-* Ll^!J e[crl trofor
t95
Translation

Table.4. Translation
f-^.rEll {.:i3lSll 4lr+ll 4..tSJl

F" sl r-i-93-'1 t '- ^ "4.r:6o 1Li.,1-l''


,91..;ll J^Vl d-J
Jl "4--ri^ _.f-i;l"

LjaJL I V p1j a+al>,J "cb+l aatiS ",rlc a.;G GJ-F !t' "eL rj aalii'
.J:-ujv JJsj ri-r,,,111 oL;3G.tj-r-iLi dliil Jl &Cl -r1l.l ,31jil
sr, 9lT JJv ,gllt +p;:trl-i3 sl.c o.rr=J gri3 di"c.rl+1
"++Jl
.iriv 0,* J^sr q;.tilt .eJ-l all'.l Jl an-ll c!-l qrJ.ill carLl
cir rl\ I .931!llll r+" q+l:l clL.J"t: gUi_9 _,pgujS oj<+l +s" l,* eil+tl

(}JLT .D+ iJ- r36ill e!.rl*i!l +Sl{t4onetarism r 9iiII ir!.il*i6l


qi,}YY .g_eli_jl .r;:9 s+lJSdYl UirS$ C-ir^n Y c,rl:FYl +slt
p-tlT 1 .srtI r.lc. djl" .'Lhll c^illr tAJl -r+-r ,J=hll a1^ill
driv ,r-hll ,rJc t^- "
4;^tll c:lJJJ"ill
4=nfrllJ 4Jifill
drilv .l_gYlcrl_t l+l-rli j 4^rr,,,' Jl 4,.ill a^,S.',"tt a;^nll
gl-ryl\ \ cJ^+,-llJl Jo O$s ,rJYt .-.,^,tJt & l{pb-n-l ,oIVt '--r*rtJt
driv ei-g:^.sl ;_pLlt l.jUl 4lL^*Jl 6E_r LLll4ll'Jl
"f.;rll 4-li,ll 4sjlJl .-'-','L6iLs3.uo s'b lzt 4*lJl4SJtJl
grlJLY\ ,;"';!1 *-plt .p oi-i'-ll-,
oL,i-fu
g*-2Lf \ ,-4JiJ,6ll ;,pll .+r JJ;ll a**,tll ehii-L I+Jl Ji^'ll 4!il.'- jJ"-blle-,tJl
U,'JLI\ .
9 -i! '.'ill
r.J
'tr
J.J
'Jl .uc 4l-L,'^ll -p15^l1oLil 4l^J*lt Jst^ll
J#.'J1 JJSj ++t-:iJlac:$l nt;.t-rilteo;iit
F. -*1 6.fl-'Jl .;l^ +ilifVl .r:oill ,: LJ,it dLiJl
,-'-1i tutlj:ivl JJiill
,[+ll
g;*-1Lf I ,+-"Jl >-plt +' "'lJ;ll r..,,Ul ehii*L dl;"'ll 4.r^rlsi Lli
cil-pjY A LLj+ U^.^ rid r:ljlr+r qr6ll crGt-t+ *l LEil OF 4+jalt di-iU-,
.u .lY I grtijl G++ dlJiiVl oJ$ll t ,$.n Y a@
p-L\ \ JF o.l.:"i^ 6E:L:^l g!-tl glj'r e;, LJL^c'l d-r'a
gl'-,!\ t . -,
9. .JJ
t o-,illJ 'ttr^ 4--r'IIl JlJl ,rr ell--^ll rrl-cLr JJJ . J-i eit*ll 6t"L+
4-,!J1
LLi\A LLJ++ rJ^.^ liJl crl1l.1,'J qri ,5.!11+ i LLiil 6jSj Jill .iljlJ+
rt- :ll JJSJ Ojl.;,'lllirl- J$+ (.gJl+jll Oljl^ll Ojlrilljisl.r
3.r.L\ \ .l^s.e r^,rl .l.*Yt +"-.+ l:-,,r+l. tin ll-,p J OJ.+ ,:*"Yl c,--
}J+'il a-!t-i 6.rs a$l"ll 1$-U- 4+X,- a;-t "- a$l.llt+-u-
)-t+l I U',.. l+ll :^t .-,. t *l sb:l:c,ts+$ Diitt^ dfi+,i
6Lj'- +Sd cUi:l gl*jr- 4S+'i
JJql t JJAJ
grlLY'l d-*_jt .l;c 1)r -r:t*tt d-. !l di.,"rt $Lil d'.)l d,-Jt
o.Ii4lI I ,j;l- ji gi"r-./l qe euijYl .)ri'4+A Pli:jYl li.
(}JLl' ;3a$ -:asl e;r;S^,,3-fpll rr9 drtrrl Yl4;;i Y 4.ri".J<,tJSJ^ll dj
d5alY I cJ.+ U.lt .1e Lr.r' o1;$ .uly ,=.i dlbl;Ylou 6,q3 crEla .:eljs
LL-JAIY A r-!-p.l-9^.- ;l;ill .e\r"r" ci+JJJ Jl5il JlJillqgiij^
r^L ei33; r^s- 61+."i.ll arfl3.rll iflS-.ySll d.rtubll osei^
&Jv ".r.r"1^
:r" -*1 te1r)+l'l t-i-' 4L$lot.^rl+i 4l3$l or.rs
U"JL'\ Llil+J J^.-" a+ tc*JL-,-tr U*l-llcgJ pl-JlLglll 1! tr:lJ3 4+X,-
IJ3lJr 4+Jt'jt

g*-lLll 4.SUl 4iLJl J cl^.jlol,ir," dits 4L+jl"1il^


,+J.,ill -lf-"Jt "+"
rll
.o
c.l I Li,lJJ
U*-q+llU.lJ 1-i- l-1, g*S4-"
A JJi4 cr-lYl c'r.i GJ^ -l''io r43l el,i'il
dil|^Jl, tir"
-,;rl-.;;rsl
g*,.;LY'l ..a;ll :-pll .+' JtLilt .-lr c;jr,Jl Ci5'$q a-,t:lte*jCt eB
-r*,34ll d,r"ii dLl .j"f!q a-t- & d-r-r d;c 4,iJJ
196
Prefixes

Table.S. Pre
s3l3l 4lrJ. I 4.l1ll
t -_.rtiJl
g;rll -1;-,;rt, gtS-Jl6;j9 ortcl .r;l-l'.r ortc l
JJIJ+i\ \
q-':S.lt rl+-t e !-l orlcl
y"1- 11 cUi 4ISJ "rtrt L-,JF,X.
I 6;rll -19-,;rU
d+4'!dlj-l:j-l
.,-t_,rt I al.riiul orlcl
-.1;l-,1;!'\
-5rl"t-Y1 .lyYle;l_l @t".utd'.li"gugi5=1
j
;t^cl
gajt-iillorLcl
o.ilcl

}J+]i 6sL: pgrl;al ,":-rlStt'rt-t JS 0$ C


(JtJFa;J+ u+-,11 "liLiiilorlel "OSri c-iAi'il o:lpl
A C"U epl:,J
-,11lJ+e\
JJM 4i;ll j JLniillo.tLcl $tiil -,f,ii]l orlcl
J+-eJ'|1
eJ-l r.:-1-u3;'r cl,iil o"rbl el,,bl orlel
}J+\f e"U epl>J
eS orlol
;l;iTo JF 91+JF.:,l!.- eQ orlcl3 C)-l
l.gr:t+-t)t Jl )+ I L..,rI
L! oJlgl ,-\,e 6;; o':[al
UrJl-\' Lr.bLl t '-.
ell J^orSj 6$cl 3 o:!c.l
d-\1 "+bSt
ir- r^'1 -rS15

Ll+Ali o$el
ru o Jo -,1 -9al
LJrLc
.,,6il1 t'X^)-, Olr!+ (5s U{.rJ.'r
"l\ 4sj ;ael rJs
rl r.-}-iiorb) a;grs orlpl
JilJPf -iU..lll
(- 6l.i3Yl
rul
,ilaJ-aif
4..f^ll ;5.$ o.rlol
oLJ'.Jr J|jr
-,;glJ+el'l .,*JilliBJlel+;
.pJtll ei-r31.l^s.l U+Sll dJ*ll tllllr t:!tJA cp$-F olLcl
4Jrl\A oJja-t^ UJr c}:i,t o$cl
r3\Jasjll LLiJI oJlcl (<Jc (-P
-;lf\o JJ* airri or[ol
;G-=T ;rri e' "rld: a5Y'1o'rlcl
o"Jur I -b .:^=l
J--.:!.Esll a(l U..llllOJEr .*S o$cl
r#Jl I $:rrf_"* IJJJ>(gJ'L^'JF rj^r'i s.fel
J:,-rJ\l I -le
ul-ul t caJJ#(Jl rY Uisjj 0+rl '$el
CU r:ol:J
4JJ)It dq^rt r-rJ5JJ . i,jL33 o.:[cl
J+JJ\ 1 alJll r#-r r ur o.lf,cl
4jsejl djllrll Uiur oJrer (JE
LLir i :^1.s, ui33-2 .t"s-

3,rl-o
r.a$l .^-^ @4J-ra.S-l,All (3 9J+t u
oel-.f o,$cl
alS+a orlal
it,g\r ur"3 6,+
\*t ot+-r L$"t\l- cl -}g' .j- -{ _*;tt +*
jl+\A etl:J alS-l
j$-Jil rr
r 'il'i Lli>itt!
;l-,piY o asE apl>J E!_EJ1:
4jcu$ JwJ ry -- fI
4c!.a qirJ
.!)lv gi1'2;; '13^-
q+-l-l-lYl
a+l-l- ) I )lc qilll glslr {JJrr -U"
d-\1 Pu e+lrj ffi
.;trrlll gr cr+ll .,s q+:+f l tr+-E-"tr-!l ,rtd- I 4!.1+*Yl Jts
t}Jt l JJJ - e,--'-jl JF et.till *-,-.!t
gpJ J*i rtlA .Ll"ll ;1; a -.;ge
J#JJY
J+Y \ JF @..-."1t *"ditSi^ll -i+ u
)$4
lr \rt +$-tl rF
JF
a-r"J-ll
gp-,;Lrl pU a+l-rrj
J+YA O^-.jl .r;c .s@tj^;-"lt -p u*!Jl rfi+ .pllt Ji"
. it :iJl
U3^bll -DD _)Jr tFJs, O-:^Ul -rp
.l or\ 1 Jul- ,i ,3'.=.;t ',-
F
jlJ+i f . Jr:: -r-r";Jt
JJ5J :----
g^)lElt L)Jwt
;Ji
C'Jr lf C-re :=i
,;c 4+r3lf ol-Dt'c e^' tslS:^ll -.;e
s*-;Lll pU a*l>l 'rc .4i!t$^ll A'!-fJl JP
.!r:Jl f" J o l,JS -r,*"
g*-lLil .rU alAlj
lrc jLj .95^I ;e
oL!! ,
JilJ+ll A ;f*" *r" C9J+4lr -
(.tt*u\l- aJJ r3-.2rtot {-=:
'.,.rnll aa
J.j;'iJl 1;;
J.l l .1;^Jl -pL .r.-l qilFl Jii
rLi.;
ilt .91-,pJ
(,Y' J' 73'S^ll -.;';
rr-,Jl l .r9-.;ill ' ;''rJr; ,r^rl ---F-1'erc#il
gI rF Zll"ill .UJt -;c
:r" ;1;.:ll -2;,i eba
197
Prefixes

*r 4l^+ll 4..lsll
'Lill
c|l:lsll
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