4.

9 Origin of the Analytic Method 59

non-deductive derivation of another hypothesis from this hypothesis, and possibly

other data already available, where this other hypothesis is a sufficient condition
for solving the problem posed by the former hypothesis and is plausible; and so
on, ad infinitum. The goal of a demonstration is to discover hypotheses that are
sufficient conditions for solving a problem and are plausible. Thus demonstration
has a heuristic role.
A demonstration should serve two functions: 1) it should generate new knowl-
edge from old knowledge; 2) it should give an explanation and provide an
understanding of the problem. The analytic notion of demonstration serves both
these functions. Indeed, by supplying plausible hypotheses which are sufficient
conditions for solving the problem, it generates new knowledge from the problem,
and possibly other data already available, thus from old knowledge. On the other
hand, by supplying plausible hypotheses which are obtained from the problem and
hence are strictly related to it, it gives an explanation and provides an understanding
of the problem.9

4.9 Origin of the Analytic Method

The analytic method was originally used by Hippocrates of Chios to solve several
geometric problems, such as the duplication of the cube and the quadrature of certain
lunules.
1) The duplication of the cube: Find the side of the cube double of a given cube.
To solve this problem, Hippocrates of Chios states the following hypothesis:
(A) Given any two straight lines, a and b, we can always find two other
straight lines, x and y, which are the mean proportionals in continued
proportion between a and b, that is a:x D x:y D y:b.
a
x
y
b

Hypothesis (A) is a sufficient condition for solving the problem. For, by (A), for
any given straight lines a and b, we can find two other straight lines, x and y, such
that a:x D x:y D y:b. Then (a:x)3 D (a:x)(x:y)(y:b) D (a:b). For b D 2a this yields
(a:x)3 D 1:2, hence x3 D 2a3 , that is, a cube double of the given cube of side a.
Thus the cube will be doubled.10 This solves the problem.
But hypothesis (A) is in its turn a problem that must be solved. It is solved by
Menaechmus stating the following hypothesis:

9
On the relation of the analytic notion of demonstration to explanation and understanding, see
Cellucci (forthcoming).
10
Eutocius (1881, 104.15).
60 4 The Analytic Method

(A0 ) The mean proportionals, x and y, in continuous proportion between two

straight lines, a and b, are the coordinates of the meeting point of the
parabola satisfying the condition x2 D ay and the hyperbola satisfying
the condition xy D ab.
Hypothesis (A0 ) is a sufficient condition for solving the problem. For let a, b
be the two given straight lines. Draw a parabola with vertex O and axis Ox, such
that its parameter is equal to a. Then draw a hyperbola with Ox, Oy as asymptotes,
such that the rectangle under the distance of any point of the hyperbola from Ox, Oy
respectively is equal to the rectangle ab. The hyperbola will meet the parabola. Let
P be their meeting point. Let PQ, PR be drawn parallel to Ox, Oy respectively. So
PQ, PR are the coordinates of the point P.
y xy=ab

x2=ay
Q P

O x
R

Take PQ as x and PR as y. By the hypothesis x2 D ay we have PQ2 D a  PR, hence

a:PQ D PQ:PR. On the other hand, by the hypothesis xy D ab we have PQ  PR D ab,
hence a:PQ D PR:b. Then a:PQ D PQ:PR D PR:b, that is, a:x D x:y D y:b, which is
what was to be found.11 That is, (A). This solves the problem.
But hypothesis (A0 ) is in its turn a problem that must be solved. And so on,
ad infinitum.
The process by which the problem of the duplication of the cube has been solved
can be schematically represented as follows.

Plausible Meeting point of parabola and hyperbola

hypotheses
Menaechmus

Mean proportionals in continued proportion

Hippocrates of Chios
Problem
Duplication of the cube
to solve

11
Ibid., 96.4.
4.9 Origin of the Analytic Method 61

2) The quadrature of certain lunules: Show that, if PQR is a right isosceles

triangle and PRQ, PTR are semicircles on PQ, PR, respectively, then the lunule
PTRU is equal to the right isosceles triangle PRS.

T R
U

P Q
S

To solve this problem, Hippocrates of Chios states the following hypothesis:

(B) Circles are as the squares on their diameters.
Hypothesis (B) is a sufficient condition for solving the problem. For, by the
Pythagorean theorem, the square on PQ is twice the square on PR. Then, by (B),
the semicircle on PQ, that is, PRQ, is twice the semicircle on PR, that is, PTR,
and hence the quarter of circle PRS is equal to the semicircle PTR. Subtracting the
same circular segment, PUR, from both the quarter of circle PRS and the semicircle
PTR, we obtain the lunule PTRU and the triangle PRS, respectively. Therefore, the
lunule PTRU is equal to the triangle.12 This solves the problem.
But hypothesis (B) is in its turn a problem that must be solved. It is solved,
presumably by Eudoxus, stating the following hypothesis:
(B0 ) Similar regular polygons inscribed in circles are as the squares on their
diameters.
Hypothesis (B0 ) is a sufficient condition for solving the problem. For, let P, Q be
two circles and R, S the squares on their diameters. We want to show that P/Q D R/S.
Suppose not. Then either P/Q > R/S or P/Q < R/S. If P/Q > R/S, then, for some
P0 < P it will be P0 /Q D R/S. Let Un , Vn be the polygons with n sides inscribed
in the circles P, Q respectively. For a sufficiently large n it will be PUn < PP0 ,
so Un > P0 . Since Un , Vn are similar, by (B0 ), we have Un /Vn D R/S. From the
latter and P0 /Q D R/S we obtain Un /Vn D P0 /Q, from which, since Un > P0 , it follows
Vn > Q. But, since Vn is inscribed in Q, this is impossible. Similarly if P/Q < R/S.
We conclude that P/Q D R/S, that is, (B). This solves the problem.
But hypothesis (B0 ) is in its turn a problem that must be solved. And so on,
ad infinitum.
The process by which the problem of the quadrature of certain lunules has been
solved can be schematically represented as follows.

12
Simplicius, In Aristotelis Physicorum Libros Quattuor Priores Commentaria (Diels), I 3,
56.1819.
62 4 The Analytic Method

Plausible Polygons as squares

hypotheses
Eudoxus?
Circles as squares

Hippocrates of Chios
Problem
Quadrature of the lune
to solve

4.10 Basic Features of the Analytic Method

The analytic method has the following basic features.

1) The hypotheses for solving a problem need not belong to the field of the
problem, but may belong to other fields. Thus the search for a solution to a problem
is not carried out in a closed, predetermined space. For example, as we have seen
above, to solve a problem of the theory of regular solids, the duplication of the cube,
Hippocrates of Chios uses a hypothesis of the theory of ratios and proportions.
2) The hypotheses for solving a problem are local, not global. They are not
general principles, good for all problems, but are aimed at a specific problem.
3) Being local, not global, the hypotheses for solving a problem can be efficient.
Being aimed at a specific problem, they can take care of the peculiarities of the
problem, which is essential for the feasibility of the solution.
4) Different problems will generally require different hypotheses. This follows
from the fact that hypotheses are aimed at a specific problem, so they depend on the
peculiarities of the problem.
5) The same problem can be solved using different hypotheses. A problem has
several sides, each of which may suggest different hypotheses, that may lead to
different solutions of the problem. When a problem seems to be solvable only by
a single hypothesis, one should worry because it might mean that the solution is
wrong or that the problem is ill-posed. Different hypotheses may establish different
relations between the problem and problems of other fields, thus showing the
problem in a new perspective. As Atiyah says, if you cannot look at a problem
from different directions, it is probably not very interesting; the more perspectives,
the better!13
6) Solving a problem is both a process of discovery and a process of justification.
It is a process of discovery, because it involves finding hypotheses by non-deductive
rules. It is a process of justification, because it involves comparing the arguments
for and against the hypotheses thus found, in order to check their plausibility.

13
Raussen and Skau (2004, 24).