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Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.
Leonardo da Vinci



Table of Contents
Before Starting Pre-Calculus ...................................................... 4
Studying ............................................................................................. 5
Symbols .............................................................................................. 6
General Symbols and Notations in Pre-Calculus ....................... 6
Greek Alphabet ..................................................................................... 8
Most Common Math Symbols .......................................................... 9
Algebra Symbols ................................................................................ 10
Axioms ............................................................................................. 11
Algebra ............................................................................................ 13
Arithmetic ............................................................................................ 13
Exponents ............................................................................................. 14
Radicals ................................................................................................. 16
Inequalities .......................................................................................... 17
Absolute Value .................................................................................... 18
Complex Numbers ............................................................................. 18
Logarithmic ......................................................................................... 19
Factoring .............................................................................................. 22
Complete The Square ....................................................................... 23
Adding and Subtracting Fractions ............................................... 25
Other Valuable Information .................................................... 25
Composition ........................................................................................ 25
Distance Formula .............................................................................. 26
Midpoint Formula ............................................................................. 27
Quadratic Formula ............................................................................ 27
Equation of a line ............................................................................... 30
Other Graphs ....................................................................................... 33
Domain Restrictions ......................................................................... 33
Asymptotes .......................................................................................... 34
Area Formulas .................................................................................... 35
Surface Area Formulas .................................................................... 35
Volume Formulas .............................................................................. 35
Trigonometry ............................................................................... 36
Using The Unit Circle ........................................................................ 37

2
Radian and Degree Conversion .................................................... 38
Evaluating Right Triangles ............................................................. 39
Using Pythagoreans Theorem ............................................................. 39
Reciprocal Identities ................................................................................ 42
Pythagorean Identities ............................................................................ 43
Even and Odd Functions ......................................................................... 44
Double Angle Formulas ........................................................................... 45
Half Angle Formulas ................................................................................. 46
Sum and Difference Formulas .............................................................. 48
Product to Sum Formulas ...................................................................... 49
Sum to Product Formulas ...................................................................... 49
Cofunction Formulas ................................................................................ 50
Using Trig in Calculus ................................................................ 50
A Preview of Calculus ................................................................. 50
Limits ............................................................................................... 53
What is a Limit? .................................................................................. 54
Notations for Limits .......................................................................... 55
Graph Examples ................................................................................. 56
Limit Laws and Properties ............................................................. 59
Evaluating Limits ............................................................................... 61
Equation Examples ........................................................................... 61
Infinite Examples ............................................................................... 66
The Limit Definition of a Derivative ............................................ 70
The Slope ....................................................................................................... 71
Tangent Lines ..................................................................................... 73
Common Limits .................................................................................. 76
Derivatives .................................................................................... 79
What is a Derivate? ........................................................................... 79
Derivative Rules ................................................................................. 80
Evaluating Derivatives ..................................................................... 84
Tangent Lines ..................................................................................... 88
Common Derivatives ........................................................................ 89
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT: How to Solve Problems ......... 91



3
Before Starting Pre-Calculus

Make sure that 10+ hours of studying can be devoted
to Pre-Calculus per week. This may sound like a lot of
time but it is actually, probably, not enough. Do not
ever take a break from the course even during break!

The average drop rate or major change in STEM
degrees is higher than any other. From experience,
this is due to Calculus and Physics courses. Not
because the courses are really that difficult but
because people are not properly prepared when they
start so they fall behind and get discouraged.

College professors are not teachers that teach they are
instructors that provide lectures. One of the biggest
problems with students entering college is that they
rely on lectures to learn. This is highly ineffective!

Before attending a lecture

v One must teach oneself the material that the
lecture is on e.g. if Tuesdays lesson is on
section 4.1 and 4.2 then the student should
have:
Read the section(s)
Worked all the section examples
Solved a few problems

This is the most important part of
preparing for a STEM lecture.


4
Studying

When planning a study routine for Pre-Calculus, be sure that
a minimum of 2-3 hours per day, 6-days a week is available.
The saying goes - for every hour of class, 4-hours of studying
per week. So if taking a 4hr course, a minimum of 16-hours
per week should be saved for studying.

CRUCIAL:
Take a practice test once a week over the material covered.
Treat the test just the same way it would be in class, no
calculators, timed and no distractions. Do this before any
quizzes may be scheduled. Students often complain about not
being good test takers well, in order to get good at
something one must practice it, obviously, if one does not
practice taking tests then one will never get good at it.

Never cram studying the day before or of the test and
finish all studying 48hrs prior to the exam. Remember,
an athlete wouldnt go to the gym and workout for 8-
hours the day before running a marathon, so dont do
the same with the brain.
Never move on to the next problem until the current
problem is fully understood and take frequent breaks
between problems.
Utilize all resources available to help understand the
material. It is ok to have an answer to a problem
available, as it is the solution that is important, not the
answer. Do not spend hours trying to solve something
you have no real idea how to solve.

Everything from the General Symbols, Notations in Pre-
Calculus, Algebra and Trigonometry must be mastered
prior to starting Pre-Calculus.

5
Symbols
General Symbols and Notations in Pre-Calculus

= Equal 0 = 0
, , , If and Only If if and
then
Implies

Not Equal 0


< Less Than < 0

<
Less Than Equal 0


> Greater Than > 0

>
Greater Than 0
Equal

Times 23 = 6
Multiplication 2 3 = 2 3 = 6
Multiplication 2 3 = 6
Best Practice:
Use only parentheses when
performing multiplication as ,,
may be confused with the
incorrect symbol.
Multiplication 2 3 = 6
Multiplication 2 3 = 6
( ) ( ) Multiplication 2 3 !!! 3 2
and Exponent = 6! 1
= 6

6
Plus or Minus =

= or =
Infinity Never Ends
Delta Change of
e. g.
= !
!
Sigma
Meaning Summation ! = ! + ! + !
!!!
Theta Reserved for angles

= = 45
4
Function of x = ! +
Function of y = ! +
(, ) Function of x & y , = ! +
In [a, b]
Is Not In [, ]
For All ! (for all )
There Exists ! (there exists an )
Therefore = 0 =
=
Because = 0
=
(, ) Open Set (, )
[, ] Closed Set [, ]
, Half Open/Closed [0, )
, Half Open/Closed (, 0]
, Set {1,3,5,7}
Union , 0 0,

= {| < 0, > 0}
Intersection 1,2,3 3,4,5 = 3
! , Point , = (, )

7

Greek Alphabet

Upper Case Lower Case Greek Name
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega

8
Most Common Math Symbols

Symbol Name Meaning
= equals equality
not equal inequality
> strict inequality greater than
< strict inequality less than
inequality greater than or equal to
inequality less than or equal to
calculate expression
( ) parentheses
inside first
calculate expression
[ ] brackets
inside first
+ plus sign addition
minus sign subtraction
both plus and minus
plus or minus
operations
both minus and plus
minus or plus
operations
* asterisk multiplication
times sign multiplication
bullet multiplication
Division division
/ division division
horizontal line division / fraction
. period decimal point/separator
! power n is an exponent
^ caret for power n is an exponent
! !
square root ! ! =
! ! ! !
cube root ! ! ! =
! !
nth root !

9
Algebra Symbols

Symbol Name Meaning
equivalence identical to or iff
~ approximately not very approximate
approximately approximation
proportional to proportional to
lemniscate infinity
much less than much less than
much greater than much greater than
calculate expression
( ) parentheses
inside first
calculate expression
[ ] brackets
inside first
{ , , } braces set
rounds number to
floor brackets
lower integer
rounds number to
ceiling brackets
upper integer
! exclamation mark factorial
|| single vertical bar absolute value
() function of x maps values of x to f(x)
( ) composition ( ) () = (())
(, ) open interval (, ) = { | < < }
[, ] closed interval [, ] = { | }
delta change / difference
summation sum of
sigma
all values
sigma double summation
e constant = 2.718281828. ..
= 3.141592654. . .
pi constant
The ratio between the circumference and
diameter of a circle

10
Axioms

Algebra Axioms Meaning
Substitution Principle If = , then a can be
substituted for b in an
expression.
Commutative: Addition + = +
Commutative: Multiplication =

Associativity: Addition + + = + +


Associativity: Multiplication =


Reflexive =


Symmetric if = then =


Transitive if = and =
then =

+ = +
Distribution Property and
+ = +

Sign Rule =


Identity: Addition + 0 = and 0 + =



11
+ = 0
Additive Inverse and
+ = 0

Opposite of a Sum + = + ()


Identity: Multiplication 1 = and 1 =


Multiplicative Property: Zero 0 = 0 and 0 = 0


Multiplicative Property: 1 1 = and 1 =


!!
Multiplicative Inverse = 1 and !! = 1

1
= !! =
Division
!! !!
= = !! = !! =

=
Rule of Signs Multiplication = = ()()


= = =
Rule of Signs Division

!!! !
= = =
Cancellation


Zero Property if = 0 then = 0
or = 0

12
Algebra
Arithmetic

Example Formula

10 6
= 2 5 2 3 =
=2 53 =
= 5 3 2


1 1
2 = 2 = 1 1 = 1 = 1 =1=
3 3 2 3 23 6
1


1 3 1423
= =
2 4 24
46
= The same method works for functions
8


1 2 (1 + 2) 2 1
= = =
3 4 (3 + 4) 4 3


12 16 12 16 +
= = 3 4 = + , 0
4 4 4


16 4 4 4
= =4 =
5 5 5



13

2
2 2 4 8 = =
= 1 = = 1
3 3 1 3 3
4 4


12 16 12 16
= =
5 5 5
The same method works for functions

1
2 = 1 4 = 4 = 2 = =
3 2 3 6 3
4
The same method works for functions

2 = 0 = 2 = 0 =
= 0


Exponents

Example Formula

2 = 2! !
=


! !!!
2! 2 ! = 1
2 =2 = ! = = 1
2 2 Anything raised to the zero power will equal
1

1 1 1
2!! = != !! =
2 4 !


14

1 1
= 2! = 4 = !
2!! !!


! ! = !!! = ! ! ! = !!!


! !
= !!! = ! = !!!
! !


2 !
2! 4 ! !
= ! = =
3 3 9 !


1 !!
1 !!
2! !! !! !
= = = 4 = !! = !
2 2!! 1


23 !
= 2 3! = 4 9 = 36
! ! = ! !


! ! ! !
2! ! = 2! ! ! = !


2! !
=2 !!
= 2 !! = 2! ! ! !
= !" = !" = ! !






15
Radicals

Example Formula
! ! ! ! !
!
4= 4= 4! = 4! = 2 = = ! = !

! !
! ! ! !
!"
64 = 64 ! = = !"
!
! !
= 64 !

! !
= 64! = 64
! !
= 2! ! = 2!
= 2! = 2

! !
!
27 =
!
3! = 3! = 3 ! = ,


! ! !
2 ! = 2 ! ! = ,
= 2
= 2 = | 2|
! ! !
!
64 = 8! ! = !
! ! !
= 8! = 8!

! !
= 2! = 2!

= 4


16

! ! !
! !
! 8 8 2! ! ! ! !
= = !
= ! = ! =
64 !
64
!
4 ! !
! !
2! ! 2! !
= ! =
4 2! !
! !
2! ! 1 ! 1
= ! = ! =
2 2 2


Inequalities


If < then + < + and <



If < and > 0 then < and <


If < and < 0 then > and >

The sign changes when multiplied by 1


e. g.
< >

17
Absolute Value


= , 0

0, !

= , < 0

= ||


=



Complex Numbers


= 1 ! = 1


= , > 0 + + +
= + + +


+ + + +
= + = + +

18

+ = ! + ! +
= +



Complex Modulus + = ! + !


Complex Conjugate + =


Logarithmic

Log base Natural Log

ln ln
= log ! log ! =
ln ln


= log ! = ! = ln = !


!
log = log!" = = ln

Sometimes log = ln on certain websites
so be careful when observing.
!
1
= 2.718281828 =
!
!!!

log ! = 1 ln = undefined, 0


log ! 1 = 0 ln 1 = 0

19


log ! ! = ln = !" ! =
!



log ! = ln ln = 1 !"(!) = 1
!



log ! ! = log ! ln ! = ln


log ! = log ! + log ! ln = ln + ln



log ! = log ! log ! ln = ln ln




Note

The log operations will work the same with functions

i. e.

! !
ln = ln

ln = ln + ln


ln = ln ln





20



Example

e tan!
!"
ln
! + 2 !!!!
= ln !! tan! ln ! + 2 (!!!!)

= ln !! + ln (tan! ) (8 + 2) ln( ! + 2)
= 2 + 2 ln (tan ) 8 + 2 ln ! + 2
= 2 + 2 ln tan 8 ln ! + 2 2 ln( ! + 2)
There will be a point in calculus where one is asked to take the derivative of a function of this
nature, just remember to rewrite in this fashion.


Important
In some online homework programs or classes ln ! may be
considered to be equal to ln(), however this is not correct

(because)

ln ! = ln ln ! = ln ! = ln! ()

e. g.

ln(4) = ln(2! ) = 2 ln(2)

and

! !
ln 2 = ln = ln! (2) = ln ln

If your teacher assigns something of this nature be sure to ask what he or she would prefer,
as the universal standard for notation may be changed on a class-to-class basis to the
instructors discretion.

21

Factoring


! ! = ( + )( )


+ 2 + ! = + !
!



2 + ! = !
!



! + + + = ( + )( + )


+ 3 + 3 + ! = + !
! ! !



3 + 3 ! = !
! ! !



! + ! = ( + )( ! + ! )


! ! = ( )( ! + + ! )


= ( ! )( ! + ! )
!! !! !







22
Complete The Square

Complete the Square: Example 1
! + = 0

0
! + =


! + + 0 = 0

! !

! + + = 0
2 2

!
!
!
+ + =
2 2

!
!
+ = !
2 4

!
+ =
2 4!


=
2 2


=0& =

23



Complete the Square - Example 2
!
+ + = 0

0
! + + =

! !

!

+ + + = 0
2 2

!
!
! + + =
2 2! !

!
! 4
+ =
2 4!

! 4
+ =
2 2

! 4
=
2 2

! 4
=
2




24



Adding and Subtracting Fractions


Example
1 3 1 4 + (2)(3) 10 5
+ = = =
2 4 2 4 8 4

Formula

=


Example
! + 1 ! ! + 1 2 ! 2 ! ! + 2
= =
2 2 2

Formula
() [ ]
=
()



Other Valuable Information
Composition

=
Example

!
= +1& =+2
= ( )

= + 2 ! + 1

25
= ! + 4 + 4 + 1
= ! + 4 + 5
Make sure that composition is fully understood as it arises
frequently throughout Calculus and dont forget the following
properties.

=


= ()()



=



Distance Formula

(! , ! ) ! , !

, = ! ! ! + ! ! !

Find the distance between 1,2 and (2,1)

, = 21 ! + 1 2 !
= 1 ! + 1 !
= 1 + 1
= 2
26




Midpoint Formula

(! , ! ) ! , !

! + ! ! + !
, = ,
2 2

Find the midpoint between 1,2 and (2,1)

2+1 1+2 3 3
, = , = ,
2 2 2 2


Quadratic Formula

Formula

!
+ + = 0


! 4
=
2



!
+ + = 0

! ! !
! + ! + ! = !

27
! ! ! ! ! !
! + ! + ! + !!
!!
= 0

! ! ! !! !
! + ! + !!
= !! ! ! !

! ! ! ! !!!"
+ !! = !! !

! ! ! !!!"
+ !! = !!

! ! ! !!!"
= !! !!

!! ! ! !!!"
= !!


Notice that the solution for the quadratic formula is derived from solving for x by completing
the square.
Discriminant

Two real solutions if ! 4 > 0


Repeated solutions if ! 4 = 0


Two complex solutions ! 4 < 0


Example 1: Two real solutions if ! 4 > 0

!
3 4 + 1 = 0
4 4 ! 4 3 1
=
2 3

28
4 16 12
=
6
4 4
=
6
42
=
6
4+2 42 2 1
= =1& = = =
6 6 6 3
Example 2: Repeated solutions if ! 4 = 0

!
+ 2 + 1 = 0
2 2 ! 4(1)(1)
=
2 1
1 4 4
= 2
1 0
= 2
1
= 2
1
=
2
Example 3: Two complex solutions if ! 4 < 0
! + 2 + 5 = 0
1 (2)! 4 1 5
=
2 1
1 4 20
=
2
1 16
=
2
29
1 1 16
=
2
1 1 16
=
2
1 4
=
2
1 4
=
2 2
1
= 2
2
1 1
= + 2 & = 2
2 2

Equation of a line

Graphing a Line: Formula
From the form = + one can easily graph a line by
identifying two points and then connecting them.

!
The equation will more generally appear as = ! +


=


is the rise

is the run

Always rise up and run with the sign

The first point is ! 0,
The second point is ! (, + )
30
Plot these two points and connect them
Graphing a Line: Example
Using the previous method

2
= + 3
3
2
= + 3
3

1st Point ! 0,3
2nd Point ! 3, 3 + 2 = ! (3, 5)

Plot these two points and connect them with an infinite line.




Note
When something has a zero in the subscript i.e. ! it is called
31
initial when accompanied with an e.g. " and initial is
and ! in physics it is generally called naught i.e. ! is x
naught. It is common to see ! and ! or ! and ! there are
reasons for each case but it is mostly personal preference.

Point Slope Form ! = !

= =

!" !!!
= !" = !!!!
!
!!!!
= !!!
!

! = !
! = ( ! )


Slope Intercept Form = +

= =

!" !!!
= !" = !!!!
!
!!!!
= !!!
!

! = !
! = !
= ! + !
= + ! !
= + ! ! ; = ! !
= +
When asked to find an equation of the tangent line use the point-slope form and then solve
for to put it into the slope-intercept form, this will be the equation of the tangent line at

32
! , ! .

Other Graphs

The graphing techniques from previous courses, such as
parabolas, hyperbolas, ellipses will be omitted from this
section and covered in The Crash Course section, as it only
applies to a few scenarios and is not entirely necessary once
one understands how to use calculus.

Techniques in calculus will be used to graph functions of all
forms. Specifically functions that cannot easily be put into
some sort of formula that one can extract numbers to plot or
perform shifts, compressions This is much easier technique
once mastered.

Domain Restrictions

Understanding the domains of functions is very important to
solving Calculus problems.
Function Restrictions for Domain
Polynomial
None, unless and inequality is
= ! ! ! !!! ! !!! present.
! !!!
Fraction

0
=


Radical, if n is even

! 0
= ()


Radical, if n is odd

33
!
The domain of is
!
= equal to the domain of if
n is odd, thus no restrictions

Fraction with Radical in
denominator If n is even > 0 if n is
odd 0
=!


Natural Log

= ln > 0

Exponential
No restrictions, domain is
() = ! ! dependent upon the
functions


Asymptotes

Asymptotes occur where the graph is undefined. This is
generally found by using formulas, domains and quotients.
The very first portion of Calculus is all about asymptotes. One
is taking limits as the function is approaching a horizontal
asymptote and one will take limits to the vertical asymptotes.
Due to the formulas for horizontal asymptotes being derived
from Calculus and the first part of calculus having a lot to do
with asymptotes, they will be omitted from this section and
covered in The Crash Course section.





34

Area Formulas

Square Rectangle
! =
=
Circle Parallelogram
= ! =
b = base h = height
Trapezoid Right Triangle
1 1
= ! + ! =
2 2

Surface Area Formulas

Cube Cuboid
! ! = 2 + 2 + 2
! = 6
Sphere Cylinder
! = 4 ! ! = 2 ! + 2
Right Circular Cone Right Square Pyramid
! = + ! + ! ! = ! + 2
is the length of a side from top to bottom

Volume Formulas

Cube Cuboid
= ! =
Sphere Cylinder
4 = !
= !
3
Right Circular Cone Right Square Pyramid
1 1
= ! = !
3 3




35


Trigonometry

In trigonometry much is learned but to be effective in
Calculus there is only a small portion of trigonometry that
must be mastered and memorized in order to solve problems.
Mainly: how to evaluate the unit circle, right triangles,
perform trigonometric substitutions and a few others. For
this portion of the book we will focus on those sections.

The Unit Circle

36

Using The Unit Circle

Degrees Radians
cos = , = 1 sin = , = 1

0 0 cos = 1 sin = 0
30 3 1
cos = sin =
6 2 2
45
2 2
4 cos = sin =
2 2
60 1 3
cos = sin =
3 2 2
90 cos = 0 sin = 1

2
120 2 1 3
cos = sin =
3 2 2
135 3 2 2
cos = sin =
4 2 2
150 5 3 1
cos = sin =
6 2 2
180 cos = 1 sin = 0
210 7 3 1
cos = sin =
6 2 2
225 5 2 2
cos = sin =
4 2 2
240 4 1 3
cos = sin =
3 2 2
270 3 cos = 0 sin = 1

2
300 5 1 3
cos = sin =
3 2 2
315 7 2 2
cos = sin =
4 2 2
330 11 3 1
cos = sin =
6 2 2
360 2 cos =1 sin = 0
Why is The Unit Circle called the unit circle? In math a unit is of length 1 and the radius of
this circle is 1, hence The Unit Circle.


37

Important Reminder
1
cos !!
cos

even though, cos ! = cos !

and if n is equal to (1) in cos !
then
1
cos !! = = sec
cos

but cos cos !!
!!



This is a common reason why
arccos pronounced arc cosine
is used in place of cos !!
(pronounced cosine inverse)

This is the same case for all of the trig functions


Radian and Degree Conversion

180
!"#$"" = !"#$"%


!"#$"% = !"#$""
180

i. e.

!"#$"" = 45

38

!"#$"% = 45
180
45 1
= (1! ) = 1! =
180 4 4
Notice that the degree cancels out just like a variable and that the absence of the degree
symbols implies radians.

!"#$"% =
4


180 180
!"#$"" = =
4 4
= 45 1 = 45


Right triangles are used quite often in calculus in various
ways. It is very important that it is understood properly.

Evaluating Right Triangles

Using Pythagoreans Theorem



! + ! = !

It would be wise to refrain from using a, b, and c as they are
basic symbols and not what is generally used in more
advanced mathematics. Also, a, b and c are generally reserved
for constants e. g. , and , is a constant and and
are variables and () is a function of the variable x.

39


+ ! = !
!




cos = cos =




sin = sin =




= arctan = tan!! = arctan = tan!!



= cos = cos


= sin = sin



= tan = tan


40
Please note that the previous and following evaluation of a right triangle using functions is not
a formal definition of a theorem it is simply a technique that can be used for simplifying and it
should be known that when finding angles, one must consider the domain as well.



! ! !
+ =



cos = cos =




sin = sin =




= arctan = arctan



= cos = cos


= sin = h x sin



= tan = tan

41

IMPORTANT: Make sure everything about evaluating right
triangles and the unit circle is fully understood as this will be
used in detail throughout Calculus and Physics.

Trigonometric Formulas and Identities

Because there are quite a few trigonometric formulas and
identities and it is quite difficult to memorize all of them, it is
extremely important to understand how to derive these
formulas and identities from known formulas and identities.

When working in calculus one will frequently replace a
trigonometric statement with another trigonometric
statement. This is one of the most difficult parts of calculus
for people to grasp, it is not because it is hard, it is because
students fly through trigonometry and never really
understand what they were doing and do not have enough
practice with symbol recognition for replacement.

Reciprocal Identities

1 1
sin = csc =
csc sin
1 1
csc = sec =
sec cos
1 1
tan = cot =
cot tan

sin cos
tan =
cos
cot =
sin


Important

This is a good place to start getting acquainted with how to use trig-
substitution, as this will appear frequently throughout calculus.

42


sin 1
tan = = sin
cos cos
!
sin !"# !
= sin sec
!
sin sec = !"! !
sec
! !"# !
!"! !
sec = !"! !


sec
tan =
csc
! !"# ! !
tan = !"! !

!"#! ! !"#! !!!
tan! = !"!! ! = !!!"#! !


As seen here the possibilities for trig-substitution are endless. Often, in calculus, one just has
to keep trying different forms until a form that works is found.

Pythagorean Identities

sin! + cos ! = 1

Often students cannot remember all the identities but with sin! + cos ! = 1 and a few
simple concepts, all the identities can easily be found.
Derivation:
= cos , = sin , ! + ! = !
! + ! = cos !
+ sin !
= ! cos ! + ! sin!
= ! cos ! + sin! = ! 1 = !
! + ! = !

43
tan! + 1 = sec !
Derivation:
1
sin! + cos ! = 1
cos !
sin! cos ! 1
+ =
cos cos cos !
! !

!
sin 1 !
+1=
cos cos
tan! + 1 = sec !
1 + cot ! = csc !
Derivation:
1
sin! + cos ! = 1
sin!
sin! cos ! 1
+ =
sin sin sin!
! !

!
cos 1 !
1+ =
sin sin
1 + cot ! = csc !

Even and Odd Functions



Even = ()
Odd =
Odd sin = sin()
Even cos = cos()
Odd tan = tan()
Odd csc = csc()
Even sec = sec()
Odd cot = cot()

44
Double Angle Formulas

Important
The half angle and double angle formulas along with the Pythagorean
identities are used frequently throughout calculus. It is highly
recommended that memorizing them as well as understanding the
derivations is fully comprehended.

sin 2 = 2 sin cos

Derivation:
sin 2 = sin +
= sin cos + sin cos
= 2 sin cos

cos(2) = cos ! sin!
= 2 cos ! 1
= 1 2 sin!
As one can see, these formulas are all derived from the Pythagorean identities. If this can be
understood properly then memorizing them is not necessary.
Derivation 1:
cos 2 = cos( + )
= cos cos sin sin
= cos ! sin!
Derivation 2:
cos 2 = cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
= cos ! sin! = cos ! (1 cos ! )
= cos ! 1 + cos ! = 2 cos ! + 1


45
Derivation 3:
cos 2 = cos( + )
= cos cos sin sin
= cos ! sin!
= 1 sin! sin!
= 1 2 sin!


2 tan
tan 2 =
1 tan!

Derivation:
tan 2 = tan +
tan + tan
=
1 tan tan
2 tan
=
1 tan!

Half Angle Formulas



1
sin! = 1 cos 2
2
Derivation:
sin! = 1 cos !
= 1 cos cos
1
=1 cos + cos +
2
1
= 1 cos 0 + cos 2
2
46
1
=1 1 + cos 2
2
1 1
= 1 cos 2
2 2
1 1
= cos 2
2 2
1
= [1 cos(2)]
2
1
cos ! = [1 + 2 ]
2

Derivation:

cos ! = 1 sin!
= 1 sin sin
1
=1 cos( cos + ]
2
1
= 1 cos 0 cos 2
2
1
=1 1 cos 2
2
1 1
= 1 + cos 2
2 2
1 1
= + cos 2
2 2
1
= [1 + cos 2 ]
2

1 cos(2)
tan! =
1 + cos(2)
47


Derivation:
tan! = sec ! 1
1 !
= 1
cos
1
= 1
cos cos
1
= 1
1
2 cos + cos +
2
= 1
1 + cos 2
2 1 + cos 2
=
1 + cos 2 1 + cos 2
2 1 + cos 2
=
1 + cos 2
1 cos 2
=
1 + cos 2

Sum and Difference Formulas



sin = sin cos cos sin

cos( ) = cos cos sin cos

tan tan
tan =
1 tan

48


Product to Sum Formulas

1
sin sin = [cos cos( + )]
2

1
cos cos = [cos + cos( + )]
2

1
sin cos = [sin + + sin ]
2

1
cos sin = [sin + sin ]
2


Sum to Product Formulas

+
sin + sin = 2 sin cos
2 2

+
sin sin = 2 cos sin
2 2

+
cos + cos = 2 cos cos
2 2

+
cos cos = 2 sin sin
2 2


49


Cofunction Formulas


sin = cos cos = sin
2 2

csc = sec sec = csc
2 2

tan = cot cot = tan
2 2



Using Trig in Calculus

Of course there is a significant amount of trigonometric
concepts, proofs and derivations that were left out of this
book. The reason is that for the standard calculus courses the
material presented is the most essential to solving calculus
problems.

Most students that struggle in calculus have a strong fear of trigonometry and logarithmic
functions. This is almost 90% of all calculus problems so make sure to get over the hump of trig
and logs before starting calculus.

A Preview of Calculus

If you would like to get a look at what Calculus is really about.
Go through this simple introductory crash course on the first
months material of Calculus.

The following is an example of why the information prior to this section is
essential to solving calculus problems. Do not pay close attention to the
actual problem, as you may not understand it until a month into calculus,
rather, look at the algebra and trig that occurs.
50



!
! sin
find if = ln ! !
, =
! + 2 + 1 4

!
!"
is an operator that says to take the derivative of whatever
follows and having the bar to the right with a number or in
this case the constant a, which represents an unknown
number, means to evaluate the result at . In other words if
! !"
one sees !" this is the same as ! because !" = ()
!
and = .

(after completing the crash course come back to this problem)

Now there is a general formula for taking the derivative of the
!" !! !
natural log function which is = ln () !" = ! !
, this
would be unnecessarily complicated for this problem.

Using logarithmic rules to simplify it first would be the best
route.

!
= ln () =


!
! sin
= ln !
+ 2 + 1 !
!
= ln ! sin ln ! + 2 + 1 !
!
= ln ! + ln sin 2 ln( ! + 2 + 1)
= ! + ln sin 2 ln ! + 2 + 1

51

!
= + ln sin 2 ln ! + 2 + 1

!
= + ln sin 2 ln ! + 2 + 1

!
sin + 2 + 1
= 2 + 2
cos ! + 2 + 1
cos 2 + 2
= 2 + 2 !
sin + 2 + 1
4 + 4
= 2 + cot !
+ 2 + 1
4 +1
= 2 + cot
+1 +1
4
= 2 + cot
+1
+1 4
= 2 + cot
+1 +1
2 + cot + 1 4
=
+1




2 4 + cot 4 4 + 1 4
! =
4 + 1
4
4
2 +1 4+4 4
=
4
+
4 4

52
2 +4
+ 4
= 2 2 4
+4
4
+2 +4
2 4 4
=
+4
4
( + 2)( + 4) 32
8 8
=
+4
4
! + 6 + 8 32
= 8
+4
4
! + 6 + 8 32 4
=
8 +4
! + 6 24
= 0.3304
2( + 4)

This problem may seem ridiculous at this point but this is
pretty much a standard level of difficulty for any calculus
class for a STEM major.

This is why the knowledge of algebraic arithmetic operations
and trigonometric operations is essential.


Limits

Limits could be looked at as the foundation of Calculus; it
would be wise to fully master limits and derivatives before

53
starting the course as almost everything in Calculus has a
limit in its definition.
What is a Limit?

In first year Calculus, one will focus on limits in a Cartesian
coordinate system, in general a vs graph.

The basic idea is that one has a function () and this
function can be graphed as = then one takes a value of
and goes to that on the graph and then goes to the
corresponding -value on and states the value of .
This is a general concept, not a formal definition. This book is a
crash course designed to get a strong idea in order to make
learning a simpler process.

There are various possibilities that may occur. The limit will
exist, not exist or be infinite. This is very easy to see when
looking at a graph but proving it using mathematics is not as
simple.

Translation:

the limit as x goes to a of a function of x

is written as lim ()
!!

Example
lim ! = 1
!!

54

As it is seen on the graph, go to the x-coordinate and then
move to the y-coordinate to find the limit. This is the simplest
of examples of course.

This limit operation outputs a -value. When looking at the
graph go to the left or right based on the -value and then go
up or down to find the limit, which is a -value.
Notations for Limits


lim () = The actual limit
!! Occurs when the left and right hand limits
are equal.

lim! = ! Left hand limit
!! Approaching from the left side or moving
towards the positive x-axis.

lim! = ! Right hand limit
!! Approaching from the right side or moving
towards the negative x-axis.



55

lim () = Exists lim! = lim! ()
!! !! !!

The positive or negative sign in the
superscript is simply stating that the limit is
to be evaluated at either the left or right -
there is no arithmetic significance to it.

lim () = DNE lim! lim! ()
!! !! !!
DNE - Does Not Exist

= = The limit exists and is
continuous

() The limit is not continuous


This limit is discontinuous when there is a break in the graph
!
e.g. = !!! is discontinuous at 5 because the graph is
undefined. The same thing occurs on many other functions. It
is wise to understand domain restrictions in order to help
simplify the process.
Graph Examples

Example

56

From this graph the limit can be evaluated at = , & and
stated whether it is exists, DNE, exists from the left/right and
or if it is continuous.

lim () = e The limit exists and is
!!
continuous

lim () = g The limit exists but is
!!
discontinuous

lim = DNE The limit DNE and is
!!
discontinuous

lim! () = f The limit exists but is
!!
discontinuous

lim! () = d The limit exists and is
!!
continuous

57
Example

1 1 1
Evaluate lim! , lim! , lim , and f 5 .
!! 5 !! 5 !! 5


From here there are three different limits and the evaluation
of the function itself. There is a vertical asymptote at = 5
and a horizontal asymptote at = 0. As stated in the algebra
section, the asymptote formulas are not necessary for
calculus as calculus is where those formulas came from. The
limit itself will explain the horizontal asymptote locations and
the vertical is obvious as it is where the denominator is
undefined.







58


Limit Laws and Properties

Limit of a Constant
lim =
!!

Example:
lim 4 = 4
!!

Limit of single variable


lim =
!!

Example:
lim = 2
!!

If The Function is Continuous


lim () = ()
!!

Example:
lim ! = 2 !
= 4
!!

The Constant Multiple Law


lim [ ] = lim ()
!! !!

Example:
lim 2 ! = 2 lim ! = 2 2 !
= 8
!! !!

The Sum and Difference Law


lim [ ] = lim () lim ()
!! !! !!

Example:
lim ( ! + 2) = lim ! + 2 lim = 4 + 4 = 8
!! !! !!

59


The Product Law
lim [ ] = lim () lim ()
!! !! !!

Example:
lim ! = lim lim ! = 2 !
!! !! !!

The Quotient Law


lim ()
!!
lim = , lim () 0
!! lim () !!
!!

Example:
lim ! !
! !!
lim = =
!! lim 2
!!

The Power Law


!
!
lim = lim ,
!! !!

Example:
!
lim ! = lim = 2 !
= 4
!! !!

The Root Law


! !
lim () = lim () ,
!! !!

Example:
! ! !
lim = lim = 4 = 2
!! !!

60
Evaluating Limits

There is a general question that arises when dealing with
limits i.e. Does the limit exist and if so, is the limit
continuous?

!
From the previous sections graph, the graph of = !!! that
is, one can see that the left-hand limit is and the right-
hand limit is and since these two limits do not equal each
other the actual limit does not exist which also says that the
function is discontinuous at = 5.

Equation Examples

There are essentially three scenarios that occur when
evaluating non-trig/log functions at a constant.





Note
When coming across an unknown symbol or concept do not
procrastinate, look it up and understand it ASAP and ever
move to the next topic until the current topic is fully
understood, especially when in a rush to get to the next topic.
There is no point in starting the next topic if the first is not
completely understood.







61





Scenario 1: Continuous Function
= ! + 2 + 1, 10
lim ( ! + 2 + 1) = lim ! + 2 lim + lim 1
!!" !!" !!" !!"
!
= 10 + 2 10 + 1 = 100 + 20 + 1
=121
10 = 121 =
is continuous at = 10




















62
Scenario 2: Factoring and Eliminating
!
16
= ! , 2
4

! 16 0
lim =
!! ! 4 0

!
As one can see, if 2 were to be plugged in, the limit would be !,
this is referred to as indeterminate form

!
Indeterminate Forms: ! , , 0 , , 0! , 1 , !
When the function is in indeterminate form, this means that
the limit may exist but one must manipulate the function to
find the limit.


!
16 ! ! 4!
lim ! = lim
!! 4 !! ! 4
! 4 ! + 4
= lim
!! ( ! 4)
= lim ! + 4
!!
= lim ! + lim 4
!! !!
= 2 ! + 4
= 4 + 4
= 8
2 = Undefined L
is discontinuous at = 2





63
Scenario 3: Conjugate
! 81
= , 3
3

!
81 0
lim =
!! 3 0

! 8 1 ! 8 1
lim = lim 1
!! 3 !! 3

Very often in calculus a function is manipulated by
!
multiplying by the number 1. This is done by rewriting 1 as !
! ! !
then ! or ! !
and since these are all equal to one and
multiplying anything by the number 1 outputs the same
result one can rewrite the equation.

Therefore, rewrite as

! 8 1 ! 8 + 1
lim
!! 3 ! 8 + 1
! 8 1
= lim
!! (3 )( ! 8 + 1)

It is wise to only foil out the conjugate.




64
! 9
= lim
!! (3 )( ! 8 + 1)
( 3)( + 3)
= lim
!! (3 )( ! 8 + 1)
+3
= lim
!! ! 8 + 1
lim + lim 3
!! !!
=
lim ! lim 8 +lim 1
!! !! !!

3 +3
=
3! 8 + 1
6
=
2
= 3
3 = Undefined L
is discontinuous at = 3













65
There are three cases for evaluating non-trig/log functions at
infinity. This is where the horizontal asymptote formulas
arise.
Infinite Examples

Case 1:
! !!!
+ + >
lim ! !!!
= 0 !!
! + + !!


Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
Case 2:
! !!!
+ + <
lim ! !!!
= !!
! + + !!


Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
Case 3:
a ! + !!! + a =
lim = !!
! b ! + !!! + b !!

Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
Rule of thumb, always multiply by the quotient of the inverse
of the variable of highest degree from the denominator.












Notes


66
































Case 1: HA at y=0
_______________________________________________________________________

67
! + + 1
= ,
! + ! + + 1
_______________________________________________________________________

!
++1 ! + + 1 1
lim ! !
= lim ! !

! + + + 1 ! + + + 1 1
! + + 1 !!
= lim
! ! + ! + + 1 !!
! !! + !! + 1 !!
= lim
! ! !! + ! !! + !! + 1 !!

!!! + !!! + !!
= lim
! !!! + !!! + !!! + !!

!! + !! + !!
= lim
! ! + !! + !! + !!

1 1 1
+ !+ !
= lim
! 1 1 1
1++ !+ !

1 1 1
lim + lim ! + lim !
! ! !
=
1 1 1
lim 1 + lim + lim ! + lim !
! ! ! !

0+0+0
=
1+0+0+0
0
=
1
= 0
Case 2: No HA asymptote
_______________________________________________________________________

68
! + ! + + 1
=
! + + 1
_______________________________________________________________________

! !
+ ++1 ! + ! + + 1 1
lim = lim
! ! + + 1 ! ! + + 1 1
! + ! + + 1 !!
= lim !!
! ! + + 1
! !! + ! !! + !! + 1 !!
= lim
! ! !! + !! + 1 !!
!!! + !!! + !!! + !!
lim
! !!! + !!! + !!
! + ! + !! + !!
= lim
! ! + !! + !!
1 1
+1+ + !
= lim
! 1 1
1++ !

1 1
lim + lim 1 + lim + lim !
! ! ! !
=
1 1
lim 1 + lim + lim !
! ! !

+1+0+0
= =
1+0+0
= , <
!!
Pay attention to the signs as this solution could also be i.e. lim!
!!


!
Case 3: HA at = !
_______________________________________________________________________

3 ! +
= !
2 + 1
_______________________________________________________________________
69

3 ! + 3 ! + 1
lim = lim !
! 2 ! + 1 ! 2 + 1 1
3 ! + !!
= lim ! !!
! 2 + 1
3 ! !! + !!
= lim ! !!
! 2 + 1 !!
3 !!! + !!!
= lim
! 2 !!! + !!

3 ! + !!
= lim !
! 2 + !!

1
3+ !
= lim
!! 1
2+ !

1
lim 3 + lim !
! !
=
1
lim 2 + lim !
! !

3+0 3
= =
2+0 2



The Limit Definition of a Derivative

A derivative is the slope or rate of change of a function and
when evaluated it becomes the instantaneous rate of change.

Finding the slope of a linear equation = + is quite
simple because it is a straight line which means the slope is
constant, it gets more complicated when looking at a non-
70
linear equation such as = ! as the slope is constantly
changing.

When asked to find the slope of a curve one cannot simple
extract from the equation by rearranging it. Though, one
!"
can take to be equal to !" and then do some
transformations to the function to find a slope of a function in
terms of two unknowns and then take the limit to find the
slope at = .
The Slope

Derivation of The Difference Quotient



=

!
=
!
= ()
! !
=
! !

71
& = ! = + !
(! ) + ! (! )
=
!
Since and ! have unknown values and if we concern
ourselves with one , meaning one length, it is common to
see them written as = and ! =
Substituting back in, we get the difference quotient

+ ()


This is the slope of the secant line of a curve
Looking at , if this length is shrunk infinitely close to zero
one will arrive at a point (, ) and if the limit of the
secant line as goes to zero is taken, it will output the slope
at that point.

The Limit Definition of a Derivative

+ ()
! = lim
!!

The apostrophe in ! or denotes derivative.


! !
= = 1st derivative
!! = !! = 2nd derivative
!!! = !!! = 3rd derivative
Any derivative after the 3rd is written as (!) or (!) not to
be confused with a power
= 4th derivative ! =
!

(!) = ! = nth derivative


72
Example:
if = ! , find
Solution: Using The Limit Definition of a Derivative

+
= ! = lim
!!
+ ! !
= ! = lim
!!
! + 2 + ! !
= lim
!!
2 + !
= lim
!!
= lim 2 +
!!

= lim 2 + lim
!! !!

= 2 + 0 = 2
IMPORTANT:
Notice how there were no steps skipped in the solution. This
is extremely important; the answer 2 is the least
important part of the solution. Anyone can put something in a
calculator and get the answer. The student takes Calculus to
learn how to provide the solution.

Tangent Lines

In Calculus, one will solve for the equation of a tangent line in
many different ways using the same general concept.

The equation of a tangent line or secant line is derived from
the classic point slope equation
! = !
Then solving for
73
= +
These are the same two equations that will be used, though a
new look at notation must be considered to be more precise
and effective.

The Slope Notation for Calculus
When looking for the tangent using ! = ( ! ),

+ ()
= ! = lim
!!

= ! = !

! = ! ( ! )

Usually a question is stated as find the equation of the
tangent line of at = for the sake of this question, lets
rewrite

! = ! ( ! )



= ()( )

Another way the question might be asked is find the equation
of the tangent line of ! (, ) in this situation ! ,
is the same as saying (! , ! ) so ! = ! (
! ) would be used or

= ()( )
= ()

From here solve for and then the equation of the tangent
line has been found.

74
Example
Find the equation of the tangent line of = ! at = 3

Identify
! = ! ! ( ! )

! = 3

! = 3 = 3 ! = 9

! + (! )
! ! = lim
!!
! !
3+ 3
(3) = lim
!!
9 + 6 + ! 9
= lim
!!
6 + !
= lim
!!
= lim 6 +
!!

= 6
Now plug everything in to ! = !
9=6 3
= 6 9
Graphing to verify it is correct is always good practice

75





















Common Limits

Infinite Limits

76
lim ! = , > 0 1
! lim = 0 , > 0
! !


!
lim = 0, < 0 1
! lim = , < 0
! !


!
lim = 1
! lim = 0
! !


lim !!
= 0 1
! lim =
! !!


lim ln = 1
! lim = 0
! ln


lim ln !! = 1
! lim = 0
! ln !!










! !!!
+ ! + + ! >
lim ! !!!
= 0
! + ! + + !

77

! + ! !!! + + ! <
lim =
! ! + ! !!! + + !


! + ! !!! + + ! =
lim =
! ! + ! !!! + + !


Infinite Trig Limits

lim sin = 1 to 1 1
! lim sin = 0
!


lim cos = 1 to 1 1
! lim cos = 1
!

1
lim tan = 0
lim tan = to !
!


lim csc = 1
! lim csc =
to 1& 1 to !

lim sec = 1
! lim sec = 1
to 1& 1 to !




lim cot = to 1
! lim cot =
!


There are many functions beyond these functions that can be
evaluated at and it is important to understand how a
78
graph works to be fully effective. Graphing each of these
functions as well as all other trig functions such as the arc
functions, hyperbolic trig functions is essential. Always
have a graphing application available to plug equations into.

Derivatives

Now that limits are understood the derivative rules can be
used in place of the limit definition. It is a much simpler way
to evaluate the derivative.

The derivative is used in almost every single question in
Calculus. Spending an extra amount of time on the derivative
section would be wise. Derivatives must become instinctive in
order to be fully effective through the course.
What is a Derivate?

A derivative is nothing more than the slope of a function or
the rate-of-change of that function. When one evaluates a
derivative for a certain value the answer is the instantaneous
rate-of-change of the function. In physics the first derivative
is velocity and the second derivative is acceleration.

The Notation for a Derivative ()


! = ! = = ()



is an operator that says take

the derivative of whatever follows
by using derivative rules.


! = ! =

79

!
!! = = =

! ! !
= = !! =
! ! !



Physics Notation

= Distance/Displacement

1st derivative
! = = () Velocity/Speed

2nd derivative
!! !
= = = () Acceleration


Derivative Rules

Derivative of a constant:

= 0

Example:

5 = 0

Power Rule:
!
= !!!

Example:

= 1 !!! = ! = 1

Constant Multiple Rule:
80

= ()

Example:

5 ! = 5 ! = 5 3 !!! = 15 !

Product Rule:

= +

Example:
!
! = + ! = ! + ! 1 = ! + 1

Quotient Rule:


=
!
Example:

! ! ! 1 !
= =
! ! ! !!
! 1
= = !!!! 1 = !! 1
!!
Chain Rule:

= = () ()

= ()
Example:
!
= ! + 2 !"
! = + 2 !"




= !" ! = 13 !"

81
= ! + 2 ! = 2 + 2

! = 13 ! + 2 !"
(2 + 2)
The chain rule is what students struggle with the most. There are many different notations
and approaches, the example above is one method but using the d/dx operator throughout
the whole problem is highly recommended as it will be very important down the road e.g.

= ! + 2 !"


!
! = + 2 !"

!
= 13 ! + 2 !"!! + 2

= 13 ! + 2 !"
(2 + 2)
Remember: perform the power rule, leave the inside alone, and
multiple by the derivative of the inside.
There are more simplified formulas for derivatives and they
will be listed next.
IMPORTANT: It would be wise to master the method above
and not use the shorthand notations to follow as they will not
work down the road.

Shorthand Notation

Product Rule:
=

! = ! +
Example:
= !

82
= ! = 1
= ! ! = !

Just plug them into the formula

= + ( ! )(1)
!


Quotient Rule:

=


! !
=
!
Example:

=
!

= ! = 1
= ! ! = !

Just plug them into the formula

! 1 !
=
! !

Chain Rule:
= ()

[ ] = !
Example:
= ! + 2 !"


= !" ! = 13 !"
= ! + 2 ! = 2 + 2

83
! = 13 ! + 2 !" (2 + 2)

This method is definitely easier for the beginner but
conditions for a bad habit. Avoiding this method and
mastering the previous method is recommended.

Other Useful Derivatives

!! !
= ! ! ! ln =



!
= ! ln ! ! = ! ! ! ln




sin = cos csc = csc cot

Practice the limit definition of a derivative to
prove the trig derivatives.


cos = sin (sec ) = sec tan




tan = sec ! cot = csc !



Evaluating Derivatives

From the previous section it becomes obvious that one must
use predefined rules in order to evaluate a derivate but what
if the derivative is not in the same form the rules are?

84
At the beginning, taking a derivative will be pretty
straightforward. The real problems are rarely as
straightforward as the predefined rules. The next examples
will cover a few of the more complicated situations.

FYI: There are many formula sheets for inverse trig
derivatives. Try to learn how to solve the problem, as it is the
same process for all the situations that occur. One concept
understood, or 18+ formulas memorized The following
problem explains the approach.

Example: Inverse Trig Function

!!


What happens often in Calculus is one learns all the previous
derivative rules and a few other things then is asked to
perform a derivative such as the indicated inverse trig
function. Some are able to grasp quickly and others are not.

= !! csc =

Since one cannot simply take the derivate of an arc trig
function it must be rearranged.

csc =

csc =


There is a problem here, the function is being differentiated
!
with respect to not so the !" csc = csc cot is not the
!
same as !" csc .

! !
Chain Rule: !" csc = csc cot (!" )

85
(This is called implicit differentiation.)

Perform the derivate as normal but apply the chain rule and
! !"
multiple by the derivative of i.e. = =
!" !"
(This is called implicit differentiation.)


csc cot = 1


1
=
csc cot

!"
This is !" but it is not in terms of . Substitutions must be
made to put it in terms of x.

The next step is to construct a right triangle from csc =
! !
Remember that csc = csc = ! sin =
!



From this triangle cot & csc must be determined. Do not
simply use csc = as that is from the original function not
the derivative.
1 1 1
sin = = =
! 1 + ! 1 !
1 ! + ! 1

86
! = ||
1 1
sin = =
! ||
& csc = ||

! 1
cot = = ! 1
1

Putting everything back together

1
! =
! 1
1
csc !! =
! 1
This may seem like a long and complicated process but once
understood it could be accomplished quickly and efficiently.


Example: Implicit Differentiation
!"
Given + = ! find !"

!
Simply take !" of the whole equation


+ = !

!
+ =

87

+ + = 2 1


+ 1 + = 2 1


! !"
Feel free to substitute for !" if it is too messy

! + + ! = 2 ! 1
! + ! 2 ! = 1
! + 1 2 = 1 +
1+ 1+ 1+
! = = =
+ 1 2 2 1 2 1
+1
=
2 1

Tangent Lines

Just as in the limit section, the process is identical but instead
of the limit definition of a derivative use the derivative rules.

Example
Find the equation of the tangent line of = ! = 3

Identify
= ! ( )

= 3

= 3 = 3 ! = 9

88
!
! = = 2

! 3 = 6
Go back and take a look at the difference from the limit definition process and the power rule
process.

Now plug everything into ! = !
9=6 3
= 6 9
Graphing is always good practice


Common Derivatives


! !
= ! !
= ! !
()



1 !
ln = ln =


! !
= ! ln !
= ! !
! ln


89


sin = cos csc = csc cot




cos = sin (sec ) = sec tan




tan = sec ! cot = csc !



1 1
sin!! = csc !! =
1 ! ! 1


1 1
cos !! = sec !! =
1 ! ! 1



1 1
tan!! = cot !! =
1 + ! 1 + !




sinh = cosh csch = csch coth






cosh = sinh sech = sech tanh

90



tanh = sech! coth = csch!



EXTREMELY IMPORTANT: How to Solve Problems

Here we will look at how solving a problem correctly is done.
There are three things to keep in mind whenever solving a
problem.

1. Treat Calculus like a language.
2. 90% of the score comes from the solution.
3. 10% of the score comes from the answer.

Here is an example, do not worry about understanding it yet.
It is important to see the separate breakdowns of the
problems.

One of the first problems in Calculus is learning limits.
Usually students are able to get the answers fairly easily but
writing out the solution is either misunderstood or
unpleasant and avoided. Look at the first example and then
the second example.



Example 1: The incorrect way

! 4
Evaluate lim
!! 2

At this point students have a general idea and would continue
the problem in the following fashion, getting the answer
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correct but losing half the credit on a test for not providing
the correct solution.

! 4

2
2 +2

2
+ 2
4
If this were a 12-point problem, the student would most
likely receive 6-points. That is a failing grade!

Example 2: The correct way

! 4
Evaluate lim
!! 2

Solution:
! 4 ! 2!
lim = lim
!! 2 !! 2

( 2)( + 2)
= lim
!! 2
= lim ( + 2)
!!

= 2 + 2
= 4
Answer:
Therefore

92
! 4
lim = 4
!! 2

So the solution is worth the most out of the problem and must
be respected. Not writing out the notation can cause a
loss of points on each line.

!"
A question is generally stated as = , find !" but this
trains the student to try and just get the answer and be done
with it when in reality the question is saying, or should be
!"
saying show = !" = ! what has been done
here is that instead of asking for the answer the question is
asking to show the solution.

e. g.

This is how questions will be asked in calculus on online
homework and in books. Students will simply provide the
answer as shown.


Question:

if = ! , find


Answer:

= 2


Depending on where one is at in the semester, if this was a 10-point question, the student
would receive 2-points.

This is the way the problem should be approached in order to
get maximum credit.

93
Question:
if = ! , find

Solution: Using The Limit Definition of a Derivative

+
= ! = lim
!!
!
+ ! !
= = lim
!!
! + 2 + ! !
= lim
!!
2 + !
= lim
!!
= lim 2 +
!!

= lim 2 + lim
!! !!

= 2 + 0
= 2
Solution: Using The Power Rule
!
= ! ! = =

= 2 !!!
= 2
This is one of the simplest problems in calculus, the point is to show that the solution is what
is important, not the answer. There will be more examples in the tangent line section of how
to solve correctly.
Answer:
! = 2
Proper notation is very important. The class is more about writing, not the answer.

94




Reader:

If there is anything you feel should have been included or you
would have liked to have in this text please email
JJtheTutor@JJtheTutor.com with your recommendation.

Occasionally a typo may occur and be overlooked. If any
discrepancies are found please email
JJtheTutor@JJtheTutor.com so an update can be published.

Further resources to assist with your Math and Physics
courses.

http://www.JJtheTutor.com
http://www.youtube.com/jjthetutor

Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can
assure you mine are still greater. Albert Einstein

Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one
has learned in school. Albert Einstein

Mathematics is not about numbers, it is about describing one
dimension from another dimension. Jonathan Tullis






95









Copyright Jonathan Tullis
Published: January 2015, U.S.A.

Disclaimer:

This book is not intended to be a replacement for a course or
formal definitions of theorems. This book is simply a
consolidation of what is most important to retain from
previous courses and how to use the information to help get
started with Calculus based on experience from working with
multiple students in different areas of Calculus.

96

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