State Spa
ace Modeling   1
1.1  Introducction 
The state variable
v appproach is a
powerful technique for the
analysis annd design of o control
systems. The analyysis and
design of thhe followinng systems
can be carrried using state space
method
1. Linear syystem
2. Non-lineear system
3. Time invvariant systeem
4. Time varrying system m
5. Multiplee input andd multiple
output system.
The state space analyysis is a
modern approach
a a
and also
easier for analysis
a usinng digital
computers. The convventional
method off analysis employs
the transfeer functionn of the
system.
The drawbbacks in thee transfer
function model
m and analysis
are,
1. Transferr function is i defined
under zero initial condditions.
2. Transsfer funcction
applicable to lineear time
invariant syystems.
3. Transferr function analysis
a is
restricted tot single input
i and
single outpput systems.
4. Doess not provide
informationn regardiing the
internal staate of the system.
Transfer Fuunction:
1. Inpuut
2. Outtput
State Spacee:
1. Inpuuts
2. Outtputs
3. Statte Variabless
 
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1.1.1 Oveerview
The use of
o transfer functions too representt linear, tim
me invariantt
systems is suitable when
w the model
m is givven in the innput-outputt
form and when the model
m order is low.
Models off real systemms are usuaally derivedd from physiical laws inn
terms of state
s variab
bles that corrrespond to identifiablee quantitiess
such as sttored energiies.
Such moddels are put in the state space form
m and can bee compactlyy
representeed in matrix
x notation.
One advaantage of the
t state-sppace form is that the effects off
nonzero initial condiitions on thhe system reesponse can
n be readilyy
investigatted.
In additioon, for hig gh-order syystems, thee state spacce form iss
preferablee because it is lesss susceptibble to num merical ill--
conditioniing than thee transfer fuunction form
m.
In contrasst to an inp
put-output transfer-funnction mod del, a state--
space moddel containss informatioon on the innternal statess.
Time-dom main controol design methods
m usinng state spaace modelss
are largelly based on
n utilizing the
t internall states as part of thee
design schheme.
In pole placement, a primary design
d technnique, the closed
c loopp
system pooles are placced at speciffic locationns in the z-pllane.
is If all the states are available for feedbacck control, the designn
reduces too the compuutation of a static feedbback-gain matrix.
m
If some of
o the statees are not measurablee, a state estimator orr
observer can
c be consstructed.
The separration princciple allowss for indepeendent commputation off
the full-sttate feedback-gain maatrix and thhe state-estiimator gainn
matrix.
The statee variable analysis caan be appllied for an ny type of
systems. The
T analysiis can be caarried with initial cond ditions and
can be carrried on muultiple input and multiple output sy
ystems.
In this method
m of analysis,
a it is not neccessary thatt the state
variables represent physical quantities of the sy ystem, but
variables that do not represent physical
p quaantities and
d those that
are neitheer measurab
ble nor obsservable maay be choseen as state
variables.
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1.2  State Mo
odel
1.2.1 Statte Space Fo
ormulation

The statee of a dynaamic system m is a minnimal set of o variabless

(known as a state varriables) succh that thee knowledg ge of thesee
variables at t = t 0 tog
gether with the knowledge of thee inputs forr
t ≥ t 0 , coompletely determines
d the behaviior of the system forr
t > t 0 . In another word,
w a set of variables which deescribes thee
system at any time in nstant are caalled state vvariables.

In the statte variable formulation

f n of a system
m, in generaal, a system
m
consists of
o m-inputss, p-outputs and n-statte variabless. The statee
space reprresentation of the systeem may be vvisualized as
a shown inn
Fig. 1.1.

States varriables = x1 (t ), x 2 (t ), x3 (t ).........x n (t )

Input variiables = u1 (t ), u 2 (t ), u 3 (t ).........u m (t )
Output vaariables = y1 (t ), y 2 (t ), y 3 (t )......... y p (t )

Fig. 1.1 Staate space reppresentationn of a system

m

The diffeerent variaables may be represeented by the

t vectorss
(column matrix)
m as shhown below
w.

The state variable rep presentationn can be arrranged in th he form of n

number of first orderr differential equations as shown below. b
dx1
= x&1 = f1 ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.........x n ; u1 , u 2 , u 3 ,.........u m )
dt
dx2
= x& 2 = f 2 ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.........x n ; u1 , u 2 , u 3 ,.........u m )
dt
M
dxn
= x& n = f n ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.........x n ; u1 , u 2 , u 3 ,.........u m ) (1.1)
dt
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The n numbers of differential equations may be written in vector
notation as

& (t ) = f (X(t ), U(t ) )

X (1.2)

The set of all possible values which the input vector U (t ) can
have (assume) at time forms the input space of the system.

Similarly, the set of all possible values which the output vector
Y (t ) can assume at time t forms the output space of the system
and the set of al possible values which the state vector X(t ) can
assume at time t forms the state space of the system.

1.2.2 State Space Model of Linear System

The state model of a system consists of the state equation and

output equation. The state equation of a system is a function of
state variables and inputs as defined by Eqn. (1.2).

For linear time invariant systems the first derivatives of state

variables can be expresses as a linear combination of state
variables and inputs.

x&1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + .........a1n x n + b11u1 + b12 u 2 + .........b1m u m

x& 2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + .........a 2 n x n + b21u1 + b22 u 2 + .........b2 m u m
M
x& n = a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 + .........a nn x n + bn1u1 + bn 2 u 2 + .........bnm u m
(1.3)
where the coefficients a ij and bij constants.

In the matrix form the above equations can be expressed as

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ a11 a12 LL a1n ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡b11 b12 LL b1m ⎤ ⎡ u1 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ ⎢a a 22 LL a 2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢b21 b22 LL b2 m ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ u 2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 21
⎢ x& 3 ⎥ = ⎢ a31 a32 LL a3n ⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ + ⎢b31 b32 LL b3m ⎥ ⎢ u 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢M⎥ ⎢ M M LL M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥ ⎢ M M LL M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥
⎢⎣ x& n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣a n1 an 2 LL a nn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣bn1 bn 2 LL bnm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣u m ⎥⎦

(1.4)

The matrix Eqn. (1.4) can also be written as

X& (t ) = AX(t ) + BU (t ) (1.5)

& (t ) = AX(t ) + BU (t ) is called the state equation of

The equation X
Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system.

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The output at any time, Y (t ) is the function of state variables and

inputs.

Y(t ) = f (X(t ), U(t ) ) (1.6)

Hence the output variables can be expressed as a linear

combination of state variables and inputs.

y1 = c11 x1 + c12 x 2 + .........c1n x n + d11u1 + d12 u 2 + .........d1m u m

y 2 = c 21 x1 + c 22 x 2 + .........c 2 n x n + d 21u1 + d 22 u 2 + .........d 2 m u m
M
y n = c n1 x1 + c n 2 x 2 + .........c nn x n + d n1u1 + d n 2 u 2 + .........d nm u m
(1.7)
where the coefficients c ij and d ij constants.

In the matrix form the above equations can be expressed as

⎡ y1 ⎤ ⎡ c11 a12 LL c1n ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ d11 d12 LL d1m ⎤ ⎡ u1 ⎤
⎢ y ⎥ ⎢c c 22 LL c 2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢ x 2 ⎥ ⎢⎢ d 21 d 22 LL d 2 m ⎥⎥ ⎢ u 2 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 21 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ y 3 ⎥ = ⎢ c31 c32 LL c3n ⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ + ⎢ d 31 d 32 LL d 3m ⎥ ⎢ u 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢M⎥ ⎢ M M LL M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥ ⎢ M M LL M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥
⎢⎣ y n ⎥⎦ ⎢c p1 c p 2 LL c pn ⎥ ⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦ ⎢d p1 d p 2 LL d pm ⎥ ⎢⎣u m ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
(1.8)

The matrix Eqn. (1.8) can also be written as

Y (t ) = CX(t ) + DU (t ) (1.9)

The equation Y (t ) = CX(t ) + DU (t ) is called the output equation

of Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system.

The state model of a system consists of state equation and output

equation. The state equation and output equation together called
as state model of the system.

Hence the state model of a linear time invariant system (LTI)

system is given by the following equations.

& (t ) = AX(t ) + BU (t ) State equation

X
Y (t ) = CX(t ) + DU (t ) Output equation

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1.3  State Dia
agram 
1.3.1 Elem
ments of Sttate Diagraam

State Diagrram: The pictoorial represeentation of the state m

model of thee system iss
1. Block Diagram called staate diagram
m. The statee diagram of the systtem can bee
2. Signal Flow Graph either in block
b diagraam form or in signal floow graph fo
orm.

The statee diagram describes

d thhe relationsships amonng the statee
variables and proviides physiccal interpretations off the statee
variables. The timee domain state s diagraam may be b obtainedd
directly frrom the diffferential eqquation govverning the system andd
this diagrram can be used for sim mulation off the system
m in analogg
computerss.

The s-dom main state diagram caan be obtaiined from thet transferr
function of the sysstem. The state diagram providees a directt
relation between
b tim
me domainn and s-doomain. (i.e.., the timee
domain equations
e caan be direcctly obtaineed from thee s-domainn
state diagrram).

The state diagram of

o a state model
m is coonstructed using
u threee
basic elem
ments Scalarr, Adder and Integratorr.

Scalar: The
T scalar iss used to muultiply a siggnal by a co
onstant. Thee
input signnal x(t ) is multiplied
m b the scalaar a to give the output,,
by
ax(t ) .

Adder: The
T adder is used to addd two or moore signals. The outputt
of the addder is the sum of incom
ming signals.

Integratoor: The inteegrator is used

u to integrate the siignal. Theyy
are used tot integratee the derivaatives of staate variabless to get thee
state variaables. The initial
i conditions of the state variable can bee
added by using an ad dder after inntegrator.

The time domain an nd s-domainn elements of block diagram

d aree
shown in Fig. 1.2. The
T time doomain and s-domain elements
e off
signal flow
w graph aree shown in Fig.
F 1.3.

Fig. 1.2: Elementss of Block D

Diagram
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Fig. 1.3: Elements of

o Signal Fllow Graph

1.3.1 Mod k Diagram and Signal Flow Gra

del of Block aph

The blockk time domaain diagram m representaation of the state modell

is shown in Fig 1.4 4. and the time domaain signal flow graphh
representaation of the system is shown in Figg 1.5.

The state model

m of liinear time
invariant syystem is givven by the
equations.

X& (t ) = AX(t ) + BU (t )
Fig. 1.4: Block Diaagram of Staate Model
State equattion

Y (t ) = CX(t ) + DU (t )
Output equuation

Fig. 1.5: Signal

S Flow
w Graph of S
State Modell

In state space
s modeeling, n-nuumbers of ffirst order differentiall
d for a nth order
equations are formed o system
m. In order to integratee
n-numberrs of first derivatives, the state diagram requires
r n--
numbers of
o integrators.

Thereforee the first step

s in connstructing thhe state diaagram is too
draw n-nuumbers of integrators.
i Mark the input to the integratorss
as first derivatives
d of
o state varriables andd so the ou utput of thee
integratorrs is state vaariables.
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If initial conditions are given, then they can be added at the

output of integrators using adders.

In each state equation, the first derivative of state variable is

expressed as a function of state variables and inputs.

Therefore from the knowledge of a state equation, the state

variables and inputs are multiplied by appropriate scalars and
then added to get the first derivative of a state variable.

Now, the first derivative of the state variable is given as input to

the corresponding integrator. Similarly the input of all other
integrators is obtained by considering the state equations one by
one.

Each output equation is a function of state variables and inputs.

Therefore from the knowledge of an output equation, the state
variables and inputs are multiplied by appropriate scalars and
then added to get an output. Similar procedure is followed to
generate all other outputs.

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1.4  State Space Reprresentatiion using
g Physical Variablles 
In state sppace modelling of systeems, the chhoice of statte variabless
is arbitrarry. One of the
t possiblee choices of state variaables is thee
physical variables.
v
Advantage:
The physiical variablees of electriical systemss are curren
nt or voltagee
1. State variables can be
in the R, L and C eleements. Thee physical variables of mechanicall
utilized foor the puurpose of
systems are displaacement, velocity
v annd acceleraation. Thee
feedback.
advantagees of choossing the phyysical variaables (or qu uantities) off
the system
m as state vaariables are summarizeed as below..
2. Design with statee variable
feedback becomes straight
1. The staate variabless can be utillized for thee purpose off feedback.
forward.
2. The im
mplementatiion of desiign with sttate variablle feedbackk
3. Solutionn of state equation
becomes straight
s forw
ward.
gives tim
me variaation of
variables.
3. The sollution of staate equationn gives timee variation of
o variabless
which havve direct rellevance to thhe physical system.
Disadvantaage:
The draw wback in choosing
c tthe physicaal quantitiees as statee
1. Solutionn of state equation
variables is that thee solution of
o state equuation mayy become a
may becomme a difficullt task
difficult taask.

In state space mod deling usinng physicall variables, the statee

equations are obtaineed from thee differentiaal equationss governingg
the system
m. The diffferential eqquations gooverning a system aree
obtained from a basic model of o the system m which iss developedd
using the fundamentaal elements of the systeem.

The basicc model of an

a electricall system cann be obtaineed by usingg
the fundaamental elements Reesistor, Cappacitor and d Inductor..
Using theese elementss the electriical networrk or equivaalent circuitt
of the sysstem is draw
wn. Then thee differentiaal equationss governingg
the electrrical system
ms can be formed byy writing Kirchhoff’s
K s
current laaw equationns by choosing variouss nodes in thet networkk
or Kirchhhoff’s voltag
ge law by chhoosing varrious closedd path in thee
network. The currentt-voltage reelation of thhe basic eleements R, L
and C are given in Fiig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6: Curren

nt-Voltage Relation
R in E
Electrical System
S

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A minimaal number of o state variaables are chhosen for ob

btaining thee
state moddel of the sy
ystem. The best choicees of state variables
v inn
electrical system are currents and voltagges in enerrgy storagee
elements.

The energgy storage elements

e aree inductancee and capaccitance. Thee
physical variables
v in
n the differrential equaations are replaced
r byy
state variiables and the equatioons are reaarranged as first orderr
differentiaal equation ns. These set of ffirst order equationss
constitutees the state equation
e of the system..

The inputts to the system are exxciting voltaage sourcess or currentt

sources. The
T outputss in electriccal system aare usually voltages orr
currents ini energy dissipating
d e
element. Thhe resistance is energyy
dissipatinng element in electricaal network. In general the outputt
variables can be any voltage or current
c in thhe network.

Example 1.1
Obtain thhe state moddel of the electrical nnetwork shoown in Fig..
1.1.1 by choosing
c miinimal numbber of state variables.

Fig. 1.1.1
1 Electrical Network Exxample 1.1

Solution 1.1
Let the thhree state vaariables x1 , x 2 and x3 be related to physicall
quantitiess as x1 = i1 ; x 2 = i2 ; x3 = vc .
Let the inpput variablee u = e(t ) , input
i to the system.

At node A,
A apply Kirrchhoff’s Cuurrent Law,,

dvc
i1 + i2 + C =0 (1.1.1)
dt
⇒ x1 + x 2 + Cx& 3 = 0
1 1
⇒ x& 3 = − x1 − x 2 (1.1.2)
C C

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At 1st loopp, apply Kirrchhoff’s Voltage

V Law
w,

di1
e(t ) + i1 R1 + L1 = vc (1.1.3)
dt
⇒ u + x1 R1 + L1 x&1 = x3
R1 1 1
⇒ x&1 = − x1 + x3 − u (1.1.4)
L1 L1 L1

At 2nd looop, apply Kiirchhoff’s Voltage

V Law
w,

di2
i2 R2 + L2 = vc (1.1.5)
dt
⇒ x 2 R2 + L2 x& 2 = x3
R2 1
⇒ x& 2 = − x2 + x3 (1.1.6)
L2 L2

Arrangingg the state equations

e in matrix form
m,
⎡ R1 1⎤
⎢− L 0
L1 ⎥ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎢− ⎥
⎡ 1⎤
⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎢ 1 ⎥ 1 L
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢ 0 R2 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
− x 2 + 0 ⎥[u ] (1.1.7)
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ L2 L 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢
1 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢− − 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎣⎢ C C ⎦⎥

Let choosse the voltag

ges across thhe resistancces as the ou
utput
variables which deno oted by y1 = i1 R1 ; y 2 = i2 R2 .
⇒ y1 = x1 R1 ; y 2 = x2 R2

Arrangingg the state equations

e in matrix form
m,
⎡ y1 ⎤ ⎡ R1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 0 R ⎥⎢x ⎥ (1.1.8)
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦⎣ 2 ⎦

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Example 1.2
Obtain thhe state mod del of the electrical nnetwork sho own in Fig..
1.2.1 by choosing
c v1 (t ) and v 2 (t ) as state vvariables.

1 Electrical Network Exxample 1.2

Fig. 1.2.1

Solution 1.2
Let the staate variablees x1 = v1 (t ) ; x2 = v2 (t
( ).
Let the inpput variablee u = v(t ) .
Let the ouutput variabble y = v1 (t ) = x1 .

Connect a voltage so
ource at the input.

Convert thhe voltage source

s to thhe current soource.

At node 1, apply Kircchhoff’s Cuurrent Law,

v1 − v2 dv
+C 1 =0 (1.2.1)
R dt
x1 − x2
⇒ + Cx&1 = 0
R
1 1
⇒ x&1 = − x1 + x2 (1.2.2)
CR CRR

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At node 2,
2 apply Kircchhoff’s Cuurrent Law,

v 2 − v1 v 2 dv v(t )
+ +C 2 = (1.2.3)
R R dt R
x 2 − x1 x 2 u
⇒ + + Cx& 2 =
R R R
1 2 1
⇒ x& 2 = − x1 − x2 + u (1.2.4)
CR CRR CR

Arrangingg the state equations

e in matrix form
m,
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎡ 1⎤
&
x ⎢ − ⎥ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 1 ⎥[u ]
CR CR
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢ 1 2
(1.2.5)
⎣ 2⎦ ⎢ − C ⎥⎦
⎥ ⎣ x 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ CR
⎣ CR CRR⎦

The outpuut y = v1 (t ) = x1 .

Arrangingg the state equations

e in matrix form
m,
⎡x ⎤
y = [1 0]⎢ 1 ⎥ (1.2.6)
⎣ x2 ⎦

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1.5  State Space Reprresentatiion using
Advantage:
1. The statee space moddel can be
directly foormed by inspection
i state variaables are theen derivativves of the ouutput.
from the differential
d equations
governing the
t system.
2. The phaase variablees provide
a link beetween thee transfer
function design
d apprroach and
time domaiin design appproach.
g Phase V
Variables  
The phasee variables are
a defined as those paarticular statte variabless
which aree obtained from one of the sysstem variab bles and itss
derivativees.
Usually thhe variable used is the system outtput and thee remainingg
The state model usin ng phase varriables can bbe easily deetermined iff
the systemm model is already knoown in the ddifferential equation orr
transfer fuunction form
m.
There aree three meethods of modeling
m a system using
u phasee
variables and they are explainedd in the folloowing sectio
ons.

Disadvantaage: 1.5.1 Phaase Variables Method 1 (Bush-Companion))

1. The phaase variablees are not
physical vaariables of the system
and therefoore are not available
for measuurement andd control
purpose.
Consider the follow wing nth orrder linear differentiaal equationn
relating thhe output y (t ) to the innput u (t ) off a system.
n ( n −1) ( n−2)
y& + a1 y& + a 2 y& + LL + a n − 2 &y&+ a n −1 y& + a n y = bu
(1.10)

By choosiing the outp

put y and thheir derivattives as statee variables,

x1 = y
x 2 = y&
n
x3 = &y& ⇒ x& n = y&
M
( n −1)
x n = y&

Substituting the staate variables in the differentiaal equationn

governingg the system
m, Eqn. (1.100),

x& n + a1 x n + a 2 x n −1 + LL + a n − 2 x3 + a n −1 x 2 + a n x1 = bu
⇒ x& n = −a1 x n − a 2 x n −1 − LL − a n − 2 x3 − a n −1 x 2 − a n x1 + bu

The state equations of

o the system
m are

x&1 = x 2
x& 2 = x3
M
x& n −1 = x n
x& n = −a1 x n − a 2 x n −1 − LL − a n − 2 x3 − a n −1 x 2 − a n x1 + buu

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Arranging the state equations in the matrix form,

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0 L 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 L 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0⎥⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢
⎢ x&3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 L 0 ⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥[u ]
⎢ M ⎥ ⎢ M M M M M ⎥⎢ M ⎥ ⎢M ⎥
⎢ x& n−1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 L 1 ⎥ ⎢ xn−1 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ x& n ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢− an − an−1 − an−2 − a n −3 L − a1 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ xn ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢b⎦⎥
(1.11)
& = AX + BU
⇒X

Matrix A (system matrix) has a very special form. It has all 1’s in
the upper off-diagonal; its last row is comprised of the negative
coefficients of the original differential equation and all other
elements are zero. This form of matrix A is known as Bush form
or Companion Form.

Matrix B has the specialty that all its elements except the last
element are zero. The output being y = x1 , and the output
equation is given by
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥
⎢ 2⎥
Y = CX + DU y = [1 0 0 LL 0]⎢ x3 ⎥
QD = 0 ⎢ ⎥
⇒ Y = CX ⎢M⎥
⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦
(1.12)
⇒ Y = CX

The advantage in using phase variables for state space modeling

is that the system state model can be written directly by
inspection from the differential equation governing the system.

Example 1.3
Obtain the state model of the system with the transfer function
Y (s) 10
= 3
U ( s) s + 4s 2 + 2s + 1
using Phase Variables Method 1 (Bush-Companion).

Solution 1.3
Y (s) 10
Given that = 3 (1.3.1)
U ( s) s + 4s 2 + 2s + 1
( )
⇒ Y ( s ) s 3 + 4 s 2 + 2s + 1 = 10U ( s)
⇒ s 3Y ( s ) + 4s 2Y ( s) + 2sY ( s ) + Y ( s) = 10U ( s) (1.3.2)

Inverse Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.3.2)

&y&& + 4 &y& + 2 y& + y = 10u (1.3.3)
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Define state variables as follows,

x1 = y ; x 2 = y& ; x3 = &y&

Substitute &y&& = x& 3 ; &y& = x3 ; y& = x2 ; y = x1 into Eqn. (1.3.3),

⇒ x& 3 + 4 x3 + 2 x2 + x1 = 10u
⇒ x& 3 = −4 x3 − 2 x2 − x1 + 10u

Hence, the state equations are

x&1 = x2 ; x& 2 = x3 ; x& 3 = −4 x3 − 2 x2 − x1 + 10u

Output equation is
y = x1

The state model in the matrix form is

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥[u ]
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 1 − 2 − 4⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣10⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [1 0 0]⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

1.5.2 Phase Variables Method 2 (Signal Flow Graph)

Consider the following nth order linear differential equation

relating the output y (t ) to the input u (t ) of a system.

n ( n −1) ( n−2)
y& + a1 y& + a 2 y& + LL + a n −2 &y&+ a n −1 y& + a n y
m ( m −1)
(1.13)
= b0 u& + b1 u& + LL + bm −1u& + bm u
Let n = m = 3,
∴ &y&& + a1 &y& + a 2 y& + a3 y = b0&u&& + b1u&& + b2 u& + b3u (1.14)

Taking Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.14) with zero initial

condition
s 3Y ( s) + a1 s 2Y ( s ) + a 2 sY ( s) + a3Y ( s) =
b0 s 3U ( s) + b1 s 2U ( s ) + b2 sU ( s) + b3U ( s )
(s 3
) ( )
+ a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a 3 Y ( s ) = b0 s 3 + b1 s 2 + b2 s + b3 U ( s )
Y ( s) b0 s + b1 s + b2 s + b3
3 2
∴ = 3
U ( s) s + a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a3
⎛ b b b ⎞ b b b
s 3 ⎜ b0 + 1 + 22 + 33 ⎟ b0 + 1 + 22 + 33
= ⎝
s s s ⎠ s s s
= (1.15)
⎛ a a a ⎞ ⎛ a a a ⎞
s 3 ⎜1 + 1 + 22 + 33 ⎟ 1 − ⎜ − 1 − 22 − 33 ⎟
⎝ s s s ⎠ ⎝ s s s ⎠
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6 

From the Manson’s gain form

mula, the traansfer function of thee
system is given by
1
T ( s ) = ∑ PK ∆ K (1.16)
∆ K

where PK = path gain of Kth forrward path

∆ = 1 – (sum
m of loop gaain of all inddividual loop
ps)
+ (summ of gain prooducts of alll possible combinationn
of two non-touchinng loops) – ······
∆ K = ∆ for that
t part of the graph w which is not touching
th
K forrward path

The transsfer functionn of a systtem with foour forward d paths andd

with threee feedback loops
l (touchhing each otther) is giveen by

P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
T (s) = (1.17)
1 − ( P11 + P12 + P13 )

Comparinng Eqn. (1.1

15) and (1.17),
b1 b b
P1 = b0 ; P2 = ; P3 = 22 ; P4 = 33 ;
s s s
a1 a2 a3
P11 = − ; P12 = − 2 ; P13 = − 3
s s s

Hence, a signal floww graph cann be construucted as shoown in Fig..

1.7. The signal
s w is construccted such thhat all ∆ K = 1 and alll
flow
loops are touching lo
oops.

Let assignn state variables at thee output of each integrrator in thee

signal floww graph. Hence
H at the input of eaach integrattor, the firstt
derivativee of the sttate variable will be available. The statee
equations are formed d by summing all the inncoming sig gnals to thee
nodes, whose
w valuees correspoonds to firsst derivativve of statee
variables.

Fig. 1..7 Signal Fllow Graph of

o the Systeem with Eqn
n. (1.15)

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oming signaals at node x&1

Summingg up the inco

x&1 = − a1 ( x1 + b0 u ) + x 2 + b1u
∴ x&1 = − a1 x1 + x 2 + (b1 − a1b0 )u (1.18)

oming signaals at node x& 2

Summingg up the inco

x& 2 = − a 2 ( x1 + b0 u ) + x3 + b2 u
∴ x& 2 = − a 2 x1 + x3 + (b2 − a 2 b0 )u (1.19)

oming signaals at node x& 3

Summingg up the inco

x&3 = − a3 ( x1 + b0u ) + b3u

∴ x& 2 = − a 3 x1 + (b3 − a 3 b0 )u (1.20)

The outpuut equation is given by the sum of incoming signals

s to
output node.
∴ y = x1 + b0 u (1.21)

Arrangingg the state equations

e annd output eqquation in matrix
m form,

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ − a1 1 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 − a1b0 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢− a 0 1⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢b2 − a 2 b0 ⎥⎥[u ] (1.22)
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − a3 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣b3 − a3b0 ⎥⎦

⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [1 0 0]⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + b0 u (1.23)
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

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Consider nth order diifferential equation,

e the general model
m for m
= n is giveen below.

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ − a1
1 0 LL 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 − a1b0 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ ⎢ − a0 1 LL 0⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ b2 − a 2 b0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2

⎢ M ⎥=⎢ M M M M ⎥⎢ M ⎥ + ⎢ M ⎥[u ]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x& n −1 ⎥ ⎢− a n −1
0 0 LL 1⎥ ⎢ x n −1 ⎥ ⎢bn −1 − a n −1b0 ⎥
⎢⎣ x& n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − a n
0 0 LL 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ bn − a n b0 ⎥⎦
(1.24)
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥
⎢ 2⎥
y = [1 0 0 LL 0]⎢ x3 ⎥ + b0 u
⎢ ⎥
⎢M⎥
⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦
(1.25)

Example 1.4
Obtain thee state model of the sysstem with thhe transfer function
f
Y ( s) 10
=
U ( s) s 3 + 4s 2 + 2s + 1
using Phaase Variablees Method 2 (Signal Floow Graph).

Solution 1.4
Y ( s) 10
Given thaat = 3 (1.4.1)
U ( s) s + 4s 2 + 2s + 1
Y ( s) 10
1
⇒ =
U ( s) ⎛ 4 2 1⎞
s 3 ⎜1 + + 2 + 3 ⎟
⎝ s s s ⎠
3
0 s
10
= (1.4.2)
⎛ 4 2 1⎞
1− ⎜ − − 2 − 3 ⎟
⎝ s s s ⎠

The signaal flow graaph for thee above trannsfer functtion can bee
constructeed as showwn in Fig. 1.3.1
1 with a single fo
orward pathh
consistingg of three integrators and with ppath gain 101 s 3 . Thee
graph willl have threee individuual loops wwith loop gaains − 4 s ,
− 2 s annd − 1 s .
2 3

Fig. 1.33.1 Signal Flow

F Graph of the Systeem with Eqn. (1.4.2)

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Assign sttate variablees at the ouutput of thee integratorr (1/s). Thee

state equaations are ob
btained by summing thhe incoming g signals too
the inpuut of the integratorss and equuating theem to thee
corresponnding first derivative
d off the state vaariable.

Hence, the state equaations are

x&1 = −4x1 + x 2
x& 2 = −2x1 + x3
x& 3 = − x1 + 10u

Output eqquation is
y = x1

The state model in th he matrix form is

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡− 4 1 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢− 2 0 1⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥[u ]
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 1 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣10⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [1 0 0]⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

1.5.3 Phaase Variables Method 3 (Pole-Zero)

Consider the follow wing nth orrder linear differentiaal equationn

relating thhe output y (t ) to the innput u (t ) off a system.

n ( n −1) ( n−2)
y& + a1 y& + a 2 y& + LL + a n − 2 &y&+ a n −1 y& + a n y
m ( m −1)
(1.26)
= b0 u& + b1 u& + LL + bm −1u& + bm u
Let n = m = 3,
∴ &y&& + a1 &y& + a 2 y& + a 3 y = b0&u&& + b1u&& + b2 u& + b3 u (1.27)

Taking Laplace
L Traansform off Eqn. (1.227) with zero
z initiall
condition
s 3Y ( s) + a1 s 2Y ( s) + a 2 sY ( s ) + a3Y ( s ) =
b0 s 3U ( s ) + b1 s 2U ( s ) + b2 sU ( s ) + b3U ( s)

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(s 3
) ( )
+ a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a 3 Y ( s ) = b0 s 3 + b1 s 2 + b2 s + b3 U ( s )
Y ( s) b0 s + b1 s + b2 s + b3
3 2
∴ = 3
U ( s) s + a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a3

Y ( s) X 1 ( s) Y ( s)
Let = ⋅
U ( s) U ( s) X 1 ( s)
X ( s) 1
where 1 = 3 (1.28)
U ( s) s + a1 s + a 2 s + a3
2

Y ( s)
and = b0 s 3 + b1 s 2 + b2 s + b3 (1.29)
X 1 (s)

Rearranging Eqn. (1.28),

[ ]
X 1 ( s ) s 3 + a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a 3 = U ( s )
⇒ s X 1 ( s ) + a1 s X 1 ( s ) + a 2 sX 1 ( s ) + a 3 X 1 ( s ) = U ( s )
3 2
(1.30)

Inverse Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.30)

&x&&1 + a1 &x&1 + a 2 x&1 + a3 x1 = u (1.31)

Let the state variables be x1 , x 2 and x3 ,

where x2 = x&1 ; x3 = x& 2 = &x&1 ; x& 3 = &x&2 = &x&&1

Substitute into Eqn. (1.31)

x& 3 + a1 x3 + a 2 x 2 + a3 x1 = u
⇒ x& 3 = −a1 x3 − a 2 x 2 − a3 x1 + u

Hence, the state equations are

x&1 = x2 ; x& 2 = x3 ; x& 3 = −a1 x3 − a 2 x 2 − a3 x1 + u

Rearranging Eqn. (1.29),

Y ( s ) = b0 s 3 X 1 ( s ) + b1 s 2 X 1 ( s ) + b2 sX 1 ( s ) + b3 X 1 ( s ) (1.32)

Inverse Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.32)

y = b0&x&&1 + b1 &x&1 + b2 x&1 + b3 x1 (1.33)

Substitute the state variables into Eqn. (1.33)

y = b0 x& 3 + b1 x3 + b2 x 2 + b3 x1 (1.34)

Substitute x& 3 = −a1 x3 − a 2 x 2 − a3 x1 + u into Eqn. (1.34)

y = b0 (− a1 x3 − a 2 x 2 − a3 x1 + u ) + b1 x3 + b2 x 2 + b3 x1
⇒ y = (b3 − a3b0 )x1 + (b2 − a 2 b0 )x 2 + (b1 − a1b0 )x3 + b0 u (1.35)

Hence, the output equation is

y = (b3 − a3b0 )x1 + (b2 − a 2 b0 )x 2 + (b1 − a1b0 )x3 + b0 u

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Arranging the state equations and output equation in matrix form,

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢0⎥⎥[u ] (1.36)
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− a3 − a2 − a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦

⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [b3 − a3b0 b2 − a 2 b0 b1 − a1b0 ]⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + b0 u (1.37)
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

Consider nth order differential equation, the general model for m

= n is given below.

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 LL 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 LL 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ M ⎥=⎢ M M M M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥ + ⎢ M ⎥[u ]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x& n −1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 LL 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x n −1 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢⎣ x& n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− a n − a n −1 LL − a 2 − a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦
(1.38)

⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
y = [bn − a n b0 bn −1 − a n −1b0 L b2 − a 2 b0 b1 − a1b0 ]⎢ M ⎥ + b0 u
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x n −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦
(1.39)

Example 1.5
Obtain the state model of the system with the transfer function
Y ( s) 10( s + 4)
=
U ( s) s( s + 1)( s + 3)
using Phase Variables Method 3 (Pole-Zero).

Solution 1.5
Y ( s) 10( s + 4)
Given that = (1.5.1)
U ( s) s( s + 1)( s + 3)
Y ( s) X 1 ( s) Y ( s)
Let = ⋅
U ( s) U ( s) X 1 ( s)
X ( s) 1
where 1 = (1.5.2)
U ( s) s( s + 1)( s + 3)
Y ( s)
and = 10( s + 4) (1.5.3)
X 1 ( s)

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Rearranging Eqn. (1.5.2),

[ ]
X 1 ( s) s 3 + 4s 2 + 3s = U ( s)
⇒ s 3 X 1 ( s ) + 4s 2 X 1 ( s ) + 3sX 1 ( s ) = U ( s) (1.5.4)

Inverse Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.5.4)

&x&&1 + 4 &x&1 + 3x&1 = u (1.5.5)

Let the state variables be x1 , x 2 and x3 ,

where x2 = x&1 ; x3 = x& 2 = &x&1 ; x& 3 = &x&2 = &x&&1

Substitute into Eqn. (1.5.5)

x& 3 + 4 x3 + 3x 2 = u
⇒ x& 3 = −4 x3 − 3x 2 + u

Hence, the state equations are

x&1 = x2 ; x& 2 = x3 ; x& 3 = −4 x3 − 3x 2 + u

Rearranging Eqn. (1.5.3),

Y ( s) = 10sX 1 ( s) + 40 X 1 ( s) (1.5.6)

Inverse Laplace Transform of Eqn. (1.5.6)

y = 10 x&1 + 40 x1 (1.5.7)

Substitute the state variables into Eqn. (1.5.7)

y = 10 x2 + 40 x1 (1.5.8)

Hence, the output equation is

y = 10 x2 + 40 x1

Arranging the state equations and output equation in matrix form,

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢0 0 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢0⎥⎥[u ]
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − 3 − 4⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [40 10 0]⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

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1.6  State Space Reprresentatiion using
g Canoniccal Variab
bles 
1.6.1 Can
nonical Forrm

In canonical form off state modeel, the systeem matrix A will be a

diagonal matrix. Thee elements on the diaggonal are th he poles off
the transfe
fer function of the systeem.

xpansion, thhe transfer ffunction Y ( s) U ( s) off

By Partiall fraction ex
th
the n ordder system can
c be expreessed as shoown in Eqn. (1.40).

Y ( s) C1 C2 Cn
= b0 + + + LL + (1.40)
U ( s) s + λ1 s + λ2 s + λn

where C1 , C 2 , LLC n are residuues and λ1 , λ 2 , LL λ n are roots off

denominaator polynommial (or poles of the syystem).

The Eqn. (1.40) can be

b rearrangeed as below
w.

Y (s) C1 C2 Cn
= b0 + + + LL +
U (s) ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞
s ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ s ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ s ⎜1 + n ⎟
⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
C s C s C s
= b0 + 1 + 2 + LL + n
λ λ λ
1+ 1 1+ 2 1+ n
s s s
Hence,
⎡ 1s ⎤ ⎡ 1s ⎤
Y ( s ) = b0U (s ) + ⎢ C1 ⎥U ( s ) + ⎢ C 2 ⎥U ( s ) +
⎣1 + (1 s ) × λ1 ⎦ ⎣1 + (1 s ) × λ2 ⎦
⎡ 1s ⎤
LL + ⎢ C n ⎥U ( s )
⎣1 + (1 s ) × λn ⎦
(1.41)
The blockk diagram of Eqn. (1.411) is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fiig. 1.7: Blocck Diagram of Canoniccal State Mo

odel
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Assign state variables at the output of integrator. The input of the

integrator will be the first derivative of state variable.

The state equations are formed by adding the incoming signals to

the integrator and equating to first derivative of state variable.

The state equations are,

x&1 = −λ1 x1 + u
x& 2 = −λ 2 x 2 + u
M
x& n = −λ n x n + u

The output equation is,

y = C1 x1 + C 2 x 2 + LL + C n x n + b0 u

The canonical form of the state model in the matrix form is given
below.

⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡− λ1 0 LL 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ ⎢ 0 − λ2 LL 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ ⎢1⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ M ⎥=⎢ M M M M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥ + ⎢M⎥[u ]
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎥
⎢ x& n −1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 LL − λ n −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x n −1 ⎥ ⎢1⎥
⎢⎣ x& n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 LL 0 − λ n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦
(1.42)

⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
y = [C1 C2 LL C n −1 C n ]⎢ M ⎥ + b0 u (1.43)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x n −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ x n ⎥⎦

Advantage: The advantage of canonical form is that the state equations are
1. State equations independent independent of each other. The disadvantage is that the canonical
to each other. variables are not physical variables and so they are not available
for measurement and control.
Disadvantage:
1. Not measurable

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 State Spacce Modeling   25
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Example 1.6
Obtain thee state model of the sysstem with thhe transfer function
f
Y ( s) 10( s + 4)
=
U ( s ) s ( s + 1)( s + 3)
using Cannonical Variiables.

Solution 1.6
Y (s) 10( s + 4)
Given thaat = (1.6.1)
U ( s ) s ( s + 1)( s + 3)

xpansion Y ( s ) U ( s ) cann be expressed as

By partiall fraction ex
Y ( s ) 40 3 15 53
= − +
U ( s) s s +1 s + 3
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎡ 1 40 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥
∴ Y (s ) = ⎢ × ⎥U ( s ) − ⎢ s × 15⎥U ( s ) + ⎢ s × ⎥U ( s )
⎣s 3 ⎦ ⎢1 + 1 × 1 ⎥ ⎢1 + 1 × 3 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
(1.6.2)

Fig. 1.66.1: Block Diagram

D of Eqn. (1.6.2) in Canonical Form

Assign staate variablees at the outtput of the integrator as a shown inn

Fig. 1.6.1. At the inpput of the inttegrator, thee first deriv
vative of thee
state variaables will be
b available. The state equations are a obtainedd
by addingg incoming signals to the t integrattor and equaating to thee
corresponnding first derivative
d off the state vaariable.

a x&1 = u; x& 2 = − x 2 + u; x& 3 = −3 x3 + u

The state equations are
40 5
The outpuut equation is y = x1 − 15x2 + x3
3 3
n

he matrix form is shownn as below.

The state model in th
⎡ x&1 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢0 − 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ + ⎢1⎥[u ] ; y = ⎡ 40
4 5⎤⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ 3 −15 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ x 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ x& 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 − 3⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
(1.6.3)

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