Biography and Educational Contributions of Educationists and Philosophers

SUMMARY OF BIOGRAPHIES AND EDUCATIONAL/PEDAGOGIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF SELECTED PHILOSOPHERS AND/0R EDUCATIONISTS.
GOOD FOR SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
SUMMARY OF BIOGRAPHIES AND EDUCATIONAL/PEDAGOGIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF

SELECETED PHILOSOPHERS AND/0R EDUCATIONISTS
Compiled by
AFUGE AKAME JUNIOR RAMSY (C.C)
Other class contributors
GWANYI LIVINGSTON TEKU
KONGNSO RENE JOKFU
MBAH LYDIA YOPUKUH
MEGA IRENE UWA
NGONG PIUS NYUYSHAVEN
NGUNYUI ASABA BETTY
NIBA EMMANUELA VALERIE MANKA
SUIRU DESMOND FINILA
TAKEDO TANKO DONGE A.
WENDOH GILBERT
WINIFRED MUNDIH FOMBO
DINGBOBGA ELVIS BABILA
DORIS BONGSIYSI KONGNSO
FEMSHANG MUANZE CHARLES
CLASS OF ENSET BAMBILI 2ND BATCH, 2012

UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA
This is a summary of class assignments unedited. Do not cite
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CHAPTER ONE
BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF F.W.FROEBEL
1.0 BIOGRAPHY OF FRIEDRICH WILHELM A. FROEBEL (FRBEL)
Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (1782-1852) was a German educator and psychologist who
was a pioneer of the kindergarten system and influenced the growth of the manual training movement in
education. He was born on April 21, 1782, in Oberweissbach, a small village in Thuringia. Friedrich
Wilhelm August Froebel was the youngest of five sons of Johann Jacob Froebel, a Lutheran minister. His
mother died 9 months after his birth. In 1797 Froebel was apprenticed to a forester in Thuringia. Two
years later, while visiting his brother, Froebel took some courses at the University of Jena. The church
and Lutheran Christian faith were pillars in Froebels own early education. In 1792, Froebel went to live
in the small town of Stadt-Ilm with his uncle, a gentle and affectionate man. On 11 September 1818,
Froebel wed Wilhelmina Henriette Hoffmeister (b. 1780) in Berlin. The union was childless. Wilhelmina
died in 1839, and Froebel married again in 1851. His second wife was Louise Levin. At the age of 15
Froebel, who loved nature, became the apprentice to a forester. In 1799, he decided to leave his
apprenticeship and study mathematics and botany in Jena.
1.1 Educational Works and Teaching Career
The year 1805 marked a turning point in Froebel's life. He went to Frankfurt intending to become
an architect but instead ended up teaching in a preparatory school. The effect of this teaching experience
on Froebel was such that he decided to make education his life's work. In 1801 Froebel returned home to
be with his ailing father. After his father's death the following year he became a clerk in the forestry
department of the state of Bamburg. From 1802 to 1804, he worked as a land surveyor. From 1804 to
1805 he served as a private secretary to several noblemen.
He began as an educator in 1805 at the Musterschule a secondary school in Frankfurt, where he

learnt about Johann Heinrich Pestalozzis ideas. He later worked with Pestalozzi in Switzerland where his
ideas further developed. From 1806 Froebel was the live-in teacher for a Frankfurt noble familys three
sons. He lived with the three children from 1808 to 1810 at Pestalozzis institute in Yverdon-les-Bains in
Switzerland.
In 1811, Froebel once again went back to school in Gttingen and Berlin, eventually leaving
without earning a certificate. He became a teacher at the Plamannsche Schule in Berlin, a boarding school
for boys, and at that time also a pedagogical and patriotic centre.
During his service in the Ltzow Free Corps in 1813 and 1814 when he was involved in two
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campaigns against Napoleon Froebel found himself a civilian once again and became an assistant at the
Museum of Mineralogy under Christian Samuel Weiss. This did not, however, last very long, and by
1816 he had quit and founded the Allgemeine Deutsche Erziehungsanstalt (German General Education
Institute) in Griesheim near Arnstadt in Thuringia. A year later he moved this to Keilhau near
Rudolstadt.
1.1.1 Educational Philosophy, works and Achievements of Froebel
Throughout educational history, world philosophers have wrestled with understanding the myriad
of questions and problems surrounding the education of societys children. Historically, many early
childhood educators supported the idea that children should be trained as soon as possible to become
productive members of the larger society so that the cultural heritage of the society could be preserved
from generation to generation; this cultural imposition theory has been prevalent throughout the
educational history of the world (Staff, 1998). Several educational reformers opposed the cultural
imposition theory through their beliefs that childhood is an important period of human growth and
development, and that adults should not impose their views and ways upon young children; instead, these
reformers defined educational appropriateness as what is necessary to each child's level of development
and readiness, not what is expected by society (Staff, 1998). The German educator, Friedrich Froebel, was
one of these pioneers of early childhood educational reform. As an idealist, he believed that every child
possessed, at birth, his full educational potential, and that an appropriate educational environment was
necessary to encourage the child to grow and develop in an optimal manner (Staff, 1998).
Froebel's philosophy of education was based on Idealism. He believed that every human being
had a spiritual essence and that every person had spiritual worth and dignity. Like Idealists, he also
believed that every child had within him all he was to be at birth, and that the proper educational
environment was to encourage the child to grow and develop in an optimal manner. This was the basis of
the Kindergarten--a place for little ones to grow and blossom and be what they were destined to be.
Froebel applied his so called spherical philosophy to education and it, rather than empirical observation,
guided his work. Because of his strong religious beliefs, some educators have argued that his approach is
more accurately described as mystical rather than philosophical. His method was to counter-pose
opposites that would then be resolved through the mediation of a third element. For example, Froebel held
that mind and matter, although opposites are both subject to the same laws of nature in which God, the
third element, is imminent.
1.1.2 Educational Works (Books) and Achievements
Froebel published close to five widely recognized books. In 1820, Froebel published the first of
his five Keilhau pamphlets, An Unser deutsches Volk (To Our German People). The other four were
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published between then and 1823.
The Education of Man (1826)

In 1826 he published his main literary work, Die Menschenerziehung (The Education of Man)
and founded the weekly publication Die erziehenden Familien (The Educating Families). In the
Education of Man (1826), Froebel articulated the following idealist themes:
all existence originates in and with God;
humans possess an inherent spiritual essence that is the vitalizing life force that causes
development;
all beings and ideas are interconnected parts of a grand, ordered, and systematic universe. Froebel
based his work on these principles, asserting that each child at birth has an internal spiritual
essencea life forcethat seeks to be externalized through self-activity. Further, child
development follows the doctrine of pre-formation, the unfolding of that which was present
latently in the individual.
In Froebel's major educational work, The Education of Man (1826), he explained the basic
philosophy which guided his educational undertakings--the unity of all things in God. This doctrine is
evident in his work in the area of early-childhood education, to which he turned his attention in 1836.
This culminated in the development of his famous kindergarten in 1840. That same year Froebel began to
instruct teachers in the principles and methods of the kindergarten.
In 1816 Froebel opened the Universal German Educational Institute at Keilham, a school based on
his own educational theories. Its curriculum was comprehensive in nature, covering all aspects of the
student's growth and development--both physical and mental
In 1828 and 1829 he pursued plans for a peoples education institute (Volkserziehungsanstalt) in
Helba (nowadays a constituent community of Meiningen), but they were never realized. In 1831 he
founded an educational institute in Wartensee (Lucerne) in Switzerland. In 1833 he moved this to
Willisau, and from 1835 to 1836, he headed the orphanage in Burgdorf (Berne), where he also published
the magazine Grundzge der Menschenerziehung (Features of Human Education). In 1836 appeared his
work Erneuerung des Lebens erfordert das neue Jahr 1836 (The New Year 1836 Calls For the Renewal
of Life).
He returned to Germany, dedicated himself almost exclusively to preschool child education and
began manufacturing playing materials in Bad Blankenburg. In 1837 he founded a care, playing and
activity institute for small children in Bad Blankenburg. From 1838 to 1840 he also published the
magazine Ein Sonntagsblatt fr Gleichgesinnte (A Sunday Paper for the Like-Minded).
1.2.0 Froebel and His Kindergarten Philosophy
One of Froebels greatest educational contributions is the aspect of kindergarten which he coined
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in 1840 for the Play and Activity Institute he had founded in 1837 at Bad Blankenburg for young
children, together with Wilhelm Middendorf and Heinrich Langethal. These two men were Froebels
most faithful colleagues when his ideas were also transplanted to Keilhau near Rudolstadt.
This preschool experience for children grew out of Froebel's belief that man is essentially part of
the total universe that is God. He felt that the only way for one to become one's real self, as God intended,
was through the natural unfolding of the innate qualities that made up the whole person. This process
should begin as soon as possible and under as natural conditions as possible. The program encouraged
free activity, so that forces within the child could be released; creativeness, since man, being part of the
creative God, should also create; social participation, since man must by nature act in society (a departure
from Rousseau); and motor expression, which is related to activity and learning by doing.
He designed the educational play materials known as Froebel Gifts, in German called Frbelgaben,
which included geometric building blocks and pattern activity blocks. A book entitled Inventing
Kindergarten, by Norman Brosterman, examines the influence of Friedrich Froebel on Frank Lloyd
Wright and modern art.
For Froebel, play facilitated children's process of cultural recapitulation, imitation of adult
vocational activities, and socialization. He believed the human race, in its collective history, had gone
through major epochs of cultural development that added to and refined its culture. According to
Froebel's theory of cultural recapitulation, each individual human being repeated the general cultural
epoch in his or her own development. By playing, children socialize and imitate adult social and
economic activities as they are gradually led into the larger world of group life. The kindergarten
provided a milieu that encouraged children to interact with other children under the guidance of a loving
teacher.
Friedrich Froebels great insight was to recognise the importance of the activity of the child in
learning. He introduced the concept of free work (Freiarbeit) into pedagogy and established the game
as the typical form that life took in childhood, and also the games educational worth. Activities in the
first kindergarten included singing, dancing, gardening and self-directed play with the Froebel Gifts.
Froebel intended, with his Mutter- und Koselieder a songbook that he published to introduce the
young child into the adult world.
These ideas about childhood development and education were introduced to academic and royal
circles through the tireless efforts of his greatest proponent, the Baroness Bertha Marie von Marenholtz-
Blow. Through her Froebel made the acquaintance of the Royal House of the Netherlands, various
Thuringian dukes and duchesses, including the Romanov wife of the Grand Duke von Sachsen-Weimar.
Froebel gathered donations to support art education for children in honor of the 100th anniversary of the
birth of Goethe. The Duke of Meiningen granted the use of his hunting lodge, called Marienthal (the Vale
of Mary) in the resort town of Bad Liebenstein for Froebel to train the first women as Kindergarten
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teachers .
The kindergarten is a special educational environment in which this self-active development occurs. The
kindergarten's gifts, occupations, and social and cultural activities, especially play, promote this self-
actualization.
Froebels idea of the kindergarten found appeal, but its spread in Germany was thwarted by the
Prussian government, whose education ministry banned it on 7 August 1851 as atheistic and demagogic
for its alleged destructive tendencies in the areas of religion and politics. Other states followed suit. The
reason for the ban, however, seems to have been a confusion of names. Froebels nephew Karl Frbel had
written and published Weibliche Hochschulen und Kindergrten (Female Colleges and Kindergartens),
which apparently met with some disapproval.
In spite of this, Froebels student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United
States at Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found
the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States the language at Schurzs kindergarten had
been German, to serve an immigrant community in Boston in 1860. This paved the way for the
concepts spread in the USA. The German migr Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in
Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year. In the meantime, there are many
kindergartens in Germany named after Froebel that continue his pedagogy. Many of them have sprung
from parental or other private initiatives. The biggest Froebel association today runs more than 100
kindergartens and other early childhood institutions throughout the country through the Froebel-Group.
Others like Thekla Naveau, Angelika Hartmann etc, followed with the creation of kindergarten in their
respective countries.
1.3. Limitations of Froebels View of the Kindergarten
Froebel was convinced that the kindergarten's primary focus should be on playthe process by
which he believed children expressed their innermost thoughts, needs, and desires. Froebel's emphasis on
play contrasted with the traditional view prevalent during the nineteenth century and even today that play,
a form of idleness and disorder, was an unworthy element of human life, for it is commonly said that all
play without learning makes Jack a merry toy.
Froebel believed in an almost mystical way that an object could in some way create symbolic
meaning for a child (for example, association with a ball teaches the meaning of unity). In later years the
use of objects was to become a formalized and fixed part of the kindergarten curriculum. The "unfolding
of innate qualities" in a mystical manner has also been criticized as being unscientific.
1.4 Influence of Froebels Kindergarten and Works on Todays Education
Froebel died on 21 June 1852 in Mariental. His grave is still found at the cemetery at Schweina,
where his widow, who died in Hamburg, was also buried on 10 January 1900. Yet, his kindergarten
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achievement is still in existence today-in Cameroon it often referred to as Nursery School. The favorable
aspects of his view of the kindergarten lie in Froebel's emphasis on the child, the view that education is
growth, the recognition of the importance of activity in education, and the position that knowledge is not
the end of education. . He laid great emphasis on the relationship between teacher and pupil and on the
need for continuity and connectedness in the school curriculum. This is what education today also
requires.
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CHAPTER TWO
BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUINTILIAN
2.0 BIOGRAPHY OF QUINTILIAN

Quintilian is thought to have been born somewhere around 35-40 A. D. (Kennedy, 1969, p. 15) in
Calagurris, now known as Calahorra, Spain. His father, a well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study
rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer, who died
in 59. He studied in Rome, later becoming a teacher of oratory and rhetoric (Mayer, 1967, p. 101).
Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in the law
courts. His father had been an orator before him but never was as prominent as his son would become.At
some time, probably in the early 80s, Quintilian married a very young woman. She died at the age of 18,
after giving birth to two sons, who soon died as well. The date of Quintilian's death is uncertain.
After 20 years of teaching, Quintilian retired and devoted himself to writing. Sometime after this,
but before Domitian's death in 96, Quintilian was appointed by him as tutor to his two grandnephews; and
through the influence of their father, Flavius Clemens, he received the insignia and privileges of a consul.
Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Spain, possibly to practice law in the courts of
his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's
short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been a close advisor of the Emperor, which
probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69.
After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian
opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his students was Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus. The
Emperor Vespasian made him a consul. The emperor "in general was not especially interested in the arts,
butwas interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class". This
subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school, since it freed him of pressing monetary
concerns. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients.
2.1 Educational Works (Books) Of Quintilian
The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled Institutio
Oratoria (generally referred to in English as the Institutes of Oratory), published around AD 95. This
work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and
development of the orator himself, providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave.
An earlier text, De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has
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been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in
Institutio Oratoria.In addition, there are two sets of declamations, Declamationes Majores and
Declamationes Minores, which have been attributed to Quintilian.
2.1.1 Quintilian on Rhetoric
In Quintilians time, rhetoric was primarily composed of three aspects: the theoretical, the
educational, and the practical. This eclecticism also prevented him from adhering too rigidly to any
particular school of thought on the matter, although Cicero stands out among the other sources. Quintilian
also refused any short, simple lists of rules; he evidently felt that the study and art of rhetoric could not be
so reduced. This relates to his discussion of nature and art. Quintilian evidently preferred the natural,
especially in language, and disliked the excessive ornamentation popular in the style of his
contemporaries.
Institutio Oratoria is effectively a comprehensive textbook of the technical aspects of rhetoric. From the
eleventh chapter of Book II to the end of Book XI, Quintilian covers such topics as natural order, the
relation of nature and art, invention, proof, emotion, and language. Perhaps most influential among the
ideas discussed is his examination of tropes and figures.
Throughout these and other discussions, Quintilian remains concerned with the practical,
applicable aspect, rather than the theoretical. Unlike many modern theorists, he does not see figurative
language as a threat to the stability of linguistic reference .The referential use of a word was always the
primary meaning, and the use of figurative language was merely an addition to it, not a replacement for it.
As to politics Quintilian, like others of his time, felt free to eulogize the great anti-Caesarean leaders of
the dying republic, but only because the assumption was universal that the system they had championed
was gone for ever
2.1.2 Quintilian on Education
In the words of Quintilian himself, he says My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator
Book I of Institutio Oratoria discusses at length the proper method of training an orator, virtually from
birth. This focus on early and comprehensive education was in many ways a reflection of Quintilians
career Quintilians Institutio Oratoria is a landmark in the history of Roman education: it is the
culmination of a long development, and it had no successor.
Quintilian was more focused as far as education is concerned. He lays out the educational process
step by step, from having a father conceive the highest hopes of his son from the moment of his birth.
Other concerns are that the childs nurse should speak and that both the parents and the teachers of the
child should be well-educated. With respect to the parents, Quintilian does not restrict this remark to
fathers alone a well-educated mother is regarded as an asset to the growing orator. Quintilian also
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presents a wide review of suitable literary examples, and this work is also an important work of literary
criticism. While he clearly favors certain writers, his fairness is notable, as even writers, such as Sallust,
an influential practitioner of the sort of style that Quintilian opposed, are afforded some consideration.
Above all, Quintilian holds up Cicero as an example of a great writer and orator.
Quintilian discusses many issues of education that are still relevant today. He believed that
education should be begun early, as mentioned above, but also that it should be pleasurable for the child.
Saying Above all things we must take care that the child, who is not yet old enough to love his studies,
does not come to hate them and dread the bitterness which he had once tasted, even when the years of
infancy are left behind. His studies must be made an amusement
He also examines the various pros and cons of public schooling versus homeschooling, eventually
coming out in favour of public school, so long as it is a good school. His view is that public schools teach
social skills along with their studies, and a student would benefit more from this than from studying in
seclusion.
One must note, however, that Quintilian makes a point of declaring that a good teacher will not
burden himself with a larger number of pupils than he can manage, and it is further of the very first
importance that he should be on only friendly and intimate terms with us and make his teaching not a duty
but a labor of love
2.1.3 Quintilians Theory of Education
In his theory of Education, Quintilian identifies five theories each of which identifies a given set
of educational questions. Below are the theories.
I. Theory of Value.
Here, Quintilians analogy focuses on the following two questions:
What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning?
What are the goals of education?
Quintilian believed that all forms of knowledge were equally important and that speaking, writing and
reading were the most dominant of skills. He illustrated that talent, good health and valuable attributes are
of no profit without a skilled teacher, persistence in study, and much continued practice in reading,
writing and speaking. Learning to speak well was so important that Quintilian advised that upon the
child's birth, the parent must "make sure that the nurses speak properly" for the parent must "devote the
keenest possible care, from the moment he becomes a parent, to fostering the promise of an orator to be"
(Ibid., p. 67, Book I).
Quintilian stressed that other subjects and skills be mastered, however, he maintained that speaking
correctly was paramount. When learning 'grammatici' or the "study of correct speech and the
interpretation of the poets all other skills were tied in for:"Grammatici cannot be complete without music,
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because it has to discuss meter and rhythm; nor can it understand the poets without a knowledge of
astronomy, since they often use the risings and settings of constellations as indications of time; nor again
should it be ignorant of philosophy, because of the numerous passages in every poem that depend on
intricate points of natural science. Eloquence too is needed, and in no small measure, to give a proper and
fluent explanation of the various matters mentioned."
Overall, Quintilian believed that the goal of education, aided by his belief and aim to create the 'perfect
orator', was to create an upstanding citizen in every facet of everyday life and to cultivate an individual
above the basic standards of nature.
II. Theory of Knowledge.
Quintilians theory of knowledge hinges on the following questions:
What is knowledge?
How is it different from belief?
What is a mistake? What is a lie?
His analysis of knowledge begins with the belief that knowledge was not inherent and could only be
acquired through proper education; that is, knowledge exists, but must be attained through proper training
and learning. Quintilian believed that the proper training one must undertake to possess knowledge is the
art of oratory. He later went on to state "knowledge needs no 'instrument' because it can be perfect even if
it does nothing" further adding that the artist, in this case the orator, needs the 'instrument' like "an
engraver needs his chisel, and a painter his brush" Although Quintilian believed that knowledge is not
inherent, he did believe that humans were born with the natural quest reason being that: "There is no
foundation for the complaint that only a small minority of human beings have been given the power to
understand what is taught to them, the majority being so slow-witted that they waste time and labor. On
the contrary, you will find that the greater number quick to reason and prompt to learn. This is natural to
man: as birds are born for flying, horses for speed, beasts of prey for ferocity, so are we for mental
activity and resourcefulness. This is why the soul is believed to have its origin in heaven."
III. Theory of Human Nature:
What is a human being?
How does it differ from other species?
What are the limits of human potential?
The human being, according to Quintilian, was a model of the gods whose soul was a product of heaven
and whose mind was meant for reason and learning. He stated that reason was "natural to man: as birds
are born for flying, horses for speed, beasts of prey for ferocity, so are we for mental activity and
resourcefulness" .Multiple factors defined a man in the time of Quintilian. In the seventh chapter of his
third book, he declared that "before the man's life will come country, parents and ancestors" and that the
"praise of this man must be based on mind, body and external circumstances"
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2.1.4 Quintilians view on Learning
Quintilian also pointed out that the "path to excellence...is extremely easy" further adding "we
have only to watch nature and follow her. Later he explained that "nature created us to have the right
attitudes...to learn the better course" and that "it ought to be easier to live according to nature than against
her will" Quintilian believed that learning was the acquisition of knowledge and its associated abilities
and competently committing them to memory. He stated that children must begin learning at an early age
for "the elements of reading and writing are entirely a matter of memory" which is at "it's most retentive"
during childhood .Memory is an important trait and is the key feature of learning according to Quintilian,
and he felt that there was nothing more important than "practice for nourishing and strengthening it".
Adding to the importance of rehearsal, he later stated that continual practice...is in fact the most effective
way of learning. In order to perform any type of learning, Quintilian thought it important to chain all
knowledge together, that way retrieval was possible. Learning is an important function, and Quintilian
deemed it so stating: "It has to be admitted that learning does take something away-as a file takes
something from a rough surface, or a whetstone from a blunt edge, or age from wine-but it takes away
faults, and the work that has been polished by literary skills is diminished only in so far as it is improved"
Imitation should not be a form of education for it is not a form of learning, and it only leads to a
multitude of weaknesses according to Quintilian. He raised five points against the practice of imitation,
arguing that:
it is not sufficient on its own... and only a lazy mind is content with what others have discovered;
it is a disgrace to be content merely to attain the effect one is imitating;
it is generally easier to improve on something than simply to repeat it;
whatever resembles another object is bound to be less than what it imitates;
And, the greatest qualities of the orator are inimitable...everything that is not taught in textbooks"
(Ibid., pp. 323-7, Book X).
V. Theory of Transmission:
Here, Quintilian focuses on:
Who is to teach?
By what methods?
What will the curriculum be?
Quintilian believed that the teacher was one of the most important elements in a child's life, and that
everyone plays a role. From birth, all those that have any type of contact with the child impact the child's
education. In their formative years, which Quintilian believed to be before the age of seven the child is
learning from his family, nurses, 'paedagogi' (slaves responsible for the "early training and behavior"
[,and peers. The teacher was to play a more important role in the lives of children and their education
more so than any other influence, for Quintilian believed that the teacher's obligation was to both "foster
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the good qualities he finds in each of the students, and, so far as possible, to make good of their
deficiencies, and correct or change some of their characteristics...he is the guide and molder of the minds
of others"
Teachers, as well as students at the time of Quintilian were to be only males. Quintilian stated
that the teacher should be one of good character, for children are with them for a majority of an
impressionable time period, and "the impeccable character of the teacher should preserve the younger
pupils from injury, and his authority deter the more aggressive from licentious behavior" (Ibid., p. 271,
Book II). The good character of the teacher, according to Quintilian, was to aid the teacher to take on a
"paternal role that is being in locus parentis and "be free from any vice and intolerant of it in others"
2.2.1 Qualities of a Teacher according to Quintilian
The qualities Quintilian insisted the teacher should possess were that:
Let him be strict, but not grim, and friendly but not too relaxed as to incur neither hatred nor
contempt;
he should talk a great deal about what is good and honorable;
he must not be given to anger, but he must not turn a blind eye to things that need correction;
he must be straightforward in his teaching, willing to work, persistent but not obsessive; must
answer questions readily and put questions to himself to those who do not ask any;
In praising his pupils' performances he must neither grudging nor fulsome; in correcting faults, he
must not be biting and certainly not abusive for many have been driven away from learning
because some teachers rebuke pupils as though they hate them.
The most qualified teachers were sought in Quintilian's vision, and were to be men who were well learned
in a variety of subjects and capable of higher reasoning.
2.2.2 Teaching Methods and Learning Styles According to Quintilian
Because all students possess different learning styles and traits, Quintilian stressed that the
teacher must be eclectic in teaching. He claimed that it is "a virtue in a teacher that he should carefully
observe the differences in the abilities of the pupils whose education he has undertaken, and understand
the direction to which their various talents incline". Realizing what natural bent the pupil may have a
propensity for, a teacher must nurture. Two things for which Quintilian stressed teachers avoid were
"trying to do the impossible and diverting the pupil from what he can do best to something for which he is
less well suited. The major duty of the teacher, Quintilian urged, is to have "pointed out the right course at
the start than to rescue a pupil from errors into which he has already fallen" . In order to do this,
Quintilian illustrated methods for the teacher to follow.
Quintilian likened the teacher's methods to that of examples in nature. By providing a 'division' in
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curriculum, he explained that the teacher is to give a broad outline of the material, have the students give
their own version of the material after presentation and combine the two to clear up any
misunderstanding. He urged the methods be combined, for if they were to only follow the former, the
student will only hear the corrections and not necessarily absorb the material; and the latter where the
students are more willing to listen to advice than criticism In order to manage a class, Quintilian stated
that it is important the population not be an over abundance: a good teacher will not burden himself with a
bigger crowd of pupils that he cannot manage. In addition to this, Quintilian added it is very important to
ensure that he looks at his teaching not as a matter of duty but of affection.
One of the more important traits in teaching involves assortment of subject matter according to
Quintilian. He explained that variety refreshes and restores the mind after asking why men should not
"divide hours among other concerns. He further added that the learner will be refreshed by change just as
the stomach is refreshed by a variety of sustenance and nourished more appetizingly by a number of
different foods"
VI. Theory of Society:
Here, Quintilian tries to answer the questions:
What is society?
What institutions are involved in the educational process?
Quintilian deals little with defining what society is, or what the ideal society should be, but does provide a
glimpse as to how the orator must be as a member of society and how important the spread of certain
cultural aspects are. Clabaugh and Rozycki (2007) explained that socialization is a "process of cultural
transmission" which consists of a "system of shared meanings, language, customs, values, ideas and
material goods" During the time of Quintilian, Roman culture was paramount, and was the basis for a
large percentage of the western world. Quintilian believed that the important aspects of society revolved
around language, morals and education as well as interaction during the education. Quintilian considered
the orator to be a man of "not only exceptional powers of speech, but all the virtues of character as well"
(Russell, 2001, p. 57). He further added that the philosophers were not the men to be left in charge of
placing any moral code on society, but the orator was "fit for management of public and private business,
and can guide cities by his counsel, give them firm basis by his laws, and put them right by his
judgments"; he further added that orators "are often obliged to speak of justice, courage, temperance and
the like.
Quintilian believed that public schools were a vital institution involved in the educational process
and more important than home education. When disputing the claims that home education is far superior
to public schooling, Quintilian addressed two of the major issues: questionable morality possessed by
both the school system and the student's peers, and the value of one on one instruction opposed to
classroom setting. When arguing the position of morals of the public schools, Quintilian contended that
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the morals at home are just as compromised if not more so stating that "the whole difference lies in the in
the nature of the individual and the attention he receives. He insisted that the child may have a "natural
bent towards evil that cannot be corrected without proper guidance or that he may have "a teacher of bad
character.
One on one instruction, to Quintilian, was both impossible and disadvantageous. He stressed
this point by stating that "all good teachers like a large class and think they deserve a bigger stage" adding
that it is the "weaker teachers, conscious of their own defects, who cling to individual pupils and seem
content. The single teacher may also succumb to such pitfalls such as his own shortcomings of knowledge
and opinions according to Quintilian, stating the "unlearned teacher may well approve faulty work and
force the pupil to like it due to his own judgment".
VII. Theory of Opportunity:
On the Theory of Opportunity Quintilian addressed the following questions:
Who is to be educated?
Who is to be schooled?
In The Orator's Education, Quintilian placed emphasis on the education of boys and spoke of the paternal
importance echoed in the time of the Roman Empire stating that as soon as his son is born, the father
should form the highest expectations of him". Quintilian never mentioned the education of females except
for when he wished "for the parents to be as highly educated as possible" . When the education of the
future orator was at hand, Quintilian felt that all around him from his parents, 'paedagogi', slaves, and
nurses were to be as highly educated as possible. He also believed that 'slaves' had an opportunity to be
educated, but felt that this 'lower class' "scorn to give up the role of instructor and, conceiving that they
have a certain title to authority (a frequent source of vanity in this class of persons) become imperious and
sometimes even brutal teachers of their own foolishness"
2.3.0 Limitations of Institutio Oratoria
Several limitations have been pointed out in Quintilians work.
Among them is the injunction that he was too immersed in the culture of rhetoric. Because of his
position and his profession, it was impossible for him to view rhetoric from the outside. He
believed that an orator should read philosophy, but only because philosophy had usurped some of
the functions of oratory in the first place.
Another limitation of Quintilian is that he is inevitably a victim of his own educational tradition.
As mentioned above, he lived in a time of flowery, ornate language. Therefore, although he
obviously prefers natural language and attempts to interject some simplicity into the way
language is taught, to a certain degree he is forced to accept the unnatural language of his time,
simply because of the force of current fashion.
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Finally, some have called into question the idea of the ideal orator. The education so dictated in
Institutio Oratoria was designed to create a person who had never existed, and probably never
would. Quintilian seemed willfully unconscious of the changes since the days of great Ciceronian
oratory. To what end would this perfect orator be created, if there was no place for him?
2.4.0 Influence or implications of Quintilians Educational Contributions
The influence of Quintilians masterwork, Institutio Oratoria, can be felt in several areas.
Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and
Seneca was the principal figure in that styles tradition. Quintilian believed that his style is for
the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults
In more recent times, Quintilian is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is
an integral part of the history of education.
He is believed to be the earliest spokesman for a child-centered education,
As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric, because
of the great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system.
His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the
nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories.
CHAPTER THREE
BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF A. BANDURA
3.0 BIOGRAPHY OF ALBERT BANDURA
Albert Bandura is on of the greatest Psychologist this universe has ever had and as such has a rich
biography as well as enormous contributions to make as far as education is concerned. In this light, this
work is divided into two sections. Section A treats the biography of Albert Bandura and section B deals
with his works and educational contributions and some of his critiques.
3.1.1 Early Life
Albert Bandura was born in Mundare, Alberta in 1925 in a small Canadian town located
approximately 50 miles from Edmonton. He was the youngest of six children. Both of his parents were
immigrants from Eastern Europe. Dr. Banduras father worked as a track layer for the Trans-Canada
railroad while his mother worked in a general store before they were able to buy some land and become
farmers. Though times were often hard growing up, Dr. Banduras parents placed great emphasis on
celebrating life and more importantly family. They were also very keen on their children doing well in
school.
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The last of six children, Bandura's early education consisted of one small school with only two
teachers. Interestingly, the name Bandura refers to a Ukrainian 60-stringed musical instrument, and for
Al, portended a lifelong love of classical music. His unique early education experiences would prove
formative to his subsequent view of learning as an essentially social and self-directed experience.
3.1.2 Banduras Career
Mundare only had one school at the time so Bandura did all of his schooling in one place. The
school had very limited resources, including teachers! Because of these limitations most of the learning
was self-directed on the students part. Bandura learned a lot about value and importance of self-direction
from this time in his life. After spending a summer working in Alaska after finishing high school Bandura
went to the University of British Columbia. He took an introductory psychology course because it fit into
an early timeslot thus allowing him to work in the afternoon and became hooked. He graduated three
years later in 1949 with the Bolocan Award in psychology.
According to Bandura, because of this limited access to educational resources, "The students had
to take charge of their own education" (Stokes, 1986). Bandura realized that while "the content of most
textbooks is perishable...the tools of self-directedness serve one well over time" (Stokes, 1986). These
early experiences may have contributed to Bandura's later emphasis on the importance of personal
agency.
To escape the severe weather of northern Alberta, Bandura enrolled in 1946 at the University of
British Columbia in Vancouver, which enjoys a mild Pacific coastal climate and a fine intellectual
reputation. Upon entering the university, Al did not intend to study psychology, but fortuitously, he rode
to school in a carpool with several engineering and pre-med students who had enrolled in early morning
classes. He decided to register for a psychology course to fill this early time slot, and became so
fascinated by the topic, he decided to pursue it as a major. Albert Bandura soon became fascinated by
psychology after enrolling at the University of British Columbia. He received his bachelors degree in
Psychology from the University of British Columbia in 1949. He went on to the University of Iowa,
where he received his Ph.D. in 1952. It was there that he came under the influence of the behaviorist
tradition and learning theory. While the program took an interest in social learning theory, Bandura felt
that it was too focused on behaviorist explanations. While at Iowa, he met Virginia Varns, an instructor in
the nursing school. They married and later had two daughters. After graduating, he took a postdoctoral
position at the Wichita Guidance Center in Wichita, Kansas.
In 1953, Bandura was recruited by Robert Sears to join the psychology department at Stanford
University as an instructor. Bandura was very attracted by this offer, but he had already accepted a
position at another institution. Sears pressed Bandura to ask for a release from the other institution, which
he did reluctantly because he felt a strong sense of obligation to honor his word.
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This decision proved momentous to Bandura's career. Although he had to reverse his steps to take
the path to Stanford, he had the opportunity to work with exceptional colleagues and students at that
renowned institution. In 1953, he started teaching at Stanford University. While there, he collaborated
with his first graduate student, Richard Walters, resulting in their first book, Adolescent Aggression, in
1959.
Bandura was president of the APA in 1973, and received the APAs Award for Distinguished
Scientific Contributions in 1980. Having only two high school teachers and few instructional resources,
Bandura and his schoolmates had to develop their own academic skills at an early age. He described their
adaptive ingenuity in following way, "The students had to take charge of their own education. . . .Very
often we developed a better grasp of the subjects than the overworked teachers" (Stokes, 1986a, p. 2).
This unusual reversal of academic roles produced several memorable incidents for Al. For example, the
entire curriculum of his high school mathematics class comprised a single textbook, which one
beleaguered teacher endeavored to read ahead of her small but bright class of students.
In the seminal article The Psychology of Chance Encounters and Life Paths, he (Bandura,
1982) discussed how personal initiative often places people into circumstances where fortuitous events
can shape the courses lives take. Rather than treating fortuity as uncontrollability, Bandura focused on
how to make chance work for one through self-development to exploit fortuitous opportunities and
received a masters degree in 1951 and a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa in
1952.
Not all of Bandura's educational experiences were confined to the school. During the summer of
his senior year in high school, he sought to earn tuition money for college by repairing the Alaska
highway in the far north tundra region of the Yukon from yearly ravages due to freezing and thawing.
3.2.0 Educational Works and Contributions
Banduras educational works and contributions are centered and reflected in the theories of
education/learning he propounded. Some of these include those highlighted below.
3.2.1 Social Learning Theory

The main aspects of this theory centered on the following.
1. Trial-and-error experience is a hands-on exploration that might lead to tasting the butter and
squeezing the trigger, or perhaps the other way around.
2. Perception of the object is a firsthand chance to look, admire, but don't touch a pistol and a pound
of butter at close range.
3. Observation of another's response to the object is hearing a contented sigh when someone points
the gun or spreads the butter on toast. It is also seeing critical frowns on faces of people who
bypass the items in a store.
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4. Modeling is watching someone do something and copying it.

5. Exhortation is the National Rifle Association's plea to protect the right to bear arms or Willard
Scott's commercial message urging us to use real butter.
6. Instruction about the object.
3.2.2 Observational Learning or Modeling
Of the hundreds of studies Bandura was responsible for, one group stands out above the others --
the bobo doll studies. He made of film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a
bobo doll. In case you dont know, a bobo doll is an inflatable, egg-shape balloon creature with a weight
in the bottom that makes it bob back up when you knock him down
All these variations allowed Bandura to establish that there were certain steps involved in the
modeling process:
1. Attention. If you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying attention. In the same vein,
anything that puts a damper on attention is going to decrease learning, including observational learning.
If, for example, you are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, or hyper, you will learn less well.
Similarly, if you are being distracted by competing stimuli.
Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the model. If the model is colorful
and dramatic, for example, we pay more attention. If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to
be particularly competent, you will pay more attention. And if the model seems more like yourself, you
pay more attention. These kinds of variables directed Bandura towards an examination of television and
its effects on kids!
2. Retention. Second, you must be able to retain -- remember -- what you have paid attention to. This is
where imagery and language come in: we store what we have seen the model doing in the form of mental
images or verbal descriptions. When so stored, you can later bring up the image or description, so that
you can reproduce it with your own behavior.
3. Reproduction. At this point, youre just sitting there daydreaming. You have to translate the images
or descriptions into actual behavior. So you have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior in the first
place. Another important tidbit about reproduction is that our ability to imitate improves with practice at
the behaviors involved.
4. Motivation. And yet, with all this, youre still not going to do anything unless you are motivated to
imitate, i.e. until you have some reason for doing it. Bandura mentions a number of motives:
a. Past reinforcement, ala traditional behaviorism.
b. Promised reinforcements (incentives) that we can imagine.
c. Vicarious reinforcement -- seeing and recalling the model being reinforced.
Notice that these are, traditionally, considered to be the things that cause learning. Bandura is
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saying that they dont so much cause learning as cause us to demonstrate what we have learned. That is,
he sees them as motives.
Of course, the negative motivations are there as well, giving you reasons not to imitate someone:
a. Past punishment.
b. Promised punishment (threats).
Like most traditional behaviorists, Bandura says that punishment in whatever form does not work
as well as reinforcement and, in fact, has a tendency to backfire on us.
3.3.3.0 Social Cognitive Theory
3.3.3.1Banduras Model in the Social Cognitive Theory
The following are the influences upon the learner according to Banduras model
1. An actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior (he termed this a live model). These are the
people that surround the learner, for example parents, teachers, friends, work colleagues, and others the
individual sees often.
2. A person or something describing and explaining a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, pictoral portrayals of reality. Television is the most influential in many homes.
3.3.3.2 Rise of Social Cognitive Theory in Education
Banduras studies on the role that behavioral models have on influencing positive, negative or a
change in behavior (Bandura, 1969) lead him and Walters (Bandura & Walters, 1963) to discern several
social and cognitive factors that influence learning. Among the influencing factors were the use of
symbols, the influence of media, and the engagement in meaningful actions (Gredler, 2005).
3.4.0 Implications of Social Cognitive Theory on Education
Although a theory on instruction has not been founded in social cognitive theory, the main points
of the theory can be influential in the classroom. Rozenthall and Zimmerman (1973) observed this in the
acquisition of motor and cognitive skills.
3.4.1 Social Cognitive Theory in the Classroom (Gredler, 2005 pgs. 370-371)
1. The learners cognitive processes and the decision making are important factors in learning.
2. The three-way interaction between the environment, personal factors, and behavior are responsible for
learning.
3. The outcomes of learning are visual and verbal codes of behavior.
4. Live and symbolic models can teach abstract cognitive rules.
5. Individual differences in the learners such as their readiness, and self motivation.
6. Several factors must be analyzed for a successful lesson through observational learning
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1. Analyze the behaviors to be modeled

2. Establish the functional value of the behavior
3. Select a behavioral model
4. Develop the instructional sequence
5. Implement the instruction to guide the learners cognitive Imation process
3.4.2 Role of the Learner and Instructor according to the Social Cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory also transfers in that there are models of behavior in the classroom. These
models of behavior can be the teacher or the students, and they (teachers) should always bear in mind the
learners level of cognitive development. The teacher models appropriate behavior and maintains the
classroom environment positive. He or she should model qualities that the student regards as admirable
and professional. (J. Brophy, 1979) Students also influence each other and often times, students learn very
well from peers. The functional values of behavior are established by consequences in the classroom.
Some examples of the effectiveness of social cognitive theory in the classroom include the
following:
1. Peer assessments
2. Working in groups
3. Socratic Method of Questioning
4. Partner activities
5. Modeled activities
6. Self-paced or self regulated activities

3.5 Criticisms of the Social Cognitive Theory
Some of the disadvantages in using the social cognitive theory in the classroom are:
The difficulty in implementing the self efficacy portion and the self regulatory component.
Another problem is that in choosing a model for a behavior, one might lose some members of the
learners for the opposite reason that the particular model was chosen. For example, say a popular
football star is on TV advocating for children to stay in school or turn away from drugs. If the
viewer does not like the model, the desired affect might be unattainable. Another area to consider
is that in the classroom, punishment from a teacher or lack of certain positive reinforcement
behaviors by the teacher, can influence behavior and learning in a classroom. Also in the
classroom it is difficult for the teacher to help the student develop their sense of self efficacy and
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self regulation. As stated earlier, self efficacy deals with the belief that the student has of his or
her capabilities.
Bandura (1986) has recommended teaching students how to self-regulate personal, behavioral and
environmental aspects of their lives through three essential self-management processes: self-observation,
judgmental process, and self-reaction .Self-observation refers to specific efforts to monitor various
dimensions of one's performance, such as self-recording of the quality of one's solutions to mathematical
problems. Judgmental process refers to evaluating of one's performances against personal standards,
referential performances, personal values, and performance determinants. Self-reaction refers to one's
cognitive, affective, and tangible responses to those performance evaluations.
3.6 Contributions of Bandura to Psychology
Banduras work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in psychology that began in the late
1960s. His theories have had tremendous impact on personality psychology, cognitive psychology,
education and psychotherapy. In 1973, Bandura published Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis in
which he compared social learning and alternative theories and discussed their implications for social
policy and management of schools' social environments. Many current violence prevention programs in
the schools are based on social modeling and self-regulatory principles.
In 1997, Bandura published the volume entitled Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, which
presented the theoretical foundations of the theory and the numerous applications of the knowledge to
education, health, treatment of clinical problems (e.g., stress, depression and substance abuse), athletics,
organizational functioning, and collective efficacy of our social and political systems. In all of these
diverse spheres of functioning, perceived self-efficacy predicts people's style of thinking, level of
motivation, emotional well-being, and performance accomplishments.
Albert Bandura's social learning theory stressed the importance of observational learning, imitation
and modeling. "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do, Bandura explained (Bandura, 1977).
His theory integrates a continuous interaction between behaviors, cognitions and the environment.
His most famous experiment was the 1961 "Bobo Doll" study. In the experiment, he made a film
in which a woman was shown beating up a bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. The film was then
shown to a group of children. Afterwards, the children were allowed to play in a room that held a bobo
doll. The children immediately began to beat the doll, imitating the actions and words of the woman in the
film. The study was significant because it departed from behaviorisms insistence that all behavior is
directed by reinforcement or rewards. The children received no encouragement or incentives to beat up
the doll; they were simply imitating the behavior they had observed. Bandura termed this phenomena
observational learning and characterized the elements of effective observational learning as attention,
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retention, reciprocation, and motivation.

Is Albert Bandura a Behaviorist?:
Selected Publications by Albert Bandura in Psychology include;
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
3.7.0 Contributions of Bandura in Education and Development
3.7. 1His Contributions to Human Development and Education

The impact of Bandura's own program of research represents only a small part of his enormous
influence in psychology and education. Apart from his own research, he exerted major impact through his
modeling and writing on the collective efforts of his many colleagues, students, and followers. His
immense secondary impact stems from the compelling quality of his theory and its ready social
applicability. The sections that follow illustrate the ways in which his research and writing profoundly
altered educators' methods of instruction and view of students' development.
3.7.1.1 Understanding Children's Social Development.
Before Bandura began his seminal research, educators' conceptions of students' aggression were
dominated by the Freudian view that such behavior was the product of intrapsychic forces operating
largely unconsciously. Students' aggression on the playground or in school was seen as a recurring
expression of underlying impulses requiring release in minimally detrimental ways. Teachers and societal
leaders who looked to psychologists for guidance in these matters received much misleading advice. His
pioneering studies led in considerable part to the U.S. Surgeon General's commissioning of a panel to
evaluate the research in this area (Comstock & Rubinstein, 1972). The report acknowledged the adverse
effects of televised violence and the conditions governing the magnitude of that Impact. Evaluations of
Bandura's contribution to the Field of Education Bandura has created one of the few grand theories that
continues to thrive at the beginning of the Twenty-first Century. He has defied the general trend in
psychology and education toward mini-models by focusing on processes that are influential in diverse
areas of human functioning, be they education, sports, health, organizational settings, medicine, mental
health, and social political spheres. The broad scope of Bandura's theory stems from his diverse scientific
interests, and his theory's ready applicability. Social modeling, self-enabling beliefs, and self-regulation
are pervasive across contexts and domains of human functioning.
3.7.1.2 The nature of the learner.

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Throughout his brilliant career, Bandura took issue with many prominent psychological
perspectives, such as Freudian, Hullian, Operant, Trait-factor, developmental stage, and classic cognitive
theories that focused on intrapsychic conflicts, uncontrollable drives, unfavorable environments,
immutable personal dispositions, or reified cognitive stages or structures. In Bandura's (1997) view, these
theories underestimate the power of people over the paths their lives take: People are producers as well as
products of environments.
Although Bandura acknowledges the important role of biological forces in human development
and functioning but rejects biological reductionism. In his view, biological endowment is a loose potential
that allows diverse expression rather than a tight determinant of people's lives. His research elucidates the
power of social experience and coping self-beliefs over basic biological systems. Like personal
environments, human biological forces are potentialities that must be activated by specific personal
beliefs and actions (Bandura, 1999). By regulating their motivation and activities, students produce
experiences that form the neurobiological substrate of functioning. These agentic actions shape brain
development and foster brain cell growth underlying learning, memory and other aspects of functioning
throughout the course of life (Diamond, 1988; Kolb & Whishaw, 1998).
3.7.1.3 The Nature of the Learning Processes.
From the outset of his career, Bandura has envisioned human learning as a profoundly social
event in which children learn about the world around them through social transactions and media sources.
Much of this social learning is not under the direct control of teachers or parents, but rather, arises from
contact with siblings, peers, co-workers, and mass media sources. Bandura felt these vicarious sources of
experience had many benefits compared to discovery learning, such as the avoidance of adverse
consequences. Bandura has humorously warned learners who intend to learn dangerous skills, such as
driving or skiing, from discovery to check their health insurance coverage first! His view of social
learning was broader and more cognitive than the formulations of modeling and imitation that preceded
him.
Bandura's vision of learning entails more than the acquisition of knowledge in a cognitively
reactive sense, it involves the development of self-beliefs and self-regulatory capabilities of students to
educate themselves throughout their lifetime. Self-regulatory skills for acquiring knowledge, such as goal
setting, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation, are essential for contemporary students because of the rapid
pace of technological change and accelerated growth of knowledge. However, these skills are of little
avail if people cannot get themselves to apply them persistently in the face of difficulties, stressors, and
competing attractions. Students' self-efficacy beliefs not only enhance academic achievement, they
promote intrinsic interest and reduce academic anxiety. Contrary to common belief, academic anxiety is a
effect of perceived efficacy, not a co-determinant of academic performance. Perceived efficacy shapes not
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only students' cognitive development but also their subsequent career choices (Hackett, 1995), which is a
major fork in their path through life.
Thus, self-regulatory mechanisms are embedded in an agentic perspective regarding self-
development, adaptation, and change. Bandura (1999) emphasizes the importance of consciousness at the
center of people's phenomenal and functional life; it is the agentic base for making sound judgments
about one's capabilities, anticipating the probable effects of different events and actions, ascertaining
socio-structural opportunities and constraints, and regulating behavior. Agentic consciousness goes
beyond mere knowledge of one's functioning to actually changing it, such as students' self-efficacy beliefs
about improving their academic study methods. This personal consciousness is linked also to one's sense
of identity. The identity people create for they derive, in large part, from how they live and reflect upon
their life. For example, there is evidence
(Steinberg, Brown, & Dornbusch, 1996) that students' identities as "nerds," "druggies," or "jocks" can
profoundly influence their academic aspirations and accomplishments.
3.7.1.4 Optimal Conditions of Instruction.
To facilitate students' learning, Bandura (1986) recommended guided mastery approach. For each
instructional step: A variety of opportunities are provided for guided practice in when and how to use
cognitive strategies in the solution of diverse problems. The level of social guidance is progressively
reduced as competencies are being acquired. Activities, incentives, and personal challenges are structured
in ways that ensure self-involving motivation and continual improvement.
Growing proficiencies are credited to expanding personal capabilities. Self-directed mastery experiences
are then arranged to strengthen and generalize a sense of personal efficacy. Each of these modes of
influence is structured in ways that build self-regulative capabilities for exploratory learning and
strengthen students' beliefs that they can exercise some control over their intellectual self-development
(pp. 226-227)
3.7.1.5 The Nature of Important Learning-Instructional Outcomes.
In order to capture the triadic interdependence of person-related processes during efforts to learn,
Bandura (1986) has advocated situationally-specific forms of assessment and microanalyses of self-
regulatory processes, such as self-efficacy beliefs, self-monitoring, judgments, and self-reactions. He
stressed the importance of his methodology following way, "Understanding how personal factors affect
actions and situations is best advanced through the microanalysis of interactive processes.
3.8.0 Bandura's Achievements and Legacy
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Because of the scope and power of his research and theory, Bandura is one the most widely cited
researchers in psychological and educational literatures living today, and his list of prestigious awards has
few peers. His vita includes nine authored or edited books and 230 articles and chapters, many of which
have been reprinted in other publications. He was elected President of the American Psychological
Association (APA), President of the Western Psychological Association, and appointed Honorary
President of the Canadian Psychological Association. He has received numerous awards including the
(APA) Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award and the American Psychological Society's William
James Award. He was given the Distinguished Contribution Award by the International Society for
Research in Aggression, the Distinguished Scientist Award of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, and a
Guggenheim Fellowship. He has been elected to the American Academy of the Arts and Sciences and to
the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences. He is the recipient of many honorary
degrees from American and foreign universities.
CHAPTER FOUR
BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF
JEROME S. BRUNER
4.0 BIOGRAPHY OF JEROME BRUNER
Jerome Seymour Bruner was born on October 1, 1915, to polish immigrant parents, Herman and
Rose (Gluckmann) Bruner. He was born blind and did not achieve sight until after two cataract operations
while he was still an infant. He attended public schools, graduating from high school in 1933, and entered
Duke University where he majored in psychology, earning the AB degree in 1937. Bruner then pursued
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graduate study at Harvard University, receiving the MA in 1939 and the Ph.D. in 1941. During World
War II, he served under General Eisenhower in the Psychological Warfare Division of Supreme
Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force Europe. After the war he joined the faculty at Harvard
University in 1945. He was a leading voice in the cognitive revolution that overtook psychology in the
1960s, ending a half-century of domination by behaviorism. As a professor of psychology at Harvard and
as Director, with George Miller, of the Center for Cognitive Studies, he was a major force in redirecting
psychology toward the study of cognitive processes involved in language and thought and their
development. As Watts Professor of Psychology at Oxford University he extended his work increasingly
into issues of children's cognitive and linguistic development and the role of education in this process.
Because Bruner has applied this perspective to a number of problems (including perception, thinking,
language development, and education), he is widely regarded as the world's greatest living psychologist.
He is the author of some twenty books, one of which, The Process of Education (1960), has been
translated into twenty-one languages.
Beginning in the 1940s, Jerome Bruner, along with Leo Postman, worked on the ways in which
needs, motivations, and expectations (or 'mental sets') influence perception. Sometimes dubbed as the
'New Look', they explored perception from a functional orientation (as against a process to separate from
the world around it). In addition to this work, Bruner began to look at the role of strategies in the process
of human categorization, and more generally, the development of human cognition. This concern with
cognitive psychology led to a particular interest in the cognitive development of children (and their modes
of representation) and just what the appropriate forms of education might be. From the late 1950s on
Jerome Bruner became interested in schooling in the USA - and was invited to chair an influential ten day
meeting of scholars and educators at Woods Hole on Cape Cod in 1959 (under the auspices of the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation).
One result was Bruner's landmark book The Process of Education (1960). It developed some of
the key themes of that meeting and was an crucial factor in the generation of a range of educational
programmes and experiments in the 1960s. Jerome Bruner subsequently joined a number of key panels
and committees (including the President's Advisory Panel of Education). In 1963, he received the
Distinguished Scientific Award from the American Psychological Association, and in 1965 he served as
its president. In the early 1970s Bruner left Harvard to teach for several years at the university of Oxford.
There he continued his research into questions of agency in infants and began a series of explorations of
children's language. He returned to Harvard as a visiting professor in 1979 and then, two years later,
joined the faculty of the new School for Social Research in New York City. He became critical of the
'cognitive revolution' and began to argue for the building of a cultural psychology. This 'cultural turn' was
then reflected in his work on education - most especially in his 1996 book: The Culture of Education.
Bruner's educational work led to an appointment on the Education Panel of the President's Science
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Advisory Committee. He also worked on a new social studies curriculum for Educational Services,
Incorporated. In 1972 the Center for Cognitive Studies was closed, and Bruner moved to England upon
being appointed Watts Professor of Psychology and Fellow of Wolfson College at Oxford University. His
research now came to focus on cognitive development in early infancy. In 1980 he returned to the United
States and for a short time served again at Harvard until, in 1981, he was appointed to the position of the
George Herbert Mead professorship at the New School for Social Research in New York and director of
the New York Institute for the Humanities.
4.1.0 Educational Contributions
Jerome Bruner has made a profound contribution to our appreciation of the process of education
and to the development of curriculum theory. We explore his work and draw out some important lessons
for informal educators and those concerned with the practice of lifelong learning. Jerome S. Bruner
(1915- ) is one of the best known and influential psychologists of the twentieth century. He was one of the
key figures in the so called 'cognitive revolution' - but it is the field of education that his influence has
been especially felt. His books The Process of Education and Towards a Theory of Instruction have been
widely read.
More recently Bruner has come to be critical of the 'cognitive revolution' and has looked to the
building of a cultural psychology that takes proper account of the historical and social context of
participants. In his 1996 book The Culture of Education these arguments were developed with respect to
schooling (and education more generally
In spite of his many contributions to academic psychology, Bruner is perhaps best known for his
work in education, most of which he undertook during his years with the Center for Cognitive Studies. He
held the position that the human species had taken charge of its own evolution by technologically shaping
the environment. The passing on of this technology and cultural heritage involved the very survival of the
species. Hence, education was of supreme importance.
In the 1960s Jerome Bruner developed a theory of cognitive growth. His approach (in contrast to Piaget)
looked to environmental and experiential factors. Bruner suggested that intellectual ability developed in
stages through step-by-step changes in how the mind is used. Bruner's thinking became increasingly
influenced by writers like Lev Vygotsky and he began to be critical of the intrapersonal focus he had
taken, and the lack of attention paid to social and political context.
4.1.1The Process of Education
The Process of Education (1960) was a landmark text. It had a direct impact on policy formation
in the United States and influenced the thinking and orientation of a wide group of teachers and scholars,
Its view of children as active problem-solvers who are ready to explore 'difficult' subjects while being out
of step with the dominant view in education at that time, struck a chord with many.
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Four key themes emerge out of the work around The Process of Education
The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. The approach
taken should be a practical one. 'The teaching and learning of structure, rather than simply the
mastery of facts and techniques, is at the center of the classic problem of transfer... If earlier
learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general picture in terms of
which the relations between things encountered earlier and later are made as clear as possible'
Readiness for learning. Here the argument is that schools have wasted a great deal of people's
time by postponing the teaching of important areas because they are deemed 'too difficult'. This
notion underpins the idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should revisit this
basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus
that goes with them.
Intuitive and analytical thinking. Intuition ('the intellectual technique of arriving and plausible
but tentative formulations without going through the analytical steps by which such formulations
would be found to be valid or invalid conclusions' ) is a much neglected but essential feature of
productive thinking. Here Bruner notes how experts in different fields appear 'to leap intuitively
into a decision or to a solution to a problem' - a phenomenon that Donald Schn was to explore
some years later - and looked to how teachers and schools might create the conditions for
intuition to flourish
Motives for learning. 'Ideally', Jerome Bruner writes, that In an age of increasing spectatorship,
'motives for learning must be kept from going passive... they must be based as much as possible
upon the arousal of interest in what there is be learned, and they must be kept broad and diverse
in expression.
4.1.2 Bruner on Cognitive Psychology
In his work on cognitive psychology, Bruner's interest in the cognitive development of children
and how they represent ideas has drawn him to consider the cultural, environmental, and experiential
factors influencing the process of education, as set out in his work The Process of Education (1960).
In Towards a theory of instruction (1966) and The Relevance of Education (1971), Bruner 'put
forth his evolving ideas about the ways in which instruction actually affects the mental models of the
world that students construct, elaborate on and transform' (Gardner 2001: 93). In the first book the various
essays deal with matters such as patterns of growth, the will to learn, and on making and judging
(including some helpful material around evaluation). The latter essay makes the case for taking into
account questions of predisposition, structure, sequence, and reinforcement in preparing curricula and
programmes.
Bruner's cognitive approach to his work in the early years phase of childhood has made him a key
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figure in educational theory in the United States and United Kingdom. His three modes of instruction
enactive, iconic, and symbolichave been interpreted and developed most recently into visual, auditory,
and kinaesthetic (VAK) teaching methods, and have informed Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
4.1.3 Bruner on the Learning Process
Bruner describes the general learning process in the following manner.
First the child finds in his manipulation of the materials regularities that correspond with intuitive
regularities it has already come to understand. According to Bruner the child finds some sort of
match between what it is doing in the outside world and some models or templates that it has
already grasped intellectually.
For Bruner it is seldom something outside the learner that is discovered. Instead, the discovery
involves an internal re-organisation of previously known ideas in order to establish a better fit
between those ideas and regularities of an encounter to which the learner has had to
accommodate.
His approach was characterised by three stages which he calls enactive, iconic and symbolic and are
solidly based on the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget.
4.1.3.1The stages of the optimum learning process
According to Bruner, as cognitive growth occurs, students move through three stages of learning:
enactive, iconic, and symbolic. The optimum learning process should according to Bruner go through
these stages.
Enactive mode. When dealing with the enactive mode, one is using some known aspects of
reality without using words or imagination. Therefore, it involves representing the past events
through making motor responses. It involves mainly in knowing how to do something; it
involves series of actions that are right for achieving some result e.g. Driving a car, skiing, tying
a knot. In the enactive stage, students begin to develop understanding through active
manipulation. Therefore, students at the enactive stage should be given the opportunity to play
with the materials in order to fully understand how it works.
Iconic Mode. This mode deals with the internal imagery, were the knowledge is characterised by
a set of images that stand for the concept. The iconic representation depends on visual or other
sensory association and is principally defined by perceptual organisation and techniques for
economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the individual. Students are capable of
making mental images of the material and no longer need to manipulate them directly and
visualize concrete information.
Symbolic mode. The symbolic is the final stage in which students can use abstract ideas to
represent the world. For example, students are able to evaluate, judge, and think critically. It
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allows one to deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective
thinking. This mode is illustrative of a persons competence to consider propositions rather than
objects, to give ideas a hierarchical structure and to consider alternative possibilities in a
combinatorial fashion, (Spencer.K., 1991, p.185-187).
Students must go through all of these stages successively in order to connect new ideas and concepts if
they are to generate their own understanding.
4.1.4 Bruner on Spiral Curriculum and Discovery Learning
Students build knowledge based on previously learned information in a spiraling fashion, which
enables learners to connect prior schematic concepts. In a scholastic context, Bruner described this
process as a Spiral Curriculum. Later, the student learns how to multiply and connects the idea of
multiplication as repeated addition.
Bruner argues that when learners are presented with perplexing situations they will want to figure out the
solution. This was the basis for his discovery learning theory. Discovery learning is an inquiry-based,
constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his
or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to
be learned.
According to Bruner, schools often do a disservice to students because it limits teaching the
important information. Learners need time to think analytically about information and not simply use
their intuition to solve a problem.
4.2.0 Bruners Educational Theories
Further on the issue of education, Bruner addresses the following theories.
4.2.1Theory of Value
Here, Bruner focuses on the questions:
What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning?
What are the goals of education?

A major theme observed through Jerome Bruners studies is that education is a process of personal
discovery. Bruner maintains that effective teachers must provide assistance and guidance through the
above three stages via a process he calls scaffolding. This is how students build understanding.
Ultimately, scaffolding allows students to become independent learners.
The overall goal of education is that a teacher should guide their students so that they build their
own base of knowledge instead of being taught through rote memorization. New information provided to
the students would then be understood and classified based on the knowledge they already have. Bruner
says, The interconnection of the new experience with the prior knowledge results in the reorganization of
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the cognitive structure, which creates meaning and allows the individual to "go beyond the information
given".
According to Bruners theory, the learner must instigate experiences, seek out the information
necessary to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to achieve new knowledge. In order
to comprehend the material the learner must actively manipulate the information either concretely or
abstractly, and use inductive reasoning to draw inferences and make generalizations. The students must
then confirm or disprove these generalizations by themselves through discovery learning or with the
assistance of a teacher through guided discovery. This allows students to identify an organizational
structure and create a coding system to mentally connect concepts together.
4.2.2 Theory of Knowledge:
In prelude to talking about knowledge, Bruner attempts the questions:
What is knowledge?
How is it different from belief?

What is a mistake? A lie?
A major theme in Bruners theoretical framework is that learning is an active process in which learners
construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and
transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure
(connecting thoughts and organizing information) to do so.
Bruner makes a case for education as a knowledge-getting process, meaning that children need to
participate in the process of acquiring knowledge. Bruner maintains that the important things to learn
involve how an idea or discipline is put together. But he also reminds us that, Knowledge is not a
storehouse.
In the Culture of Education, Bruner makes a connection between knowledge and beliefs. He
states that more is required to justify beliefs than merely sharing them with others. That more is the
machinery of justification for ones beliefs, the canons of scientific and philosophical reasoning.
Knowledge, after all, is justified belief.
Bruner would conclude that making mistakes is necessary in order to gain knowledge. As a
constructivist, Bruner knows that learning occurs through problem solving. Through the active process of
discovery and trial and error the student can uncover the interrelationships between concepts and ideas,
which allow them to gain knowledge about new truths. This process of making mistakes is a
necessary process in order to discover the facts about the concept. It also allows the learner to have a
better comprehension of the information learned because through making a mistake the student learns the
accuracy of the information. Learning and knowledge evolve through active experiences with ones
environment through trial and error experimentation.
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4.2.3 Theory of Human Nature:
What is a human being?
How does it differ from other species?

What are the limits of human potential?
Scientists would classify man as a bipedal primate in the Hominidae family that is capable of viewing the
world abstractly; has the ability to think about topics that took place in the past, present, and even the
future clearly separates humans from every other animal on this planet. Bruner states that, the divide in
human evolution was crossed when culture became the major factor in giving form to the minds of those
living under its sway.
Bruner also states that, Although the world of culture has achieved an autonomy of its own, it is
constrained by biological limits and biologically determined predispositions
Bruner strives for the imagined limitlessness of the collective human potential, but at the same
time recognizes the powerful role that such variables play in the difference between what we can do and
what we believe we can do based on our distinctly human interpretations of the world around us.
Having the potential for limitless cognitive growth, Bruner describes the brains opportunistic nature.
The humanoid mind/brain complex does not simply grow up biologically according to a genetically
predestined timetable but, rather, is opportunistic to nurturing in a human-like environment.Meaning
humans have the ability to understand what something means requires some awareness of the
alternative meanings that can be attached to it.
4.2.4 Theory of Learning:
What is learning?
How are skills and knowledge acquired?

In his book In Search of Mind, Jerome Bruner explains his idea of learning: Learning is, most often,
figuring out how to use what you already know in order to go beyond what you currently think. There are
many ways of doing that. Some are more intuitive; others are formally derivational. But they all depend
on knowing something structural about what you are contemplating-how to put it together. Knowing
how something is put together is worth a thousand facts about it. It permits you to go beyond it.
According to Bruner, learning is an active social process in which students construct new ideas or
concepts based on current knowledge. The student selects information, originates hypotheses, and makes
decisions in the process of integrating experiences into their existing mental constructs. This is similar to
Information Processing Theory (IPT), where the learner selects and transforms newly acquired
information into meaning. By organizing the cognitive structure, using schema and mental models, the
learner can provide meaning and organization to experiences and go beyond the information given.
Bruner describes learning as what happens when one applies previous learning and life
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experience (biological or cultural) to the completion of a new task or the understanding of an unfamiliar
concept. He also maintains that if given the proper organization and facilitation of the new information, a
person at any age can learn, even if it is only the most basic understanding of the material being taught.
This type of scaffolding allows learners to use all of their biological as well as cultural tools in order to
build their understanding of a task or topic.
Bruner maintains that learning follows a similar sequence no matter the age of the learner. As was
already mentioned, Bruner argues that there are three ways in which human beings interpret the world
around them. In learning, we move through each stage to develop a more comprehensive understanding of
what we are experiencing, but these stages are very integrated, occurring together in some cases, and only
loosely sequential as one translates into the other.
Both Jean Piaget, Bruners mentor, and Bruner himself demonstrated how thought processes
could be subdivided into distinct modes of reasoning. While Piaget related each mode to a specific period
of childhood development, Bruner saw each mode as dominant during each development phase, but
present and accessible throughout. Although Bruner derived these stages from Piaget, Bruner, unlike
Piaget, did not contend that these stages were necessarily age-dependent.
Bruner suggests that the approach taken with regards to structure in learning should be a practical one.
The teaching and learning of structure, rather than simply the mastery of facts and techniques, is at the
center of the classic problem of transfer... . If earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do
so by providing a general picture in terms of which the relations between things encountered earlier and
later are made as clear as possible.Bruner also suggests that interest in the material to be learned is the
best stimulus for learning, rather than external goals such as grades or competitive advantage.
4.2.5 Theory of Transmission
Who is to teach?
By what methods?
What will the curriculum be?
In The Culture of Education, Bruner describes his view on the transmission of knowledge, Passing on
knowledge and skill, like any human exchange, involves a sub-community in interaction. At the
minimum, it involves a teacher and a learner or if not a teacher in flesh and blood, then a vicarious
one like a book, or film, or display, or a responsive computer.
Bruner disagrees with our Western pedagogical tradition where teaching, is fitted into a mold
in which a single, presumably omniscient teacher explicitly tells or shows presumably unknowing
learners something the presumably know nothing about. He proposes instead that, learners help each other
learn, each according to her abilities. And this, of course, need not exclude the presence of somebody
serving in the role of teacher. It simply implies that the teacher does not play that role as a monopoly,
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which learners scaffold for each other as well. The antithesis is the transmission model first described.
Bruners theory of cognitive development focuses on the idea of active transmission, conducted
via discovery learning. Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes
place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and
existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. It is through this
style of learning that a student interacts with his or her own world; exploring objects; questioning
(creating hypothesis); and developing problem-based learning skills. Bruner found that, as a result of this
learning development, students are more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their
own.
The skills that promote transmission, in the opinion of Bruner, it allows the student to create connections
to the material at hand, thus making deeper assimilations to information, and developing a stronger urge
to see where the information will lead them next.
The instructors role on providing an environment in which this transmission of information can
occur is key. The role of the instructor is to not only provide the key materials necessary for learning, but
to also maintain an open dialogue with students, thus facilitating any possible connections that the student
may not create independently.
Bruners theory of transmission is not meant to be restricted to a classroom setting. Instead, this
theory focuses on ones ability to develop skills that will aid them in learning outside of the classroom, as
well. Bruners concept of instruction is meant to be the means of transmitting the tools and skills of a
culture, the acquired characteristics that express and amplify man's powers--especially the crucial
symbolic tools of language, number, and logic.
Bruner maintains that the goal of teaching is to facilitate learning experiences and stimulate
critical thinking skills; not simply to transmit knowledge.
Given Bruners theory of discovery learning, the environment is designed to encourage learners
to continually question and explore concepts through hands on experiences. Curiosities are destined to
arise therefore the curriculum is not specifically planned out.
The curriculum, according to Bruner, should involve sequencing within a course. In order for
students to build on knowledge that is more complex they must first acquire a skill set that allows them to
move into more complex topics. The foundation allows the students to spiral higher while studying new
skills and reinforcing previously learned information
4.2.6 Theory of Opportunity
Who is to be educated?
Who is to be schooled?
In his research, Bruner does not single out a particular socioeconomic class, culture, gender, age group, or
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ethnicity as more deserving of the opportunity to receive an education. Bruner believes in the potential of
all human beings to learn, within as well as outside of, a cultural context. In the following quote from The
Culture of Education, Bruner enthusiastically declares the desired function and education to all humans
when he said; It is unquestionably the function of education to enable people, individual human beings,
to operate at their fullest potential, to equip them with the tools and the sense of opportunity to use their
wits, skills, and passions to the fullest. School provides a powerful opportunity for exploring the
implication of precepts for practice.
Jerome Bruner supports the idea that all people in a culture need to be educated as a means to
induct the young into a cultures canonical ways and to enhance their individual powers. Education
provides cultural tools and perspective for mental activity to occur. Bruner would maintain that it is
inevitable that everyone is educated in one way or another. For example, he states, Education does not
only occur in classrooms, but around the dinner table when family members try to make joint sense of
what happened that day, or when kids try to help each other make sense of the adult world, or when a
master and apprentice interact on the job
So far as schooling is concerned, Bruner maintains that all people should have this opportunity.
Thats because Bruner conceives of school as, Ideally, school is supposed to provide a setting where our
performance has fewer esteem-threatening consequences than in the real world presumably in the
interest of encouraging the learner to try things out. Schooling, like education, allows learners to gain
knowledge and experience within their culture.
4.3. Later Works and Publications
Bruner published a series of lectures in 1990,
Acts of Meaning, wherein he refutes the "digital processing" approach to studies of the human
mind. He reemphasizes the fundamental cultural and environmental aspects to human cognitive
response.
In 1986 he had put his own professional slant on varied topics such as literature and
anthropology in his book Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. During that same year he participated
in a symposium at Yale University on the implications of affirmative action within the context of
the university.
Bruner also contributed to an educational videocassette, Baby Talk (1986), which provides
excellent insight to the processes by which children acquire language skills.
CHAPTER FIVE

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5.0 BIOGRAPHY OF JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (Czech Educational Reformer)
John Amos Comenius (or Jan Komensky) was born on March 28 1592 in Nivnice,
Southeastern Moravia. His early education was irregular. John Comenius was the youngest child and only
son of Martin Comenius and his wife Anna. Martin whose original surname was Szeges started to use the
surname Comenius after leaving Komna to live in Uhersky Brod, where he owned a house (he was the
man who came from Komna=Comenius). Both of his parents belonged to the Moravian brethren who was
a small protestant sect which was very unpopular and frequently persecuted and Comenius later became
one of the leaders of that pre-reformation protestant denomination. It was for this reason that his writings
on education were unpopular and became popular only by the 19th century. His parents and two of his
sisters died in 1604 and young John went to live with his Aunt. Due to his impoverished nature, he was
unable to begin his formal education until late.
As a child, Comenius attended the Brethrens Vernacular school where reading, arithmetic, singing,
writing and catechism were taught. He was 16 years when he entered the Latin Preparatory School in
Prerov (he later returned to this school as a teacher 1614-1618). He continued his studies in the Herbon
gymnasium (1611-1613) and the University of Heidelberg (1613-1614). The Herbon School held the
principle that every theory has to be functional in practical use, therefore has to be didactic (i.e morally
instructive). He was a teacher and rector in the Moravian towns of Perov and Fulnek until the start of the
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), when the army of the Holy Roman Empire drove the Moravians into
exile after the Habsburg Counter reformation persecuted the Protestants in Bohemia. He settled in Leszno,
Poland, and as bishop of the Moravians he helped to preserve his sect. In 1638 he was invited by Sweden
to assist in educational reforms. The English government extended a similar invitation, but in 1641,
shortly before the outbreak of the civil war in England, he left that country. The disturbed political
condition of England interfered with the latter project, and so in 1642 he returned to Sweden to work with
Queen Christina (1632-1654) and the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna (in office 1612-1654) on the task of
organizing the Swedish schools. The same year he moved to Elbing(Elblag) in Polish Royal Prussia and
in 1648 went to England with the help of Samuel Hartlib, who came originally from Elbing. In 1650
Zsuzsanna Lorantffy, widow of George 1 Rakoczi prince of Transylvania invited him to Sarospatak.
Comenius remained there until 1654 as Professor in the first Hungarian protestant college, he wrote some
of his most important works there. Comenius returned to Lezno. During the Northern Wars in 1655 he
declared his support for the protestant Swedish side, for which Polish Partisan burned his house, his
manuscript and the schools press in 1656. From Lezno he took refuge in Amsterdam in the Netherlands,
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where he died in 1670. For unclear reasons he was buried in Naarden, where visitors can see his grave in
the mausoleum. After his religious duties, his second greatest interest was in furthering the Baconian
attempt at the organizing of all human knowledge. He became one of the leaders in the encyclopedia or
pansomic movement of the 17th century and in fact was inclined to sacrifice his more practical educational
interests and opportunities for these more imposing but some what visionary projects.
5.1 The writings of Comenius
Comenius wrote many books and papers on pedagogy and education. The famous among these were;
1. The school of infancy was a little book written for Christian parents, to guardians and all those
who have the duty of bring up children. The book suggest that children should be brought up
according to three principles; a) that children are precious gifts, b)that their education should be
designed according to Christian principles and c) that children need good education.
2. The Janua Linguarum( the gate of languages unlocked) was published in 1631. It was based
on Comenius principle that learning is best pursued from simple to complex. The Janua contained
8000 Latin words and their vernacular translations. These words were then arranged into several
hundred sentences which described useful facts about the world in both Latin and Czech
languages and was later translated into many languages.
3. The Orbis Sensalium Pictus (the world in pictures) has been described as the most successful
school book written by Comenius. It was published in 1658 and contained about 150 pictures;
ranging from birds and bees to the tailors workshop, the phases of the moon, the last judgment
and so forth. The book contained all the pictures and names of all the principal occupations of
human beings.
4. The Didactic Magna (the great didactics) first appeared in 1632. It has been described as the first
comprehensive book of education written by a Christian intellectual. Most of the Pedagogic ideas
of Comenius are contained in this book. The purpose of the Great Didactics was to expose the
whole art of teaching all things to all men, quickly, pleasantly, and thoroughly. Some of the
Principles in this book are;
a) In teaching languages the teacher should use the conventional method based on the simplest
words and phrases of every day life. Grammar should be ignored until this conventional
process has been mastered
b) Stress should be laid on the value of pictures that represent the foreign or ne w words.
Comenius believed this process facilitates language acquisition.
c) He emphasized that real learning comes from the study of things, not from that of mere words
or books.
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d) He stressed the importance of early childhood in the formation of character and demanded
equal educational opportunity for the poor as for the rich, for boys as for girls.
5. 2.0 His Educational Contribution
Comenius ushered in a different way of thinking about children and the teaching process. Abandoning
the notion that children were inherently bad and needed corporal punishment to encourage learning.
Comenius attempted to identify the developmental stages of learners and to match teaching to these
stages. He emphasized teaching general principles before details. He believed that children were naturally
good and teaching should be made pleasant by relating it to their natural stages of growth and
development, as well as to the natural objects in the childs environment.
According to Comenius, nature reveals certain patterns in a childs growth that should be followed by
teachers in designing learning experiences. Since children have stages of readiness for different kinds and
levels of learning, teaching materials and subject matter should be based on these developmental stages.
Also because nature is orderly and gradual, teaching should be organized in small steps that can be easily
understood. In this way Comenius believed that learning too will be gradual, pleasant and cumulative.
Children should not be forced, hurried and pressured to learn before they are ready for it. Comenius
believed that education should be built on the natural laws of human development and that teachers
should gently guide childrens learning. He also supported universal education and made great efforts to
establish an international community of scholars.
In view of the above educational thought and practice, modern education or pedagogy can be said to
begin with Comenius. He is remembered as the first educator to think seriously about the developmental
stages of learning and for his support for universal education. Below is a more detailed account of the
work of Comenius in education.
5. 2.1 Comenius plan for School Organization
Comenius plan for the organization of schools stipulated five levels through which pupils were to
pass in order to attain the highest or universal knowledge. These levels were;
1. The mother school, according to Comenius it is not really a school as such, but the home. He
preached that mothers should begin to teach children what is wrong and what is right, long before
the child is six or seven years old. They should continue along that line until their children are
able to study in school. In order to help mothers accomplish this task, Comenius wrote a book for
them called the school of infancy. In this book, he assembled the main facts that mothers should
know.
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2. The vernacular school; At the age of six therefore the child should be ready to meet his first
school teacher. Teaching in this school as the name implies should be in the mother tongue and
focused on the three Rs and Christian morality. The pupils who graduated successfully from the
vernacular school were to be freed from compulsory schooling. Those who desired to learn
further will then go to the Latin school.
3. The Latin school; In the time of Comenius Latin was the language of higher learning and pupils
had to master it if they desired to study higher. The school was therefore specializes in the
teaching of Latin. However some Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography, History, Chronology,
Greek and Hebrew were to be taught.
4. The Higher Learning; after graduation from the Latin school, those who desired to study further
will be admitted in this school where they will pursue studies leading to a doctorate. At the level
of higher education, students should specialize in the discipline of their choice. The students who
were more gifted should study all branches of learning rather than specializing in specific areas of
knowledge. This stage had to be completed by the age of eighteen. Most students by this time
Comenius believed should be tired of learning.
5. The Universal College; if after the higher learning stage, some few students are still anxious to
learn, Comenius recommended this last stage. It is at this level that Comenius thought the great
scholars of the world should unite to search for knowledge and bring new light and truth to the
world.
5.2.2 Comenius Nine Principles of Teaching

According to Omstein and Lovine (1989), Comenius nine principles of teaching reflect his
concern for both sensory-based learning and human development. To Comenius:
1. Teaching should involve presentation of the object or idea in a concrete and direct way, not
merely through symbols and concepts.
2. Teaching should involve practical application to every day life.
3. What ever is taught should be presented in a straight forward and uncomplicated way.
4. Whatever is taught should be related to its true nature and origin.
5. General principles should be taught and then details can be considered.
6. All things should be learned with reference to the whole and to how the parts are connected
7. Things should be taught in succession and one thing should be taught at a time.
8. The teacher should not leave a specific subject(matter) until it is completely understood.
9. Differences among thins should be taught so that the knowledge required may be clear.
5.2.3 The Pansophism of Comenius
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Pansophism is an ancient philosophy that preached the unity of knowledge. According to this
philosophy, all knowledge contains a unifying principle of wisdom and intellectual activity and should be
harmonized. Comenius pursued this idea vigorously and actually laid out a plan to engage the worlds
greatest scholars to collaborate with the framework of the universal college and put together every thing
that was known from A to Z. this proposal was called Pansophia. Prior Comenius, a number of attempts
had been made by individuals to put together all available knowledge. What was new in the pansophic
proposal of Comenius was his belief that the body of knowledge had become so extensive that no one
person however learned he was could master it. Comenius in spite of his zeal for pansophism never
succeeded in gaining enough support for the project.
5.3 Summary of the Pedagogic contribution of Comenius
Comenius pedagogic contribution is summarized as below:
1. We learn not for school but for life; children should therefore approach learning through real things
rather than words.
2. The best way to study things is through direct observation. But if this is not possible, the child should
be shown pictures of the things or objects.
3. Learning should be made as enjoyable as possible. The learning atmosphere should be good and
pleasant.
4. Children should learn from the simple to the complex. What a child is asked to learn at each stage
should be adjusted to his ability and readiness.
5. Rods and blows should not be used in school; children are Gods most precious gifts.
6. Nature should be the teachers guide in the educational process. In this respect learning is best done
through the senses, play and practice.
7. Since artisans learn to forge by forging, to carve by carving and to paint by painting etc, so to
children learn how to write by writing, to sing by singing and to reason by reasoning.
8. Mothers are the first teachers of children, they need to be helped to accomplish their tasks
9. The childs first year of schooling should be through the mother tongue or native language.
10. All children whether rich or poor, boys or girls should be given equal educational opportunities.
5.4 Comenius Legacy
Some of the legacies of Comenius are:
1. The Comenius Medal, a UNESCO award honoring outstanding achievements in the fields of
education research and innovation, commemorates Comenius. Peter Drucker hailed Comenius as
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the inventor of textbooks and primers. Comenius, his life and teachings, have become better
known since the fall of Iron Curtain.
2. Czech Republic and Slovakia-During the 19th century Czech National Revival, Czechs idealized
Comenius as a symbol of the Czech nation. This image persists to the present day. In 1919
Comenius University was founded by act of parliament in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, (now in
Slovakia). It was the first university with courses in the Slovak language. Slovakia and the Czech
Republic celebrate 28 March, the birthday of Comenius, as Teachers' Day.
3. Other European countries-In Srospatak, Hungary, a teacher's college is named after him (the
college now belongs to the University of Miskolc.) Also primary school in Skopje, Republic of
Macedonia is named after Comenius (Jan Amos Komenski in Macedonian). The Czechoslovak
government built the school after the catastrophic earthquake in 1963 that leveled most of the city.
4. The Comenius Foundation is a non-governmental organization in Poland, dedicated to the
provision of equal opportunities to children less than 10 years of age. The Italian film director
Roberto Rossellini took Comenius, and especially his theory of "direct vision," as his model in the
development of his didactic theories, which Rossellini hoped would usher the world into a utopian
future.
5. "Comenius", a European Union school partnership program, takes its name from the teacher of
nations. In the United Kingdom, the University of Sheffield's Western Bank Library holds the
largest collection of Comenius manuscripts outside of the Czech Republic.
6. USA -In 1892 Comenius Hall, the principal classroom and faculty office building on Moravian
College's campus in Pennsylvania was built. In 1892 educators in many places celebrated the
three-hundredth anniversary of Comenius, and at that time the Comenian Society for the study and
publication of his works was formed. The education department at Salem College in North
Carolina has an annual Comenius Symposium dedicated in his honor;
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CHAPTER SIX

ERIK H. ERIKSON
6.0 BIOGRAPHY OF ERIK H. ERIKSON
Erik Hamburger Erikson (15 June 1902 12 may 1994) was a Danish-German-American
developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human
beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, kai t. Erikson, is a noted
American sociologist.
6.1 Early Childhood
Born in Frankfurt to Danish parents, Erik Eriksons lifelong interest in the psychology of identity
may be traced to his childhood. He was born on June 15, 1902 as a result of his mother's extramarital
affair, and the circumstances of his birth were concealed from him in his childhood. His mother, Karla
Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen, her mother Henrietta died when
Karla was only 13. Abrahamsens father, Josef, was a merchant in dried goods. Karlas older brother
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Einar, Nicolai, and axel were active in local Jewish charity and helped maintain a free soup kitchen for
indigent Jewish immigrants from Russia. Since Karla Abrahamsen was officially married to Jewish
stockbroker waldemar Isidor Salomonsen at the time, her son, born in Germany, was registered as Erik
Salomonsen. There is no more information about his biological father, except that he was a Dane and his
given name probably was Erik. It is also suggested that he was married at the time that Erikson was
conceived. Following her son's birth, Karla trained to be a nurse, moved to Karlsruhe and in 1904 married
a Jewish pediatrician Theodor Homburger. In 1909 Erik Salomonsen became Erik Homburger and in
1911 he was officially adopted by his stepfather. The development of identity seems to have been one of
Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. During his childhood and early
adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was
a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion. At temple school, the kids teased him
for being Nordic; at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish.
6.2.0 Eriks Educational Contributions
6.2.1 Eriks Psychoanalytic Experience and Training Career
Erikson was a student and teacher of arts. While teaching at a private school in Vienna, he
became acquainted with Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud. Erikson underwent psychoanalysis,
and the experience made him decide to become an analyst himself. He was trained in psychoanalysis at
the Vienna psychoanalytic institute and also studied the Montessori Method of education, which focused
on child development. Following Eriksons graduation from the Vienna psychoanalytic institute in 1933,
the Nazis had just come to power in Germany, and he emigrated with his wife, first to Denmark and then
to the united states, where he became the first child psychoanalyst in Boston. Erikson held positions at
Massachusetts general hospital, the judge baker guidance center, and at Harvards medical school and
psychological clinic, establishing a solid reputation as an outstanding clinician. In 1936, Erikson accepted
a position at Yale university, where he worked at the institute of human relations and taught at the
medical school. After spending a year observing children on a Sioux reservation in south Dakota, he
joined the faculty of the university of California at Berkeley, where he was affiliated with the institute of
child welfare, and opened a private practice as well. While in California, Erikson also studied children of
the Yurok Native American tribe. After publishing the book for which Erikson is best known, childhood
and society, in 1950, he left the University of California when professors there were asked to sign loyalty
oaths. He spent ten years working and teaching at the Austen Riggs center, a prominent psychiatric
treatment facility in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young
people. In the 1960s, Erikson returned to Harvard as a professor of human development and remained at
the university until his retirement in 1970. In 1973 the national endowment for the humanities selected
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Erikson for the Jefferson lecture, the US federal government's highest honor for achievement in the
humanities. Erikson's lecture was titled "dimensions of a new identity".
6.2.2.0 Erik Eriksons eight stages of psychosocial development-summary diagram
Eriksons greatest innovation hence it is worth mentioning; however not the only existing. He
postulated not five stages of development, as Sigmund Freud had done with his psychosexual stages, but
eight, and then later added a ninth stage in his book "the life cycle completed." Erik Erikson believed that
every human being goes through a certain number of stages to reach his or her full development,
Like other seminal concepts, Erikson's model is simple and elegant, yet very sophisticated. The theory
is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behaviour, and also for
understanding and for facilitating personal development. Main elements of the theory covered in this
explanation are:
Erikson's Freudian life stage / relationships / basic virtue Mal-adaptation /

psychosocial psycho- issues and second malignancy (potential
crisis stages sexual named negative outcome - one
(syntonic v stages strength or the other - from
dystonic) (potential unhelpful experience
positive during each crisis)
outcomes from
each crisis)
1. Trust v Oral infant / mother / feeding and Hope and Drive Sensory Distortion /
Mistrust being comforted, teething, Withdrawal
sleeping
2. Autonomy Anal toddler / parents / bodily Willpower and Impulsivity /

v Shame & functions, toilet training, Self-Control Compulsion
Doubt muscular control, walking
3. Initiative v Phallic preschool / family / exploration Purpose and Ruthlessness/

Guilt and discovery, adventure and Direction Inhibition
play
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4. Industry v Latency schoolchild / school, teachers, Competence Narrow Virtuosit/

Inferiority friends, neighbourhood/ and Method Inertia
achievement and
accomplishment
5. Identity v Puberty adolescent / peers, groups, Fidelity and Fanaticism/

Role and influences / resolving identity Devotion Repudiation
Confusion Genitality and direction, becoming a
grown-up
6. Intimacy v (Genitality) young adult / lovers, friends, Love and Promiscuity /

Isolation work connections/ intimate Affiliation Exclusivity
relationships, work and social
life
7. n/a mid-adult / children, Care and Overextension/

Generativity v community / 'giving Production Rejectivity
Stagnation back',helping, contributing
8. Integrity v n/a late adult / society, the world, Wisdom and Presumption / Disdain
Despair life / meaning and purpose, life Renunciation
achievements
6.2.2.1Eriksons psychosocial crisis stages - meanings and interpretations
Erikson used particular words to represent each psychosocial crisis. As ever, single words can be
misleading and rarely convey much meaning. Here is more explanation of what lies behind these terms.
Erikson reinforced these crisis explanations with a perspective called 'psychosocial modalities', which in
the earlier stages reflect Freudian theory, and which are paraphrased below. They are not crucial to the
model, but they do provide a useful additional viewpoint.
'psychosocial crisis' /
meaning and interpretation
'psychosocial modality'
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1. Trust v Mistrust The infant will develop a healthy balance between trust and mistrust if fed and
cared for and not over-indulged or over-protected. Abuse or neglect or cruelty
'To get' will destroy trust and foster mistrust. Mistrust increases a person's resistance to
risk-exposure and exploration. "Once bitten twice shy" is an apt analogy. On the
'To give in return' other hand, if the infant is insulated from all and any feelings of surprise and
normality, or unfailingly indulged, this will create a false sense of trust
(To receive and to give in amounting to sensory distortion, in other words a failure to appreciate reality.
return. Trust is reciprocal - Infants who grow up to trust are more able to hope and have faith that 'things
maybe karma even.) will generally be okay'. This crisis stage incorporates Freud's psychosexual Oral
stage, in which the infant's crucial relationships and experiences are defined by
oral matters, notably feeding and relationship with mum. Erikson later
shortened 'Basic Trust v Basic Mistrust' to simply Trust v Mistrust, especially in
tables and headings.
2. Autonomy v Shame & Autonomy means self-reliance. This is independence of thought, and a basic
Doubt confidence to think and act for oneself. Shame and Doubt mean what they say,
and obviously inhibit self-expression and developing one's own ideas, opinions
'To hold on' and sense of self. Toilet and potty training is a significant part of this crisis, as
in Freud's psychosexual Anal stage, where parental reactions, encouragement
'To let go' and patience play an important role in shaping the young child's experience and
successful progression through this period. The significance of parental reaction
(To direct behaviour outward is not limited to bottoms and pooh - it concerns all aspects of toddler
or be retentive. Of course very exploration and discovery while small children struggle to find their feet -
Freudian...) almost literally - as little people in their own right. The 'terrible twos' and
'toddler tantrums' are a couple of obvious analogies which represent these
internal struggles and parental battles. The parental balancing act is a
challenging one, especially since parents themselves have to deal with their own
particular psychosocial crisis, and of course deal with the influence of their own
emotional triggers which were conditioned when they themselves passed
through earlier formative crisis stages. What are the odds that whenever a parent
berates a child, "That's dirty... it will be an echo from their own past
experience at this very stage?
3. Initiative v Guilt Initiative is the capability to devise actions or projects, and a confidence and
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belief that it is okay to do so, even with a risk of failure or making mistakes.
'To make (= going after)' Guilt means what it says, and in this context is the feeling that it is wrong or
inappropriate to instigate something of one's own design. Guilt results from
'To "make like" (= playing)' being admonished or believing that something is wrong or likely to attract
disapproval. Initiative flourishes when adventure and game-playing is
(To make and complete encouraged, irrespective of how daft and silly it seems to the grown-up in
things, and to make things charge. Suppressing adventure and experimentation, or preventing young
together. To pursue ideas, children doing things for themselves because of time, mess or a bit of risk will
plans) inhibit the development of confidence to initiate, replacing it instead with an
unhelpful fear of being wrong or unapproved. The fear of being admonished or
accused of being stupid becomes a part of the personality. "If I don't initiate or
stick my neck out I'll be safe... (From feeling guilty and bad). Parents, carers
and older siblings have a challenge to get the balance right between giving
young children enough space and encouragement so as to foster a sense of
purpose and confidence, but to protect against danger, and also to enable a
sensible exposure to trial and error, and to the consequences of mistakes,
without which an irresponsible or reckless tendency can develop. This crisis
stage correlates with Freud's psychosexual Phallic stage, characterized by a
perfectly natural interest in genitals, where babies come from, and as Freud
asserted, an attachment to the opposite sex parent, and the murky mysteries of
the Oedipus Complex, Penis Envy and Castration Anxiety, about which further
explanation and understanding is not critical to appreciating Erikson's theory.
What's more essential is to recognize that children of this age are not wicked or
bad or naughty, they are exploring and
4. Industry v Inferiority Industry here refers to purposeful or meaningful activity. It's the development of
competence and skills, and a confidence to use a 'method', and is a crucial
'To make (= going after)' aspect of school years experience. Erikson described this stage as a sort of
'entrance to life'. This correlates with Freud's psychosexual Latency stage, when
'To "make like" and complete sexual motives and concerns are largely repressed while the young person
things, and to make things concentrates on work and skills development. A child who experiences the
together' satisfaction of achievement - of anything positive - will move towards
successful negotiation of this crisis stage. A child who experiences failure at
(To initiate projects or ideas, school tasks and work, or worse still who is denied the opportunity to discover
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and to collaborate and and develop their own capabilities and strengths and unique potential, quite
cooperate with others to naturally is prone to feeling inferior and useless. Engaging with others and
produce something.) using tools or technology are also important aspects of this stage. It is like a
rehearsal for being productive and being valued at work in later life. Inferiority
is feeling useless; unable to contribute, unable to cooperate or work in a team to
create something, with the low self-esteem that accompanies such feelings.
Erikson knew this over fifty years ago. How is it that the people in charge of
children's education still fail to realize this? Develop the child from within. Help
them to find and excel at what they are naturally good at, and then they will
achieve the sense of purpose and industry on which everything else can then be
built.
5. Identity v Role Confusion Identity means essentially how a person sees themselves in relation to their
world. It's a sense of self or individuality in the context of life and
'To be oneself (or not to be)' what lies ahead. Role Confusion is the negative perspective - an
absence of identity - meaning that the person cannot see clearly or
'To share being oneself' at all who they are and how they can relate positively with their
environment. This stage coincides with puberty or adolescence,
(To be yourself and to share and the reawakening of the sexual urge whose dormancy typically
this with others. Affirmation characterizes the previous stage.
or otherwise of how you see Young people struggle to belong and to be accepted and affirmed,
yourself.) and yet also to become individuals. In itself this is a big dilemma,
aside from all the other distractions and confusions experienced at
this life stage.
Erikson later replaced the term 'Role Confusion' with 'Identity

Diffusion'. In essence they mean the same.
6. Intimacy v Isolation Intimacy means the process of achieving relationships with family and marital
or mating partner(s). Erikson explained this stage also in terms of sexual
'To lose and find oneself in mutuality - the giving and receiving of physical and emotional connection,
another' support, love, comfort, trust, and all the other elements that we would typically
associate with healthy adult relationships conducive to mating and child-rearing.
(Reciprocal love for and with There is a strong reciprocal feature in the intimacy experienced during this stage
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another person.) - giving and receiving - especially between sexual or marital partners.
Isolation conversely means being and feeling excluded from the usual life
experiences of dating and mating and mutually loving relationships. This
logically is characterized by feelings of loneliness, alienation, social withdrawal
or non-participation.
Erikson also later correlated this stage with the Freudian Genitality sexual stage,
which illustrates the difficulty in equating Freudian psychosexual theory
precisely to Erikson's model. There is a correlation but it is not an exact fit.
7. Generativity v Stagnation Generativity derives from the word generation, as in parents and children, and
specifically the unconditional giving that characterises positive parental love
'To make be' and care for their offspring. Erikson acknowledged that this stage also extends
to other productive activities - work and creativity for example - but given his
'To take care of' focus on childhood development, and probably the influence of Freudian theory,
Erikson's analysis of this stage was strongly oriented towards parenting.
(Unconditional, non- Generativity potentially extends beyond one's own children, and also to all
reciprocating care of one's future generations, which gives the model ultimately a very modern globally
children, or other altruistic responsible perspective.
outlets)
Positive outcomes from this crisis stage depend on contributing positively and
unconditionally. We might also see this as an end of self-interest. Having
children is not a prerequisite for Generativity, just as being a parent is no
guarantee that Generativity will be achieved. Caring for children is the common
Generativity scenario, but success at this stage actually depends on giving and
caring - putting something back into life, to the best of one's capabilities.
Stagnation is an extension of intimacy which turns inward in the form of self-
interest and self-absorption. It's the disposition that represents feelings of
selfishness, self-indulgence, greed, lack of interest in young people and future
generations, and the wider world. Erikson later used the term 'Self-Absorption'
instead of 'Stagnation' and then seems to have settled in later work with the
original 'Stagnation'.
Stagnation and/or Self-Absorption result from not having an outlet or
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opportunity for contributing to the good or growth of children and others, and
potentially to the wider world.
8. Integrity v Despair This is a review and closing stage. The previous stage is actually a culmination
of one's achievement and contribution to descendants, and potentially future
'To be, through having been generations everywhere.
Later Erikson dropped the word 'Ego' (from 'Ego Integrity') and extended the
To face not being' whole term to 'Integrity v Disgust and Despair'. He also continued to use the
shorter form 'Integrity v Despair'.
(To be peaceful and satisfied Integrity means feeling at peace with oneself and the world. No regrets or
with one's life and efforts, and recriminations. The linking between the stages is perhaps clearer here than
to be accepting that life will anywhere: people are more likely to look back on their lives positively and
end.) happily if they have left the world a better place than they found it - in whatever
way, to whatever extent. There lies Integrity and acceptance. Despair and/or
'Disgust' (i.e., rejective denial, or 'sour grapes' feeling towards what life might
have been) represent the opposite disposition: feelings of wasted opportunities,
regrets, wishing to be able to turn back the clock and have a second chance.
This stage is a powerful lens through which to view one's life - even before old
age is reached. To bring this idea to life look at the exercise. Erikson had a
profound interest in humanity and society's well-being in general. This crisis
stage highlights the issue very meaningfully. Happily these days for many
people it's often possible to put something back, even in the depths of despair.
When this happens people are effectively rebuilding wreckage from the
previous stage, which is fine.
6.3.0 A Summary Of Eriksons Psychosocial Theory and Educational Contributions
6.3.1 A Summary Of Eriksons Psychosocial Theory
Erikson's model of psychosocial development is a very significant, highly regarded and meaningful
concept. Erik Erikson first published his eight stage theory of human development in his 1950 book
Childhood and Society. The chapter featuring the model was titled 'The Eight Ages of Man'. He expanded
and refined his theory in later books and revisions, notably: Identity and the Life Cycle (1959); Insight and
Responsibility (1964); The Life Cycle Completed: A Review (1982, revised 1996 by Joan Erikson); and
Vital Involvement in Old Age (1989). The word 'psychosocial' is Erikson's term, effectively from the words
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psychological (mind) and social (relationships).
Erikson believed that his psychosocial principle is genetically inevitable in shaping human
development. It occurs in all people. He also referred to his theory as 'epigenesist' and the 'epigenetic
principle', which signified the concept's relevance to evolution (past and future) and genetics.
Erik Erikson has made a contribution to the field of psychology with his developmental theory. He can
be compared to Sigmund Freud in that he claimed that humans develop in stages. Erikson developed eight
psychosocial stages in which humans develop through throughout their entire life span.
Erikson recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory, but believed that Freud misjudged some
important dimensions of human development. Erikson said that humans develop throughout their life span,
while Freud said that our personality is shaped by the age of five. Erikson developed eight psychosocial
stages that humans encounter throughout their life. The stages are Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame
& Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation,
Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.
In his work, Erikson went beyond the Freudian focus on dysfunctional behavior to pursue the ways
that the normal self is able to function successfully. His unique contribution to the applications of
psychoanalysis, his inclusion of the effects of society and culture on individual psychological development,
led to the designation of his perspective as psychosocial. Early examples are the study of the American
Indian children, which combined anthropological observation and clinical analysis with tribal history and
economic circumstances.
Erikson's eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model: it is very accessible and obviously
relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives, for understanding and explaining how
personality and behavior develops in people. As such Erikson's theory is useful for teaching, parenting,
self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and
others.
Both Erikson and his wife Joan, who collaborated as psychoanalysts and writers, were passionately
interested in childhood development, and its effects on adult society. Eriksons' work is as relevant today as
when he first outlined his original theory, in fact given the modern pressures on society, family and
relationships - and the quest for personal development and fulfillment - his ideas are probably more
relevant now than ever.
Erikson's psychosocial theory essentially states that each person experiences eight 'psychosocial
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crises' (internal conflicts linked to life's key stages) which help to define his or her growth and personality.
People experience these 'psychosocial crisis' stages in a fixed sequence, but timings vary according to
people and circumstances. This is why the stages and the model are represented primarily by the names of
the crises or emotional conflicts themselves (e.g., Trust v Mistrust) rather than strict age or life stage
definitions. Age and life stages do feature in the model, but as related rather than pivotal factors, and age
ranges are increasingly variable as the stages unfold. Each of the eight 'psychosocial crises' is characterized
by a conflict between two opposing positions or attitudes (or dispositions or emotional forces). Erikson
never really settled on a firm recognizable description for the two components of each crisis, although in
later works the first disposition is formally referred to as the 'Adaptive Strength'.
6.3.1.1 His contributions to other areas like Psychology
Erik Erikson spent time studying the cultural life of the Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok of
northern California. He utilized the knowledge he gained of cultural, environmental and social influences
to further develop his psychoanalytic theory.
While Freuds theory had focused on the psychosexual aspects of development, Eriksons addition of other
influences helped to broaden and expand psychoanalytic theory. He also contributed to our understanding
of personality as it is developed and shaped over the course of the lifespan.
6.3.2 Summary of Eriks Educational Contributions
6.3.2.1Erikson's Contributions to Early Childhood Education
Erikson's influence is seen in preschool through the initiative stage (three). It is the exertion of
independence that identifies this stage. The goal of ECE is to help children find their independence apart
from parents. They begin to discover themselves and assert their new found abilities. The challenge of
this stage is to maintain a zest for activity and at the same time understand that not every impulse can be
acted on. Teachers and parents must tread a fine line, providing supervision without interference. Much of
this discovery is made through role playing. The children need to pretend to be others in order to find
their own independence and identity. The following are suggestions for encouraging initiative in the
preschool child.
1. Encourage children to make and to act on choices, such as allowing free choice time when the children
can select an activity or game.
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2. Encourage make-believe with a wide variety of roles by having costumes and props available in the
classroom. Monitor the children's play to be sure no one monopolizes the role of teacher, Mommy, Daddy
or other heroes.
3. Be tolerant of accidents and mistakes, especially when children are attempting to do something on their
own.
It is really interesting to know that teachers used this theory like they do. We find teachers being
tolerant of a child's mistakes. I don't think many people are. It is vital we apply these ideas in our
classroom, especially when talking about making mistakes, because that is the only way we can learn and
that is by making mistakes and growing from them. It's hard to let children make mistakes. I think we
forget how much we learn through our own mistakes. Erikson reminds us that it is okay to let them play,
explore and learn from their mistakes. It is agreed that teacher and parents should supervise the children,
but without interfering in what they do. Also that we need to be tolerant of any mistakes students do. We
have to see to effort they put in everything they do.
His beliefs and theories are right on, he firmly believes that a child should be allowed to express his/her
self through play. It is important to instill in all kids that self-expression is crucial not only to establish
his/her own identity but to gain independence as well.
Erikson's theory is a basis for discussion and analysis of personality and behavior and also for
understanding and facilitating personal development of self and other. I will be very careful in not judging
students when they make a mistake. Unfortunately kids and adults learn from mistakes.
6.4 His Areas of Interest In Research
In education and psychology, Erikson is best known for his eight-stage model of the human life
cycle, developed with the assistance of his wife, Joan. This model identifies particular goals, challenges,
and concerns at each stage of life. They are the following: (1) Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (infancy);
(2) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (early childhood); (3) Initiative versus Guilt (play age); (4)
Industry versus Inferiority (school age); (5) Identity versus Role Confusion (adolescence); (6) Intimacy
versus Isolation (young adulthood); (7) Generativity versus Stagnation (adulthood); (8) Ego Identity
versus Despair (later adulthood). Further, the stages are interdependent in that unresolved conflicts at one
stage influence development at later stages, as in the development of either a loving trusting relationship
with a caregiver in infancy or mistrust of others.
Unlike Freud, who focused on early childhood, Erikson emphasized adolescence and adulthood.
Erikson introduced the term identity and identity crisis to explain the psychological and social
complexities faced by young people in attempting to find their place in a specific town, nation, and time.
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Adolescent development, in other words, is a complex answer to the question, "Who am I?" and requires
organization of the individual's drives, abilities, beliefs, and history into a view of oneself. This focus
reflects Erikson's own youthful wanderings before finding his place as a teacher, analyst, and writer.
In the 1960s Erikson focused on the seventh or "generative" stage of adulthood. In this stage, adults
are obligated to care for the next generation, either one's own children or a broader group, through
personal deeds and words. In the case of Gandhi, his contribution to the next generation was his militant
nonviolence as a means to address social injustice. In addition Erikson described the final stage, late
adulthood, as an active period that involves acceptance of self and the development of wisdom.
A third focus in Erikson's writing, ethical and moral responsibility is reflected most prominently in
Insight and Responsibility (1964). In this work, he included a set of eight virtues that correspond with his
eight life stages (hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom). He also introduced
the term pseudo speciation to describe the destructive mechanism that leads to human conflict,
aggression, and war. Specifically, pseudo speciation refers to the "arrogant placing of one's nation, race,
culture, and (or) society ahead of others; the failure to recognize that all of humanity was of one species"
(Friedman, p. 357). Groups of individuals, in other words, are assigned membership in a not-quite human
or pseudo-species. With this concept, as in his other writings, Erikson spoke to human psychological
issues within the broader context of history and culture.
CHAPTER SEVEN
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF
B.F. SKINNER
7.0 BIOGRAPHY OF B.F. SKINNER
Barrhus Federic Skinner (B.F. Skinner) was born on March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna
Pennsylvania in the United States of America, to Grace and William Skinner. His father was a lawyer. He
brother Edward died at the at the age of sixteen of hemonhage. He became an atheist after a liberal
Christian teacher tried to assuage his fear of hell that his grand mother described. In 1936, skinner
married Yvonne Blue with whom he had two daughters; Julie Vargas and Deborah Buzan.
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He attended Hamilton College in New York with the intention of becoming a writer. While
attending, he joined the Lamba Chi Alpha Fraternity. He wrote for the school paper but as an atheist he
was critical of the religious school he attended. He attended Harvard University after obtaining his B.A.
in English Literature in 1926. After graduation, he spent a year at is parents home in Scranton
attempting to become a writer of fiction. He soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and
concluded that he had little world experience and no personal perspective fro which to write.
Skinner received a PhD from Harvard in 1931 and remained there as a researcher until 1936. He
then taught at the university of Minnesota in Minneapolis and later at Indiana University, where he was
chair of the Psychology department from 1946-1947 before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in
1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his career. He died of Leukemia on August 08, 1990 at the
age of 86 and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
7.1. 0 Educational Contributions
B.F. Skinner was a behaviourist, author, inventor, social philosopher and a poet. He was the
Edgar Piece Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.
Skinner invented the Operant Conditioning Chamber, innovated his own philosophy called
Radical Behaviourism and founded his own school of experimental research Psychology-the
Experimental Analysis of Behaviour. His analysis of human behaviour culminated in his work Verbal
Behaviour, which has recently seen enormous interest experimentally and applied settings.
He discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological

research. He invented the cumulative recorder to ensure rate of responding as part of his highly influential
work on schedules of Reinforcement. In a June 2002 survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential
psychologist of the 20th Century. He was a prolific author who published 21 books and 180 articles.
7.1.1 Skinners Influence on Education
Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying Teachers must learn
how to teach...they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching. Skinner asserted that positive
reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing behaviour than punishment with obvious
implications for the then widespread practice of Rote Learning and Punitive Discipline in Education.
He also suggests that the only thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment.
In his book titled Technology of Teaching (pages 93-113) skinner explains why teachers fail. In
this book, he says teachers have not been given understanding of teaching and learning. Without the
science of underpinning teaching, teachers fall back on procedures that work poorly or not at all such as:
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Using aversive techniques-they produce escape and avoidance and undesirable emotional effects.
Relying on telling and explaining-Unfortunately, a student does not learn simply when he is
shown or told (P103).
Failing to adopt learning tasks to the students current level.
Failing to provide positive reinforcement frequently enough.
Skinner suggests that any age- appropriate skill can be taught using the following steps:
1. Clearly specify the action or performance the student (learner) is to learn or do.
2. Break down the task into small achievable steps, going fro simple to complex,
3. Let the student perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.
4. Adjust so that the student is always successful until finally the goal is achieved.
5. Transfer to intermittent reinforcement to maintain the students performance.
7.1.1.1 Limitations of Skinners View on Education
The limitation of skinners view can be seen from his argument that it is a step forward to abolish
autonomous inner man. As recorded in his Beyond and Freedom and Dignity (1971, p.215).
7.1.2. Skinners Theory of Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner just like other Radical Behaviourists seeks to understand behaviour as a function of
environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. Reinforcement processes were emphasized by
Skinner and where seen as primary in shaping behaviour. A common misconception is that negative
reinforcement is synonymous with punishment. Positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour
by the application of some behaviour is performed. Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of
behaviour by the removal of avoidance of some aversive events. E.g. cleaning a house to get rid of some
disgusting odour, conceding to a childs request to halt the whining. Skinner also sought to understand
the application of his theory in the broadest behavioural context as it applied to living organisms, namely
natural selection.
7.2. Inventions
Skinner made major inventions from childhood up to the time of his departure. These include; Air Crib,
Cumulative Recorder, Operant Conditioning Chamber, System 80 and Pigeon guided Missile.
7.2.1 Air Crib

In an effort to help cope with the day to tasks of child rearing, Skinner invented the Air-Crib to
meet this challenge. An air-crib is also known as a baby tender or humorously as an air conditioner.
This is an easily cleaned temperature and humidity-controlled box Skinner designed to assist in the
raising of babies. It was one of his most controversial inventions and was popularly mischaracterized
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as cruel and experimental. It was designed to make the earth childcare simple. It was also meant to
encourage the baby to be more confident, mobile, comfortable, healthy and therefore less prone to cry
Skinners invention was a successful story because most companies began producing Air-Crib for
commercial purposes. Air-Cribs of some fashion are still used to this day.
7.2.2 Cumulative Recorder

The Cumulative Recorder is an instrument used to automatically record behaviour graphically.
Initially, its graphing mechanism has consisted of a rotating drum of paper equipped with a marking
needle. The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper
horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one
tick. This makes it possible for the rate of response to be calculated by finding the slope of the graph
at a given joint. For example, a regular rate of response would cause the needle to move vertically at a
regular rate, resulting in a straight diagonal line rising towards are right. An accelerating or
decelerating rate of response would lead to a curve. The cumulative recorder provided a powerful
analytical tool for studying schedules of reinforcement.
7.2.3 Operant Conditioning Chamber

This invention was developed during his studies at Harvard University. B.F. Skinner invented the
Operant Conditioning Chamber to measure responses of organisms such as rats and pigeons and their
orderly interactions with the environment. The device was a fruit of his life long ability to invent useful
devices which included whimsical devices in his childhood to the Cumulative Recorder to measure the
rate of response of organisms in an Operant Chamber. Even in old age, Skinner invented a thinking aid to
assist in writing.
7.2.4 Teaching Machine (Curriculum Programming)
The teaching machine is a mechanical invention to automate the talk of programmed instruction.
The teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of
programmed instruction. It housed a list of questions and a mechanism through which the learner could
respond to each question. Upon delivering a correct answer the learner would be rewarded.
7.2.5 System 80
The system 80 is another example of a teaching machine that follows skinners methods. The
System80 elevated Skinners five steps towards educational progression. The automated educational
device is very useful to learners in the following ways:
a.) The learner gets immediate feedback

b.) It breaks the learning tasks into small steps.
c.) It repeats the directions of the teaching task
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d.) Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks
e.) Provides positive reinforcement for correct answers to questions.
7.2.6 Pigeon-Guided Missile
This invention came at a time when the U.S. navy required a weapon effective against the
German Bismarck class battle ships. Although Missile and TV technology existed, the size of the
primitive guidance systems available rendered any weapon ineffective. Skinners project pigeon was
potentially an extremely simple and effective solution. Despite an effective demonstration, it was
abandoned when more conventional solutions became available. Te project centred on dividing the nose
cone of missile into three compartments and encasing a pigeon in each. Each compartment used a lens to
project an image of what was in front of the missile onto a screen. The pigeons would peck towards the
object, thereby directing the missile. Skinner complained Our problem was no one would take us
seriously. The point perhaps best explained in terms of human Psychology. That is few people would
trust s pigeon to guide a missile no matter how reliable it proved.
7.3.0 Other Works of Skinner
7.3.1 Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity
Skinner is popularly known mainly for his book Walden Two and Beyond Free and Dignity.
The former describes a visit to a fictional experimental community. In the 1940s, United States where the
productivity and happiness of the citizens is far advance of that in which the outside world because of
their practice of scientific social planning and use of operant condition in the raising of children.
Walden Two, like Thoreaus Walden, champions a lifestyle that does not support war or foster
competition and social strife. It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships,
personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure.
In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner suggests that a technology of behaviour could help to
make a better society. We would however have to accept that an autonomy agent is not the driving force
of our actions. Skinner offers alternatives to punishment and challenges his readers to use science and
modern technology to construct a better society.
7.3.2 Superstition in the Pigeon
One of Skinners experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favourite
experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeon in a cage attached to an
automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon at regular intervals with reference whatsoever to
the birds behaviour. He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatsoever
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chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to
perform these same actions.
One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns
between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A
third developed a tossing response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it
repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body in which the head was
extended forward and swing from right to left with a sharp movement followed by some what slower
return.
Modern behavioural psychologists have disputed Skinners superstition explanation for the
behaviours he recorded. Subsequent research (e.g. Staddon and Simmelhag, 1971) while finding similar
behaviour, failed to find support for Skinners adventitious reinforcement explanation for it. By looking
at the timing of the different behaviour within the interval, Staddon and Simmelhag were able to
distinguish two classes of behaviour; terminal response-which occurred in anticipating of food and the
Interim Response-that occurred earlier in the inter-food interval and were rarely contiguous with food.
Terminal Responses seem to reflect classical rather than operant Conditioning.
7.4.0 Skinners Political Views
Skinners political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of
behaviour control a technology of human behaviour-could help problems unsolved by earlier approaches
or aggravated by advances in techno logy to prevent humanity from destroying itself. The comprehended
political control as aversive or non-aversive, with the purpose to control a population. Skinner supported
he use of positive reinforcement a means of coercion, citing Jean-Jacques Rousseaus novel, Emile Or, on
Education as an example of freedom literature that did not fear the power of positive reinforcement.
Skinners book Warden Two presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society which applies
a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioural expertise to peacefully deal with
social problems. Skinners Utopia like any other Utopia or dystopia a both a thought experiment and a
rhetorical piece. In his book, Skinner answers the problem that exist in many Utopian novels such as
What is a good Life?
In Warden Two, the answer is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and
leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to ones
society and allow all people to cooperate with each other peacefully. Skinner described his novel as My
New Atlantis in reference to Bacons Utopia. He opposed corporal punishment in the school and wrote a
letter to a California Senate that helped lead it to a ban on spanking.
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7.5.0 Negative Criticisms on Skinners View on Education
The criticism of Skinners contribution to education can be looked upon by examining views put
forward by J.E.R. Staddon and Anthony Burges.
J.E.R. Staddon- As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit
for their actions. To say Skinner is brilliant means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinners
determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and
he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinners environment and
genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book. Similarly, the environment and genetic
potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity caused them to resist the reality that their own
activities are deterministically grounded. According to J.E.R. Staddon in his book titled The New
Behaviourism, 2001 argues that the Compatibilist position that Skinners determinism is not in any way
contradictory to traditional notions of reward and punishment, as he believed.
Anthony Burgess-Anthony Burgess novel A Clockwork Orange can be viewed upon as a direct critic
of Skinners Moral Theories. This novel holds that moral choice is a necessary part of ones humanity.
Thus, criticising Skinners theories as being immoral. The novel protagonist Alex, believes he can be
realized from prison early by participating in an Ivan Pavlov inspired rehabilitation programme referred to
as the Ludovico Techniques which conditions criminals to become nauseous from the mere thought of
violence. This stimulus/response approach is claimed to be at odds with Skinners Operant Model and his
findings that punishment is unlikely to alter behaviour . as Skinner was the key behavioural psychologist
working at the books release, he has been included in some discussions of the books critique. Indeed
within the narrative, the prison chaplain warns against the programme. Declaring that an action is only
good if derived from good intentions rejecting any conditioning, other than that based on moral beliefs, as
dehumanising and oppressive.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
JOHN LOCKE
8.0 Biography of John Locke (1632-1704)
John Locke was born on August 29th 1632, the oldest child of a respectable Somersetshire family
of Puritan sympathies at wrington near Bristol, England. His father was lawyer, small landowner, and
captain of a volunteer regiment in the parliamentary army. Lockes early education was carefully tended
by his father at their rural home at belluton, near Bristol; and it was probably through the influence of the
elder Lockes parliamentary patrons that he obtained a place at Westminster school, where remained from
his fourteenth to his twentieth year . In 1652 he won a scholarship to Christ collage, Oxford. At the age of
twenty he entered oxford and took up with avidity the study of philosophy, natural science and medicine.
His course was interrupted for a year to enable him go as private secretary to Sir Walter Vane on a
diplomatic mission to Germany. He returned afterward to oxford and completed his studies, taking his
B.A degree in 1656 and his M.A in 1658. In 1667, he became associated with Lord Ashley, afterward
Earl of Shaftesbury, in the capacity of secretary, physicians and tutor of his son.
Through his connection with Shaftesbury, at one time Lord Chancellor, he obtained important
public offices; but when his patron fell from power and fled from England, Locke sought refuge with him
in Holland returning in 1689, after six years absence. In 1693, he published his Thoughts Concerning
Education. This together with his philosophical work, Essay Concerning the Human Understanding,
and another essay on the Conduct of the Understanding furnishes the reader with comprehensive view
of his ideas on the training of the young
In philosophy Lockes ranks as the first of British Empiricists whose basic doctrine was that all
knowledge is acquired by experience. The mind is in the beginning according to him a blank sheet, tabula
rasa. Experience through sensation or the through reflection or the perception of internal phenomena that
is, of the activity of understanding itself is the source of all ideas.
8.1 John Locke Educational Experience

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Lockes education aim is three fold; Vigor of the body, Virtue of the soul, with it manifestation
in the body breeding: wisdom in conduct. Knowledge or mental acquirement: but this latter subordinate
to health of body, virtue and good breeding. Lockes educational experience was limited to his private
teaching as a tutor in the household of Lord Ashley and other noble men. His first pupil, Lord Ashleys
son, a sickly child, recovered under Lockes direction. His advice and direction as a physician and a tutor
were often sought by parents. The Thoughts concerning education were originally letters to his friend
Edward Clarke, of Chipley, in reference to the rearing of his son. The views there expressed refer
exclusively to the training of the young gentleman, or noble child, and not youths in general. The most to
be taken care of is the gentlemans calling. For if those of that rank are by their education once set right,
they will quickly bring all the rest into order.
8.1.1 Lockes View on Physical Training
According to Locke, a sound mind in the sound body is a short but full description of a happy
state in this world; he that has these two, has little more to wish for, and he that wants either of them, will
be but little the better for anything else. Mens happiness or misery is most part of their own making.
Locke being a physician stated that I imagine the minds of children as easily turned this or that way, as
water itself; and though this being the principal part, and our main care be about the inside, yet the clay
cottage is not to be neglected, I shall therefore begin with the case and consider first the health of the
body.
For the preservation and improvement of a health, or at least not a sickly constitution of their
children he advices parent that children be not too warmly clothed even in winter; they should be
bareheaded, Boys should learn to swim and run in the open air. He outlined their diet, forbids meat to
small children, urges early retiring and rising, eight hours sleep and in short advises a care and training
that always tend to develop hardiness.
8.1.2 Lockes View on Moral Training
Lockes view on moral training is summarized as follows; we should keep the body strong so that it
may be able to execute and obeys the orders of the mined. The next thing is to is to set the mind right that
allocations is maybe disposed to consent to nothing but what maybe suitable to the duty and Excellency
of a rational creature. As the strength of he body lies chiefly inbeing able endure hardships so also does
that of the mind.
He points out that that self denial and self control must be learned. Mind must be obedient to discipline
and pliant to season when at first it is mostly tender, most easy to be bowed. The formation of good habits
is the main purpose in early training. The authority of the parent or teacher must be ever recognized by
the child. Awe and fear give first power over childrens mind; love of friendship in riper years will hold
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it. Severe punishments are of little good. Praise and commendation are better. Children who have been
most chastised seldom make the best men. Corporal punishment should rarely be applied and only in
case of extremity. On the other hand, to flatter children by rewards of thing that are pleasant to them is as
carefully be avoided. Esteem and disgrace are proper instruments of discipline, when the love of one and
fear of the other have been assiduously cultivated. Locke been a tutor and a locus-parentis stated You
must do nothing before children which you would not have them imitate.
8.2 Summary of Lockes being and Works
As an educational theorist, Locke is difficult to classify. He has been designated a humanist, a

realist, and a utilitarian and there are ground for each classification. Though he advocated discipline of the
mind, his educational theories do not warrant our classifying him as a formal disciplinarian. His discipline
is specific; he rejected the theory of universal and undiminished transfer of training effect. However, he
contributed much in educational theories.
CHAPTER NINE

MARIA MONTESORRRI
9.0 Biography of Maria Montessori (1870 - 1952)
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9.1.1 Early Life and Education
On August 31, 1870, Maria Montessori was born in Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father, Allessandro
Montessori, a retired army officer, was very traditional. Her mother, Renilde Stoppani Montessori, was an
intelligent, modern-thinking woman from a wealthy family. Maria's mother taught her daughter how to be
compassionate by giving her the task of knitting for the poor every day. Maria herself chose to scrub a
portion of the tile floor every day. Much later, as a teacher, Montessori included such work in her studies
for children, calling them "exercises of practical life."
As an elementary school student Montessori blossomed. She was average in intelligence, but
good at exams, and she lead her classmates in many games. She found the classroom set-up and
repetitions very boring, yet she learned. When it came time to leave elementary school she had to ask her
parents if she could continue. Women in her time were not encouraged to get more than an elementary
school education.
Montessori's father discouraged her interest in a professional career. With the encouragement and
support of her mother, however, she prepared herself for her later career. When she was twelve, the
family moved to Rome, Italy, to take advantage of the better educational facilities. An interest in
engineering technology and mathematics led her to enroll in classes at a technical institute at the age of
fourteen. Later an interest in biology led to her decision to study medicine. This decision required some
courage, because of society's views on women's education.
9.1.2 Professional Life
In 1894 Montessori became the first woman to receive a medical degree in Italy. Her experiences
in the pursuit of this degree reinforced her already well-developed feminist (in support of equality of the
sexes) ideas. Throughout her life she was a frequent participant in international feminist events.
Montessori's first appointment was as an assistant doctor in the psychiatric clinic of the
University of Rome, where she had her first contact with learning disabled children. She became
convinced that the problem of handling these children was as much one of teaching method as of medical
treatment. In 1898 she was appointed director of the State Orthophrenic School in Rome, whose function
was to care for the "hopelessly deficient" and "idiot" children of the city. She enjoyed tremendous success
in teaching the children herself, while refining and applying her unique methods. In 1901 Montessori left
the school to pursue further studies and research.
In 1906 the Italian government put Montessori in charge of a state-supported school in the San
Lorenzo quarter of Rome, which had sixty children, aged three to six, from poverty-stricken families. By
this time her early successes with learning disabled children suggested to her the idea of trying the same
educational methods with normal children. She used what she termed a "prepared environment" to
provide an atmosphere for learningthat is, small chairs and tables instead of rows of desks. The basic
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features of the method are development of the child's natural curiosity through responsible and individual
freedom of behavior, improvement of the sharpness of the five senses (hearing, seeing, tasting, touching,
smelling) through training, and development of body coordination through games and exercise. The
function of the teacher is to provide educational material, such as counting beads or geometric puzzles,
and act as an adviser and guide, staying as much as possible in the background.
In November 1896 Montessori added the appointment as surgical assistant at Santo Spirito
Hospital in Rome to her portfolio of tasks. Much of her work there was with the poor, and particularly
with their children. As a doctor she was noted for the way in which she tended her patients, making sure
they were warm and properly fed as well as diagnosing and treating their illnesses. In 1897 she
volunteered to join a research programme at the psychiatric clinic of the University of Rome, and it was
here that she worked alongside Giusseppe Montesano, with whom a romance was to develop.
As part of her work at the clinic she would visit Romes asylums for the insane, seeking patients
for treatment at the clinic. She relates how, on one such visit, the caretaker of a childrens asylum told her
with disgust how the children grabbed crumbs off the floor after their meal. Montessori realised that in
such a bare, unfurnished room the children were desperate for sensorial stimulation and activities for their
hands, and that this deprivation was contributing to their condition.
She began to read all she could on the subject of mentally retarded children, and in particular she
studied the groundbreaking work of two early 19th century Frenchmen, Jean-Marc Itard, who had made
his name working with the wild boy of Aveyron, and Edouard Sguin, his student. She was so keen to
understand their work properly that she translated it herself from French into Italian. Itard had developed
a technique of education through the senses, which Sguin later tried to adapt to mainstream education.
Highly critical of the regimented schooling of the time, Sguin emphasised respect and understanding for
each individual child. He created practical apparatus and equipment to help develop the childs sensory
perceptions and motor skills, which Montessori was later to use in new ways. During the 1897-98
University terms she sought to expand her knowledge of education by attending courses in pedagogy,
studying the works of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel.
In 1898 Montessoris work with the asylum children began to receive more prominence. The 28-
year-old Montessori was asked to address the National Medical Congress in Turin, where she advocated
the controversial theory that the lack of adequate provision for retarded and disturbed children was a
cause of their delinquency. Expanding on this, she addressed the National Pedagogical Congress the
following year, presenting a vision of social progress and political economy rooted in educational
measures. This notion of social reform through education was an idea that was to develop and mature in
Montessoris thinking throughout her life.
Montessoris involvement with the National League for the Education of Retarded Children led to
her appointment as co-director, with Guisseppe Montesano, of a new institution called the Orthophrenic
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School. The school took children with a broad spectrum of disorders and proved to be a turning point in
Montessoris life, marking a shift in her professional identity from physician to educator. Until now her
ideas about the development of children were only theories, but the small school, set up along the lines of
a teaching hospital, allowed her to put these ideas into practice. Montessori spent 2 years working at the
Orthophrenic School, experimenting with and refining the materials devised by Itard and Sguin and
bringing a scientific, analytical attitude to the work; teaching and observing the children by day and
writing up her notes by night.
In 1901 Montessori left the Orthophrenic School and immersed herself in her own studies of
educational philosophy and anthropology. In 1904 she took up a post as a lecturer at the Pedagogic
School of the University of Rome, which she held until 1908. In one lecture she told her students: The
subject of our study is humanity; our purpose is to become teachers. Now, what really makes a teacher is
love for the human child; for it is love that transforms the social duty of the educator into the higher
consciousness of a mission.
During this period Rome was growing very rapidly, and in the fever of speculative development, some
construction companies were going bankrupt, leaving unfinished building projects which quickly attracted
squatters. One such development, which stood in the San Lorenzo district, was rescued by a group of
wealthy bankers who undertook a basic restoration, dividing larger apartments into small units for
impoverished working families. With parents out at work all day, the younger children wreaked havoc on
the newly-completed buildings. This prompted the developers to approach Dr Montessori to provide ways
of occupying the children during the day to prevent further damage to the premises.
Montessori grasped the opportunity of working with normal children and, bringing some of the
educational materials she had developed at the Orthophrenic School, she established her first Casa dei
Bambini or Childrens House, which opened on the 6th January 1907. A small opening ceremony was
organised, but few had any expectations for the project. Montessori felt differently: I had a strange
feeling which made me announce emphatically that here was the opening of an undertaking of which the
whole world would one day speak.
She put many different activities and other materials into the childrens environment but kept only those
that engaged them. What Montessori came to realise was that children who were placed in an
environment where activities were designed to support their natural development had the power to
educate themselves. She was later to refer to this as auto-education. In 1914 she wrote, I did not invent a
method of education, I simply gave some little children a chance to live.
By the autumn of 1908 there were five Case dei Bambini operating, four in Rome and one in
Milan. Children in a Casa dei Bambini made extraordinary progress, and soon 5-year-olds were writing
and reading. News of Montessoris new approach spread rapidly, and visitors arrived to see for
themselves how she was achieving such results. Within a year the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland
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began transforming its kindergartens into Case dei Bambini, and the spread of the new educational
approach began.
In the summer of 1909 Dr Montessori gave the first training course in her approach to around 100
students. Her notes from this period became her first book, published that same year in Italy, which
appeared in translation in the United States in 1912 as The Montessori Method, reaching second place on
the U.S. nonfiction bestseller list. Soon afterwards it was translated into 20 different languages. It has
become a major influence in the field of education.
On 20th December 1912 her mother died at the age of 72. Maria was deeply affected by this
event, and in the year following her mothers death she brought her 14-year-old son, Mario, to Rome to
live with her.
A period of great expansion in the Montessori approach now followed. Montessori societies,
training programmes and schools sprang to life all over the world, and a period of travel with public
speaking and lecturing occupied Dr Montessori, much of it in America, but also in the UK and throughout
Europe. By this time Montessori had given up her other commitments to devote herself entirely to
spreading the approach she had developed. Much of the expansion, however, was ill-founded and
distorted by the events of the First World War.
9.2.1 The Montessori Method
Montessori's view of the nature of the child, on which the Montessori Method is based, is that
children go through a series of "sensitive periods" with "creative moments," when they show spur-of-the-
moment interest in learning. It is then that the children have the greatest ability to learn, and these periods
should be utilized to the fullest so that the children learn as much as possible. They should not be held
back by forced, rigid curricula (plans of study) or classes. Work, she believed, is its own reward to the
child, and there is no necessity for other rewards. Self-discipline (controlling oneself) emerges out of the
freedom of the learning environment.
Montessori's method was basically at odds with other major twentieth-century trends. Thus it was used
only by a relatively few private schools. Since the early 1950s, however, her system has enjoyed a revival
and a renewed interest in learning disabled children. Her works have been translated into at least twenty
languages, and training schools for Montessori teachers have been established in several nations.
Maria nursed an ambition to create a permanent centre for research and development into her
approach to early-years education, but any possibility of this happening in her lifetime in Spain was
thwarted by the rise of fascism in Europe. By 1933 all Montessori schools in Germany had been closed
and an effigy of her was burned above a bonfire of her books in Berlin. In the same year, after Montessori
refused to cooperate with Mussolinis plans to incorporate Italian Montessori schools into the fascist
youth movement, he closed them all down. The outbreak of civil war in Spain forced the family to
abandon their home in Barcelona, and they sailed to England in the summer of 1936. From England the
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refugees travelled to the Netherlands to stay in the family home of Ada Pierson, the daughter of a Dutch
banker. Mario, by now estranged from his first wife, was later to marry Ada.
In 1939 Mario and Maria embarked on a journey to India to give a 3-month training course in
Madras followed by a lecture tour; they were not to return for nearly 7 years. With the outbreak of war, as
Italian citizens, Mario was interned and Maria put under house arrest. She spent the summer in the rural
hill station of Kodaikanal, and this experience guided her thinking towards the nature of the relationships
among all living things, a theme she was to develop until the end of her life and which became known as
cosmic education, an approach for children aged 6 to 12. Montessori was well looked after in India, where
she met Gandhi, Nehru and Tagore. Her 70th birthday request to the Indian governmentthat Mario
should be released and restored to herwas granted, and together they trained over a thousand Indian
teachers.
In 1946 they returned to the Netherlands and to the grandchildren who had spent the war years in
the care of Ada Pierson. In 1947 Montessori, now 76, addressed UNESCO on the theme Education and
Peace. In 1949 she received the first of three nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Her last public
engagement was in London in 1951 when she attended the 9th International Montessori Congress. On 6th
May 1952, at the holiday home of the Pierson family in the Netherlands, she died in the company of her
son, Mario, to whom she bequeathed the legacy of her work.
9.2.1 The Montessori Movement
As the fame of Maria Montessori and her method grew Montessori was plunged into the
responsibility to further teach others of her method. She saw it as a duty on behalf of all the children in
the world as a way to promote their rights and liberation. She left lecturing at the university and supported
herself by training teachers and royalties form her books.
In Rome a Montessori society was started called Opera Montessori and other similar movements began
in Europe and America.
In 1914 Montessori went to America. She was welcomed by Thomas Edison and an American
Montessori Society was formed with Alexander Graham Bell as its president. While in America she had a
pupil, Helen Parkhurst, who arranged a glass classroom for observers to see her classrooms.
Maria Montessoris writings were also being translated to different languages and schools were
opening up worldwide in countries such as Japan, China and Canada. She was continually giving lectures
around the world where she is always welcomed. She also continued her research and application of her
principles to school aged and preschool aged children as well as infants from birth. Her research about the
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childs early years is written in Absorbent Mind (1949). Alternatively she also took notice of the social
possibilities based on the idea that true education is an armament of peace.
In 1939 she flew to India where she met Mahatma Gandhi. She was detained in India until the
war finished in 1946. Maria Montessori continued to give lectures around the world with her son Mario.
He followed her footsteps and had the task of protecting the sincerity of the Montessori movement. With
the spread of the Montessori Method there was a danger of her principles being misunderstood and not
practiced purely according to her beliefs. She then started Association Montessori Internationale in 1929.
9.3.0 Montessoris Contribution to Pedagogy and Educational Thought
9.3.1 Contributions to Pedagogy
Montessoris major contribution to education/pedagogy is the Montessori Method or system. This

method is used in many countries of the world today as the foundation of teaching in nursery or
kindergarten schools.
Montessori does not approve of the use of fairy-tale and fable for the simulation of childrens
imagination. She believes that childrens imagination should be developed through realities.
Montessori recommends that a teacher should be an observer of children as they select and
change activities.
Although her methods were criticized for being too detached, rigorous and even has for the youth,
they did seem to facilitate a more genuine, natural science. This may seem common for us to do
today, but Montessori was the first to view education in this manner. She pioneered other
attributes of what seems to be modern education today
The Montessori Method has subsequently been applied successfully to children and it is quite
popular in many parts of the world.
Montessoris Innovative approach was that Education should no longer be mostly imparting of
knowledge, but must take a new path, seeking release of human potentials. This is why it is often
said that the work of a teacher is to be like a midwife in the teaching-learning process.
9.3.2 Contributions to Educational Thought
Aside from Pedagogic contributions, among the prominent contributions to educational thought by
Montessori are:
Montessori looks at Children as competent beings, encouraged to make maximal decisions and
that that is how teachers must regard them.
She locates the Creation of scale of sensitive periods of development which provides a focus for
class work that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the child.
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She emphasizes the aspect of Self-correcting auto-didactic materials in the teaching learning
process.
She also places emphasis on the fact that observation of the child in the prepared environment as
the basis for ongoing curriculum development was imperative.
9.4 Outstanding Public Appearances- In 1949 she addressed UNESCO where she received an
ovation. She was honored with the Legione dHonneur and received an honorary of Doctor of
Philosophy from the University of Amsterdam. On May 6, 1952 in Noordwijk aan Zee in
Netherlands, she passes away at the age of 81.
CHAPTER TEN
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF JOHANN H. PESTALOZZI
10.0 Biography of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
Pestalozzi was born into a protestant family in Zrich, Switzerland in 1764. His father died when he
was just five years old and he was brought up mainly by his mother. As Pestalozzi grew up, he became
interested in working to improve the condition of life in his society. It is this interest that led him to the
study of education and child up bringing. In this effort, he was influenced by Rousseaus emphasizes on
natural education, practical rather than book learning and the study of the childs psychological
development.
The influence of Rousseau on Pestalozzi can, in many ways, be compared to that of Socrates on Plato.
The main difference in their ideas however, is that whereas Rousseau saw schools as corrupting
institutions that should be abandoned or eliminated in the process of natural education, Pestalozzi saw
them as institution that should be reformed to make them human, loving and caring places where children
could be educated in the natural way. In other words, Rousseau believed that natural education should
take place outside societal institution but Pestalozzi; though supporting the same kind of education argued
that it should take place within social institutions.
10.1.0 Educational Contributions
10.1.1 Pestalozzis Levels of Effective Teaching.

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Firstly teachers should work to reduce the psychological, emotional and physical problems that
children may be experiencing so that the school should be like a loving and caring home where
children feel comfortable and secure.
Secondly, teachers should then focus to teaching students to learn through thee senses beginning
with concrete items and moving to more abstract ideas, starting with the learners most immediate
surroundings and gradually moving to more complex and abstract topics.
10.1.2 The Pedagogy of Pestalozzi
Pestalozzi based his teaching on:
The general method
The specific method.
According to him the teacher should begin with the general method and proceed to the specific
method. The general method refers to the teachers general attitude towards children, teachers should feel
comfortable and confident in themselves and display and attitude of warmth and love towards their pupils.
Once this happens the teacher will win the pupils confidence, trust and affection. According to
Pestalozzi, such a situation is necessary to get children ready to learn.
Once the teacher is satisfied that the child is prepared and ready to learn, he or she then should
proceed to the specific or special method stage. Because Pestalozzi recommended that at the specific
stage teachers should focus on the use of objects to make things concrete to children. This method has
been called the object lesson.
In this method, children study the common object of their environment such as plant, birds, rocks etc.
the object lesson comprise three parts: form, number and sound.
First, the children recognize the form of the object then drew and trace that form or shape.
Second, they counted the objects.
Third, they name the objects.
After the object lesson made up of form, number and sound, the children were led into a more formal
learning situation consisting of exercises in drawing, writing, counting, subtracting, multiplying, division
and reading. By emphasizing the object lesson, Pestalozzi wanted to demonstrate that learning begins
with the senses and not with the world. In this, Pestalozzi was supporting the ideas of Comenius and
Rousseau.
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10.1.3 Pestalozzis Principles of Teaching
Pestalozzi developed some teaching principles that have been useful in modern pedagogy these
include;
1. When teaching concepts begin with the concrete before proceeding to the abstract.
2. The teacher should begin teaching the things that are near to the pupils (in their environment)
before going on to those things that are far (outside their environment).
3. Begin with simply exercises and on gradually to more difficult ones.
4. Teaching should proceed gradually, cumulatively and slowly.
One of the most important contributions of Pestalozzi was that his emphasis that teachers must
love the children they teach. He believes that teachers who were not lovers of human kind could
not really succeed. He demonstrated this principle in many ways. For example if, children were
hungry, he fed them. If they were frighten he comforted them and gave them confidence.
The main ideas of Pestalozzis educational philosophy are found in his book Leonard and
Gertrude, written in 1778. He has been described as one of the greatest teachers in the history pedagogy
(Gross, 1963). His major contribution was in putting into practice Rousseaus theories. Pestalozzi did this
by setting up schools. The most famous of these schools was the Yverdon Institution. This institute
helped other educational thinkers such as Froebel and Herbart in developing their educational ideas. Like
Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that people were born well, but are often manipulated or corrupted by
society to behave badly. According to him education, as was practiced in the schools of his days, was
boring and dull; if adequate reforms were made education in schools could become dynamic and a means
to reform society.
10.2.0 Summary of Pestalozzis Pedagogical Contribution
Pestalozzi has been described as one of the greatest teachers in the history of pedagogy (Gross,
1963). His major contribution to Pedagogy was in putting into practice Rousseaus theories. Pestalozzi
tried to put his ideas and those of his predecessors into practice by setting up schools. The most famous of
these schools was the Yverdon Institute which helped other educational thinkers such as Froebel and
Herbart in developing their pedagogical ideas.
Pestalozzis contribution to pedagogy can be summarized as follows:
1. Children learn best through observation. Pupils should be helped to examine objects, note their
main characteristics and then make generalizations based on the details their senses had recorded.
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2. The understanding of nature comes from first hand senses experience and therefore the right order
of learning should be from the simple to the complex; from the near to the far.
3. Teachers ought to pay attention to the whole child; the head, the hands and the heart.
4. Since education is a natural function, it is the right of everyone, male or female, rich or poor, etc.
5. Learning by rote is empty chattering of mere words.
6. The essential principle of pedagogy to be adhered to by the teacher is not teaching but love. The
teacher should aim rather at increasing the power of his pupil then at increasing his knowledge.
7. Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that people were born good but are often manipulated or
corrupted by the society to behave badly. According to him, education as was practice in the
schools of his days was boring and dull; if adequate reforms were made education in schools
could become dynamic and a means to reform society.
8. According to Pestalozzi, planned teaching result to more and efficient learning by the students or
pupils, so the teachers should plan learning activities carefully.
10.3.0 Pestalozzis Writings
Though Pestalozzi was a practical rather than a theoretical person, he nevertheless, succeeded in
putting forth some of his ides in writing. Three of these writings are of special interest to teachers: (1) the
Evening Hour of Hermit (1980), (2) Leonard and Gertrude (1781), (3) how Gertrude teaches her children
(1801). In The Evening Hour of the Hermit, Pestalozzi states his main belief, borrowed form Rousseau,
that education must be according to nature and that a good home upbringing is the foundation f a persons
happiness. In this book he advises parents not to hurry children into doing things that are remote from
their immediate interest or beyond their capacity.
In Leonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi describes how an ordinary but diligent village woman, by her
well-ordered home life, set a model for the village school and the larger community. The book portrays
the home of Leonard as the exemplary educational institution and Gertrude (the mother of the children) as
the exemplary teacher. In How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, Pestalozzi exposes his major pedagogical
principles. The book contains his major principles of intellectual education: childrens innate abilities
should be evolved: they should learn how to think proceeding gradually from observation to
comprehension to forming clear ideas. In summary, Pestalozzi is remembered because he gave a lot of
attention to the special needs of disadvantaged children in the educational process and for his emphasis on
the need for teachers to plan learning activities carefully.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF SIGMUND FREUD
11.0 Biography of Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud, born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 23 September 1939), was an
Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud is one of the most
famous thinkers in psychology history. While many of his ideas and theories are not widely accepted by
modern psychologists, he played a major role in the development of psychology. Freud is best known for
his theories of the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical
method of psychoanalysis for investigating the mind and treating psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Freud established sexual drives as the primary
motivational forces of human life, developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association,
discovered the phenomenon of transference in the therapeutic relationship and established its central role
in the analytic process; he interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was an
early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy, and a prolific
essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.
11.1.0 Early/ Personal Life and Career
11.1.1 Early-Personal Life
Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born on 6 May 1856, to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian
town of Freiburg, in the Austrian Empire. Despite their poverty, the Freuds ensured Sigmunds schooling
and education. Due to the Panic of 1857, Freud's father lost his business, and the family moved to Leipzig
before settling in Vienna. In 1865, the 9-year-old student Freud entered the Leopoldstdter Kommunal-
Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil, and graduated the Matura in
1873 with honors. Freud had planned to study law, but instead joined the medical faculty at the University
of Vienna to study under Darwinist Professor Karl Claus . At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown
and Freud spent four weeks at the Austrian zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of
eels in an unsuccessful search for their male reproductive organs.
When he was young, Sigmund Freuds family moved from Frieberg, Moravia to Vienna where he
would spend most of his life. His parents taught him at home before entering him in Spurling
Gymnasium, where he was first in his class and graduated Summa cum Laude. In October 1885, Freud
went to Paris on a fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist and researcher
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of hypnosis. He was later to remember the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the
practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology
research. Charcot specialised in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently
demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Freud later turned away from hypnosis as a
potential cure for mental illness, instead favouring free association and dream analysis.
11.1.2 Career
In 1886, Freud returned from academic study in Paris to Vienna, where he opened a private
practice specializing in nervous and brain disorders. That same year, he married Martha Bernays, with
whom he had six children in the span of nine years. Over the next decade, Freud combined clinical
practice with theoretical insights to develop the foundational principles of psychoanalysis. In 1899, he
introduced the results of his investigations to a wider audience with the publication of The Interpretation
of Dreams. The essence of his theory stipulated that all dreams involve a condensation and displacement
of psychological events past and present: in other words, the mind works to reconfigure conscious and
unconscious memories in seemingly cryptic, but ultimately illuminating and meaningful ways.
In 1902, Freud was appointed associate professor at the University of Vienna, where he
collaborated with other like-minded professionals to found the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908.
During these years, Freud continued to write many seminal essays, including Three Essays on the Theory
of Sexuality (1905) in which he develops his theory of the Oedipus complex and its role in sustaining the
everyday drives and passions of men.
World War I brought the burgeoning movement of psychoanalysis to a virtual halt, with doctors
and practicing clinicians unable to circulate the findings of their research and convene for congresses to
exchange new ideas. Freud himself had three sons fighting in combat, and nervously awaited the outcome
of international conflict. Far from lapsing into an unproductive glut, Freud capitalized on this tense period
in his own life to formulate the concept of competing life and death drives, later formalized in Beyond the
Pleasure Principle (1923).
At the pinnacle of his career, Freud was diagnosed with oral cancer, which left him in a state of
perpetual pain and discomfort. The difficulties of continuing his work in poor health were compounded
by the political climate of Europe in the 1930s. Freud was shocked to witness the electoral rise of the Nazi
Party, which developed an increasingly strong presence in Austria throughout the decade. Freud was
frightened into leaving the country after his daughter Anna was summoned to the local Gestapo
headquarters and later released without harm. In 1938 he took refuge in Paris with the help of Princess
Marie Bonaparte. Freud later moved to London, where he prevailed upon his doctor and friend, Max
Schur, to assist in his suicide. In 1923 Freud developed a cancerous (having to do with cancer cells that
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attack the healthy tissues of the body) growth in his mouth, which eventually led to his death sixteen
years and thirty-three operations later. Freud died of a morphine overdose in London on September 23,
1939.
11.2.0 Educational and Psychological Contributions
Freud has always been a controversial figure, whether in the clinical or academic arena. After the
publication of The Interpretation of Dreams in November 1899, interest in his theories began to grow, and
a circle of supporters developed. However, Freud often clashed with those supporters who criticized his
theories, the most famous of whom was Carl Jung. Part of the disagreement between them was due to
Jung's interest in and commitment to religion, which Freud saw as unscientific
No sooner had he elaborated his central theories at the turn of the century than various factions
within the Vienna school broke off and began to practice their own interpretations of Freudian
psychoanalysis. One of his most famous prodigal disciples is Carl Jung, who extended Freud's insights in
innovative directions and continued publishing his own essays on psychoanalysis after Freud's death. In
the French context, Jacques Lacan became another devoted disciple, and beginning in the early 1950s,
undertook a comprehensive reinterpretation of Freud's oeuvre in a series of seminars that would later be
transcribed and constitute the theoretical foundation of an "ecole freudienne" in Paris. The widespread
revival of Freud's work and reputation in the postwar years was followed by a period of intense scrutiny
and critique in the 1970s, particularly by American feminists dismayed at Freud's insensitive treatment of
women and female sexuality. Freud's most controversial case in this regard involved a "hysterical"
teenage patient named Dora, whose allegations of sexual abuse against a family friend were repeatedly
dismissed as her own repressed fantasy.
Although Freud's ideas incurred much odium in medical circles, his work none the less attracted a
small but devoted band of followers, many of them neurologists who, like Freud himself, had felt
challenged by the ubiquity of neurosis among their patients. Among them were Karl Abraham, Sandor
Ferenczi, Alfred Adler, Carl Gustav Jung, Otto Rank, and the Welsh physician Ernest Jones, who became
for many years Britain's foremost Freudian.
11.2.1 Sigmund Freuds Use of "Talk Therapy"
While many of Freud's theories are criticized or rejected outright by today's psychotherapists,
many of them still utilize the famous psychoanalyst's methods to a certain extent. Talk therapy plays a
primary role in psychoanalytic therapy and has become an important part of many different therapeutic
techniques. Using talk therapy, the therapy provider looks for patterns or significant events that may play
a role in the clients current difficulties. Psychoanalysts believe that childhood events and unconscious
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feelings, thoughts and motivations play a role in mental illness and maladaptive behaviors.
11.2.2 Theory of the Human Mind's Organization and Internal Operations
Freud has been influential in two related but distinct ways: he simultaneously developed a theory
of the human mind's organization and internal operations and a theory that human behavior both
conditions and results from how the mind is organized. This led him to favor certain clinical techniques
for trying to help cure mental illness. He theorized that personality is developed by a person's childhood
experiences. Freud argued for the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious
thought and behavior. Yet, as historian of psychology Mark Altschule concluded, "It is difficultor
perhaps impossibleto find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize
unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance.
Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive
unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred
to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious,
a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents that are defensively removed from
consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. The system unconscious denoted the idea that when
mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious
mind, such as condensation and displacement. Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system
unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the id, ego, and super-ego. Throughout his career, however,
he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.
11.2.3 The Interpretation of Dreams
Freud called dreams the "royal road to the unconscious", meaning that they illustrate the "logic"
of the unconscious mind. Freud's theory of dreams has been compared to Plato's. Freud developed his
first topology of the psyche in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) in which he proposed that the
unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a
layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort. One
key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression". Freud believed that many people "repress"
painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of
repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that
repression varies among individual patients. Freud also argued that the act of repression did not take place
within a person's consciousness. Thus, people are unaware of the fact that they have buried memories or
traumatic experiences.
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11.2.4 Psychosexual Development
Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology
and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus
complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love
for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud
said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a
progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification
(cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he
believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a
state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism
and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal oedipal conflict.
Freud originally posited childhood sexual abuse as a general explanation for the origin of
neuroses, but he abandoned this so-called "seduction theory" as insufficiently explanatory. He noted
finding many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on
imagination than on real events. During the late 1890s Freud, who never abandoned his belief in the
sexual etiology of neuroses, began to emphasize fantasies built around the Oedipus complex as the
primary cause of hysteria and other neurotic symptoms. Despite this change in his explanatory model,
Freud always recognized that some neurotics had in fact been sexually abused by their fathers. He
explicitly discussed several patients whom he knew to have been abused.
11.2.5 Id, ego, and super-ego
In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego,
and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully
elaborated upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous
topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the impulsive, child-like
portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants
and disregards all consequences. The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into
account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation.
The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally
impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in
a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms
including denial, repression, and displacement
11.2.6 Life and Death Drives
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Freud believed that people are driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido or
Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive. The death drive was also termed
"Thanatos", although Freud did not use that term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul
Federn.
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud inferred the existence of the death instinct. Its premise
was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana
principle", and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlier Project for a Scientific
Psychology, where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest
itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it
proved to be adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea
that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level
of tension.
Freud in effect readopted the original definition in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, this time
applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though could
eliminate tension entirely, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was
the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of
traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to
work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend was prior to the
pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, however, there was also a principle at
work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in
the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning
adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the
hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion to
repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of
energy: death.
11.2.7 Freud and Religion
Freud regarded the monotheistic god as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a
powerful, supernatural pater familias; and that religion once necessary to restrain mans violent nature
in the early stages of civilization in modern times, can be set aside in favor of reason and science.[
Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious belief) and
neurotic obsession. Totem and Taboo (1913) proposes that society and religion begin with the patricide
and eating of the powerful paternal figure, which then becomes a revered collective memory. In
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Civilization and its Discontents (1930), he describes religion as an oceanic sensation he never
experienced, (despite being a self-identified cultural Jew). Moses and Monotheism (1937) proposes that
Moses was the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologically coped with the patricide with
a reaction formation conducive to their establishing monotheist Judaism; analogously, he described the
Roman Catholic rite of Holy Communion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the sacred
father. Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of violence, as mediator of the societal and
personal, the public and the private, conflicts between Eros and Thanatos, the forces of life and death.
Later works indicate Freuds pessimism about the future of civilization, which he noted in the 1931
edition of Civilization and its Discontents.
11.3.0 Psychotherapy
Freud provided the basis for the entire field of individual verbal psychotherapy. According to
Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, "Later systems have differed about therapy and technique in certain
respects, but all of them have been constructed around Freud's basic discovery that if one can arrange a
special set of conditions and have the patient talk about his difficulties in certain ways, behavior changes
of many kinds can be accomplished. Freud with his methods and central insight remains the progenitor of
modern therapy, even though psychoanalysis itself has "sunk to a relatively minor role so far as actual
therapeutic practice goes.
11.4.0 Criticisms of Freuds Theories and Findings
Verdicts on the scientific merits of Freud's theories have differed. David Stafford-Clark calls
Freud "a man whose name will always rank with those of Darwin, Copernicus, Newton, Marx and
Einstein; someone who really made a difference to the way the rest of us can begin to think about the
meaning of human life and society." In contrast, Hans Eysenck claims that Freud "set psychiatry back one
hundred years", Peter Medawar, a Nobel Prize winning immunologist, made the oft-quoted remark that
psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century", and
Richard Webster calls psychoanalysis "perhaps the most complex and successful" pseudoscience in
history.
Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis, founded by South African

neuroscientist Mark Solms, have argued for Freud's theories, pointing out brain structures relating to
Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. Other clinical researchers have
recently found empirical support for more specific hypotheses of Freud such as that of the "repetition
compulsion" in relation to psychological trauma. The theory of ego defense mechanisms has received
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empirical validation, and the nature of repression, in particular, became one of the more fiercely debated
areas of psychology in the 1990s.
Paul Robinson, observing that "Everyone knows that Freud has fallen from grace", suggests that the
disenchantment with Freud can be traced to the revival of feminism.
Simone de Beauvoir criticized Freud and psychoanalysis in The Second Sex. Betty Friedan
criticized Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in The Feminine Mystique.
Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whose Sexual Politics accused him of
confusion and oversights.
Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought that his "years of
intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.
In The Dialectic of Sex, Firestone argued that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather
than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of
modern life, but ignored the social context and failed to question society itself.
Karen Horney, a pupil of Karl Abraham, criticized Freud's theory of femininity, leading him to
defend it against her. Horney's challenge to Freud's theories, along with that of Melanie Klein, produced
the first psychoanalytic debate on femininity. Ernest Jones, although usually an "ultra-orthodox"
Freudian, sided with Horney and Klein. Horney was Freud's most outspoken critic, although her and
Jones's disagreement with Freud was over how to interpret penis envy rather than whether it existed.
Horney understood Freud's conception of the castration complex as a theory about the biological nature of
women, one in which women were biologically castrated men, and rejected it as scientifically
unsatisfying.
11.5.0 Other works and Writings by Freud
The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud.

Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer( 1895)
The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 18871904
The Interpretation of Dreams ( 1899
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality ( 1905)
Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905)
Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva (1907)
On Narcissism (1914)
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Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1917)

Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920)
The Ego and the Id (1923)
The Future of an Illusion (1927)
Civilization and Its Discontents (1930)
Moses and Monotheism (1939)
An Outline of Psycho-Analysis (1940)
Later works include The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) and Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality (1905). These works became world famous, but Freuds theory of psychosexual stages has long
been a subject of criticism and debate. While his theories are often viewed with skepticism, Freuds work
continues to influence psychology and many other disciplines to this day.
11.6.0 Summary on Freud
Irrespective of the numerous criticisms of Freuds works and theories, it remains clear that his
works stood the taste of many at the time we was writing and servicing as a psychiatrist. According to a
study that appeared in the June 2008 issue of The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
while psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, it is regarded as "desiccated and dead" by
psychology departments and textbooks. While many of his ideas and theories are not widely accepted by
modern psychologists, he played a major role in the development of psychology. Freud is best known for
his theories of the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical
method of psychoanalysis for investigating the mind and treating psychopathology through dialogue
between and a psychoanalyst.
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List of References
Anja S. N. Management, teaching practice and principles made simple.
B.F. Skinner (2001): Beyond Freedom and Dignity

Bame, Nsamenang, (2004): The Teaching-Learning Transaction.
Bandura, A. (1969). Social-learning theory of identificatory processes. Handbook of socialization
theory and research, 213-262.
Beckner, W., Dumas, W. (1970). American Education: Foundations and Superstructure. Scranton,
PA: International Textbook Company.
Bruner, J. (1983) Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language, New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 224 +
xvi pages.
Bruner, J. S. (1971): The Relevance of Education, New York: Norton.
Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and society.
Erikson, erik h. Dimensions of a new identity: The Jefferson Lectures, W. W. Norton &
company, inc., 1979, ISBN 0393009238.
Frederick M. Logan(1950) Kindergarten and Bauhaus, College Art Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1 , pp.
36-43
George Stade, "Byways Of Our National Character," New York Times, May 19, 1976 (Review
Of Erikson's Dimensions Of A New Identity).
Gredler, M. E. (2005). Learning and Instruction Theory into Practice. New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Gwynn, A. (1964). Roman Education: from Cicero to Quintilian, New York: Russell and Russell.
Jerome Bruner(1966), Toward a Theory of Instruction, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
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Press, , p. 72.
John W. Santrock: Educational Psychology, 2nd Edition, MC GRAW-HILL Companies.
Kennedy, G. (1969). Quintilian. New York: Twayne.
Lawrence, E. (ed.) (1952) Friedrich Froebel and English Education, London: University of
London Press. Series of essays on key elements of Frbel's thought and practice.
Leke I. Tambo (2003). Principles and methods of teaching applications in Cameroon Schools,
University of Buea, published by ANUCAM printers.
Lilley, I. M. (1967). Friedrich Froebel: A Selection from his Writings.
Mayer, F. (1967). The Great Teachers. New York: The Citadel Press.
Pajares, F. (2004). Albert Bandura: Biographical sketch.
Scoot London( 2008.), A Book Review: The Culture of Education by Jerome Bruner
Skinner (2001): Technology of Teaching
Smith, M.K. (2002) 'Jerome S. Bruner and the process of education', the encyclopedia of
informal education Encyclopedia of World Biography on Jerome Seymour Bruner.
Weston, P. (1998). Friedrich Froebel: His Life, Times and Significance.
APPENDIX
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
On Froebel
1. In which year was Froebel born? A) 1852 B) 1782 C) 1780 D) 1772
2. W.A. Froebel was a? A) British B) French C) German D) Australian
3. Froebel began as an educator in the year? A) 1800 B) 1804 C) 1799 D)1805
4. Froebels philosophy of education was based on? A) Idealism B) Environmentalism C) Atheism

D) Froebelism.
5. The Education of Man was published in the year? A) 1804 B) 1825 C) 1826 D) 1830.d
6. One of Froebels greatest educational contributions still in existence today is? A) Kindergarten B)
Idealism C) Education of Man D) None of the above
7. According to Froebel, childrens process of cultural recapitulation is facilitated by? A) Dance B)

Laughter C) Imitation D) Play.
8. The German equivalent of free work is? A) Freiarbeit B) Oratio C) Frobelgaben D)

Kindergarten.
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9. Who founded the first kindergarten the United States of America? A) Bertha Marie B) Adolph
Douai C) Margarthe Schurz D) None of the above.
10. The present day equivalent of the Kindergarten is? A) Resort Center B) Play Station C) Childcare
center D) Nursery School.
ANSWERS to Review MCQs
1) B 2) C 3) D 4) D 5) C 6) A 7) D 8) A 9) C 10)D
On Quintilian
1. The main outstanding book of Quintilian is the: A) Institutes of Oratory B) On the Causes of
Corrupted Eloquence C) Grammatici D) The Theory of Transmission.
2. Quintilian was a: A) German B) Portuguese C) Spanish D) French
3. Where did Quintilian commence his rhetoric career? A) Denmark B) Spain C) Austria D)
Rome.
4. Prominent of Quintilians students are? A) Afer Galba and Vespasian B) Pliny the Young and
Tacitus C) Russell and Ibid D)Plato and Socrates.
5. To Quintilian, it is Superior to public schooling? A)Home Education B) Private Schooling C)
Religious Education D) All of the above.
6. Quintilian believed that the important aspects of society resolved around? A) Language B)
Morals C) Interaction D) A,B and C.
7. One on One Instruction to Quintilian was? A) Certain and Profitable B) Impossible and
Disadvantageous C) Educative D) a Myth.
8. Quintilian is believed to be the earliest spokesman for? A) Curriculum-centered Education B)
Teacher-Centered Education C) Child-Centered Education D) Oratory-Centered Education.
9. One limitation of Quintilians Institutio Oratia is? A) the Idea of the ideal Orator B) Rhetoric
Orator C) A and B D) None of the Above.
10. The Good Character of the teacher to Quintilian was to aid the teacher:
A) Be Relaxed B) Take a Paternal Role C) Be Free from any and intolerant of it in others D)
B and C.
Answers to MCQs: 1) A 2) C 3) D 4) B 5) A 6) D 7) B 8) C 9) A 10) D.
On Bandura
1. When and where was Albert Bandura born? A) 1935-Canada B) 1920-Ukraine C) 1925-Ukraine
D) 1925-Britain
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2. Where did Bandura do most of his education? A) University of Stanford B) University of

Mundare C) University of British Colombia D) None of the above
3. A. Banduras reading of Psychology in the university was? A) By Design B) By Chance C) God-

Sent D) A and B
4. To Bandura, Trial-and-error is synonymous to? A) Hand-up exploration B) Hands-off exploration

C) Search and Find Exploration D) Hands-on Exploration
5. The most outstanding study of Bandura is ?A) Modeling B) Bobo doll studies C) Social
Learning D) Cognitive Learning
6. The component(s) of modeling include(s)? A) Retention B) Attention C) Respiration D)

A and B
7. Factor(s) that influence(s) behavior is/are? A) Symbol B) Media C) A,B and D D)

Engagement in meaningful actions
8. One criticism of social cognitive theory is? A) Difficulty in implementing the self-efficacy
portion B) Inapplicability in real life C) it is very cumbersome D) All of the above
9. Banduras theories have significant impacts in psychology in? A)Thousands of main domains B)
Four main domains C) Six main domains D) No main domain
10. Bandura accepts the role of biological forces in human development and functioning but rejects?
A) Biological Isolationism B) Biological ReproductionismC) Biological Psychotherapy D)
Biological Reductionism.
Answers to MCQs: 1A 2) C 3) B 4) D 5) B 6) D 7) C 8) A 9) C 10) D
On Bruner
1. Which is Jerome Brunners country of origin?

a) Britain b) America c) Jamaica d) Spain.
2. Jerome Brunner is a.?

a)Medical Doctor b)Geographer c)Historian d)Psychologist.
3. Which characteristic best describes his childhood?

a)Blindness b)Mute c)Blindness and Mute d)none.
4. Before J.Brunner joint the field of psychology it was divided into..?
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a)Sensation b)Perception and cognition c)Perception and analysis of learnings)none
5. What did Jerome Brunner consider important in human development.

a)culture b)Modeling c)Sports d) a and c.
6. What is the name of the educational video-cassette in which J.Brunner contributed?

a)Actual Minds b)Process of education c)Body Talk d) b and c.
7. According to J.Brunner what is the solution to the problem of difficult topics

a) Ready to learn psychologically b) Ready to learn morally c) Ready to learn physically.
8. What did J. Brunner consider the best stimulus to learning?

a) Competition b) Grades c) interest in the teacher d) interest in the material to be learned
9. How many criteria did J.Brunner posits for the intellectual development of children.
a) 4 b) 2 c) 6 d) 10.
10. Which system of representation of the world depends on doing?

a) Enactive b) Iconic c) Symbolic d) All of the above
ANSWERS
1) b 2) d 3) a 4) c 5) a 6) c 7) a 8) d 9) 6 10) a
On John Amos Comenius
1. John Amos Comenius was also known as? a) Martin Comenius b) Jan komensky c)
Samuel hartlib d) William Barth
2. In which of Comenius books did he stressed that mothers should begin to teach their children
what is wrong from what is right long before the child is six or seven years? a) the vernacular
school b) the latin school c) the school of infancy
e) none of the above
3. To Comenius a)learning should start from simple to complex b)nature should be the teachers
guide in education c) a and b d) a only
4. Comenius belonged to a small protestant sect known as? a) the Morovian brethren b) the
protestants c)the socialist group d) none of the above
5. In 1631, the janua linguarum reserata was translated into how many languages? A)5 b) 10
c) 11 d) 16
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6. At which stage of learning according to Comenius was the child presumed to have been tired of
learning? a) the higher learning stage b)the universal college c) the latin school d) the
mother school
7. According to Comenius; a) teaching should involve practical application to every day life
b)teaching should not be given much attention c)what ever is taught should be related to its true
nature and origin d) a and c
8. Comenius died in which year? A)1654 b)1678 )1524 d)1670
9. Rods and blows should not be used in schools because a) children are gifts from God b)
children will not respect the teacher c) children are always sick d) none of the above
10. How many principles of teaching did Comenius postulated? a)10 b)7 c) 9 d) 3
On Erik Erikson
1) Who is Erik Erikson? A)Danish_German_American developmental psychologist B) an

American_German_Danish psychologist C)Danish_American_German psychologist
2) IN which year was he born? A) 1902 B)1622 C)1903
3) How many years did he live? A) 65 C)92 C)70
4) What was his mothers name? A) Karla Abrahamsen B) Henrietta Abrahamsen C) Nicole
Abrahamsen
5) Which of his theory marked his most important contribution to education? A) The psychoanalytical
theory C) His social theory C) Psychosocial theory of education
6) What was his main interest in life? A) The psychology of identity B)The psychology of children
C)The welfare of learners
7) Was Eriks wife Was? A)Elizabeth Freud B) Anna Freud C)Sigmund Freud
8) Which of Eriks publications made him popular? A) Childhood and society (1950) B) Identity:
youth and society (1968) C) Life history and historical movements (1975)
9) His researches focused on A)Ethical and moral responsibilities B) Virtues and morality C)
Responsibility
10) Through his . theory, Erik has made contribution to the field of psychology A)
Social B) Development C) Cultural
On B.F Skinner
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1. In which year was B.F. Skinner born? A) May 220, 1906 B) August 20, 1904 C) March 20, 1904
D) March 20, 1944
2. What is the origin of the great Psychologist (B.F. Skinner)? A) England B) Nigeria C) France
D) America
3. Teachers must Learn what to teach. Who made this statement? A) Ivan Pavlov B) B.F. Skinner
C) E.F. Thorndike D) Carl Rogers
4. Which of the following is not a major invention of B.F. Skinner? A) Air Crip B) Operant
Conditioning Chamber C) System 80 D) Steam Engine
5. The strengthening of behaviour by the removal of avoidance of some aversive events: A)
Negative Reinforcement B) Positive Reinforcement C) Punitive D) Praise
6. According to Skinner, teachers fail because: A) Using Aversive Techniques B) Relying on
Telling and Explaining C) Both A and B D) None of the Above
7. A technology of behaviour could help to make a better society: A) Beyond Freedom and Dignity
B) Walden Two C) None of the Above D)All of the above
8. He led to the ban of corporal punishment by the America Senate: A) Hilary Clinton B) George
Bush C) Skinner D) Barrack Obama
9. In which group of psychology is B.F. Skinner? A) Social Psychology B) Behavioural Psychology
C) Gestalt Psychology D) Humanistic Psychology
10. Of what Disease and date did B.F. Skinner die? A) Leukemia, 18/08/99 B) T.B., 18/08/90 C)
Heart Attack, 18/08/90 D) Accident, 18/08/90
Answers to MCQs: 1-C 2-D 3-B 4-D 5-A 6-C 7- A 8-C 9-B 10-A
On John Locke
1. According to John Locke the mind is in the beginning a tabula rasa, meaning,
A) Full of knowledge, B) Black sheet, C) Partly knowledge, D)Half knowledgeA B C D,
Ans B.is a source of all ideas. A)Sensation experience B)Perception of external
phenomena, C) Perception of internal phenomena, D) All of
aboveA B C D, Ans D
2. Proper instrument for discipline according to Locke is, A) Esteem B) Disgrace, D)A and B,
D) None of above..A B C
D, Ans D
3. Lockes educational theories could not classify him as A) A formal disciplinarian.

B) A utilitarian C) A humanist, D) A realistA B C D,
Ans A
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4. Lockes advice to parents not to warmly cloth their children is an example of, A)Moral training,
B) Physical training, D) Intellectual training, D) All the aboveA B C D,
Ans A
5. You should do nothing before children which you will not have them imitate. This is a form of
A) Physical training, B) Intellectual training, C)Moral training, D) None of aboveA B C D
Ans B
6. The formation of thoughts though exercise and discipline is A) Moral training ,B) Physical
training, C) Intellectual Education, D) All of
above...A B C D Ans C
7. Mathematics is to be taught in school to make people A)Mathematicians ,B) Reasonable

creatures, C) To have a habit of reasoning closely and in train, D)To calculate very
wellA B C D Ans C
8. John Locke advocated discipline of the, A) Parents, B) Body, C) Mind, D) Young A B C D

Ans C
9. John Locke spent his life as a A) Tutor, B)Physician, C) Economics, D) All of above...A B C D
Ans D
Answers: 1D, 2D, 3A, 4A, 5B, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9D
On Maria Montessori
1. Maria Montessori was born in: A) Italy B) France C) Germany D) Britain
2. Maria Montessori worked with: A) Adults B) Mothers C) Fathers D) Children
3. Montessori established a childrens school called? A) Bambini Dei Casa B) Dei Casa Bambini C)
Casa Bambini Dei D) Casa Dei Bambini
4. Many of Montessoris schools today practice: A) Adoptions B)Montessori Method C) Learning
Method D)Practical Method.
5. According to Montessori teachers should be.A) Parents B) Mates C) Observers D)Directors
6. Montessori worked with: A) Disabled children B) Able Children C) A and B D) None of the
above.
7. Montessori was the first woman to receive a medical degree. In which year did this occur? A)
1894 B) 1984 C) 1494 D)1884
8. Maria Montessori said all children have the capacity to: A) Train culture B) Absorb culture C)
Derive culture D) Develop Culture
9. In 1960 Montessori worked in San Lorenzo withchildren? A) 60 B) 50 C) 40 D) 30
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10. To Montessori, young children needenvironment in other to learn? A) Noisy

B) Dirty C) Prepared D) A and C.
On Pestalozzi
1. According to Pestalozzi, planned teaching result to a) more and efficient learning by the students
b) More and effective learning by the students, c) success and efficient learning, d) all of the
above.
2. As Pestalozzi, grew up he became interested in working to improve; a) the condition of life in his
society, b) the condition of life in his family, c) the condition of life in his village d) all of the
above
3. Pestalozzi based his teaching on a) the general and specific method, b) the deductive and
inductive method c) explicit and implicit method d) all of the above.
4. In which year was Pestalozzi born? a) 1764 b) 1765 c) 1766 d) 1767.
5. Where was Pestalozzi born? a) Switzerland b) Britain c) France d) Germany.
6. Pestalozzis major pedagogical contribution was putting into practice a) Rousseaus theories, b)
Herbarts theories c) Platos theories d) Skinners theories.
7. Pestalozzis father died when he was just a) five years old b) six years old c) eight years old d) ten
years old.
8. According to one of Pestalozzis teaching principles, teachers should when teaching concepts
a)begin with the concrete before proceeding to the abstracts b)begin with the abstracts before
proceeding to the concrete c) a and b d) none of the above.
9. One of the most important contribution s of Pestalozzi was his emphasis that teachers must a)
love the children they teach b) dislike the children they teach c)beat the children they teach
d)punish them
10. When his father died, he was brought up mainly by a) his mother b) his brother c) his aunt d) his
uncle.
Answers
1) a, 2)a. 3)a, 4)a, 5)a, 6)a,7)a, 8)a, 9)a 10)a
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

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1. In which year was Sigmund Freud Born? A) 1888 B) 1856 C)1898 D)1956
2. In which country was Sigmund Freud Born? A) France B) Australia C) Finland D) Italy
3. Verdicts on the scientific merits of Freud's theories have differed: A)True B) False C)
Uncertain D) Impossible
4. In which year did Freud return from Paris? A) 1886 B)1885 C) 1903 D)1898
5. Which of the following is one of Freuds work? A) Gestalt Psychology B) Rote Learning C) Talk
Therapy D) Operant Conditioning
6. Royal Road To The Unconscious. This to Freud signify? A) Realism B) Wisdom C)
Psychology D)Dreams
7. Pleasure Principle: This attributed to the? A) Id B) Ergo C) Super ergo D)A and B
8. An example of the life drive is? A) Sex B) Hunger C) Wisdom D)A and B
9. Much of S. Freuds work is based on? A) Medical Laboratory B) Philosophy C) Psychoanalysis
D) Psychology of Education.
10. Freud regarded the monotheistic god as? A) Unavailable B)An illusion C) An allusion D) An
Abstraction
Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-A, 5-C, 6-D, 7-A, 8-D, 9-B, 10-B.
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SUMMARY OF BIOGRAPHIES AND EDUCATIONAL/PEDAGOGIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF SELECTED PHILOSOPHERS AND/0R EDUCATIONISTS.

GOOD FOR SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

SUMMARY OF BIOGRAPHIES AND EDUCATIONAL/PEDAGOGIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF

CLASS OF ENSET BAMBILI 2ND BATCH, 2012

This is a summary of class assignments unedited. Do not cite

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BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF F.W.FROEBEL

1.0 BIOGRAPHY OF FRIEDRICH WILHELM A. FROEBEL (FRBEL)

1.1 Educational Works and Teaching Career

He began as an educator in 1805 at the Musterschule a secondary school in Frankfurt, where he

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1.1.1 Educational Philosophy, works and Achievements of Froebel

1.1.2 Educational Works (Books) and Achievements

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published between then and 1823.

The Education of Man (1826)

1.2.0 Froebel and His Kindergarten Philosophy

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1.3. Limitations of Froebels View of the Kindergarten

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BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUINTILIAN

2.0 BIOGRAPHY OF QUINTILIAN

2.1 Educational Works (Books) Of Quintilian

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2.1.1 Quintilian on Rhetoric

2.1.2 Quintilian on Education

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2.1.3 Quintilians Theory of Education

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2.1.4 Quintilians view on Learning

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2.2.1 Qualities of a Teacher according to Quintilian

2.2.2 Teaching Methods and Learning Styles According to Quintilian

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2.3.0 Limitations of Institutio Oratoria

Several limitations have been pointed out in Quintilians work.

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2.4.0 Influence or implications of Quintilians Educational Contributions

BIOGRAPHY AND EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF A. BANDURA

3.0 BIOGRAPHY OF ALBERT BANDURA

3.1.1 Early Life

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3.1.2 Banduras Career

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3.2.0 Educational Works and Contributions

3.2.1 Social Learning Theory

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4. Modeling is watching someone do something and copying it.

3.2.2 Observational Learning or Modeling

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3.3.3.0 Social Cognitive Theory

3.3.3.1Banduras Model in the Social Cognitive Theory

3.3.3.2 Rise of Social Cognitive Theory in Education

3.4.0 Implications of Social Cognitive Theory on Education

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1. Analyze the behaviors to be modeled

3. Socratic Method of Questioning

6. Self-paced or self regulated activities

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3.6 Contributions of Bandura to Psychology