Art Psychofherapy, Vol. 6, pp. 155-161, 1979. Pergarnon Press Ltd. Printed in the USA.

FROM SH~NIS~ TO ART THERAPY*

SHAUN McNIFF, PH.D.

Dean, Institute for the Arts and Human Development

Lesley College Graduate School

SH~ANIS~ AND THE oped in response to the groups need for social
NECESSITY OF ART equilibrium (Levi-Strauss, 1963). Like the artist, the
shaman achieves balance by engaging imbalance, ten-
The therapeutic role of the arts in alleviating sion and uncertainty (McNiff, 1977). The confronta-
human suffering and in resolving emotional conflict tion of ~reate~g elements is supported by those
predates the creation of the professional art ther- who participate in and observe the shamans enact-
apist by thousands of years. The novelty of art ment. People are in turn stimulated and renewed
therapy lies in the introduction of these practices through the process. Durkheim felt that these early
into the relatively new field of psychiatry and the shamanic rituals were a celebration of the groups
formal practice of psychotherapy which are specific sacred in groupness.
to our contemporary historical epoch. As technical It seems that the shaman is always a person who
methodologies psycho~erapeutic systems are rarely functions within social groups. The skill of the sha-
culturally interchangeable. As interpersonal processes man was measured by his/her ability to structure the
however, they continue the life sustaining functions enactment in a manner which paralleled the con-
of religion, communal ritual and the family. The figuration of the individual or group conflict. The
earliest m~ifestation of what we now call the ther- ritual and symbols had to fit the problem and
apist was the shaman who has been known as a facilitate its expression. In discussing this aspect of
medicine man, one who works with the super- sh~~ism Qaude Levi-Strauss feels that both the
natural, a technician of the sacred, a master of psychoanalyst and the shaman must work toward the
ecstasy, mystic, healer, priest and artist. In essence, creation of a healing experience and the formation of
the work of the shaman involves all of these things. a life ordering system. He believes that the sha-
Eliade (1964) in his comprehensive study, Sham- manistic process and psycho~~ytic treatment are in
nism, describes the district quality of the shaman at essence the same but their operational principles
his/her ability to create an ecstatic trance through differ. The analyst is cast as a listener and the
which the soul departs from the body and travels on a shaman as a speaker/actor (Levi-Strauss, 1963, p.
mythological journey to spirit worlds . . . The 199). Although 1 do not question these distinctions,
shaman is the great specialist in the human soul (p. the truth of the matter seems to lie somewhere in
8). between. Polarization tends to over-simplify. The
Societies in virtualiy every geographic region of contemporary psychotherapist speaks considerably
the world have appreciated the importance of experi- and, in the case of the arts, engages in action. On the
encing and enacting dreams and conflicts. Within other hand, the shamans successful enactments are
early communities the shaman was the person who dependent on sensitive listening and diagnosis.
helped the group to relate to and maintain a dialogue With regard to training, the shaman was instructed
with inner experience. The shamans role was devel- in the use of culturally inherited techniques which

*Requests for reprints should be sent to ShaunMcNiff, Ph.D., Dean, Institute for the Arts and Human Development, Lesley
College Graduate School, 35 Mellen Street, Cambridge, Mass. 02138. Please enclose stamped, self-addressed enveiope.

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Copyright =1979 Pergamon Press Ltd.
156 SHAUN McNIFF
enabled the group to give tangible form to their
dreams and visions. They were in this way able to
become more aware of private experiences and share
them with others. As with the history of art the
actual methods and practices of the shaman have
been characterized by great multiplicity and indi-
vidual styles. As opposed to the standardization of
religious traditions celebrated by priests, shamanism
is tied to the particular personality of the shaman
whose techniques of transcendence relate to the
unifying myths and beliefs of the community.
Due to misleading associations of the behavior of
the shaman with madness and hallucinatory states of
a schizophrenic nature, the essentially constructive
role of the true shaman has been overlooked. Mircea
Eliade has stressed the discipline and skill of the
professional shaman whose formative crisis can be
likened to the initiation into other religious voca-
tions. He feels that the shaman was separated from
the group by the intensity of his religious experi-
ence and not by psychopathology. This position is
confirmed by the extensive field studies of Nadel
(1946) who never observed the disintegration of the
shamans professional hysteria into emotional intense emotions
disturbance.
For Eliade The shaman and mystics of primitive
societies are considered - and rightly - to be superi-
or beings . . . The shaman is the man who knows and
remembers, that is, who understands the mysteries of
life and death. (1958, p. 102) There were of course
female shamans. In describing Siberian shamanism
Czaplicka (1914) noted that although at times it was
virtually a male profession, there is evidence sug-
gesting that in Siberia during earlier epochs it was
primarily a female cult (p. 30). James (1955) has
gone further in reporting that in Africa, Indonesia
and America female magicians and shamans are some-
times more numerous than their male counterparts.
Although the shamans vocation is purportedly
revealed through experiences of hysteria and what we
refer to as psychotic episodes, the initiate must be
able to work through the crisis and resolve the various
psychological tensions before becoming a shaman. It
is more than likely that in many cases the shamans
crisis was more mystical than psychopathological.
Nevertheless, if the shaman was able to heal himself/
herself and others, it is because he/she understood the
process of emotional disturbance. It is likely that the
shaman did experience the same kind of existential
life crisis that precipitates emotional disturbance
today, but the culture in which he/she lived was
capable of accepting behavior expressive of psy-
chological disequilibrium.
Lommel (1967, p. 25) describes the shaman as a
doctor in the psychological/psychoanalytic realm.
Observers note how the shaman practices a form of
group therapy in which the entire community parti-
cipates. The shamans technique is often one of
enacting the forces and life dramas that are disturbing
the patient so that the invisible tensions can be
directly confronted and dispelled. This methodology
is comparable to the psychoanalytic process of
transference where the patient unconsciously sees
in the person of the therapist the qualities of the
parent or other person who is a source of conflict.
The enactment of the psychological conflict is also
directly parallel to the contemporary. process of
psychodrama where problematic situations are dra-
matized in a therapeutic context.
The struggle of the shaman to find meaning and
order within the flux of experience is akin to the
artistic process. Like the dramatists of later cultures
the shaman attempts to attach spiritual significance
to unsettling and tragic circumstances. Contact with
such as grief and psychological
states of anxiety, depression or isolation awaken the
shaman to forces beyond the immediate realm of
functional experience. According to Eliade (1958, p.
89) The total crisis of the future shaman, sometimes
leading to a complete disintegration of their per-
sonality and to madness, can be valuated not only as
an initiatory death, but also as symbolic return to the
precosmogonic chaos, to the amorphous and inde-
scribable state that preceded any cosmogony.
The shaman is capable of engaging primary pro-
cess and returning to more controlled behavior. This
can be likened to Freuds description of the artist.
The immersion into spiritual realms brings renewal
for both the shaman and the community which is
vicariously engaged. In making a comparison of the
shamanistic trance to schizophrenia Silverman (1967,
p. 28) provides a description of the shamans altered
state of consciousness which is directly parallel to
artistic activity and the process of art therapy . . . if
one conceives of the total psyche as a self-regulating
system, the eruption of ordinarily unconscious
(dream-like) imagery is, under such crisis conditions,
absolutely necessary for restoring balance and whole-
ness to the system. Silverman emphasizes that com-
munity support enabled shamanism to become a total
psychological adjustment to emotional turmoil. In
early cultures psychic disturbance was accommodated
 FROM SHAMANISM TO ART THERAPY
within the general social balance of opposing emo-
tional forces. With shamanism the integration of
conflicting elements became a natural and functional
part of individu~ and communal life.
The parallels between shamanism and the newly
emerging field of art therapy seem to lie in the
commitment of both to work with psychological
conflict and struggle through creative action and
enactment. Just as the society of today has a low
tolerance for the expressive and aberrant behavior of
the person in emotional crisis, it has shown a similar
lack of empathy for emotionally charged artistic
statements which deviate from cultural norms. Thus,
as Ruth Benedict states in Patterns of Cultire, (1934,
p, 2701, the dysfunction of ~dividu~s in society is
not necessarily a result of their abnormality but is
more likely due to the lack of value that the society
places on their behavior.
The artist, the shaman and the person suffering
from emotional unrest are open to and struggle with
the disequ~ib~um of existence. Rather than attemp
ting to treat the eruptions of psychological tension
with external forces of tranquilization, the artist and
the shaman go to the heart of the inner storm and
enact its furies in a way which is of value to the
individu~ and the community. The end result is not
just emotional catharsis but deepened insight into the
nature of human emotion. Where the general ten-
dency of society is to walk a continuously straight
and balanced line of behavior, the artist and the
shaman maximize the social value of imbalance. They
see that struggle gives si~i~cance to existence. Life is
perceived as a dynamic system which proceeds to a
natural order and expands if allowed to do so.
(Amheim, 1971)
In their study of shamanism, McKenna and
McKenna reafcrm the need today for doctors of the
soul and see the modem shaman in the person of the
artist who understands how consciousness and iden-
tity are not fixed properties but are rather evolving
processes, constantly in motion, To the artist it is an
accepted fact that the way to personal fulfillment lies
in the process itself, in the creative and spontaneous
adaptation to the kinetic, changing and dynamic
principles of evolving life. The artist is thus actively
engaged with both material and spiritual realities,
This active versus passive role is perhaps one of the
most fundamental differences between shamanism
and the contempora~ mental health field. Where the
shaman enacts conflict and life dramas for the benefit
of the community, todays psychotherapist is cast in
157
the passive role of mirroring the clients behavior. The
community, which is to be adapted to, is often an
invisible system of behavioral constraints which the
therapist must help the client survive in..The artist,
like the shaman, provides an alternative mode of
action in demonstrating how one can live with
heightened sensitivity and awareness. In this respect
art therapy offers the premise that a person can
consciously give value to existence through the artis
tic consciousness. The art therapist as shaman
becomes a role model for creative adaptability and
expression.
Like the art therapist, the personality, experience,
techniques and training of the shaman have a direct
effect on the quality of the healing process. In his
book, 77ze Shamans Doorway, Stephen Larsen men-
tions , , , that even the intrepid shaman does not
venture into the realm of primary meaning without a
myth in mind. (1976, p. 34) Through the myth the
persons internal drama is connected to the con-
tinuities and patterns of the community and the
shaman uses his/her expressive and evocative powers
to guide the group in contacting the sacred and
transcend everyday experience. The drum and elabor-
ate costuming serve as tools of transcendence which
assist in bringing about a separation from profane
existence through trance-like repetitions and what we
might describe today as relaxation exercises. Virtually
every form of shamanism utilizes some form of
sensory focusing and fixation on a particular series of
stimuli in order to alter consciousness. Eliade feels
that the skillful shaman rarely depended upon hal-
lucinogenic drugs to achieve ecstasy whereas MC
Kenna and McKenna maintain that hallucinogens
were a natural feature of all forms of shamanism.
In time the practices of shamanism developed into
established patterns and belief systems and further
evolved into st~dard~ed religions where priests,
rather than the shaman, led rituals related to ortho-
dox spiritual principles. As Larsen (1976) states there
occurred . , . a victory of the principles of a socially
anointed priesthood over the highly dangerous and
unpredictable force of individual endo~ent (p.
161).
Within our expanding technological society the
role of the priest is giving way to the socially
appointed role of the psychotherapist and psy-
chologist who give meaning to life through their
knowledge of the behavioral sciences. They clarify
existence not through ritual and communal worship
but through their individual insights and inter-
158 SHAUN McNIFF
pretations. This approach to explaining life is
accepted by the society just as early cultures accepted
belief systems which attributed all causality to the
influence of the stars or a divine being. These new
professionals have moved people away from a reliance
on religious dogma and teaching for a definition of
existence, and toward a dependence on contemporary
psychological theory. However, in the mental health
field there is a growing realization that scientific
formulations are limited in dealing with problems of
the human spirit. Ernst Cassirer (1955) in his P~~l~so-
phy of Symbolic Forms supports the role of the arts
and myth in the development of consciousness and
self-awareness. To the factual world which sur-
rounds and dominates it the spirit opposes an inde-
pendent image world of its own - more and more
clearly and consciously it confronts the force of the
impressions with an active force of expression (p. Moreno and Otto Rank, were keenly aware of the
23).
Today the various roles of the shaman are divided
between different professional groups - psycho-
therapists, artists, priests, physicians, etc. With regard
to the resolution of emotional conflict this role
fragmentation has taken away the shamans source of
power which is the integration of mind, body, art and
spirit.
The art therapist brings the psychotherapy process
into contact with the continuities of healing through
art, ritual and ceremony in a manner which allows for
the direct communication and expression of personai
imagery and bodily sensations. In no uncertain terms
the expressive art therapist can be a modem mani-
festation of the shaman in that he/she is responding
to the fundamental necessity of the human spirit to
seek transcendence; to intensify sensory experience;
to restore the balance between the individual and the
community; to gain a Sense of control over life
processes or, more realistic&y, an abiiity to respond
creatively to existential fluctuations and change; to
bring the human spirit to a sense of participation in a
purposeful cosmos; and to respond to the need of the
individual for life clarifying belief systems and values.
The expressive art therapist is appearing in the
mental health field at a time when society has few
unifying myths and when the fragmentation of the
mind, the loss of the drive for self-fulfillment, per-
ceptual confusion, and an inability to appreciate the
struggle of existence are typical characteristics of
emotional disturbance. As the expressive art therapist
begins to take on the role of healer in our time, it is
well to look for precedents beyond the horizon of
psychiatry in the ancient continuities of art healing
and sham~ism. Like sham~ism, art therapy offers a
natural way of being *and healing which societies seem
to consistently find when they become excessively
mechanized, disoriented and disconnected from their
spiritual beginnings. At these points of crisis they
seem to turn to art which provides an alternative to
alienation and imbalance in the unifying aesthetic
consciousness.
ART, ACTION AND
PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC HISTORY
In the recent history of art psychotherapy influen-
tial thinkers have advocated procedures in keeping
with what we found in shamanism.
Early psychotherapists, including C.G. Jung, J.L.
artistic and spiritual roots of psychotherapy. Rank
(1959) spoke of the analyst as . . . a new artist-type.
such as has not existed since the Creek period and
had not been needed since ihe Christian era began.
The type of artist who works in living human mate-
rial, who seeks to create men not like parents,
physically, but spiritu~ly like God (pp. 272-273).
Rank was disheartened by the growing materialistic
tendencies of psychology which in his mind tried to
destroy the soul. Beginning with, and including
Freud, psycholo~ has attempted to explain the
unconscious in scientific terms and has thus elimi-
nated its spiritual content which Rank felt gave birth
to psychology, He believed that no matter how much
the psychologist tries to avert attention from issues of
death and immort~ity, they are the dete~ining
factors of adult consciousness. The psychoanalytic
terminology of the unconscious attempted to take
the place of the soul and behavioral psychology has
gone even farther in attending only to manifestations
of overt physical activity. Rank goes to the extreme
of believing that Psychology is the souls worst
enemy, because in creating its own consolation for
death it becomes compelled by the self-knowledge it
creates to prove that the soul does not exist, thus it
becomes both a scientific psychology without a soul
and a kind of overburdening of the inner spiritual self
which, with no support from an inherent belief in
immortality, goes to pieces in a way the neuroses
show so well. ( 1950, . 3 1)
In taking the artist metaphor further, Rank
reacted against the determinist theories of Freud by
emphasizing the importance of the conscious will and
 FROM SHAMANISM TO ART THERAPY 159

the potential of each person to act as artist who can
creatively shape his/her personal character. Ranks
position was reminiscent of Nietzsche who believed
that existence can be justified only through aesthetic
perception. In trying to liberate the conscious mind
Nietzsche was an antecedent of the self-actualization
therapists and the art therapist in his advocacy of the
will to power and the ability of each person to
reach elf-transcendence through aesthetic perception
and the process of constantly giving new valuations
to experience through art.
The dramatic implications of therapists and clients
acting together within an artistic process was taken
further yet by Moreno who first introduced creative
action modes to the p~cho~erapeutic experience.
Today we find that Morenos contributions are having
a major influence on contemporary therapeutic
approaches. His techniques of role-playing, role-
reversal and his emphasis on the enactment of the
drama of each persons Iife are the basis of gestalt
therapy and other recent psycho~erapeu~c practices.
Morenos innovations grew out of his frustration with
orthodox psychoanalytic therapy where the slightest
suggestion of acting out was discouraged and where
the therapist and client (lying on a couch) attempted
to verbally resolve unconscious conflict and tension.
Observing the lessons of theater and other healing
rituals, Moreno realized that only through spon-
taneous action can a person recreate and work
through emotional problems which are rooted as
much in the body as in the mind. Through the efforts
of Moreno, Reich, Lowen and others, psychothera-
pists have been stimulated to come to grips with
Cartesian duality of mind and body that permeates
classical psychoanalytic techniques.
The psychodramatic approach realizes that healing
comes from action and the complete artistic catharsis
described by the Greeks. Morenos system of real life
enactment of psychic conflict is tied to the ancient
continuities of art healing, where the community
group enacts its uncertainties under the guidance of
the shaman. The shamans enactments were the begin-
nings of theater which later grew more distant from
immediate life experience with the progressive devel-
opment and enlargement of civilization. Through his
psychodramatic explorations Moreno also helped the
contemporary theater to rediscover its artistic roots
in the emotional intensities of each persons life
(Bentley, 1970). As Hera&us said in 500 BC, Man
is estranged from that with which he is most famil-
iar.
Traditional psychotherapists are handicapped in
introducing action modes into the therapeutic session
because of their own inability to be confident and
comfortable with the enactment of feelings and con-
flict. Many therapists who support the theory of
creative action in therapy are insecure when they are
required to move in space without the support of
their chairs. Therefore they do not engage in more
expressive and body oriented therapies. The appreci-
ation of the healing potential of the arts is also not
clear to the traditional therapist largely because
he/she is but a part of a society which is influenced
by the dominant aesthetic theory that art is some-
thing that is removed and separate from daily life
functions. This approach to art is a continuation of
Kants philosophy of aesthetic disinterestedness
which views true artistic perception as an end com-
pletely in itself - what we sometimes refer to as art
for arts sake. Unfortunately, this obsession with the
exalted properties of the art experience has led to
widespread social misunderstanding as to the practical
and life supporting functions of art.
The expressive techniques of Moreno are closer to
historical practices of art healing and shamanism than
the work of many art therapists who have identified
themselves with classic modes of verbal psycho-
therapy where graphic art is often only an addition to
otherwise traditional psychotherapeutic methods.
Within this therapeutic structure the visual expres-
sions of clients are sometimes more accurately
described as graphic diagrams and communications
rather than as visual art. I might also add that the
practice of art therapy as we now know it is rarely
characterized by the enactment of feelings through
the complete expressive apparatus of the body. Art
therapy as it is commonly practiced does not open
itself to the totality of art and mind/body integra-
tion. Only through a uni~cation of the various arts in
therapy will the creative art therapist begin to revive
or the multi-dimensional skills of the shaman who was
capable of relating to all spheres of sensory activity as
well as dream experiences. This integration is sug-
gested most clearly today in the work of Moreno who
unified the psycholo~c~ methods of his time with
the sacred spheres of life. Morenos therapeutic
experimentations brought the arts together in an
attempt to maximize the creative spontaneity of
individuals and groups. His thesis was that the locus
of the self is spontaneity and spontaneity is the
matrix of creativity. Moreno tried to liberate
people in a fashion similar to Nietzsche by em-
160 SHAUN McNIFF
phasizing the godliness in each person and the striving
to fulfill our creative potential which in hisview was
the esthetic demonstration of freedom. In taking
the content of art from the everyday lives of people
he deals with creation at a level where the neat
separation of the esthetic from the therapeutic is
meaningless . . . Rather than stressing the creation of
an immortal, permanent product, he places the
emphasis on true spontaneity and the qualitative
immersion in the moment. This approach to art and
therapeutic theater is comparable to the enactment of
the shaman in that the persons play before them-
selves . , , the same life again. The place of the
conflict and of its theater is one and the same . . .
they re-experience it, they are master . . . It does not
only emerge in order to heal itself, for relief and
catharsis, but it is also the love for its own demons
which drives the theater on to unchain itself . . . not
like a renewal of suffering rather it confirms the rule:
every second time is the liberation from the first
(Moreno, 1973, pp. 90-9 1).
In addition to these philosophical parallels, the
role of the psychodrama director and the shaman are
closely related. Moreno describes how the leader is
the one most deeply possessed by the idea of the
play. The leader must be completely immersed in
the process of re-enactment and helps other people to
warm-up to levels of heightened spontaneity and
transcendence. In these contemporary therapeutic
practices Moreno began to re-enact the ancient prac-
tices of art healing. Through research and ongoing
experimentation we must continue to explore the
specific ways in which present therapeutic methods
are culturally interchangeable. Rather than remain
one-sidedly attached to the disciplines of psychology
and psychiatry, the expressive art therapist should
utilize the fields of anthropology together with the
history of art and religion to explore how the thera-
peutic use of the arts can be more fully expanded in
our society. Research will indicate that we are re-
enacting ancient shamanistic practices often without
being aware of the parallels. Drama and dance ther-
apists find themselves spontaneously celebrating
rituals of passage through which obstacles are con-
fronted and overcome. Catharsis, chant, rhythmic
drumming and group participation typify their work.
Poetry therapy enourages naming and personalizing
the physical environment. All of the arts sanctify
place and make the profane sacred through symbolic
transformations, Shamanistic journeys of ascent and
descent are similar to todays guided imagery
experiences which evoke feelings of renewal through
the classical myth cycle of separation-penetration-
and return. Dramatic improvisations and visual art
expressions often border on totemism with partici-
pants identifying themselves with animals which per-
sonify both desirable and malevolent attributes.
Tutelary spirits are created in art activities for the
purpose of expressing needs for support and protec-
tion. In all of these manifestations of contemporary
art therapy, essential and unchanging projections of
the human spirit are expressed in a manner which
bears a striking resemblance to shamanism.
CONCLUSION
The task ahead from a broad social perspective is
vast in that the arts need a general cultural environ-
ment which is supportive of personal artistic develop-
ment. Advances in this direction have been made in
mental health clinics and schools where expressive art
therapy is taking root. Just as the shaman must create
an interpersonal and physical space that facilitates
transcendence and heightened perception, SO too the
art therapist must think environmentally and con-
struct a workspace that helps people to separate
themselves from inhibiting life experiences which act
as barriers to creative expression. Like the shaman,
the art therapist must create a trusting or what might
be called a sacred place where people can begin to
penetrate and explore their perceptions, values and
expressions as represented in the immediacy of
present actions. Across the country art therapists are
creating communities of adults, children and ado-
lescents tied together and supportive of each other as
in the very first communities of the world. In these
programs art intensifies relationships with other
people and the physical environment and enables
them to relate directly to primary life functions and
emotions. The expressive art therapist offers an alter-
native to a society which has focused its attention
exclusively on the art object as an end in itself while
neglecting the creative needs of each individual mem-
ber of the community. The potential for the thera-
peutic use of the arts is of a revolutionary order in
that art therapy and other humanizing experiences
challenge the very fouundations of the existing
mental health system with its emphasis on behavioral
control rather than human expression. In this respect
the art therapists must be cautious and avoid being
absorbed into the regularities of the mental health
field. The action modes of the expressive therapist are
 FROM SHAMANISM
at times perceived as deviant and contrary to the
environmental and behavioral norms of mental hospi-
tals, clinics and other human service institutions.
Nevertheless, the artist has made great inroads into
the mental health field over the past ten years. In my
opinion, the obstacles, questions and lack of accept-
ance we have encountered have increased the fervor
and moral conviction of those intent upon human-
izing the field and connecting it to the ancient
continuities of the human spirit.
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