Sinusoidal steady-state analysis

In the last chapter, we learned that the Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws
are applicable to ac circuits
In this chapter, we will see that nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenins
theorem, Nortons theorem, superposition and source transformations can
be applied to ac circuits as well
Analyzing ac circuits requires three steps:
1. Transform the circuit to phasor domain
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis,
superposition, etc)
3. Transform the resulting phasor back to time domain
Step 1 is not necessary if the problem is specified in phasor domain
Step 2 is performed in the same manner as dc circuit except that complex
numbers are involved
Step 3 is straightforward as we have done in the last chapter

Nodal and mesh analyses

The basis of nodal and mesh analyses are KCL and KVL respectively
Since KCL and KVL are valid for phasors, as we have seen in last chapter,
we can analyze ac circuits by nodal and mesh analyses, just like the dc
circuits
Example: Find ix in the circuit shown using nodal analysis
We first convert the circuit to phasor domain
20 cos 4t 200 with 4rad/s
1H j L j 4
0.5H j L j 2
1
0.1F j 2.5
jC
Thus the phasor domain circuit is shown at the right
Apply KCL at node 1
20 V1 V1 V V2
1
10 j 2.5 j4
2
 V V2 V2
Applying KCL at node 2, we have 2I x 1
j4 j2
But Ix=V1/-j2.5. Substituting this gives
2V1 V1 V2 V2

j 2.5 j4 j2
Simplifying the equations and put them into matrix form:
1 j1.5 j 2.5 V1 20

11
15 V2 0
We obtain the determinants as
1 j1.5 j 2.5 20 j 2.5 1 j1.5 20
15 j 5, 1 300, 2 220
11 15 0 15 11 0
Therefore,
300 220
V1 1 18.9718.43 , V2 2 13.91198.3
15 j 5 15 j 5
The current Ix is given by
V1 18.9718.43
Ix 7.59108.4 A
j 2.5 2.5 90

Transforming this back into time domain gives ix=7.59cos(4t+108.4o)

Example: Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit using nodal analysis.

Because there is a voltage source between node 1
and 2, the concept of supernode is needed,
as shown in the next figure
Note that the circuit elements are already in
phasor domain, so we dont need to convert them
Applying KCL at the supernode gives
V V V
3 1 2 2 36 j 4V1 (1 2 j )V2
j 3 j 6 12
Due to the voltage source connected between nodes
1 and 2, we have V1 = V2 + 1045o
Substituting the second equation into the first one results in
36 40135 (1 2 j )V2 V2 31.41 87.18 V
And V1 is given by V1 = V2 + 1045o = 25.78-70.48o

4
 Example: Determine Io using mesh analysis.
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
(8 j10 j 2)I1 ( j 2)I 2 j10I3 0
For mesh 2,
(4 j 2 j 2)I 2 ( j 2)I1 ( j 2)I3 2090 0
For mesh 3, we have I3=5. Substituting this into the above two equations gives
8 j8 j 2 I1 j 50
j 2 4 j 4 I j 30
2
The determinants are
8 j8 j2
32(1 j )(1 j ) 4 68,
j2 4 j4
8 j8 j 50
2 340 j 240 416.17 35.22
j2 j 30
The desired current is
416.17 35.22
I o I 2 2 6.12 35.22 6.12144.78
68
5

Example: Solve for Vo in the circuit using mesh analysis

First notice that there are four meshes in the circuit
But there is a current source in between two meshes,
a supermesh is formed
The circuit with mesh currents is shown in the next
figure
For mesh 1, KVL gives
10 (8 j 2)I1 ( j 2)I 2 8I3 0
For mesh 2, I2=-3
For the supermesh,
(8 j 4)I3 8I1 (6 j 5)I 4 j 5I 2 0
Due to the current source between meshes 3 and 4, we have I4=I3+4
Simplifying the equations and put them into matrix form, we have
8 j 2 j 2 8 0 I1 10
0
1 0 0 I 2 3

8 j 5 8 j 4 6 j 5 I3 0

0 0 1 1 I 4 4

6
 We can use MATLAB to solve the equation, using the following command:
>> A=[(8-j*2) j*2 -8 0; 0 1 0 0; -8 -j*5 (8-j*4) (6+j*5); 0 0 -1 1];
>> b=[10 -3 0 4].;
>> I=inv(A)*b
>> Vo=-2*j *(I(1)-I(2))
We will get the answer Vo=-7.2138 6.5655j
Of course, we can also solve the equations by elimination method

Superposition theorem
If an ac circuit contains only R, L, C, independent sources and linear
dependent sources, the superposition theorem also applies to ac circuits
The theorem becomes important if the circuit has sources operating at
different frequencies
In this case, since the impedances depend on frequency, we must have a
different phasor domain circuit for each frequency
The total response must be obtained by adding the individual response in
time domain
It is incorrect to try to add the responses in phasor domain
since the exponential factor ejt is implicit in sinusoidal analysis, and that
factor is different for different frequency
It would therefore not make sense to add responses at different frequencies
in the phasor domain

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 Example: Use superposition theorem to find Io
Note that this is the same circuit in the Example in
p.6
Let Io=Io+Io where Io and Io are due to the
voltage and current sources, respectively
To find Io, consider the circuit in Fig a)
Let Z be the parallel combination of j2 and 8+j10,
then j 2(8 j10)
Z 0.25 j 2.25
2 j 8 j10
And the current Io is
j 20 j 20
I o' 2.353 j 2.353
4 j 2 Z 4.25 j 4.25
To get Io, consider the circuit in Fig b). For mesh
1, we have
(8 j8)I1 j10I3 j 2I 2 0 (1)
For mesh 2, we have
(4 j 4)I 2 j 2I1 j 2I3 0 (2)
For mesh 3, we have I3=5 (3)

Solving for I2 gives I2=2.647-j1.176

Current Io = - I2 = -2.647+j1.176
Therefore, Io = Io+Io = -5+j3.529 = 6.12144.78o
Note that applying the superposition theorem is not the best way to solve this
problem, the work involved is twice as the direct approach

Example: Find vo of the circuit using the superposition theorem

-- Note that in this example, three sources are at
different frequencies
-- We use superposition to break the problem
into three single frequency problems
-- Let vo=v1+v2+v3 where v1 is due to the 5V dc source,
v2 is due to the 10cos2t V source, and v3 is due to the 2sin5t A source
-- To find v1, we set to zero all sources except the 5V dc source. We recall that at
steady state, a capacitor is an open circuit to dc while an inductor is a short circuit to
dc. We have the equivalent circuit shown in Fig a)
-- By voltage division,
1
v1 (5) 1V
1 4

10
 To find v2, we set to zero both the 5V source and the 2sin5t current source and
transform the circuit to the phasor domain
10 cos 2t 100 , with 2rad/s
2H j L j 4
0.1F 1/ jC - j 5
The equivalent circuit is now shown in Fig b)
Let Z = -j5 || 4 = (-j54) / (4 -j5) = 2.439 - j1.951
By voltage division,
1 10
V2 (100 ) 2.498 30.79
1 j4 Z 3.439 j 2.049

In time domain, v2=2.498cos(2t-30.79o) V

To obtain v3, we set the voltages sources to zero and transform what is left to the
phasor domain
2sin 5t 2 90 , with 5rad/s
2H j L j10
0.1F 1/ jC - j 2
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig c)

11

j2 4
Let Z1 j 2 || 4 0.8 j1.6
42 j
By current division,
j10
I1 (2 90 )A
j10 1 Z1
j10
V3 I1 1 (2 j ) 2.328 80 V
1.8 j8.4
In time domain, v3=2.33cos(5t-80o)V
Therefore, vo(t) = -1+ 2.498cos(2t-30.79o) + 2.33cos(5t-80o) V

12
 Source transformation
Source transformation in phasor domain involves
transforming a voltage source in series with an
impedance to a current source in parallel with an
impedance, or vice versa
The relationship between Vs and Is is Vs= ZsIs
Example: Calculate Vx in the figure shown using
the method of source transformation
We transform the voltage source to a current
source and obtain the circuit in Fig a) where
20 90
Is 4 90 j 4A
5
The parallel combination of 5 resistance and
(3+j4) impedance gives
5(3 j 4)
Z1 2.5 j1.25
8 j4
Converting the current source to a voltage source
yields the circuit in Fig b) 13

The converted voltage source voltage should be

Vs I s Z1 j 4(2.5 j1.25) 5 j10V
By voltage division,
10
Vx (5 j10) 5.519 28 V
10 2.5 j1.25 4 j13

14
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
Thevenins and Nortons theorems are applied to ac circuits in the same way
as they are to dc circuits
The only additional effort arises from the need to manipulate complex
numbers

Keep in mind that the two equivalent circuits are related as

VTH Z N I N , ZTH Z N

15

Example: Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals

a-b of the circuit shown
We find ZTH by setting the voltage source to zero as
shown in Fig a)
The 8 resistor is in parallel with the j6 reactance, so
their combination gives
j6 8
Z1 j 6 || 8 2.88 j 3.84
8 j6
Similarly, the 4 resistor is in parallel with the j12
reactance, and their combination gives
j12 4
Z 2 4 || j12 3.6 j1.2
4 j12
The Thevenin impedance is ZTH=Z1+Z2=6.48-j2.64
To find VTH, consider the circuit in Fig b)
Current I1 and I2 are obtained as
12075 12075
I1 A, I2 A
8 j6 4 j12
Applying KVL around loop bcdeab gives VTH 4I 2 ( j 6)I1 0
16
 Putting the expressions of I1 and I2 into the above equation, we have
48075 720(75 90 )
VTH 4I 2 j 6I1
4 j12 8 j6
37.953.43 72201.87
28.936 j 24.55
37.95220.31

Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit shown at terminals a-

b
To find VTH, refer to Fig a), applying KCL
at node 1 gives 15=Io+0.5Io => Io=10A
Applying KVL to the loop on the right-hand
side, we obtain
I o (2 j 4) 0.5I o (4 j 3) VTH 0
VTH 10(2 j 4) 5(4 j3) j 55
55 90

17

To find ZTH, we remove the independent sources.

Due to the presence of the dependent current
source, we connect a Is=3A current source to
terminals a-b as shown in Fig b)
At the node marked Vs, KCL gives
3 I o 0.5I o I o 2A
Applying KVL to the outer loop in Fig b) gives Vs I o (4 j 3 2 j 4) 2(6 j )
Thus, the Thevenin impedance is
V 2(6 j )
ZTH s 4 j 0.6667
Is 3

Example: Obtain current Io in the figure using Nortons theorem.

-- Our first objective is to find the Norton equivalent at
terminals a-b
-- ZN is found in the same way as ZTH
-- We set all the independent sources to zero as shown
in Fig a) in the next slide

18
 As evident from the figure, the (8-j2) and (10+j4)
impedances are short-circuited
Thus, ZN = 5
To get IN , we short-circuit terminals a-b as shown in
Fig b) below
Applying mesh analysis (notice that mesh 2 and 3
form a supermesh), we have for mesh 1,
j 40 (18 j 2)I1 (8 j 2)I 2 (10 j 4)I3 0 (1)
For the supermesh, we have
(13 j 2)I 2 (10 j 4)I3 (18 j 2)I1 0 (2)
At node a, we have I3=I2+3 (3)
Adding (1) and (2) gives j 40 5I 2 0 I 2 j8
From (3), we have I3 = I2+3 = (3+j8)A
The Norton current is IN = I3 = (3+j8)A
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fig c)
By current division,
5 3 j8
Io IN 1.46538.48
5 20 j15 5 j3
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Op amp ac circuits
The three steps stated at the beginning of this chapter also apply to op amp
circuits
We will assume ideal op amps as usual
Example: Determine vo(t) for the op amp circuit shown in Fig a), if
vs=3cos1000tV
We first transform the circuit to the phasor domain
as shown in Fig b) below with Vs = 30o,
=1000rad/s
Applying KCL at node 1, we obtain
30 V1 V1 V1 0 V1 V0

10 j5 10 20
6 (5 j 4)V1 V0
At node 2, KCL gives
V1 0 0 V0
V1 jV0
10 j10

20
 With the above two equations, we obtain Vo=1.02959.04o
Hence, vo(t) = 1.029cos(1000t+59.04o) V

Example: Compute the closed-loop gain and phase shift for the circuit in the
figure below. Assume that R1=R2=10k, C1=2F, C2=1F and =200rad/s
The feedback and input impedances are calculated as
1 R2
Z f R2 ||
jC2 1 j R2C2
1 1 j R1C1
Zi R1
jC1 jC1
Since the circuit shown in the figure is an
inverting amplifier, the closed-loop gain is given by
Zf jC1R2
G
Zi (1 j R1C1 )(1 j R2C2 )
Substituting the given values of R1, R2, C1, C2 and , we obtain
j4
G 0.434130.6
(1 j 4)(1 j 2)
Thus, the closed-loop gain is 0.434 and the phase shift is 130.6o

21

Maximum power transfer in ac circuits

Recall that the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is given by
p(t)=v(t)i(t)
For an ac circuit, let the voltage and current at the terminals of an element is
v(t ) Vm cos(t v ), i (t ) I m cos(t i )
The instantaneous power is given by
p (t ) v(t )i (t ) Vm cos(t v ) I m cos(t i )
1 1
Vm I m cos(v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )
2 2
The average power is given by
1T 1 1 1T
P p (t )dt Vm I m cos(v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )dt
T0 2 2 T0
where T is the period of the sinusoidal signal
The first term will be constant and the second term equals zero
1
Therefore, P Vm I m cos(v i ) (1)
2
Note that p(t) is time varying while P is not 22
 On the other hand, v(t) and i(t) can be expressed in phasor domain:
V Vm v , I I m i
It turns out that
1 1 1
Re[VI* ] Vm I m Re[(v i )] Vm I m cos(v i ) P
2 2 2
1
Therefore, P can also computed using phasors P Re[VI* ]
2
Consider two special cases:
When v = i , this implies a purely resistive load R and
1 1 2 1 2
P Vm I m I m R I R
2 2 2
where |I|2 = I I*
When v - i = 90o , we have a purely reactive circuit and
1
P Vm I m cos 90 0
2
Summary: To compute the power dissipated in an impedance Z=R+jX, we can
use the formula P 1 I 2 R
2
23

Example: Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z=30-j70

when a voltage V=1200o is applied across it
The current through the impedance is
V 1200 1200
I 1.57666.8
Z 30 j 70 76.16 66.8
The average power is
1 2 1 2
P I R 1.576 30 37.25W
2 2

Question: For a given linear ac circuit connected to a load ZL as shown in

Fig a), what is the value of ZL would have the maximum
average power dissipated in ZL ?
Since every linear circuit can be represented by its
Thevenin equivalent circuit, we will use Fig b) to answer
this question

24
 Recall that in dc circuit, maximum power transfer occurs when RL=RTH
A good guess for the maximum power transfer in ac circuit would be
ZL=ZTH
We will show that the above guess is close but not completely correct
From Fig b) in the previous slide, the current through the load is
VTH VTH
I
ZTH Z L ( RTH jX TH ) ( RL jX L )

The average power delivered to the load is

1 2 | VTH |2 RL / 2
P | I | RL
2 ( RTH RL ) 2 ( X TH X L )2
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is
maximum
To do this, we set P/RL=0 and P/XL=0
2
P VTH RL ( X TH X L )
0 (1)
X L [( RTH RL )2 ( X TH X L )2 ]2
2
P V [( RTH RL )2 ( X TH X L )2 2 RL ( RTH RL )]
TH 0 (2)
RL 2[( RTH RL )2 ( X TH X L )2 ]2
25

From (1), we have XL = -XTH

2
From (2), we have RL RTH ( X TH X L )2
Because XL = -XTH, we have RL=RTH
Therefore, Z L RTH jX TH Z*TH
This is known as the maximum average power transfer theorem

Example: Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average

power drawn from the circuit shown. Furthermore, what is the maximum
average power?
First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load
terminals. To get ZTH, disabling the independent
source and we obtain the circuit in Fig a)
The equivalent impedance is given by
4(8 j 6)
ZTH j 5 4 || (8 j 6) j 5 2.933 j 4.467
4 8 j6
To find VTH, we have to find the open-circuit voltage
as shown in Fig b) in the next slide
26
 By voltage division, we have
8 j6
VTH (10) 7.454 10.3
4 8 j6

Therefore, for maximum power transfer,

*
Z L ZTH 2.933 j 4.467

The maximum average power is

2
1 VTH | VTH |2 (7.454)2
P RL 2.368W
2 ZTH Z L 8 RL 8(2.933)

27