Professional Documents
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ENERGIA Y MECANICA
SANGOLQU- ECUADOR
2016
EMEC-32074 | SISTEMAS FLEXIBLES DE MANUFACTURA
I. SECTION 1...........................................................................................................................10
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ...........................................................11
1.1. HYSTORY OF MANUFACTURING .................................................................................11
1.2. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT ....................................................................15
1.3. PROCESS DEFINITION .................................................................................................16
1.3.1. Types of process .................................................................................................16
1.3.2. Manufacturing process .......................................................................................16
1.4. MANAGEMENT PROCESS ISO 9001 ............................................................................17
1.5. ECONOMIC REALITIES .................................................................................................17
1.6. APROACH TECHNOLOGIES ..........................................................................................17
1.7. LEAN MANUFACTURING .............................................................................................18
1.7.1. Lean production attributes .................................................................................18
1.7.2. Resources: ..........................................................................................................18
1.7.3. Manufacturing activities .....................................................................................18
1.7.4. Lean production programs .................................................................................18
1.8. EXERCISE.....................................................................................................................19
Chapter 2 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ..........................................................................................20
2.1. DEFINITIONS ...............................................................................................................20
2.1.1. Manufacturing Process .......................................................................................20
2.1.2. Production System ..............................................................................................20
2.1.3. Manufacturing System........................................................................................20
2.2. LEVELS IN PRODUCTION SYSTEM................................................................................21
2.2.1. Facilities ..............................................................................................................21
2.2.2. Manufacturing Support Systems ........................................................................21
2.3. Automation in Production Systems ............................................................................23
2.3.1. Automated Manufacturing System.....................................................................23
2.3.2. Automation Principles and Strategies.................................................................25
2.4. EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................26
Chapter 3 MANUFACTURING METRICS ...................................................................................28
3.1. MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS ................................................................................28
3.1.1. Processing and assembly operations ..................................................................28
3.1.2. Material handling and storage ............................................................................28
3.1.3. Inspection and testing ........................................................................................29
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I. SECTION 1
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Figure 5: Coining.
Figure 6: Cannonry.
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II. Assembly lines - 1916 Henry Ford - Model T ( < 500 USD)
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Types of process
Services process
Manufacturing process - VA - NVA
Management process
Manufacturing process
Manufacturing can be defined as the application of physical and chemical processes to
alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting material to make
parts or products; manufacturing also includes the joining of multiple parts to make
assembled products.
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Minimize waste.
Perfect first-time quality.
Flexible production lines.
Continuous improvement.
1.7.2. RESOURCES:
a. Worker
b. Equipment
c. Time
d. Space
e. Materials
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1.8. EXERCISE
1) One plant produces three product lines: A, B, and C. There are 6 models within
product line A, 4 models within B, and 8 within C. Average annual production
quantities of each A model is 500 units, 700 units for each B model, and 1100 units
for each C model. Determine:
a) The value P.
b) The value Qf.
Solution:
a) The parameter P is the total number of different product models produced.
= 6 + 4 + 8 = 18
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2.1. DEFINITIONS
Task meaning???
Scheme???
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2.2.1. FACILITIES
Factory
Production machines
Tooling
Material handling equipment
Inspection equipment
Computer system
Plant layout
a. Production Quantity
Low production: Quantities in range of 1 to 100 units/year.
Medium production: Quantities in range of 100 to 10000 units/year.
High production: Production quantities are 10000 to millions of units.
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Hand tools: Is a small tool that is manually operated by the strength and skill of the
human user.
Worker-machine system
A human worker operates powered equipment.
Automated system
The process is performed by a machine without the direct participation of a human
worker.
a. Programmable automation
The equipment are designed with the capability to change the sequence of operation
to accommodate different product configuration.
Features:
High investment in general purpose equipment.
Batch production.
Low production rates.
Certain flexibility to change product configuration.
Example:
CNC machine tools with manual part charge lost time
b. Flexible automation
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Example:
Machining operation with automated part charge.
c. Fixed automation
System in which the sequence of processing operation is fixed by the equipment
configuration.
Features:
High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment.
High production rates.
Relative inflexibility of the equipment to accommodate product variety.
Example:
Machining lines transfers.
Automated Assembly Machines Assembly Lines.
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True CIM involves integrating all of these functions in one system that operates
throughout the enterprise.
Other terms are used to identify specific elements of the CIM system. For example,
computer-aided design (CAD) denotes the use of computer systems to support the
product design function.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) denotes the use of computer systems to
perform functions related to manufacturing engineering. Some computer systems
perform both CAD and CAM, and so the term CAD/CAM is used to indicate the
integration of the two into one system.
Computer-integrated manufacturing includes CAD/CAM, but it also includes the firm's
business functions that are related to manufacturing.
2.4.2. STRATEGIES
Specialization de operation
Combined operations
Simultaneous operation
Integration of operation
Increase of flexibility
Improve material handling and storage
On line inspection
Process control and optimization
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2.4.3. MIGRATION
Manual production
Automated production
Automated integrated production
2.5. EXERCISES
1) If a production system has a utilization value of 80% and a performance value
of 75 %, what capacity is needed to produce a piece that requires 1000 hours per
year?
= = 80%
= = 75%
= 1000
=?
=
(1000 )
= = .
0.80 0.75
2) If each machine works 8hr per turn, where the turn is 1 day, but can only get a
performance of 60% and 70% of use, and assuming that each peace is made in 1 min,
how many machines are needed to produce 100000 units/year?
= = 70%
= = 60%
= 8
# = =?
=
=
8 20 12
=
1 1 1
= 1920
= =
= 1920 0.6 0.7
= 806.4
1 , 100000 100000
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1
= 100000 = 1666.67
60
=
1666.67
=
806.4
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There are certain basic activities that must be carried out in a factory to convert raw
materials into finished products.
a. Processing operations
A processing operation uses energy to alter a workpart shape, physical properties, or
appearance to add value to the material.
Shaping operations: This operation apply mechanical force or heat or other
forms and combinations of energy to effect a change in geometry of the work
material.
Property-enhancing operations: These operations are designed to improve
mechanical or physical properties of the work material.
Surface processing operations: These operations are design for cleaning,
mechanical working and coating on the exterior surface of the work part.
b. Assembly operation
In this operation two or more separate parts are joined to form a new entity.
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Figure 18: How time is spent by a typical part in a batch production machine shop.
Continuous Production
Continuous production occurs when the production equipment is used exclusively for
the given product, and the output of the product is uninterrupted.
Batch Production
Batch production occurs when the materials are processed in finite amounts or
quantities. The finite amount of quantity of material is called a batch.
FIFO= First In First Out
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Figure 19: Continuous and batch production in the process and discrete manufacturing industries: (a) continuous
production in the process industries. (b) Continuous production in the discrete manufacturing industries. (c) Batch
production in the process industries. (d) Batch production in the discrete manufacturing industries.
We can find an example in the development of a ship. As the image shows the ship is
fixed. Operators work in different activities such as welding, grinding, etc. In this type
of distribution, operators can rotate around the object that is being fabricated.
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same section. For example, the painting process in a given section of a factory. First,
there are some containers where different products are stored, next the object passes
to the drying oven, then to the spray booth and finally the object is cleaned.
The plant is organized depending on the product. For example in an assembly. The
object to be manufactured goes through three different processes previously to be
stored. First it passes to the welding process, next to the paint process, then to the
assembly line and finally it is stored.
3.4. METRICS
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10 20 30
.... i
cutting stamping painting
Example:
10 20 30 .
Task: Tool Charge Task: Tool Charge Task: Tool Charge Task:
Tool: Center Drill Tool: Drilling Tool: Taper Tool: .
The operation cycle time Tc is defined as the time that one work unit spends being
processed or assembled.
= + + (min/pc)
Where:
= .
= .
= .
= .
Example:
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= + (min)
Where:
= ()
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1 = 1 + 1
2 = 2 + 2
= +
= ()
=1
When we include non-operating time, then for part j
= ( + )
=1
b. Production Rate
60
= [/]
Examples:
If:
= 1000 []
= 1 []
= 30 []
Tb = 1030 [pc]
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1030
= = 1.03 [/]
1000
1 1
= = = 0.97 [ ] = 58.25 [ ]
1.03
Job shop Q = 1
= 1 []
= 30 []
= 30 + 11 = 31 []
1 ()
= 60 ( ) = 1.94 ( )
31 (min)
1000 (pc)
= 60 ( ) = 58.25 ( )
1030 (min)
The production capacity is measured in periods such as: Week, Month and year, but
the number of pieces per week is a critical issue in defining plant, then:
=
Where
n : number of work center
S : number ok shift per period (shift/week)
H: number of hour per shift (8 hour/shift)
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Changes can be made to increase or decrease plant capacity, this may happens under:
Short terms
Increase S (Shifts per Week).
Increase H (Hours worked per Shift).
Longer terms
Increases n (number of work centers).
Increase Rp (production rate).
Reduce no (number of operation).
Utilization
Refers to the amount of output of a production facility relative to its capacity.
Where
U: Utilization of the facility
Q: Actual quantity produced by the facility during a given time period
PC: Production capacity for the same period (pc/wk)
Availability
Availability is a common measure to reliability for equipment.
Where
A: Availability (typically expressed as a percentage)
Mf: Mean time between failures (hr)
Mr: Mean time to repair (hr)
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()()
=
Decisions on automation and production systems are usually based on the relative
costs of alternatives.
= + .
Where
TC = total cost (USD/yr)
When comparing automated and manual production methods, we havbe the following
figure:
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J.T. Black [2] provides some typical percentages for the different types of manufacturing
and corporate expenses. These are presented in Figure 2.5.
3.5. EXERCISES
1) A certain part is routed through six machines in a batch production plant. The
setup and operation times for each machine are given in the table below. The batch size
is 100 and the average nonoperation time per machine is 12 hours.
Determine:
a) Manufacturing Lead Time
b) Production Rate for Operation 3
Qb = 100
Tno = 12 hours per machine
Solution:
a)
4+2+8+3+3+4 24
= ( ) = = 4
6 6
5 + 3.5 + 10 + 1.9 + 4.1 + 2.5
= ( ) = 27/6 = 4.5
6
= (1 + 1 1 + )
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4.5
= 6 (4 + 100 ( ) + 12) = 6(23.5)
60
=
b)
10
[8.0 + 100 ( )] 24.67
60 =
= = 0.2467
100 100
= . /
Solution:
a)
= 6(5 + 25(0.1) + 10)
=
b)
5 + 250.1
= ( ) = 0.30 /
25
= 3.333 /
70(18)(3.333)
= ( )
6
=
c)
= 2025 = 500 /
500
= = 0.7143
700
= . %
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Production Planning and Control (PPC) is concerned with the logistics problems that
are encountered in manufacturing, that is, managing the details of what and how
many products to produce and when, and obtaining the raw materials, parts, and
resources to produce those products.
lndependent demand means that demand for a product is unrelated to demand for
other items. Final products and spare parts are examples of items whose demand is
independent. Independent demand patterns must usually be forecasted.
Dependent demand means that demand for the item is directly related to the demand
for some other item.
The bill of materials (BOM) is a file used to compute the raw material and component
requirements for each product listed in the master schedule. It provides information of
the product structure by listing the component parts and subassemblies that make up
each product.
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The production quantities of the major product lines listed in the aggregate plan are
converted into a very specific schedule of individual products
Proportions in each category vary for different companies, and in some cases one or
more categories are omitted.
The MPS is generally considered to be a medium-range plan since it must take into
account the lead times to order raw materials and components, produce parts in the
factory, and then assemble the end products.
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For products:
For components:
a. Inputs
To function the MRP program must operate on data contained in several files. These
files serve as inputs to the MRP processor.
MPS.
Bill of materials file and other engineering and manufacturing data.
Inventory record file.
MPS
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Lists what end product, and how many of each are to be produced and when they are
to be ready for shipment. Manufacturing firms generally work toward monthly delivery
schedules, this are called time periods. Whatever the duration is, these time periods
are called time buckets in MRP. Instead of treating time as a continuous variable,
MRP makes its computations of materials and parts requirements in terms of time
buckets.
Item master data: This provides the item's identification (part number) and
other data about the part such as order quantity and lead times.
Inventory status: This gives a time-phased record of inventory status. In MRP, it
is important to know not only the current level of inventory, but also any future
changes that will occur against the inventory. Therefore, the inventory status segment
lists the gross requirements for the item, scheduled receipts, on-hand status, and
planned order releases.
Subsidiary data: The third file segment provides subsidiary data such as
purchase orders, scrap or rejects, and engineering changes.
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Labor hours: The number of labor hours per shift can be increased or
decreased, through the use of overtime or reduced hours.
Inventory stockpiling: This tactic might be used to maintain steady employment
levels during slow demand periods.
Order backlogs: Deliveries of the product to the customer could be delayed
during busy periods when production resources are insufficient to keep up with
demand.
Subcontracting. This involves the letting of jobs to other shops during busy
periods or the taking in of extra work during slack periods.
b. Long-Term Adjustments
New equipment Investments: This involves investing in more machines or more
productive machines to meet increased future production requirements, or
investing in new types of machines to match future changes in product design.
New plant construction: Building a new factory represents a major investment
for the company. However. it also represents a significant increase in
production capacity for the firm.
Purchase of existing plants from other companies.
Acquisition of existing companies: This may be done to increase productive
capacity. However, there are usually more important reasons for talking over
an existing company, for example, to achieve economies of scale that result
from increasing market share and reducing staff.
Plant closings: This involves the closing of plants that will not be needed in the
future.
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4.4. EXERCISES
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1) Using the master schedule of Figure 1, and the product structures in Figures
26.4 and 26.5. Determine the time-phased requirements for component C6 and raw
material M6. The raw material used in component C6 is M6. Lead times are as follows:
for P1, assembly lead time is 1 week; for P2, assembly lead time is 1 week; for S2,
assembly lead time is 1 week; for S3, assembly lead time is 1 week; for C6,
manufacturing lead time is 2 weeks; and for M6, ordering lead time is 2 weeks. Assume
that the current inventory status for all of the above items is zero units on hand, and
zero units on order.
Solution:
Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Item: Product P1
Gross Requirements 50 100
Scheduled Receipts
On hand 0
Net Requirements 50 100
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2) Solve previous Problem except that the current inventory on hand and on order
for S3, C6, and M6 is as follows: for S3, inventory on hand is 2 units and quantity on
order is zero; for C6, inventory on hand is 5 units and quantity on order is 10 for
delivery in week 2; and for M6, inventory on hand is 10 units and quantity on order is
50 for delivery in week 2.
Solution:
Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Item: Product P1
Gross Requirements 50 100
Scheduled Receipts
On hand 0
Net Requirements 50 100
Planned Order 50 100
Releases
Item: Product P2
Gross Requirements 70 80 25
Scheduled Receipts
On hand 0
Net Requirements 70 80 25
Planned Order 70 80 25
Releases
Item: Subassembly S2
Gross Requirements 100 200
Scheduled Receipts
On hand 0
Net Requirements 100 200
Planned Order 100 200
Releases
Item: Subassembly S3
Gross Requirements 70 80 25
Scheduled Receipts
On hand 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Net Requirements 68 80 25
Planned Order 68 80 25
Releases
Item: Component C6
Gross Requirements 136 260 50 200
Scheduled Receipts 10
On hand 5 5 15 15 15 15
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Components
a. Production machines
b. Material handling system
c. Computer control system
d. Human worker
Work station:
It is a location in the factory where some well-defined task or operation is
accomplished by an automated machine, a worker and machine combination, or a
worker using hand tools or portable tools.
Picture ..
Types:
a. Manually operated
Worker provides control
b. Semi-automated:
Machine performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of control
program
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Functions:
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Functions:
a. Communicate instruction to worker
b. Download part programs
c. Control material handling system
d. Schedule production
e. Failure Diagnosis
f. Monitor safety
g. Maintain quality control
h. Manage operation
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Manning Level
The average manning level of a multi-station manufacturing system is a useful
indicator of the direct labor content of the system. Let us define it as follows:
Utility workers are workers who are not specifically assigned to individual processing
or assembly stations. instead they perform functions such as:
(1) relieving workers at stations for personal breaks,
(2) maintenance and repair of the system,
(3) tool changing, and
(4) loading and/or unloading work units to and from the system.
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Flexibility
Is the attribute that allows a mixed model manufacturing system to cope with a certain
level of variation in part or product style without interruptions in production for
changeovers between models.
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5.3. CLASIFICATION
a. Single station manufacturing cells (Single Stations).
Reasons for the popularity of the single model workstation include:
(1) It is the easiest and least expensive manufacturing method to implement, especially
the manned version
(2) it is the most adaptable, adjustable, and flexible manufacturing system;and
(3) a manned single workstation can be converted to an automated station if demand
tor the parts or products made in the station justifies this conversion.
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5.4. EXERCISES
The Learning Curve
1) A certain mechanical assembly task required 3.15 min to complete when a
skilled worker did it for the first time. The task will be performed on all assembly line
used to produce 1UUUunits of a particular product. The line is currently operating no
a pilot basis, while workers are learning their respective tasks. The line will run on
this basis for 50 units, after which it will go into reg
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Nivel Manning
2) If Mi = 1 for the station i , means that a worker must be on the station
continuously . If a worker serving four machines proportionally, then the manning
level is Mi = 0.25 for each machine.Determine the n considering the following
conditions
Ts = 0.5 min (Service)
Tm = 1 min (Manufacturing)
Tr = 0.3 min ( Replacement)
+
=
+
1 + 0,5
=
0,3 + 0,5
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= 1,875 2
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A Single Station Manufacturing Cell operates independently of others work station in the
factory, although their activities are coordinated within the large production system.
6.1. TYpeS
A I: Single station manned cells
A II: Single station automated cells
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6.2.1. CHARACTERISTICS
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Analysis
a. Number of workstation
b. Number of machines in a machine cluster.
WL
n=
AT
Single part
WL = Q.Tc [min]
o Q: pieces required [pc]
o Tc : cycle time [min/pc]
= .
Multiple parts
= .
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j= number of parts
CORRECTION FACTORS:
1. Setup time.
=
Then
= + .
2. Availability (A)
Availability: maintenance reliability
3. Utilization (U)
Utilization: scheduling problems,
4. Worker efficiency ()
Then
= . . .
5. Defect rate
=
(1 )
OVERTIME
=
+
=
+
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6.4. EXERCISES
Determining the Number of Work Stations
1) A total of 800 shafts must be produced in the lathe section of the machine
shop during a particular week. Each shaft is identical and requires a machine cycle
time T, = 11.5 min. All of the lathes in the department are equivalent in terms of their
capability to produce the shaft in the specified cycle time, how many lathes must be
devoted to shaft production during the given week, if there are 40 he of available
time on each lathe?
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7.1. DEFINITIONS
Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified
and grouped together to take advantage of their similarities in design and production.
The parts can be grouped into part families. So a part family is a collection of parts
that are similar either because of geometric shape and size or because similar
processing steps are required in their manufacture.
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7.2. OBJECTIVES
The objectives in cellular manufacturing are similar to those of group technology:
7.3. ANALYSIS
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The rank order clustering technique, first proposed by King [is specifically applicable in
production flow analysis].
The problem addressed here is to determine how machines in an existing plant should
be grouped into machine cells.
Starting with the initial part-machine incidence matrix the algorithm consists, of the
following steps:
a. In each row of the matrix. Read the series of 1s and 0s (blank entries =0s)
from left to right as a binary number. Rank the rows in or der of decreasing value. In
case of a tie, rank the rows in the same order as they appear in the current matrix.
b. Numbering from top to bottom, is the current order of rows the same as the
rank order determined in the previous step? If yes, go to step 7, If no, go to the
following step.
d. In each column of the matrix. Read the series of I 's and O's (blank entries = (j's)
from top to bottom as a binary number. Rank the columns in order of decreasing
value, In case of a tie. Rank the columns in the same order as they appear in the
current matrix.
e. Numbering from left to right, is the current order of columns the same as the
rank order determined in the previous step? If yes. Go to step 7. If no. Go to the
following step.
g. Stop.
Example
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DISADVANTAGES
The weakness of production flow analysis is that the data used in the technique are
derived from existing production route sheets. In all likelihood, these route sheets
have been prepared by different process planners, and the routings may contain
operations that are no optimal, illogical, or unnecessary. Consequently, the final
machine groupings obtained in the analysis may be suboptimal.
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There are two methods suggested by Hollier. They are intended to arrange the
machines in an order that maximizes the proportion of in-sequence moves within the
cell
Hollier Method 1
The first method uses the sums of flow "From" and "To" each machine in the cell. The
method can be outlined as follows:
a. Developed From-To chart from part routing data. The data contained in the
chart indicate numbers of part moves between the machines (or workstations) in the
cell.
b. Determine the "From" and "To" sums for each machine. This is accomplished by
summing all of the "From" trips and "To" trips for each machine (or operation). The
"From" sum for a machine is determined by adding the entries in the corresponding
row, and the "To" sum is found by adding the entries in the corresponding column.
c. Assign machines to the cell hosed on minimum "From" or "To" sums. The
machine having the smallest sum is selected. If the minimum value is a "To" sum, then
the machine is placed at the beginning of the sequence. If the minimum value is a
"From" sum, then the machine is placed at the end of the sequence. Tie breaker rules:
(a) If a tie occurs between minimum "To" sums or minimum "From" sums, then the
machine with the minimum "From/To" ratio is selected.
(b) If both "To" and "From" sums are equal for a selected machine it is passed over
and the machine with the next lowest sum is selected.
(c) If a minimum "To" sum is equal to a minimum "From" sum, then both machines
are selected and placed at the beginning and end of the sequence, respectively.
d. Reformat the From-To chart. After each machine has been selected, restructure
the From-To chart by eliminating the row and column corresponding to the selected
machine and recalculate the "From" and "To" sums. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all
machines have been assigned.
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Hollier Method 2
a. Develop the From-To chart. This is the same step as in Hollier Method 1.
b. Determine the From/To ratio for each machine. This is accomplished by summing
up all of the "From" trips and "To" trips for each machine (or operation). The
"From" sum for a machine is determined by adding the entries in the
corresponding row, and the "To" sum is determined by adding the entries in the
corresponding column. For each machine, the From/To ratio is calculated by taking
the "From" sum for each machine and dividing by the respective "To" sum.
c. Arrange machines in order of decreasing From/To ratio. Machines with II high
From/To ratio distribute work to many machines in the cell but receive work from
few machines. Conversely, machines with a low From to ratio receive more work
than they distribute. Therefore, machines are arranged in order of descending
Prom/to ratio. That is, machines with high ratios are placed at the beginning of the
work flow, and machine, with low ratios are placed at the end of the work flow. in
case of a tie, the machine with the higher "From" value is placed ahead of the
machine with a lower value.
7.4. EXERCISES
1) Suppose that four machines. I, 2.3, and 4 have been identified as belonging in
a OT machine cell. An analysis of 50 parts processed on these machines has been
summarized in the From-To chart of Table 15.14. Additional information is that '50
parts enter the machine grouping at machine 3,20 parts leave after processing at
machine 1, and 30 parts leave after machine 4. Determine a logical machine
arrangement using Hollier Method 1.
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Solution:
Summing the From trips and To trips for each machine yields the "From" and "To"
sums in Table 15.15(a). The minimum sum value is the "To" sum for machine 3.
Machine 3 is therefore placed at the beginning of the sequence. Eliminating the row
and column corresponding to machine 3 yields the revised From-To chart in Table
15.15(b). The minimum sum in this chart is the "To" sum corresponding to machine 2.
Which is placed at the front at the sequence, immediately following machine 3.
Eliminating machine 2 produces the revised From-To chart in Table 15.15(c). The
minimum sum in this chart is the "To" sum for machine I. Machine I is placed after
machine 2 and finally machine 4 is placed at the end of the sequence. Thus, the
resulting machine sequence is 3--->2--->1--->4
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2 4
2 10 40 50
4 50 50
60 40 100
b) Network diagram:
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8.1. HISTORY
8.2. DEFINITION
8.3. BENEFICTS
A number of benefits can be expected in successful FMS applications. The principal
benefits are the following:
a. 24 hr/day operation.
b. Automatic tool changing at machine tools.
c. Automatic pallet changing at workstations.
d. Queues of parts at stations, and
e. Dynamic scheduling of production that takes into account irregularities from
normal operations.
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8.4. FLEXIBILITY
We identified three capabilities that a manufacturing system must possess to be
flexible:
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a. The ability to identify and distinguish among the different part or product styles
processed by the system.
b. Quick changeover of operating instructions
c. Quick changeover of physical setup.
8.5. COMPONENTS
Workstations.
Material handling and storage system.
Computer control system.
People are required to manage and operate the system.
8.5.1. WORKSTATIONS
a. Load/Unload Stations
The load/unload station is the physical interface between the FMS and the rest of the
factory.
Loading and unloading can be accomplished either manually or by automated handling
systems. Manual loading and unloading is prevalent in most FMS today.
c. Machining Stations
The principle types of processing station are CNC machine tools, these machining
centers include:
Automatic tool changing.
Tool storage.
Automatic palletized work parts.
Capacity for distributed numerical control (DNC).
e. Assembly Stations
Some FMSs are designed to perform assembly operations.
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The material handling and storage system in an FMS performs the following functions:
c. Temporary storage
The number of parts in the FMS will typically exceed the number of parts actually
being processed at any moment. Thus, each station has a small queue of parts waiting
to be processed, which helps to increase machine utilization.
The material handling function in an FMS is often shared between two systems: a
primary handling system and a secondary handling system.
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The primary handling system establishes the basic layout of the FMS and is
responsible for moving workparts between stations in the system. The types of
material handling equipment typically utilized for FMS layouts are summarized in Table
16.5. The primary handling system is sometimes supported by an automated storage
system.
The secondary handling system consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers
and similar mechanisms located at the workstations in the FMS. The function of the
secondary handling system is to transfer work from the primary system to the machine
tool or other processing station and to position the parts with sufficient accuracy and
repeatability to perform the processing or assembly operation.
FUNCTIONS
Functions performed by the FMS computer control system can be grouped into the
following categories:
a. Workstation control
In a fully automated FMS, the individual processing or assembly stations generally
operate under some form of computer control. For a machining system, CNC is used to
control the individual machine tools.
h. Production control
The part mix and rate at which the various parts are launched into the system must be
managed. Input data required for production control includes desired daily production
rates per part. Numbers of raw work parts available, and number of applicable pallets.
The production control function is accomplished by routing an applicable pallet to the
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load/unload area and providing instructions to the operator for loading the desired
work part.
i. Traffic control
This refers to the management of the primary material handling system that moves
work parts between stations. Traffic control is accomplished by actuating switches at
branches and merging points, stopping parts at machine tool transfer locations, and
moving pallets to load/unload stations.
j. Shuttle control
This control function is concerned with the operation and control of the secondary
handling system at each workstation. Each shuttle must be coordinated with the
primary handling system and synchronized with the operation of the machine tool
serves.
k. Workpiece monitoring
The computer must monitor the status of each cart and/or pallet in the primary and
secondary handling systems as well as the status of each of the various workpiece
types.
l. Tool control
In a machining system, cutting tools are required. Tool control is concerned with
managing two aspects of the cutting tools:
Tool location. This involves keeping track of the cutting tools at each
workstation, If one or mere tools required to process a particular workpiece is not
present at the station that is specified in the part's routing, the tool control subsystem
takes one or both of the following actions:
Determines whether an alternative workstation that has the required tool is
available and/or
Notifies the operator responsible for tooling in the system that the tool storage
unit at the station must be loaded with the required cutter(s).
Tool life monitoring. In this aspect of tool control, a tool life is specified to the
computer for each cutting tool in the FMS. A record of the machining time usage is
maintained for each of the tools, and when the cumulative machining time reaches the
specified life of the tool, the operator is notified that a tool replacement is needed.
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n. Diagnostics
This function is available to a greater or lesser degree on many manufacturing systems
to indicate the probable source of the problem when a malfunction occurs. It can also
be used to plan preventive maintenance in the system and to identify Impending
failures. The purpose of the diagnostics function is to reduce breakdowns and
downtime and increase availability of the system. The modular structure of the FMS
application software for system
One additional component in the FMS is human labor. Humans are needed to manage
the operations of the FMS. Functions typically performed by humans include:
a. Loading raw work parts into the system.
b. Unloading finished parts (or assemblies) from the system.
c. Changing and setting tools.
d. Equipment maintenance and repair.
e. NC part programming in a machining system.
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a. Dedicated FMS
Dedicated FMS is designed to produce a limited variety of part styles, and the
complete universe of parts to be made on the system is known in advance.
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q. Order FMS
A random-order EMS is more appropriate when the part family is large, there are
substantial variations in part configurations, there will be new part designs introduced
into the system and engineering changes in parts currently produced, and the
production schedule is subject to change from day-to-day.
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8.8. EXERCISES
Bottleneck model on a simple problem
1) A flexible machining system consists of two machining workstations and a
load/unload station. Station 1 is the load/unload station. Station 2 performs milling
operations and consists of two servers (two identical CNC milling machines). Station
3 has one server that performs drilling (one CNC drill press). The stations are
connected by a part handling system that has four work carriers. The mean transport
time is 3.0 min. The FMS produces two parts, A and B. The part mix fractions and
process routings for the two parts are presented in the table below. The operation
frequency f'ik = 1.0 for all operations. Determine:
a. Maximum production rate of the FMS,
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Figure 21: Un sistema flexible de manufactura de cinco estaciones. (Foto- Cincinnati Milacron-Libro Mikell Groover
3ra Ed.)
Deterministic Models
Queueing Models
These models can be used to describe some of the dynamics not accounted for in
deterministic approaches. These models are based on the mathematical theory of
queues. They permit the inclusion of queues, but only in a general way and for
relatively simple system configurations. The performance measures that are calculated
are usually average values for steady-state operation of the system.
Examples of queueing models to study FMS, include [4], [33] and [36]. Probably the
most well-known of the FMS queueing models is CAN -O [31], [32].
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These simulations are applied in the later stages of design, probably offers the most
accurate method for modeling the specific aspects of a given FMS [28], [45].
The computer model can be constructed to closely resemble the details of a complex
FMS operation.
Indeed, the simulation can be helpful in determining optimum values for these
parameters.
Other techniques that have been applied to analyze FMS design and operational
problems include mathematical programming [34] and various heuristic approaches
(1), [17]. Several literature reviews on operations research techniques directed at FMS
problems are included among the references, specifically [2], [6], [20], and [37].
The term bottleneck refers to the fact that the output of the production system has an
upper limit, given that the product mix flowing through the system is fixed.
Part mix
The mix of the various part or product styles produced by the FMS during the time
period of interest.
P
pj = 1.0
j=1
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Workload
It is an average parameter
The subscript I refers to the station, j refers to the part or product, and k refers to the
sequence of operations in the process routing.
where WL = average workload for station i (min),
tijk = processing time for operation k
in process pian i at station i (min),f'lk = operation frequency for operation k in part j at
station I. and PI = part mix fraction for part j.
si = the number of servers at workstation i,
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9.2. EXERCISES
1)
2)
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Bottleneck
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II. SECTION 2
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10.1.1. HISTORY
The development of NC owes much to the United States Air Force and the early
aerospace industry. The first development in the area of NC is attributed to John
Parsons and his associate Frank Stulen at Parsons Corporation in Traverse City,
Michigan. Parson had experimented with the concept of using coordinate position
data contained on punched cards to define and machine the surface contours of
airfoil shapes, he name this system as Cardmatic Milling Machine.
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s. Processing equipment
It performs usual work. It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting
workpiece into a completed part.
The operations are directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instructions
contained in the part program.
10.2. NC APPLICATIONS
The operating principle of NC has many applications. There are many industrial
operations in which the position of a work head must be controlled relative to a part or
product being processed.
a. Machining Process
Mills
Lathes
Drills
Surface grinders
Cylindrical grinders
Wood routers
t. Cutting Process
Plasma cutters
Water jet cutters
Laser cutting
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c. Additive Process
3D Printing
10.2. NC CHARACTERISTICS
NC technology is appropriate for:
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Advantages
Non-productive time is reduced
Greater accuracy and repeatability
Lower scrap rates
Inspection requirements are reduced
Most complex parts geometry are possible.
Engineering change can be accommodated more gracefully.
Simpler fixtures are needed.
Shorter manufacturing lead times (MLT).
Reduced part inventory.
Less floor space required.
Operator skill level requirements are reduced.
Disadvantages
High investment cost
High maintenance efforts
Part programming
High utilization of NC equipment
10.4. EXERCISES
1) A machinable grade of aluminum is to be milled on an NC machine with a 20
mm diameter four-tooth end milling cutter. Cutting speed = 120 m/min and feed =
0.008 mm/tooth. Convert these values to rev/min and mm/rev, respectively.
= 20 mm
Cutting speed = Cs = 120 m/min
feed = 0.008 mm/tooth
Solution:
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=
en m/rev
120
= = . /
20103
Feed in / = (4 /)(0.08 /) = . /
Solution:
200
= = . /
120103
Feed in / = (16 /)(0.05 /) = . /
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Milling Machines
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MCU(Microcontroller)
Indexer
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Fixtures Vice
Chip Conveyor
Part Feeder
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Point to Point
Positioning system, move the worktable to a programmed location without regards for
the path taken to get that location.
Once move has been completed, some processing action is accomplished by the
workhead.
Example: Drilling.
In this case the tool perform the process while the worktable is moving.
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Linear interpolation
It is the most basic method.
Circular interpolation
The method permits programming a circular arc by specifying the following parameter:
Coordinate of starting point
Coordinate of end point
Center or radius
Direction of path
Helical interpolation
This method combines circular interpolation scheme for two axis with linear
interpolation of a third axis.
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11.5.2. MEMORY
a. Main memory
i. ROM: operating system and machine interface program.
ii. RAM: numerical control program.
b. Secondary memory (hard disk)
i. Part programs.
ii. Macros.
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The computer translates the instructions, perform arithmetical tasks and post process
the program.
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Control Keys
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b. Reference point R
The reference point is a fixed point on the machine. It serves for the calibration of the
measuring system.
The reference point must be approached after each switch-on of the machine to
communicate the exact distance between the points M and N (T) to the control.
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Code: D10-30-2-R1
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Tool Compensation
Flow Process
1. Geometry
Part geometry
Workpiece
2. Operations
Define operations
Select tool
Define tool path: Coordinates table
Cutting parameters
3. Write the program
Header
Reference point
Operations
4. Simulation
Dry Run
5. Run
Cycle start
Geometry
a. Part Geometry
Part drawing
Intersection points
b. Workpiece
Stock
blank
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Operation
Tool Path Strategies
Cutting parameters
12.3.1. OPERATIONS
Process
Rough-finish
rough finish
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sandvick
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Example
Face milling zig-zag
= 100 /
= 0.1 /
= 40
=4
1000
=
100 1000
=
40
= 795.77
Programming
a. Block
Number
Sequential number
One function
One movement
b. Program Structure
1. Name
00001;
2. Header
Basic instructions
Coordinates system
Units system
Cancel compensation
Cancel cycles
Reference
3. Operations
a. Operation 1
Reference point
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Select tool
Cutting parameters
Tool path
b. Operation 2
Reference point
Select tool
Cutting parameters
Tool path
c. Operation n
Reference point
Select tool
Cutting parameters
Tool path
Simulation
Dry Run
Run
Cycle start
12.4. EXERCISES
1) The two axes of an x-y positioning table are each driven by a stepping motor
connected to a leadscrew with a 4:1 gear reduction. The number of step angles on each
stepping motor is 200. Each leadscrew has a pitch = 5.0 mm and provides an axis range
= 400.0 mm. There are 16 bits in each binary register used by the controller to store
position data for the two axes. (a) What is the control resolution of each axis? (b) What
are the required the rotational speeds and corresponding pulse train frequencies of
each stepping motor in order to drive the table at 600 mm/min in a straight line from
point (25,25) to point (300,150)? Ignore acceleration.
Solution:
a) 1 = / = 5.0/(4200) = 0.00625
2 = /(2 1) = 400/(216 1) = 400/65,535 = 0.00610
= {0.00625,0.00610} = .
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Solution:
a) = / , = / = 100(200)/5 =
.
b) = /60 = 500(200)/60(5) = .
c) = / = 16 500/5 = /
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Chapter 13 G CODES
Preparatory function.
Miscellaneous function.
Oneshot G code
The G code is effective only in the block in which it is.
Modal G code
The G code is effective until another G code of the same group is specified.
List of function
Group 01 G00 G01 G02 G03 G33
Group 02 G17 G18 G19
Group 03 G90 G91
Group 05 G94 G95
Group 06 G20 G21
Group 07 G40 G41 G42
Group 08 G43 G44 G49
Group 09 G73 G74 G76 G80G89
Group 10 G98 G99
Group 11 G50 G51
Group 12 G65 G66 G67
Group 13 G96 G97
Group 14 G54G59
Group 15 G61G64
Group 16 G68 G69
Positioning (G00)
The G00 command moves a tool to the position in the workpiece system specified with
an absolute or an incremental command at a rapid traverse rate.
FORMAT: G00 Xe Ye Ze;
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FORMAT: G01 Xe Ye Ze F;
02
FORMAT: Arc in the XpYp plane 17
03
02
Arc in the ZpXp plane 18
03
03
Arc in the YpZp plane 19
04
The numerical value following I, J, or K, is a vector component in which the arc center
is seen from the start point.
EXAMPLES:
Direction of the Circular Interpolation (G17, G18, G19)
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G81 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ F_ K_;
X_ Y_: Hole position data
Z_: The distance from point R to the bottom of the hole
R_: The distance from the initial level to point R level
F_: Cutting feedrate
K_: Number of repeats (if required)
Examples:
Drill 6 holes in a rectangular pattern
G82 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ P_ F_ K_;
X_ Y_: Hole position data
Z_: The distance from point R to the bottom of the hole
R_: The distance from the initial level to point R level
P_: Dwell time at the bottom of a hole
F_: Cutting feed rate
K_: Number of repeats (if required)
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G83 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ Q_ F_ K_;
X_ Y_: Hole position data
Z_: The distance from point R to the bottom of the hole
R_: The distance from the initial level to point R level
Q_: Depth of cut for each cutting feed
F_: Cutting feed rate
K_: Number of repeats (if required)
In this tapping cycle, when the bottom of the hole has been reached, the spindle is
rotated in the reverse direction.
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TO DEVELOP
13.4. EXERCISES
1) Write 2 programs in which the milling tool follow the path shown in Figure
1. The first program must be done in relative coordinates and the second program in
absolute coordinates.
First Program:
N10 G21 G17 G54 G40 G49
N20 G70 G80 G90
N30 G91 G28 Z0
N40 M06 T01
N50 G43 H01
N60 G00 X0 Y0 Z5
N70 M03 S1500;
N80 G00 X25 Y25 F500;
N90 G01 Z-5
N100 G01 X0 Y75
N110 G01 X75 Y0
N120 G01 X0 Y-75
N130 G01 X-75 Y0
N140 G01 Z5
Second Program:
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N60 G00 X0 Y0 Z5
N70 M03 S1500;
N80 G00 X25 Y25 F500;
N90 G01 Z-5
N100 G01 X25 Y100
N110 G01 X100 Y100
N120 G01 X100 Y25
N130 G01 X25 Y100
N140 G01 Z5
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III. SECCION 3
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14.3. ANATOMY
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Types of Joints
You must define the link in the link of input and output
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Linear (L)
Orthogonal (O)
Rotational (R)
Twisting (T)
Revolving (V)
Configuration of a Robot
A robot manipulator has two sections:
a. Assemble body and arm:
Positioning the end effector (tool)
Three degrees of freedom
b. Assembly wrist:
Orient the end effector (tool)
2-3 degrees of freedom
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Grippers
Tweezers are used to: grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle
Tools
Spot welding
Arc welding
Boring
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Intelligent Control
Ability to respond to sophisticated sensors: vision, calculations, decision making.
14.8. EXERCISES
1) For a robot of 3 degrees of freedom can have different configurations?
2) A gear motor functions as the drive unit for a linear joint of an industrial
robot. The oint should be accurate to 0.25 mm. The motor is connected to a lead
screw through a reduction gear 2: 1 (two turns of the motor for rotating the lead
screw). The passage of the lead screw is 5.0 mm. The mechanical system errors (due
to clearances lead screw and gear reducer) are represented by a normal distribution
with a standard deviation of 0.05 mm. Specify the amount of pitch angles must be
the engine to meet the requirements of accuracy.
Solution:
Repeatability = 3 = 3(0.05) = 0.15 mm
Accuracy = 0.25 mm = 0.5 CR + 3 = 0.5 CR + 0.15
0.5 CR = 0.25 - 0.15 = 0.10
CR = 0.20 mm
Assume CR = CR1 = p/rgns
ns = p/(rg CR) = 5.0/(2 x 0.20) = 12.5 ns= 13 step angles
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15.1. CONDITIONS
For application of an industrial robot
1. 1. Dangerous tasks for operators
a. Foundry
b. Welding
2. Repetitive work cycles
3. Management of difficult material for the operator
4. Work stationary
5. Operation multiple exchange
6. Long production lines without relief
Material Transfer
The primary purpose of the robot is to pick up part at location and place them at a new
location.
Reorientation
Conveyor
Limited sequence control
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Process
Palletizing
Depalletizing
Process
Die casting: unloading part
Plastic molding: unloading part
Metal machining operations: dual gripper
Forging: hammer action is a problem
Press working: human security
Heat treatment
Process
Spot welding
Is a common application.
Tool is heavy, pour location.
Arc welding
Spray coating
Drilling
Grinding
Waterjet cutting
Laser cutting
Assembly
Combination of two or more parts to for a new entity, called a subassembly or an
assembly.
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Inspection
The robot perform loading and unloading task.
The robot manipulates an inspection device.
15.6. PROGRAMMING
A robot program can be defined as a path in space to be followed by the manipulator,
combined with peripheral actions to support the work cycle.
Peripheral actions.
Open and closing the gripper.
Performing logical decision.
Communicating with other piece in the cell.
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In The Center
Polar, cylindrical, SCARA.
Loading or perform tasks between one or more machines in the cell.
In Line
One or more robots
Assembly line
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Mobile
Lineal movement.
Follow the parts movement.
Relative position between robot and part is cero.
Robot return to beginning position.
Large action area (cars painting).
Overhead Robots
Optimizes space
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Accident
Collision
Flattening
Parts projection
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Material characteristics
Physical characteristics:
State
Size
Weight
Shape
Condition (hot, cold)
Risk of damage
Safety risk
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Plant Layout
Is the arrangement of areas and equipment in the factory.
b. Product layout
Production of standard or identical types of part in relatively high quantities: cars, etc.
Fixed route.
Handling systems moves the part along route: conveyors.
Components are delivered in work station: trucks, automated guides vehicles.
c. Fixed position
The product is large and heavy.
Single location during most of its fabrication.
Cranes, hoists, industrial trucks.
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Unit load should be designed to be as large as is practical for the material handling
system.
Considerations:
a. Multiples items can be handled simultaneously.
b. Reduce number of trip.
c. Loading and unloading times are reduced.
d. Product damage is decreased.
Storage systems
Raw material.
Work in process.
Categories:
Conventional storage methods.
Automated storage systems.
Unitizing equipment
Containers used to hold individual items during handling
Pallets, boxes, baskets, barrels, pails, and drums.
Equipment used to load and package the containers.
Automatically load cartons onto pallet.
Wrapping and packing.
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Industrial Trucks
Characteristics:
Low And Medium Cost
Manual Or Powered
Low Production: Low Rate Of Delivery Per Hour
Types:
Walkie Trucks
Forklift Trucks
Towing Tractor
Uses:
Light Load
Palletizing Containers
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No obstructive pathways
Types:
Driverless trains
Pallet trucks
Unit load carriers
Uses:
Moving different material from various load points to various unload points
Uses:
Lines assemblies
Conveyors
Large quantities
Fixed path
In floor, on the floor, overhead
Types:
Roller conveyors
Skate-wheel conveyors
Belt conveyors
Chain conveyor
In floor towline conveyors
Overhead trolley conveyors
Power and free overhead trolley conveyors
Cart on track conveyor
Other types
Uses:
Lines assemblies
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17.6. EXERCISES
1. Go to plan requirements amounts of C2 P1 component in the product. P1
required deliveries are given in Table. The time to complete the order, manufacturing
and assembly are to P1 and C2 delivery time is one week; and S1 and M2, the
delivery time is two weeks. Product structure given in Figure 43.4. Determine the
time phases requirements for M2, C2 and S1 in order to meet the master program P1.
Assume no commonly used items and that all stock records and scheduled receptions
are zero. Use a similar format Figure. Disregard demand beyond the period P1 10.
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17.7. CHARACTERISTICS
Demand for the product is high or medium.
The products made on the line are identical or similar.
The total work required to assemble the product can be divided into small work
elements.
It is technologically impossible or economically infeasible to automate the
assembly operations.
A mechanized transports system is used to move the base part along the line as they
are gradually transformed into final product.
Manning level
=
With utility workers
+
=
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17.8. ANALYSIS
Production Rate
= [ ]
= . . []
Da: annual demand [pc/yr]
AT: available time []
S: [shift/wk]
H: [hr/shift]
Cycle Time
1
=
60
= []
E: line efficiency (0.90 to 0.98)
LABOR
=
Assumptions
Element times are constant values
Te values are additive
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17.11. ALGORITHMS
The objective is to distribute the total work load on the assembly line as evenly as
possible among the workers.
Mathematically
Minimize (wTs Twc)
Minimize ( )
Subject to:
1.
2. All precedence requirements are obeyed
17.13. EXERCISES
Parallel Work Stations for Better Line Balance
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