The Expanding Role of PM Machines in

Direct-Drive Applications
T. M. Jahns
Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC)
University of Wisconsin - Madison
Madison, WI USA
E-mail: jahns@engr.wisc.edu

Abstract It is widely recognized that permanent magnet

(PM) synchronous machines are attractive candidates for direct-
drive applications that eliminate gearboxes or other mechanical
transmission components between the machine and the load. But
it raises the question of what is special about PM machines that
makes them such suitable candidates for these applications? The
physical basis of this appealing feature of PM machines is
explored in comparison to induction machines and other familiar
types of ac machines. Several applications are used to highlight
both the strengths and the limitations of PM machines in direct-
drive applications, illuminating key engineering tradeoffs that
must be carefully evaluated when developing such designs. The
major impact that direct-drive permanent magnet machines have
already demonstrated in some application areas is highlighted,
providing insight into technology changes that are currently
under way in other fields.

I. INTRODUCTION
Permanent magnet (PM) synchronous machines have been
adopted for a wide variety of high-performance applications
during the past 30 years since the development of modern
neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets. These PM
machines are distinguished from competing machine types by
their ability to achieve superior combinations of high Fig. 1 Internal stator and external rotor assemblies of surface PM
torque/power density, high efficiency, and low rotor inertia machine in direct-drive washing machine [3].
characteristics. As a result, PM synchronous machines are
The engineering tradeoffs between the mass/volume/cost
used almost universally in demanding applications including
of the speed-changing component and the larger machine
electrically-powered servo machine tools and production
depend on each individual application. Fortunately, the key
hybrid-electric automobile drivetrains [1-2].
performance metrics of the PM machine are sufficiently
One of the broad application areas in which PM machines attractive that the direct-drive configuration is preferred in a
have been achieving growing success during recent years is growing number of applications. As a result, direct-drive
direct-drive (DD) machines. Direct-drive machines are distin- configurations using PM machines have become accepted, and
guished by the fact that intermediate gears, belts, or other in some cases, dominant solutions for a wide range of
types of mechanical transmission components are eliminated application areas including appliance white goods, HVAC
between the machine and the connected load. The reasons for (heating, ventilating and air conditioning), and electrified
the appeal of a direct-drive configuration depends on the transportation.
specific application, but typically involves system advantages
Figure 1 show an example of a direct-drive washing
derived from eliminating the weight, volume, cost, noise, or
machine using a surface PM machine with an external rotor
reliability risks associated with the speed-changing
configuration. In this case, the mechanical transmission that is
components.
used in conventional vertical-axis washing machines in the US
In exchange for these advantages, the PM machine is is replaced by this DD-PM configuration. It is worth noting
typically required to deliver higher torque at a lower speed, that the adoption of this direct-drive configuration makes it
resulting in a larger and heavier machine than what would possible to replace the fixed agitation and spin cycles that are
have been required if a gearbox (or equivalent) had been used.
designed into the hardware of the mechanical transmission
with a highly programmable wash cycle control capability.
One of reasons for highlighting this application is that it is one
of the early commercial applications of DD-PM
configurations dating back to the 1980s when first introduced
by Fisher & Paykel [4].
But why are PM machines selected so often as the
preferred machine type for these direct-drive applications
when there are other types of ac machines that could be
configured in the same way? The purpose of this paper is
two-fold: 1) to explore the underlying physical reasons why
PM machines have an inherent advantage for direct-drive
applications; and 2) to survey some of the key application
areas in which direct-drive PM (DD-PM) machine
configurations are achieving success. It is both instructive and
fascinating to observe the wide range of factors, some rather
obvious on inspection and others far more subtle, that are
contributing to the progress of new DD-PM configurations.
II. MACHINE DIRECT-DRIVE SCALING STUDY
An inquiry into the fundamental reasons for the appeal of
PM machines for direct-drive applications compared to other
types of machines leads to an investigation of the comparative
scaling characteristics of these machines to high-torque, low-
speed geometries. For this investigation, attention will be
focused on developing a comparison of the differences
between the scalability of PM machines and induction
machines. The induction machine was chosen for this
comparison for at least two reasons: 1) it is a popular choice
for many of these application areas because of its appealing
performance vs. cost metrics; and 2) it is an excellent
representative of the class of ac machines for which the source
of energy for establishing magnetic flux in the airgap is the
stator-side electrical excitation.
The second point turns out to be very important to the
results of this comparison. In this regard, induction machines
can be contrasted with PM machines that depend on the rotor
magnets to establish the torque-producing component of
magnetic flux in the airgap instead of the stator current.
A. Assumptions
In order to explore the relative scaling characteristics of the
two types of machines from low-torque/high-speed to high-
torque/low-speed configurations, it is necessary to establish
the ground rules for the investigation. They have been set as
follows:
1) The mechanical power delivered to the load has a fixed
value Po [W]
2) The machines and speed-changing components are
assumed to be lossless
3) The airgap shear stress [N/m2] and rotor surface
velocity [m/s] are assumed to be held constant as the
rotor radius r is varied
4) For convenience, the machine terminal voltage Vo [V]
and current Io [A] are assumed to be constant for rated
power operation at Po as the radius r is varied
5) The machine excitation frequency e [elec. rad/s] is held
constant as the machines rated mechanical speed m
[mech. rad/s] is varied
Although these assumptions are idealized approximations,
they serve a very useful purpose for developing comparisons
in this scaling exercise. One of the ramifications of holding
the machines voltage, current, and excitation frequency
constant as the rotor speed is varied is that the same inverter
can be used for all of the evaluated machine design.
B. Basic Machine Relationships
Two of the basic machine relationships that result from
these assumptions are:
Po = T eo m (1)
T eo = 2 r 2 l (2)
where Teo [Nm] is the rated torque of the machine and l [m] is
the active length of the stator core.
Two more key relationships focused on the machine
frequency and surface speed are:
= m r (3)
e
m = (4)
p
where p is the number of pole pairs. Combining (3) and (4)
leads to the following simple but significant relationship
r= (5)
e p
which is important since, based on the adopted assumptions,
both the rotor surface speed and the excitation frequency e
are constant, indicating that the machine radius is directly
proportional to the number of pole pairs p. Since p can only
take on integral values (1, 2, ), this means that a comparison
is being formulated between a set of machine designs with
varying discrete values of radii, torque ratings, and mechanical
speeds that are ultimately determined by (5) as the number of
pole pairs is changed in integral steps.
Next, (2) can be substitute for the rated torque Teo in (1) and
the mechanical rotor speed m can then be eliminated from the
expression using (3), leading to
Po = 2 r l (6)
which can be easily solved for the machine active length as
Po
l= r 1 (7)
2
Similarly, m can be eliminated from (2) using (3), yielding
Po
T eo = r (8)
 Since Po, , and are all assumed to be constant, (8)
indicates that the machine torque increases linearly with the
radius r while (7) indicates that the active machine length l
decreases inversely with increases in r as the machine torque
rating is increased and the rated mechanical speed is decreased
to hold the power constant (according to (1)).
As a side note, it should be noted that the expression for the
machine pole pitch p [m] can be presented as
r in eliminating the radius r as well. This final expression is
p = = (9)
p e
for which the rightmost expression makes use of (5) to
eliminate the radius r. Since all of the quantities in this final
expression are assumed to be constant in this study, it is
interesting to note that the net effect is to hold the pole pitch
constant in the series of evaluated machines as p , r, Teo, and
m are varied.
C. PM Machine Scaling
For simplicity, it is assumed that the PM machine uses a
surface magnet configuration and that both the magnet flux
density and the stator windings have ideally sinusoidal spatial
distributions along the airgap. Furthermore, it is assumed that
peak amplitude of the magnet flux density in the airgap is Bo
[T] and that this value is independent of the number of pole
pairs. It is also assumed that the number of stator winding
turns in each phase per pole pair NB is constant and that all of
the windings are connected in series, meaning that the total
number of series turns in each phase winding No is
proportional to the number of pole pairs
N o = p N B (10)
Since it is assumed that each series turn is carrying the same
rated current Io, the average electric loading A, defined as the
current per unit distance along the airgap periphery [A/m],
will be proportional to the total number of Amp-turns divided
by the airgap circumference
N I K N B I o e
A=K o o = (11)
2 r 2
where K is a dimensionless constant, and the rightmost
expression emerges by substituting (5) and (10) for r and No,
respectively.
The final expression in (11) indicates that the electric
loading is constant and independent of the number of pole
pairs. This is encouraging since the shear stress is the
product of the electric loading A and the magnetic loading B
which is directly proportional to Bo in this case. Therefore,
the analysis is leading to the conclusion that the airgap shear
stress is constant, which is reassuring since it is consistent
with the original study assumption.
Based on the sinusoidal flux density and winding
distribution assumptions, it can be shown using Faradays
Law that the resulting phase back-emf amplitude E is equal to
the product of the excitation frequency and the total winding
flux linkage . Although the full derivation will not be
provided here [5], the expression for the phase flux linkage
can be conveniently expressed in terms of the machine
parameters, leading to an expression for E [V]
P N B
E = e = r l N B Bo e = o B o e (12)
2
where the rightmost expression was developed using (7) to
eliminate the active length l from the expression which results
independent of the radius and the number of pole pairs, and, in
fact, consists entirely of constant parameters according to the
study assumptions. This is very important because the
delivered power is proportional to the product of the back-emf
E and the stator current Io which is also constant.
The conclusion of this analysis is that PM machines are
well-suited to high-torque, low-speed configurations in which
the radius and the number of machine poles increase to high
values. This analysis indicates that there is no degradation of
the airgap shear stress in the PM machine as the radius
increases and that both E and Io are unaffected by the scaling.
The airgap stress issue deserves closer examination. It
should be noted that the length of the airgap g [m] does not
appear in any of the expressions and that the value of the
magnet flux density in the airgap is fixed at Bo. In actuality,
the length of the airgap must necessarily be increased as radius
is increased due to a combination of factors, including
mechanical tolerances as one of the most important [6].
Fortunately, the value of Bo is relatively insensitive to the
airgap length in PM machines [7] because the magnet flux
density is dependent on the effective airgap length g that is
the sum of the physical airgap length g and the magnet length
lm divided by the magnet relative recoil permeability rec
l
g = g + m (13)
rec
Since the magnet length is typically much larger than the
physical airgap length and rec 1, the effective airgap length
g is relatively insensitive to g. As a result, the assumption of
constant Bo over a wide range of radius values, and, hence,
physical airgap lengths is generally well founded.
D. Induction Machine Scaling
The same assumptions and approach are used to investigate
the scaling of induction machines with a fixed power rating
over a range of radii and pole pair numbers. All of the basic
machine relationships derived in Section II.B still apply. In
addition, the assumption of series-connected sinusoidal stator
winding configurations with a constant number of stator turns
per pole pair NB as indicated in (10) still applies.
Unlike the PM machine, there is no rotor-based source of
magnetomotive force (MMF) to develop magnetic flux in the
airgap. A portion of the stator current that will be referred to
here as the magnetizing current Im is responsible for creating
this magnetizing flux. Figure 2 provides a view of the
 Fig. 2 Induction machine equivalent circuit identifying magnetizing
branch parameters
standard equivalent circuit of a squirrel-cage induction
machine identifying the key parameters in the magnetizing
branch of the machine. The resulting expression from
Faradays Law for the voltage Em generated in the stator
windings by the magnetizing flux linkage can be expressed as
o r l N B2 I m e
o Po N B2 I m e
Em = m e = = (14)
g 2 g
This expression has much in common with the
corresponding back-emf expression derived for the PM
machine in (12). The good news is that the number of pole
pairs p does not appear directly in (14), but there is a very
important difference between the two expressions. Assuming
that a goal is to hold the magnetizing current Im constant, all of
the parameters in (14) are constant, except for the airgap
length g. As noted near the end of the preceding subsection,
the airgap length must be increased as the machine radius
increases. According to the respected work by de Jong [6],
the value of g in an induction machine is typically varied
according to
g = K g p p2
1
(15)
where Kg is a dimensionless constant with a value in the
vicinity of 3 x 10-3 according to de Jong. This expression can
be substituted into (14) and then divided by Im to yield an
expression for the magnetizing reactance Xm [Ohms]
o Po N B2 e
Xm = 1
(16)
2 K g p p2
The presence of the (p)0.5 term in the denominator
represents a significant effect because it indicates that the
magnetizing reactance in the induction machines equivalent
circuit will continue to decrease as the machine radius is
increased to deliver high torque at low speeds in direct-drive
applications. This can have serious consequences because low
values of magnetizing reactance will cause the machine power
factor and efficiency to degrade as larger fractions of the stator
current are drawn through the magnetizing branch of the
equivalent circuit rather than through the rotor branch.
E. Scaling Study Summary
This study has drawn on basic machine principles to show
why PM machines are particularly attractive for direct-drive
applications compared to induction machines. The fact that
Fig. 3 View of Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) DD-PM
configuration in CR-Z hybrid-electric powertrain [8]
PM machines have rotor-mounted magnets that deliver
magnetic flux into the airgap with limited sensitivity to the
airgap length represents a significant advantage for DD
applications. In comparison, induction machines and other
types of ac machines that lack rotor-based excitation (e.g.,
synchronous reluctance machines) suffer in comparison
particularly because of the negative impact of larger airgap
lengths on machine power factor and, indirectly, efficiency as
the machine radius increases.
III. DIRECT-DRIVE PM MACHINE APPLICATIONS
The purpose of this section is to provide a high-level
overview of several areas where PM machines are being
successfully applied in direct-drive configurations. Although
limited details about the machine designs are included, some
insights will be provided into the reasons that favor the DD-
PM configurations and the special challenges that they face.
A. Automotive Applications
One of the application areas where DD-PM configurations
have drawn the most attention during the past several years
has been hybrid-electric and battery-electric propulsion drives.
Honda was one of the first automotive manufacturers to
introduce a production hybrid-electric vehicle into the
marketplace in the late 1990s. The configuration they chose
(shown in Fig. 3 [8]) mounts the PM machine on the same
driveshaft as the engine, comprising a classic parallel hybrid
configuration.
The Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) drive generally
falls into the category of mild hybrids in which the electric
drive has torque and power ratings that are limited to
approximately 25% or less of the engines capabilities. The
electric is used to assist with acceleration and regenerative
braking, but the internal combustion engine is responsible for
the majority of the propulsion effort.
During the past 12+ years since introducing the IMA
concept, Honda has evolved the configuration from using a
surface PM machine in the earliest versions (e.g., Insight) to
 Fig. 4 In-wheel PM motor with integrated inverter
(Model PD18, Protean Electric [10]) Fig. 5 DD-PM 600 kW rim-driven azimuth thruster installed on
Norwegian ferry (RDT1500, Brunvoll AS [11])
adopting a form of interior PM machine in more recent models
[9]. Peak torque ratings for the machine are typically in the
range from 100 to 140 Nm, with peak power capabilities in the
range from 10 to 15 kW.
A very different automotive direct-drive approach that is
not yet in production but is drawing considerable attention is
the use of PM machines in wheel motors drives. An
interesting example of a wheel motor unit that includes the
drive power electronics in the same structure is shown in Fig.
4 [10]. The machine is a surface PM configuration with an
external rotor that is similar in concept to Fig. 1. The machine
is rated to deliver a peak torque of 825 Nm with a peak power
of 83 kW. The integration of the power electronics inside the Fig. 6 36.5 MW DD-PM ship propulsion drive system (DRS [12])
wheel hub is noteworthy in view of the challenging thermal
and vibration environment in this location.
B. Ship Propulsion
Direct-drive PM machines are drawing greater attention in
ship propulsion applications as well. For example, extension
of the automotive wheel-drive concept to shipboard
applications leads directly to rim-driven thrusters that have
been gradually maturing into commercial products during the
past few years. A large-diameter surface PM machine is built
into the thruster rim structure so that the rotor can directly
rotate the propeller in place of the mechanical drivetrain used
with conventional thrusters. One example that is shown in Fig.
5 has a propeller diameter of 1.5 m and a power rating of 600
kW [11]. Two of these units have been installed in a Fig. 7 4.1 MW DD-PM offshore wind turbine (GE, 4.1-113 [13])
Norwegian car ferry and placed into commercial service
earlier this year. This is believed to be the first ship in C. Wind Turbines
commercial service that uses rim-driven thrusters. Although the large majority of installed wind turbines with
Work also continues on the development of direct-drive power ratings greater than 1 MW currently use wound-rotor
electric ship drives that are capable of serving as the induction machines, there is a major technology thrust under
propulsion source for much larger vessels. One of the largest way to adopt direct-drive PM generators for larger wind
PM machines that has been built and successfully tested for turbines (>4 MW) with a focus on offshore applications.
any application is a 36.5 MW PM machine developed for the Several international wind turbine manufacturers are actively
US Navy and shown in Fig. 6. This machine is capable of developing new DD-PM generator technology, and one
producing torque levels up to 2.7 MNm at speeds of 127 r/min example is shown in Fig. 7 [13].
[12]. Synchronous machines with superconducting rotors are Direct drive is appealing for wind turbine applications
also being investigated for this application. because the gearbox that is eliminated from conventional

Fig. 8 Gearless DD-PM elevator hoist configuration
(KONE, EcoDisc [15])
configurations has been a significant source of reliability
problems in current equipment. However, direct-drive PM
configurations pose their own significant challenges because
of the structural issues associated with maintaining small
airgaps at large rotor diameters as well as the substantial
generator mass (e.g., >80 tons for 4.25 MW [14]).
D. Elevators
The technology of elevators has changed dramatically
during the past 15 years as a result of DD-PM machines.
Until that time, the standard elevator hoist configuration
consisted of an induction machine, gearbox, and cable sheave
residing in a dedicated room at the top of the elevator shaft.
Then, in the mid-1990s, elevator manufacturers began to
introduce hoist configurations based on PM machines that
eliminated the need for the machine room. The new hoists
were designed to be much more compact so that they could be
mounted directly in the elevator shaft hoistways. An example
of this type of units is the Kone EcoDisc shown in Fig. 8 that
uses an axial-airgap PM machine to produce high torque that
is sufficient to eliminate the gearbox [16].
Other manufacturers developed their own proprietary
solutions that accomplished the same objective, typically
involving some version of DD-PM technology. As a result,
the elevator configurations and product offerings of elevator
manufacturers around the world changed dramatically.
Although this was a quiet revolution for anyone not directly
involved in the elevator industry, it is an excellent example of
how dramatically a major product market can change as a
result of the introduction of direct-drive technology.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has attempted to help readers understand the
underlying basis for the special advantages that PM
synchronous machines enjoy over other types of ac machines
for direct-drive configurations. More specifically, it has been
shown that the presence of the rotor magnets gives PM
machines the ability to deliver magnetic flux into the airgap in
a way that makes them relatively insensitive to the rotor
diameter and the airgap length. In comparison, other types of
ac machines such as induction machines depend on current in
the stator windings to produce the airgap magnetic flux,
making them much more vulnerable to power factor and
efficiency degradation as the machine radius (and airgap
length) increases to meet high-torque requirements.
The second half of the paper has attempted to provide
readers with an overview of the wide variety of applications in
which direct-drive PM machine configurations are having a
significant and growing impact. Several modes of
transportation on the land, sea, and air are benefiting from
innovative applications of direct-drive principles, opening the
doors to elegant system solutions. As described in the case of
elevators, there are already case histories of important industry
segments that have experienced major product changes as a
result of DD-PM technology. There is reason to believe that
this trend will continue during coming years.
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