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LECTURE 4 - CONTENTS
4.6 Rules for Approximating Definite Integrals
4.6.1 The Trapezoidal Rule
4.6.2 The Error Estimates for the Trapezoidal Rule
4.6.3 The Simpsons Rule
4.6.4 Error Estimates for Simpsons Rule
Problems
Lesson 5
5.1 Exponentials and Logarithms
5.1.1 The graph of y ln x
5.1.2 The exponential Function e x
5.1.3 The derivative and Integration of y e x
Problems
2
The trapezoidal rule for the value of a definite integral is based on approximating the region
between a curve and the x-axis with trapezoids of equal width (Fig. 4.4), instead of rectangles.
Figure 4.4:
b
The trapezoidal rule says that, to estimate f ( x ) d x approximately, use
a
h
T y0 2 y1 2 y2 . . . . . 2 yn1 yn , (4.1)
2
ba
where n is the number of subintervals of length h x and
n
y0 f (a), y1 f ( x1 ) f (a h), . . . . . . , yn1 f ( xn1 ) f (a (n 1)h), yn f (b) are
the heights of each trapezoid at end points and subdivision points a, x1, x2 , . . . . . . , xn 1, b that
are separated by a length h.
3
2
EXAMPLE 25: Use the trapezoidal rule with n 4 to estimate x
2
d x . Compare the estimate
1
Solution First divide the interval of integration into 04 subintervals of equal length and list
the values of y x 2 at the end points and subdivision points. Then evaluate the
2 1 1
value of T with a 1 , b 2 , n 4 and h .
4 4
x 1 54 64 7 4 2
y x2 1 25 16 36 16 49 16 4
h
T ( y0 2 y1 2 y2 . . . . . 2 yn1 yn )
2
1 25 36 49 75
T 1 2 2 2 4 2.34375
8 16 16 16 32
2
x3 2 7
The exact value of the integral is x2 d x 2.33333 .
3 1 3
1
The approximation overestimates the area by about 1% of its true value. Each
trapezoid contains more than the corresponding strip under the curve.//
This means that, by taking n large enough, we can make the difference between T (Eq. 4.1) and
the integral as small as we want. However, we do not know how large n should be for a given
tolerance and, the error estimate for the trapezoidal rule can be given as follows.
4
If f ( x) is continuous on [a, b] and M is any upper bound for the values of f ( x) on [a, b] ,
then the error ET in the trapezoidal approximation of the integral of f from a to b satisfies the
inequality
ba 2
ET h M .. (4.2)
12
EXAMPLE 26: Find an upper bound for the error in the approximation found in Example 25 for
2
x
2
the integral dx .
1
Solution f ( x) x 2 f ( x) 2 M f ( x) 2 , for 1 x 2
b a 2 1 1, h 14
2
ba 2 1 1 1
ET h M (2) //
12 12 4 96
This is precisely what we find when we subtract T 75 32 from the exact value
2
x d x 7 3 . Here we are able to give the error exactly because the second
2
derivative of f ( x) x 2 is a constant.
1
EXAMPLE 27: The trapezoidal rule is to be used to estimate the value of x sin x d x with n 10
0
2
The error is ET 0.00167 , i.e. no greater than 1.67 103 //
1200
5
Any three non-collinear points in a plane can be fitted with a parabola, and the Simpsons rule is
based on approximating curves with parabolas instead of trapezoids.
By deriving an expression for the shaded area A p under the parabola in Fig 4.5(a), and then
f ( x) d x that is generally more accurate than T (Eq. (4.1)) for a given step size h can be obtained.
a
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5:
b
The Simpsons rule states that, to estimate f ( x) d x approximately, use
a
h
S y0 4 y1 2 y2 . . . . . 2 yn2 4 yn1 yn . (4.3),
3
ba
where n (must be even) is the number of subintervals of length h and
n
y0 f (a), y1 f ( x1 ) f (a h), . . . . . . , yn1 f ( xn1 ) f (a (n 1)h), yn f (b) .
error ES in the Simpsons rule approximation of the integral of f ( x) from a to b satisfies the
inequality
6
ba 4
ES h M .. (4.4)
180
1
EXAMPLE 28 Use Simpsons rule with n 4 to approximate the integral 5x
4
d x . What
0
estimate do you get for the error in the approximation?
1
1
5x d x x 1.
4 5
Solution The exact value of the integral can be found directly as
0
0
x 0 14 24 34 1
h
S y0 4 y1 2 y2 4 y3 y4
3
1 5 80 405
S 0 4 2 4 5 1.00260 (rounded)
12 256 256 256
The difference between the exact and approximated values is 0.00260//
To estimate the error, find an upper bound M for the magnitude of the fourth
derivative of f ( x) 5 x 4 . f (4) ( x) 120 M 120
With b a 1 and h 1 4 ,
4
ba 4 1 1 1
Eq. (4.4) ES h M (129) 0.00261 //
180 180 4 384
2
x
3
EXAMPLE 29 Estimate the integral d x with Simpsons rule.
0
S
h
3
1
y0 4 y1 y2 (0)3 4(1)3 (2)3 4
3
2
x4 2
The exact value of the integral, x3 d x
4 0
4.
0
EXAMPLE 30 A town wants to drain and fill the swamp shown in Figure 3.6. The swamp
averages 5 ft deep. About how many cubic yards of dirt will be needed to fill the
area after the swamp is drained?
Figure 4.6
Solution To calculate the volume of the swamp, estimate the surface area and multiply by
5. To estimate the area, use Simpsons rule with h 20 ft and the ys equal to the
distances measured across the swamp shown in the figure.
h
S y0 4 y1 2 y2 4 y3 2 y4 4 y5 y6
3
20 20
S 146 488 152 216 80 120 13 (1215) 8100 ft 2
3 3
The volume is about (8100)(5) 40,500 ft 3 1500 yd3 //
Lesson 5
5.1 Exponentials and Logarithms
Important arithmetic properties of natural logarithms (Proofs are given in Lesson Notes)
x
ln ax ln a ln x ...... (5.1a), ln ln x ln a ..... (5.1b), ln x n n ln x ...... (5.1c)
a
8
These properties hold provided x and a are positive and the exponent n be a rational number.
x x5
EXAMPLE 1 Find d y d x if y ln .
( x 1)3
Solution By applying Eq.(5.1a), (5.1b) and (5.1c), we find that
x x5
y ln = ln x x 5 ln ( x 1)3 (from Eq. (5.1b))
( x 1) 3
cos x
EXAMPLE 2 Find d y d x if y 2
, 0 x .
x sin x 2
Solution Take logarithm of both sides and use Eq. (5.1a c).
cos x 1
ln y ln 2 ln cos x ln( x sin x ) ln cos x 2 ln x ln sin x
2
x sin x 2
d2 y 1
2
2 0 the graph is always concave down.
dx x
ln 1 0 the curve passes through (1, 0), makes an angle of 45 with the x-axis
At other x-values, the corresponding y-values and d y d x values of the curve can be found.
The graph of y ln x can be plotted using our knowledge on properties of curves discussed in
previous lessons and it is given in Fig. 5.1.
there is a number, denoted by the letter e , between 2 and 4 whose logarithm is equal to 1.
( ln x is a one-to-one function there is only one such number)
ln e x x ln e x 1 x ............ (5.3)
The function y e x is called the exponential function with base e and exponent x. (exp(x))
1
EXAMPLE 3 (a) ln e2 2 (b) ln e 1 1 (c) ln e (d) eln 2 2
2
1) e2 x
ln e2 x ln 5 2 x ln 5
2
(e) eln( x x2 1 (f) ln esin x sin x (g) ln
5
EXAMPLE 4 Solve for y.
2 2
(a) ln y x 2 eln y e( x )
y e( x ) //
11
1
(b) e3 y 2 cos x 3 y ln(2 cos x) y ln(2 cos x) //
3
y 1 y 1
(c) ln( y 1) ln y 3x ln 3x e3 x
y y
1
y //
1 e3 x
2 x ln x ln x e2 x e2 x
(b) e e e
2x
//
eln x x
1 dy dy d ex
y ex ln y x 1 or y ex
y dx dx dx
d eu d eu d u du
eu e du eu C
u
Integration formula
dx du d x dx
d esin x d
EXAMPLE 6 esin x (sin x) esin x cos x
dx dx
1
1
e tan x
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate dx.
0 1 x 2
1
Solution Substitute u tan 1 x, du d x, tan 1 0 0, tan 1 1
1 x2 4
12
1 4
1
e tan x 4
Then, dx eu d u e u e 4
1 //
0
1 x2 0
0
dy
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate 2 x e y , x 3 , subject to the condition that y 0 when
dx
x 2.
dy
Solution Multiply both sides by e y to obtain ey 2x.
dx
e y x2 3 ln e y ln( x 2 3) y ln( x 2 3) //
The above solution should satisfy the given equation.
1 dy 1
y dt
k y d y k dt ln y kt C
y ek t C ek t eC Aek t , where A = eC
EXAMPLE 8 The growth of a cell If we make the assumption that, at each instant of time, the
cells growth rate dm dt is proportional to the mass that has already been
accumulated, then we have
dm
km and hence m(t ) m0 ekt . (5.7)
dt
EXAMPLE 9 Birth rates and population growth: A large number of individuals in a population
may be described with a continuous and differentiable function.
If the no. of reproducing individuals and the fertility are constants, at any instant t,
Birth rate No. y ( t ) of individuals present Birth rate = k y (t )
If departures, arrivals and deaths are neglected
dy
Growth rate = Birth rate ky and hence y(t ) y0 ekt .
dt
the account/year and At - amount of money accumulated in the account at the end of t years
kt
r
At A0 1 .
k
The money can be added monthly (k = 12), weekly (k = 52), daily (k = 365), etc.
The limit to the amount of money that one will earn this way is
kt
lim lim r
At A0 1 A0 e k t .
k k k
The amount of money in the account after t years is A(t ) A0 ekt , and this is called the
continuous compound interest formula.
5.2.3 Radioactivity
At any given time, the rate of decay of a radioactive element is approximately proportional to the
number of radioactive nuclei present.
14
dN dN
N kN
dt dt
The number of radioactive nuclei present at time t will be N (t ) N0 ekt , where N 0 is the
number of nuclei that was present at time zero. The value of the decay constant k (< 0) is a
characteristic of the element that is decaying.
EXAMPLE 10 The half-life of a radioactive element: the time required for half of the radioactive
nuclei present in a sample to decay.
dT d (T Ts )
k (T Ts ) k (T Ts )
dt dt
the solution to the above equation is
The switch connects a constant electrical source of V volts, across a resistance of R ohms and a
self-inductance of L henries.
The Ohms law, V I R , is given in the form
di
L R i V , .. (5.10)
dt
The current i (in amp.) at time t (in sec.) in the circuit can be determined by solving Eq. (5.10).
EXAMPLE 11 The switch in the R-L circuit in Fig 5.3 is closed at time t 0 . How will the current
flow as a function of time?
Solution To solve Eq. (5.10) for i under the initial condition that t 0 when i 0 .
di di 1
L Ri V dt (variable separation)
dt V Ri L
i
V
R
1 e R t L
//
The current is always less than V R but it approaches V R as a steady-state
value.
lim V
t R
1 e R t L
VR 1 0 VR .
16
The current I V R is the current that will flow in the circuit if either L 0 (no
The hyperbolic sine (often read as shine) and hyperbolic cosine (often read as kosh) are
defined by the following equations:
1 u
Hyperbolic sine of u : (e e u )
sinh u
2
. (5.11)
1 u u
Hyperbolic cosine of u : cosh u (e e )
2
The functions cos u and sin u may be identified with the point ( x, y ) on the unit circle
x2 y 2 1 and hence, they are called circular (or trigonometric) functions. The functions
17
cosh u and sinh u may be identified with the point ( x, y ) on the unit hyperbola x2 y 2 1 and
hence, they are called hyperbolic functions.
Fig. 5.5: Point P(cosh u, sinh u ) lies on the right-hand branch, and point P( cosh u, sinh u ) lies
on the left-hand branch of the hyperbola (not shown).
The remaining hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh u and cosh u as follows.
sinh u eu e u
Hyperbolic tangent of u : tanh u
cosh u eu e u
cosh u eu e u
Hyperbolic cotangent of u : coth u
sinh u eu eu . (5.13)
1 2
Hyperbolic secant of u : sech u u
cosh u e e u
1 2
Hyperbolic cosecant of u : csch u u
sinh u e eu
The trigonometric functions are periodic while the hyperbolic functions are not periodic.
sec x is never less than 1 sech x is never greater than 1 and is always positive
The behavior of the circular functions sin x , cos x , tan x , etc, as x cannot be specified.
But, the hyperbolic functions behave very much like e x 2 , e x 2 or the constant functions zero
and one.
1 x 1 x
cosh x sinh x e cosh x sinh x e
2 2
tanh x coth x 1 tanh x coth x 1
Identities
Eq. (5.11) sinh ( x y ) sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y .. (5.18a)
d eu du d e u du
eu , e u
dx dx dx dx
d (sinh u ) du d (cosh u ) du
cosh u sinh u . (5.21)
dx dx dx dx
sinh u d (tanh u ) du
Differentiate y tanh u as a fraction to get sech 2u
cosh u dx dx
d (tanh u ) du d (coth u ) du
sech 2u , csch 2u
dx dx dx dx
. (5.22)
d (sech u ) du d (csch u ) du
sech u tanh u , csch u coth u
dx dx dx dx
du d (sinh x) d (cosh x)
If u x , 1 cosh x , sinh x , , etc
dx dx dx
cosh 5 x 1 du
Solution coth 5x d x sinh 5x d x 5 u
, ( u sinh 5 x du 5cosh 5 x d x )
1 1
ln u C ln sinh 5 x C //
5 5
1
EXAMPLE 13: Evaluate sinh 2 x d x .
0
1 1
cosh 2 x 1 sinh 2 x x 1 sinh 2 1
sinh x dx dx 0.40672 //
2
Solution
0 0
2 4 2 0 4 2
ln 4
e
x
EXAMPLE 15: Evaluate sinh x d x .
0
e x e x e2 x x ln 4
ln 4 ln 4 ln 4 2 x
e 1
e sinh x d x e dx dx
x x
2 2 4 2 0
0 0 0
e2ln 4 ln 4 1 eln16 2 ln 2 1
4 2 4 4 2 4
16 1 15
ln 2 ln 2 //
4 4 4
EXAMPLE 16: Find the area of the infinite region in the first quadrant that lies between the curve
y tanh x and the line y 1 .
Solution
22
Fig. 5.8:
The required area (shown in Fig 5.8) is given by the improper integral
b
lim
(1 tanh x) d x b (1 tanh x) d x
0 0
eb 2eb 2
ln eb ln cosh b ln ln b
ln
cosh b e e b
1 e2b
The value of the improper integral is therefore
lim 2 2
(1 tanh x) d x b ln 1 e2b ln
1 0
ln 2 //
0