Evaluation of Smoke Management in Super High-rise

Office Building with Multi-pressurization Staircases

by
Cheung Ming Sang
BEng MIFireE

Abstract
Two IFC, a super highrise building which provided emergency pressurization
system to all staircases. The specification and requirement staircase pressurization is
followed to HKCOP and complied with British Standard BS5588 part 4. The
practical operation and performance are tested and satisfactory during FSD
inspection. However, it is a challenge of staircase pressurization systems by
full-scale burning tests on assessing the performance of the system.

1. Introduction:
In accordance with Code of Practice of Minimum Fire Services Installation
(HKCOP), a staircase pressurization is defined a system to protect staircases against
the ingress of smoke by maintaining the air within staircases at pressures higher than
those in adjacent parts of the building. The staircase pressurization system is
activated by building fire alarm or smoke detector which installed the lobby
approached to staircases and widely used to provide
fire safety. Staircase pressurization systems are
required by HKSAR to provide safety to occupants
evacuation and rescues team. The system should be
constructed and inspected in accordance to the
requirement as prescribed in HKCOP and British
Standard BS5588 part 4.
Staircase pressurization is one of the difficult installations in current construction
due to the constraint of architectural features, doors and doors frame construction,
limitation of vent shaft provision and actual site condition for testing and
commissioning etc. In practically, the performance of staircase pressurization are
tested in accordance to prescribed specification and requirement. But the
performance of the system might it be satisfactory in fire scenario. Therefore a case
study on Two IFC was considered. Engineering analysis under fire development
with wind load, failure of sprinkler system situation will be studied with the analysis
by CFD program. The smoke movement in during fire incident with staircase
pressurization system compare with non-staircase pressurization system will be
simulated by CFD program for analysis.

-1-
2. Computation Fire Modeling
The use of computer models for simulating fires in enclosures has increased
dramatically in recent years. This is due to many factors, including the increased
complexity of building design, the recent emergence of performance-based
regulations, the rapid progress made in the understanding of the phenomena, and
the advances made in computer technology.
Using computer modeling in fire safety in the safety engineering design is not
simple or easy, no matter how user friendly the computer program may be. We
must have a fundamental understanding of the physics and chemistry of
enclosure fires in order to assess the validity and accuracy of the simulation
results. In this paper, Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) and Analysis of Smoke
Control Systems (ASCOS) are used to simulate the fire scenarios and staircases
pressurization.

Fire Dynamics Simulator is a computational fluid dynamics program designed

specifically for Fire Protection practitioners. The program is the public domain
and is available free download from the National Institute of Standards and
Technologys Fire Research Web site. FDS, and its accompanying graphics
program Smokeview, provide a field model with extremely powerful graphics
that can be run on a PC. FDS has been demonstrated to predict the thermal
conditions resulting from a compartment fire. A CFD model requires that the
room or building of interest be divided into small three-dimensional rectangular
control volumes or computational cells. The CFD model computes the density,
velocity, temperature, pressure and species concentration of the gas in each cell.
Based on the laws of conservation of mass,
momentum, species and energy the model
tracks the generation and movement of fire
gases. FDS utilizes material properties of the
furnishings, walls, floors, and ceilings to
compute fire growth and spread.

FDS approximates the governing equations on

a rectilinear grid. The user prescribes
rectangular obstructions that are forced to
conform with the underlying grid.

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3 Fire Modeling Data Justification
3.1 Fire Load density in different occupancies:
The fire load within a room or enclosure influences the duration and severity of a
fire. Fire load data are therefore required in order to evaluate the potential for
structural failure and fire spread beyond the enclosure of origin. Work has been
carried out in Europe to establish the fire load densities in a range of
occupancies.

The characteristic values are given for various types of occupancy. CIB W14
Workshop Report provides guidance of the survey requirements for obtaining fire
load data for a specific type of building or use of a building.

-3-
Fire load density in different occupancies 1
Occupancy Fire load density
Average Fractile2
MJ/m2 MJ/m2
80% 90% 95%
Dwelling 780 870 920 970
Hospital 230 350 440 520
Hospital storage 2000 3000 3700 4400
Hotel bedroom 310 400 460 510
Offices 420 570 670 760
Shops 600 900 1100 1300
Manufacturing 300 470 590 720
Manufacturing 1180 1800 2240 2690
and storage3
Libraries 1500 2250 2550 -
Schools 285 360 410 450
1. Derived from surveys: see CIB W14 Workshop Report, 1983[1].
2. The 80% fractile is the value that is not exceeded in 80% of the rooms or
occupancies.
3. Storage of combustible materials at less than 150 kg/m2.

Note 1. The fire load density given in this table assumes perfect combustion, but
in real fires the heat combustion is usually considerably less.
Note 2. The values given in this table include only the variable fire loads (i.e.
building contents). If significant quantities of combustible materials are used in
the building construction, this should be added to the variable fire load to give
the total fire load.
(Extracted from DD:240 Part 1:1997)

-4-
Values of for different growth rates according to NFPA 204M
Growth rate Time(s) to reach 1055kW
Ultra fast 0.19 75
Fast 0.047 150
Medium 0.012 300
slow 0.003 600

Typical growth rates recommended for various types of occupancies

Type of occupancy Growth Rate
Dwellings, etc. Medium
Hotels, nursing homes, etc. Fast
Shopping centers, entertainment centers Ultra fast
Schools, offices Fast
Hazardous industries Not specified

-5-
3.2 Fire growth time:
Data from NFPA 204M:
Growth time to reach 1,000 kW (1MW): Time in sec.
2
Ultra fast t fire 75
Wood pallets, stacked 3.05m high 80~120
fast t2 fire 150
Mail bags, filled, stored 1.52 m high 190
2
medium t fire 300

Data from NFPA 92B:

Growth time to reach 1,000 kW (1MW): Time in sec.
2
Ultra fast t fire 75
Wood pallets, stacked 1.52m high 90~190
2
fast t fire 150
2
medium t fire 300
2
Slow t fire 600

-6-
3.3 Unit heat release rate
Estimates of heat rates per unit floor area or per unit fuel area for various
commodities and materials can be gained from the SPFE Handbook and
NFPA92B as captioned. Survey data from actual occupancies I use have also
been published. Measured survey loads, q, are given in MJ per m2 of floor area.
By assuming a conservative burn-out time of 20 minutes (i.e. 1200s) the unit heat
release rate can be estimated for well-ventilated compartment fires, thus:
Qu = q / 1200, where Qu is the unit heat release rate (kW/m2) and q is the
measured survey load (kJ/m2)

From table 1, propose fire load density of office =760 MJ/m2

Qu= 760 x 1000/1200 = 633 kW/m2, for safety factor, 1000kW/m2 to be used in
this evaluation.

-7-
3.4 Wind pressure effects
Code of Practice On Wind Effects Hong Kong 1983, provides general methods
for calculation the wind loads to be used in the structural design of building.
Design wind pressure for general terrain
Height above artificial base level Design wind pressure (kPa)
(meter)
0-10 1.2
10-30 2.2
30-50 2.5
50-100 3.0
100-150 3.5
150-200 3.8
200-250 4.1
Above 250 4.2
The Handbook of Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2001) lists prevailing wind directions
and corresponding average wind speeds for numerous locations around the world.
For most locations, these average velocities are in the range of 2 to 7 m/s.

In IFC II, there are 4 refuge floors located in different floors to form 5 separate
zones of the building. In according to Code of Practice for Fire Resisting
Construction 1996 of Buildings Department, Hong Kong, the code prescribes
that cross-ventilation should be provided in such floors so that to prevent smoke
logging.

By site measurement, at refuge floor R2, wind speed around 2 m/s to 6/ms were
recorded in April, 2003. It provided necessary cross ventilation to the floors but it
also affect the staircase pressurization when exit doors at that floor are open. In
view of that, an anti-wind partition (L-shape partition) is provided to each exit
door at refuge floors in IFC II to avoid the wind to affect the operation of
staircases pressurization.

-8-
3.5 Sprinkler response time
With reference SFPE handbook, the time of sprinkler response shall be estimated
by the resulting dimensionless correlation for maximum ceiling jet temperatures
and velocity as follows:
0, t 2* t *f
4/3
T2* = t 2* t *f
0.188 + 0.313r / H t 2* > t *f

0.63
U 2* r
= 0.59
T2* H

T * 1 e y
e= T2 1
*


2
T Y

where

t 2* = (t t i ) /( A 1 / 5 1 / 5 H 4 / 5 )

U 2* = U /( A1 / 5 1 / 5 H 1 / 5 )
T2* = (T T ) /[ A 2 / 5 (T / g ) 2 / 5 H 3 / 5 ]

A = g /(c p T )

= Q& /(t t i ) 2

t *f = 0.954(1 + r / H )

[
Y = (3 / 4)(U / U 2* )1 / 2 U 2* / T2* ]
1/ 2
(T2* / RTI )(t / t 2* ) D

D=0.188+0.313r/H

Where
t 2* = Reduced time
U 2* = Reduced gas velocity
T2* = Change in reduced gas temperature
= Fire intensity coefficient kW/s2

t *f = Reduced arrival time of heat front at point r/H, s

Base on the these equations, the sprinkler response time for the scenarios are
estimated after the fire has started as follows:

-9-
Parameters:
Ambient temperature=22oC
Refer to existing semi-recess sprinklers having RTI=50 m1/2s1/2 and operating
temperature 68oC
Take:
cp=1.02 kJ/kgK
=1.2 kg/m3
=0.0471 (fast fire)
Using simple spreadsheet arrangement, sprinkler response time is determined the
sprinkler would be activated about 130 sec after the fire has started.

-10-
4. Analysis of Smoke Control Systems (ASCOS)
The computer program provides a means to calculate the airflows and pressure
differences throughout a building in which a smoke control system is operating.
The program ASCOS was published previously (Klote 1982). The program is the
public domain and is available from the National Institute of Standards and
Technologys Fire Research Web site. The program has been designed to
minimize the information supplied by the use and still maintain a high level of
generality in the model. The output consists of the pressure differences across all
of the buildings as well as the flows and pressures throughout the building.

In IFC II, air from outside the building was introduced by mechanical
pressurization system into 5 zones of 20 numbers of staircases. The program allows
simulation of staircases pressurization including necessary overpressure relief path .
The staircase pressurization of Zone 2 of IFC II shall be simulated by ASCOS to
determine the airflow network and compared with existing data in next chapter.

-11-
5. Building Geometry
1. Setting of FDS Geometry
The mathematical model can be used to simulate buoyant airflow caused by fire.
The zone 2 has chosen for simulation by FDS, as it is the most typical office zone
and with the larger height different. The physical geometrical size of the 2nd
zone in the building are 96m in high, the width and depth are both 48m
approximately. 22 typical office floors in between 2 refuge floors. The average
headroom of each floor about 4.1 meter. There are opening in each primary face
of refuge floors. The opening about 24m width x 2m height.

a. Construction of FDS Geometry

FDS Geometry plan view Physical Plan View

-12-
FDS Geometry (zone 2) Physical Geometry

-13-
b. Stretching the Grid:
In view of the dimensions of the refuge floor R1, 8/F, 30/F, 31/F, 32F and refuge
floor R2 are relatively small in comparison with the size of the building. In the
simulation, a non-uniform grid has been used to save the computation effort. The
whole computational domain is divided into 110,592 control cells. Stretching the
grid could provide fine grid and accuracy calculation for the captioned areas. In this
model, there are 22 typical floors in between 2 refuge floors. As to simulate 3
consecutive floors plus 1 main exit door in open door operation as per specified in
BS5588:Part4 and HKCOP requirement, then Refuge R1, 8/F, 30/F, 31/F, 32F and
Refuge 2 floor has chosen for fine grid and coarse grid for 9/F to 29/F.
By default the grid cells that fill the computational domain are uniform in size.
However, it is possible to specify that the cells be non-uniform in one or two of the
three coordinate directions. For a given coordinate direction, x, y or z, a function can
be prescribed that maps the uniformly-spaced computational grid to a non-uniformly
spaced physical grid. Take the x direction as an example. A function x = f ( ) will
map the uniformly-spaced Computational Coordinate (CC) (XBAR0 XBAR)
to the Physical Coordinate (PC) (XBAR0 x XBAR). The function has three
mandatory constraints: it must be monotonic, it must map XBAR0 to XBAR0, and it
must map XBAR to XBAR. The default transformation function is f ( ) =
(uniform grid). If uniform gridding is desired in the x direction, then nothing need
be specified, and no &TRNX lines should be written. The same is true for the y and
z directions.
The transformation functions is a piecewise linear function. Figure gives
arrangement of a piecewise linear transformation, which applied to the y coordinate
direction. The graph indicates how the uniformly-spaced computational grid
(horizontal axis) is mapped to the non-uniformly-spaced physical grid (vertical axis).
In this case, the function is made up of straight line segments connecting
user-prescribed points (CC,PC). Note that the points should be given in increasing
order. The parameters used in this project are:
&TRNY CC=16,PC=8 / represents R1 to 8/F
&TRNY CC=17,PC=40 / represents 9/F to 19/F
&TRNY CC=18,PC=80 / represents 20/F to 22/F
&TRNY CC=92,PC=92 / represents R2/F

The parameter CC refers to the Computational Coordinate, located on the horizontal

axis; PC is the Physical Coordinate, located on the vertical axis. In this project, the
uniformly-spaced grid cells between 0 and 8 on the horizontal axis are mapped to
smaller, but still uniformly-spaced, cells on the vertical axis between 0 and 16. Then
the 1st segment between 16 and 17 on the horizontal axis is mapped to a segment

-14-
between 8 and 40 on the vertical axis., the 2nd segment between 17 and 18 on the
horizontal axis is mapped to a segment between 40and 80 on the vertical axis, the 3rd
segment between 17 and 80 on the horizontal axis is mapped to a segment between
40 and 80 on the vertical axis. Finally, the segment between 80 and 92 on the
horizontal axis is mapped to the segment between 18 and 92 on the vertical axis. The
slopes of the line segments indicate whether the grid is being stretched (slopes
greater than 1) or shrunk (slopes less than 1). The tricky part about this process is
that we usually has a desired shrinking/stretching strategy for the physical coordinate
(vertical axis), and must work backwards to determine what the corresponding
points are in computational space (horizontal axis).

Non-uniform grid geometry

-15-
 c. Features of geometry

Refuge 2

32/F
31/F
30/F

Exit doors
Exit doors Extract fan

Refuge 8
Refuge 1

Refuge floor Refuge floor

Opening Opening

-16-
 Refuge floor opening at R2

Extraction Inlet
(typical floor only)

Pressurization shaft Pressurization shaft

Stair 3 Stair 4

Refuge floor opening Refuge floor opening

Stair 1 Stair 2

Pressurization shaft Pressurization shaft

Extraction Inlet
(typical floor only)
Refuge floor opening at R2

Plan Layout Geometry (Top view)

-17-
 North

Refuge floor opening at R2

Wind pressure

Wind pressure
obstruction
Stair 4
Wind pressure
obstruction

Stair 2
Refuge floor opening Wind
pressure

Stair 1 Refuge floor opening

Wind pressure Stair 2

obstruction
Wind pressure
Refuge 1
obstruction

Refuge floor opening at R2

Plan Layout Geometry (bottom view)

-18-
 Exit doors (closed) Refuge 2
32/F
31/F
Exit doors (open)
30/F

External
Curtain Wall

Pressurization Vent
Pressurization Vent
at typical floors, except
at typical floors, except
Refuge 1& 2
Refuge 1& 2

9/F
8/F
Exit doors (open) Refuge 1

Section View

-19-
 11/F

Pressure outlets 10/F

in staircase 9/F

8/F

By-pass vent (simulated Refuge 1

in 4 staircases)

Pressurization fan (simulated

in 4 staircases)

Arrangement to simulate
pressurization operation

-20-
6. Experimental Case Study
A. Parameters
The general parameters for the experiment are setting as follows:
i. Heat release Rate:
In order to ensure high level of life safety and with reference to table 10, as
suggested in the DD:240 Part1:1997 , the fire load for office average 420 MJ/m2
and fractile (95%) at 760 MJ/m2. A 1000 kW fire is proposed to these
experiments.

ii.Fire growth:
Reference to NFPA 204M and NFPA 92B, Fast fire growth rate based on t2 fire.

iii. Building Wind load:

Reference to Hong Kong Observatory Reports and site measurement at R1
refuge floor, 5 m/s on East and North side were adopted into the experiment.

iv. Time of egress:

Reference existing building reports, the total evacuation per floor is less than 1
minute. As in this experiment, refer CFASTs result and 50% additional safety
factor. Therefore, total evacuation scheduled less than 108 seconds, and all the 3
consecutive floors exit door to be closed after 108 seconds.

v. Seat of fire:
One fire incident is assumed to happen in whole building, the arson and
vandalism are not included to encounter in this experiment. The seat of fire is
schedule at Southwest side of 31/F. The occupants of 30/F, 31/F and 32/F is
scheduled to evacuate after start of fire.

vi. Pressurization equipment

The flow rate calculation of pressurization fan and extraction fan are based on
existing data and summarized as follows:
Pressurization fan flow rate: 10.86 m/s
Extraction fan flow rate : 18 m/s
(Details of existing calculations are attached in appendix B)

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7. Scenario:

Six scenario shall be simulated by FDS program as follows:

Scenario 1 (fast fire):

a. No staircase pressurization
b. With sprinkler protection
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (v) in captioned Parameter Section

Scenario 2 (fast fire):

a. No staircase pressurization
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (v) in captioned Parameter Section

Scenario 3 (fast fire):

a. With staircases pressurization operated
b. With sprinkler protection
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (vi) in captioned Parameter Section

Scenario 4 (fast fire):

a. With staircases pressurization operated
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure.
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (vi) in captioned Parameter Section

Scenario 5 (medium fire):

a. No staircase pressurization
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (v) in captioned Parameter Section

Scenario 6 (medium fire):

a. With staircases pressurization operated
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure.
c. Other data referred to item (i) to (vi) in captioned Parameter Section

-22-
8 Results and Analysis
A fire with 1000kW is simulated at Southwest corner of the office
area 31/F. The duration of simulations have proceeded for 600sec.
The smoke movement spread through the area. All doors are
self-closing doors and the smoke could be not spread into stairs.

Refuge 2
32/F
31/F
30/F
Air flow from staircase
(red particle)

Seat of fire (2m x 2m)

100 sec

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

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Scenario 1 (fast t-square fire):
a. No staircase pressurization
b. With sprinkler protected

32/F flow in staircase

0.25

0.20
Small amount of
smoke enters into
air flow in m/s

0.15 Stair 1
Stair 2
Stair 3
0.10 Stair 4

0.05

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

31/F flow in staircase

0.70

0.60
Smoke enters into
0.50
staircases
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.40
Stair 2
Stair 3
0.30
Stair 4
0.20

0.10

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-24-
Scenario 1 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

30/F flow in staircase

0.30

0.25

Small amount of smoke

0.20
entered into office
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
Stair 2
0.15
Stair 3
Stair 4
0.10

0.05

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

0.25

0.20 Small amount of air

movement fluctuated at R1.
Air flow in m/s

0.15 Stair 1
Stair 2
Stair 3
0.10 Stair 4

0.05

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-25-
Scenario 1 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Stair 3 Stair 1

Smoke enter into staircase

100 sec

All doors closed

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-26-
Scenario 1 (fast t-square fire): (contd)
Smoke movement
direction

4 sprinklers operated

-27-
Scenario 1 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate:

Heat Release Rate

4000.00

3500.00

3000.00

2500.00
kW

2000.00 HRR

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

As no staircase pressurization and after 108 sec all doors are closed.
The fire growth up to 760kw/m2 at 150 sec and controlled by
sprinkler system . At early stage, small amount of wind draft enter to
staircases area before the doors closed. No major event affected to the
staircases operation.

-28-
Scenario 2 (fast t-square fire):
a. No staircase pressurization
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure

32/F flow in staircase

0.18

0.16
Minor air flow to occupied area
0.14

0.12
air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.10 Stair 2
0.08 Stair 3
Stair 4
0.06
Minor air flow to occupied area
0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

31/F flow in staircase

0.35
Medium air flow to staircases
0.30
Air flow fluctuated at staircases
0.25
entrance
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.20
Stair 2

0.15 Stair 3
Stair 4
0.10

0.05

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-29-
Scenario 2 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

30/F flow in staircase

0.18

0.16
Minor air flow to occupied area
0.14

0.12
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.10 Stair 2
0.08 Stair 3
Stair 4
0.06

0.04
Minor air flow to occupied area
0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

0.12

Minor air flow in staircase

0.10

0.08
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
Stair 2
0.06
Stair 3
Stair 4
0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-30-
Scenario 2 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Stair 3 Stair 1

100 sec

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-31-
 Scenario 2 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Seat of fire
Exit door
closed

Smoke
particle

Full of
smoke

-32-
Scenario 2 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate

Heat Release Rate

5000.00

4500.00

4000.00

3500.00

3000.00
kW

2500.00 HRR

2000.00

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

At 100sec, smoke spread into all staircases and stop spreading after
all the door closed at 108sec, air movement increased at entrance of
exit doors. This scenario indicated the smoke would spread into the
staircases if the exit doors are opened. Eventually, if the exit doors
could not be closed, hazardous smoke would harmful to evacuate
occupants or team of rescues.

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Scenario 3 (fast t-square fire):
a. With staircases pressurization operated
b. With sprinkler protection

3 2/F flow in staircase

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50
air flow in m/s

3.00 Stair 1
Stair 2
2.50
Stair 3
2.00 Stair 4
1.50 Strong air flow into office
1.00 area from staircases
0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

31/F flow in staircase

8.00

7.00

Strong air flow into office

6.00
area from staircases
5.00
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
Stair 2
4.00
Stair 3
Stair 4
3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-34-
Scenario 3 (fast t-square fire):

30/F flow in staircase

4.50

4.00

3.50
Air flow to office floor from
3.00
staircase 4
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
2.50
Stair 2

2.00 Stair 3
Stair 4
1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50
Air flow in m/s

3.00 Stair 1
Air flow to refuge floor Stair 2
2.50
Stair 3
2.00 from staircase Stair 4
1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-35-
Scenario 3 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Strong air flow into fire incident office

at early stage

100 sec

200 sec
300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-36-
 Scenario 3 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Air egress from staircase

100 sec 200 sec

R1 refuge floor air movement

270~315 ppm CO

Seat of fire Seat of fire

Sprinkler operated

100 sec 200 sec

31/F office fire incidence floor air and smoke movement

with CO concentration

-37-
Scenario 3 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate

Heat Release Rate

4500.00

4000.00

3500.00

3000.00

2500.00
kW

HRR
2000.00

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

The staircase pressurization operated during fire incident, the

extraction fan also started simultaneously. The strong air draft flows
into office and avoid smoke spread into staircases when occupants
are evacuating. Sprinkler operated at 130 seconds after started of fire.
The fire size is under controlled and maintained at 700kW/m2.

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Scenario 4 (fast t-square fire):
With staircases pressurization operated
a. Assume sprinkler protection failure.

3 2/F flow in staircase

2.50

2.00

Some strong air flow at stair 4

air flow in m/s

1.50 Stair 1
Stair 2
Stair 3
1.00 Stair 4

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

31/F flow in staircase

3.00
Strong air flow at stair 4
2.50

2.00 Strong air flow into fire incident office

Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
at early stage Stair 2
1.50
Stair 3
Stair 4
1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-39-
Scenario 4 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

30/F flow in staircase

2.50

2.00

Strong air flow in stair 4

Air flow in m/s

1.50 Stair 1
Stair 2
Stair 3
1.00 Stair 4

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

3.00

2.50

2.00
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
Air flow to refuge floor Stair 2
1.50
from staircases. Stair 3
Stair 4
1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-40-
Scenario 4 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Strong air flow into fire incident office

at early stage

100 sec

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-41-
Scenario 4 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

-42-
Scenario 4 (fast t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate:

Heat Release Rate

6000.00

5000.00

4000.00
kW

3000.00 HRR

2000.00

1000.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

The staircase pressurization operated during fire incident, the

extraction fan also started simultaneously. The strong air draft flows
into office and avoid smoke spread into staircases when occupants
are evacuating. Assume sprinkler failure, the fire growth up to
1000kW at 150 sec. The pressure increases in 31/F and becomes
positive pressure, smoke would be spread into staircases due to the
pressure different.

-43-
Scenario 5 (medium t-square fire):
a. No staircase pressurization
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure

3 2/F flow in staircase

0.18

0.16

0.14 Small amount of air flow built up in

0.12 staircase to tenant floors.
air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.10
Stair 2
0.08 Stair 3
Stair 4
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

31/F flow in staircase

0.35

0.30

0.25
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.20
Stair 2
Stair 3
0.15
Stair 4

0.10

0.05

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-44-
Scenario 5 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

30/F flow in staircase

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
0.10 Stair 2
0.08 Stair 3
Stair 4
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

0.12

0.10

0.08
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
Stair 2
0.06
Stair 3
Stair 4
0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-45-
Scenario 5 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

Small amount of air flow into fire

incident office at early stage

100 sec

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-46-
Scenario 5 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

-47-
Scenario 5 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate

Heat Release Rate

6000.00

5000.00

4000.00
kW

3000.00 HRR

2000.00

1000.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

Assume sprinkler failure, the fire growth up to 1000kW at 270 sec.

The pressure increases in 31/F and becomes positive pressure; smoke
would be slightly spread into staircases due to the pressure different.

-48-
Scenario 6 (medium t-square fire):
a. With staircases pressurization operated
b. Assume sprinkler protection failure.

3 2/F flow in staircase

6.00

5.00

4.00
air flow in m/s

3.00 Stair 1
Stair 2
Stair 3
2.00
Stair 4

1.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00

-1.00
Time in sec

3 1/F flow in staircase

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
4.00
Stair 2
3.00 Stair 3
Stair 4
2.00

1.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
-1.00
Time in sec

-49-
Scenario 6 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

30/F flow in staircase

5.00

4.50

4.00
Higher pressure build up in stair 4
3.50 and other maintained not less than
3.00 0.75m/s face velocity to avoid
Air flow in m/s

Stair 1
2.50 ingress of smoke. Stair 2
2.00 Stair 3
Stair 4
1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
-0.50
Time in sec

R1 air flow in staircase

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50
Air flow in m/s

3.00 Stair 1
Stair 2
2.50
Higher pressure build up in stairs Stair 3
2.00 Stair 4
and flow out from staircase to
1.50
refuge area.
1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in sec

-50-
Scenario 6 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

Scheduled amount of air flow into fire

incident office at early stage to avoid
ingress of smoke to stairs

100 sec

200 sec 300 sec

400 sec 500 sec

-51-
Scenario 6 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

-52-
Scenario 6 (medium t-square fire): (contd)

Heat Release Rate

Heat Release Rate

6000.00

5000.00

4000.00
kW

3000.00 HRR

2000.00

1000.00

0.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
Time in Second

The staircase pressurization operated during fire incident, the

extraction fan also started simultaneously. The strong air draft flows
into office and avoid smoke spread into staircases when occupants
are evacuating. Assume sprinkler failure, the fire growth up to
1000kW at 270 sec. The pressure increases in staircase and becomes
positive pressure with pressure different not less than 50pa, smoke
would no be spread into staircases due to the pressure different.

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9. Conclusion and Recommendation

9.1 Conclusion:

There are 4 scenarios simulated by FDS program and investigated as

following:

Scenario 1, 2, 3 and 4
Fast t-square fire Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario
1 2 3 4
Staircase pressurization No No Yes Yes
Sprinkler protection No Yes No Yes
Maximum fire size 1000kW 760kW 1000kW 760kW
Smoke possible enter Small Small No No
into staircase during exit amount amount
door opened

Scenario 5 and 6
Medium t-square fire Scenario 5 Scenario 6
Staircase pressurization No Yes
Sprinkler protection No No
Maximum fire size 1000kW 1000kW
Smoke possible enter into Small amount Small amount
staircase during exit door
opened

-54-
With reference to the scenarios results simulated by FDS program.
The Scenario 1 and 2 were under a fast t-square fire, without staircase
pressurization system when they were under sprinkler protected and
sprinkler failure conditions respectively. In both cases, FDS has
simulated that only small amount of smoke would be penetrated to
staircases, it indicated that even the sprinkler system has failure due
to unexpected reason, the environment in staircases were in fair
condition and would be safe for occupants evacuate or rescue team to
proceed fire extinguishing. Therefore, it has investigated that in
accordance to prescriptive code, it could be provided adequate safety
to building even not provided staircase pressurization.

In Scenario 3 and 4 were under a fast t-square fire, with addition

staircases pressurization system when they were under sprinkler
protected and sprinkler failure conditions respectively. The scenario
have determined that the occupants could evacuate under ultimate
condition without any smoke enter to staircases. Rescue team could
proceed their work in extreme safety and clear condition in staircases
and approach to fire accident floor.

In Scenario 5 and 6 were under a medium t-square fire without

staircase pressurization system and assume sprinkler system has
failure. As the fire growth to 1000kW nearly 270 sec. In normal
environment, all occupants should be total evacuated base on 4
numbers of staircases. This determined that no significant of smoke
was penetrated into staircase in early stage of fire growth. A safe
staircases condition would be maintained for occupants and rescue
team for evacuation and fire fighting.

For IFC II , a super high-rise building, the staircase pressurization has

been provided in addition to prescriptive code. It totally improved the
life safety to occupants and provided ultimate safety staircase to
rescue team to proceed fire fighting and rescue services. The four
Refuge floors incorporated with four safety staircases have provided
greatest confidence to occupant to work in super high-rise building
without any afraid to fire incidence.

Lastly, it should be note that the wind load and stack effect were
created in different wind profiles and temperature different in

-55-
summer and winter, also piston effect by lift traveling, the reliability
of excess pressure relief system etc., they would affect the actual
condition and provided unexpected results. Even IFC II provided
anti-wind obstruction at refuge floors to solve the wind load entering
to staircases in Refuge floor. The others critical factors are still affect
the smoke movement in the building and waiting to solve definitely

-56-
9.2 Recommendation:
In light of the evaluation of this paper, the increase number of
staircases and staircase pressurization could be provided an
ultimately safety environment to occupants especially in super
highrise building. After the incident 911 happened in USA , some
people still have afraid to work in super highrise building. Therefore,
enhanced passive and active fire protection could give confidence
and ultimate safety to people for working in super highrise building.

Finally for staircase pressurization, it should be noted that as the

pressure built-up in staircases should be maintained by a positive
pressure to avoid the ingress of smoke, but incorrect or excesses
pressure could provide a thrust that let the exit door could not be
opened during evacuation. Therefore, necessary measures must be
provided such as adequate pressure relief paths, extraction system at
staircases, protect lobbies, public corridors etc so that to provide
fail-safe condition for any occupants to evacuate.

-57-
9.3 For extend research.
Due the my limited knowledge to the powerfully function of FDS
program, ASCOS program and also the limitation of my computer
hardware, in extend research it is possible to simulate more scenarios
of different seat of fires, fully furniture office criteria, unexpected
failure of one or more than one staircase pressurization system fan
failure, overpressure relief failure etc. More accuracy results would
be analysis to obtain better evaluation to investigate in smoke
movement in office building.

Further the engineering approach is possible to incorporate in

building design to obtain optimize safety to complied with statutory
and actual requirement with the helping of computer analysis.

-58-
10 List of Reference:

- Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 3)- User Guide, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce
- Users Guide for Smokeview Version 2-A Tool for Visualizing Fire Dynamics
Simulation Data, National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S.
Department of Commerce
- Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 3)- Technical Reference Guide, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce
- DD240: Part1 1997, Fire safety engineering in buildings Part1. Guide to the
application of fire safety engineering principles, British Standard Institute
- CIBSE Guide E, Fire Engineering, The Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers
- The SFPE Handbook Fire Protection Engineering, Society of Fire Protection
Association 3rd Edition
- Design of Smoke Management System, John H. Klote, James A. Milke,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc
- Pedestrian Planning and design, John J. Fruin, Ph.D., Elevator World, Inc.
- An Introduction to Fire Dynamics 2nd Edition, Dougal Drysdale, John Wiley & Sons
- Smoke Movement & Control in High-rise Buildings, George T. Tamura, NFPA
- Smoke Control, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc
- Enclosure Fire Dynamics, Bjorn Karlsson, James Quintiere, CRC Press
- Air Moving System and Fire Protection NISTIR 5227, John H. Klote, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce
- Simulation of The Dynamics of the Fire 314 Road NE, Washing Road NE,
Washington D.C., May 30, 1999, NISTIR 6510, Daniel Madrzykowshi and
Robert L. Vettori, National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S.
Department of Commerce
- Design of Smoke Control Systems for Areas of Refuge
- A CFD Study of Buoyancy Effects on Smoke Spread in a Refuge Floor of a
High-rise Building, S.M.Lo, K.K. Yuen and W.Z.Lu, D.H.Chen, Journal of Fire
Science, Vol. 20-November 2002
- Smoke control methods in enclosed shopping complexes of one or more storeys:
a design summary, H P Morgan, Fire Research Station
- Codes of Practices of Minimum Fire Installation, June 1998 , Hong Kong
Special Administration Region
- British Standard BS 5588:Part 4:1978,Fire precautions in the design and
construction of building, Part 4. Code of practice for smoke control in

-59-
 protected escape routes using pressurization, British Standard Institute
- Code of Practice for the Provision of Means of Escape in Case of Fire 1996,
Buildings Department, Hong Kong
- Code of Practice for Means of Access for Firefighting and Rescue 1995,
Buildings Department, Hong Kong
- Code of Practice for Fire Resisting Construction 1996, Buildings Department,
Hong Kong
- Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations, The Loss Prevention Council

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