Upon completion of this experiment, students should have the:

MO1 : Ability to model transmission and distribution systems using PSS Adept.
MO2 : Ability to determine the location of capacitor banks for several given val
ues.
MO3 : Ability to calculate voltage regulation in a distribution system.
MO4 : Ability to evaluate the effect of compensating capacitor placement in tr
ansmission
system.

Table 1: Standard setting for Malaysia

network
System Standard
Base Voltage kV
System 3 phase
kVA
Typical value
11,
22,33 or 132 kV
100000kVA
Input Voltage Type Line - Line
System Frequency 50 Hz ( TNB)
Stability Voltage
Range (p.u)
0.95 <Vbus<1.05
After updating, user s Network properties
are as Figure 2
Why is it used?
Capacitor bank have the power of storing a large amount of electrical charge.
Advantages:
Generally, Capacitors have the opposite effect to the inductive motors where it
cancels out a large current flow and thereby, this capacitor bank reduces your e
lectricity bill.
In power system, the power that we are consuming is a combination of two types o
f powers, one is Active power (P) and the other one is Reactive power (Q). For e
xample, for running an electrical fan we need both active as well as reactive po
wer. The active power is responsible and for the rotation of the fan and the rea
ctive power is responsible for the magnetization of the field, but sometimes man
y situations come, where the load consumes more reactive power than the desired
value. When the Reactive power demand increases beyond the desired value then th
ere is a chance of voltage drop at the load end ,as from the generating side we
are not able to supply that much amount of Reactive power(P). If this voltage dr
ops below a certain specified level then there is chance of power failure and it
may lead to Black Out. So for the prevention of this problem we are supplying t
hat extra Reactive power to the load by the help of capacitor bank, this reduces
the load on the generating station.
The main purpose of providing capacitor bank in case of power system is to suppl
y reactive power to the system and they are installed at the receiver end, this
is also called as VAR Compensation. The capacitor banks are called Static VAR Co
mpensator.
1. Fixed type capacitor banks
The reactive power supplied by the fixed capacitor bank is constant irrespective
of any variations in the power factor and the load of the receivers. These capa
citor banks are switched on either manually (circuit breaker / switch) or semi a
utomatically by a remote-controlled contactor.
This arrangement uses one or more capacitor to provide a constant level of compe
nsation.
These capacitors are applied at the terminals of inductive loads (mainly motors)
, at bus bars.
Disadvantages:
Manual ON/OFF operation.
Not meet the require kvar under varying loads.
Penalty by electricity authority.
Power factor also varies as a function of the load requirements so it is dif
ficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Fixed Compensation i.e. f
ixed capacitors.
Fixed Capacitor may provide leading power factor under light load conditions
, Due to this result in overvoltages, saturation of transformers, mal-operation
of diesel generating sets, penalties by electric supply authorities.
Application:
Where the load factor is reasonably constant.
Electrical installations with constant load operating 24 hours a day
Reactive compensation of transformers.
Individual compensation of motors.
Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less than, or equal to 15% of the
supply transformer rating, a fixed value of compensation is appropriate.
Size of Fixed Capacitor bank Qc = 15% kVA transformer

Method Advantages
Disadvantages
Individual capacitors Most technically efficient, most flexible
Higher i
nstallation & maintenance cost
Fixed bank
Most economical, fewer installations
Less flexible, requires
switches and/or circuit breakers
The size of the inductive load is large enough to select the minimum size of cap
acitors that is practical.
For HT
System
3.3 KV
11 KV
22 KV
33 KV

capacitors the minimum ratings that are practical are as follows:

Voltage Minimum rating of capacitor bank
, 6.6KV 75 Kvar
200 Kvar
400 Kvar
600 Kvar

Unit sizes lower than above is not practical and economical to manufacture.
When capacitors are connected directly across motors it must be ensured that the
rated current of the capacitor bank should not exceed 90% of the no-load curren
t of the motor to avoid self-excitation of the motor and also over compensation.
Precaution must be taken to ensure the live parts of the equipment to be compens
ated should not be handled for 10 minutes (in case of HT equipment) after discon
nection of supply.
Crane motors or like, where the motors can be rotated by mechanical load and mot
ors with electrical braking systems, should never be compensated by capacitors d
irectly across motor terminals.
For direct compensation across transformers the capacitor rating should not exce
ed 90 % of the no-load KVA of the motor.
C. Size of Conductor for Capacitor Connections
Size of capacitor circuit conductors should be at least 135% of the rated capaci
tor current in accordance with NEC Article 460.8 (2005 Edition).
Placement of capacitors in Distribution system
The location of low voltage capacitors in Distribution System effect on the mode
of compensation, which may be global (one location for the entire installation)
, by sectors (section-by-section), at load level, or some combination of the las
t two.
In principle, the ideal compensation is applied at a point of consumption and at
the level required at any instant.
Compensation by sector
Principle
Capacitor banks are connected to bus bars of each local distribution Panel.
Most part of the installation System can benefits from this arrangement, mostly
the feeder cables from the main distribution Panel to each of the local distribu
tion panel.
Advantages
Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvar.
Reduces the apparent power Kva demand, on which standing charges are usually
based.
The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduce
d, or will have additional capacity for possible load increases.
Losses in the same cables will be reduced.
No billing of reactive energy.
Makes less demands on the supply Feeders and reduces the heat losses in thes
e Feeders.
Incorporates the expansion of each sector.
Makes less demands on the transformer.
Remains economical
Limitations
Reactive current still flows in all
ion Boards.
For the above reason, the sizing of
em, are not improved by compensation by
Where large changes in loads occur,
on and consequent overvoltage problems.

cables downstream of the local distribut

these cables, and the power losses in th
sector
there is always a risk of overcompensati

Application
Compensation by sector is recommended when the installation is extensive, and wh
ere the load/time patterns differ from one part of the installation to another.
This configuration is convenient for a very widespread factory Area, with worksh
ops having different load factors

Load flow studies are performed in order to investigate:i) Flow of current, kW and
kVar in the various points of the network
ii) Bus bar voltages.
iii) Effect of rearranging circuits and incorporating new circuits on system loa
ding
iv) Optimum system running conditions and loads distribution
v) Optimum system losses
vi) Optimum rating and tap range of transformers
vii) Improvement from change of conductor size and system voltage
Load flow studies are essential not only for analyzing the existing system, but
also useful for the
planning of future development of the system in order to know the effect of new
loads and new
cables/lines before they are installed.
In a power system, voltage at various buses tends to increase or decrease during
it daily
operation. When the voltage is below the required level, reactive power produced
by inductance
needs to be offset by capacitance. There are several techniques can be used to i
ncrease the
voltage to its acceptable level. A well known technique is to use shunt capacito
r in parallel to the
transmission lines.
The capacitor is used to provide reactive power compensation in order to achieve
power and
energy loss reduction, system capacity release and acceptable voltage profiles.
The extent of
these benefits depends on the location, size, type, and number of shunt capacito
rs and also on
their control settings. Hence, an optimal solution for placement and sizing of s
hunt capacitors in
a distribution system is a very important aspect of power system analysis.
In this experiment, capacitor banks are required to be connected at the transmis
sion network to
help improving voltage profile for certain busbars. The PSS/Adept simulation sof
tware is
capable to optimise the size and the location of capacitors in the designated ne
twork.
5.1 Capacitor Placement Optimization (CAPO) analysis
Capacitor placement optimization finds the suitable size of the capacitors to be
located in
certain bus of a network. The result of the optimization process will indicate t
he set of location(s)
where capacitors should be placed; the size of the capacitors.
From the results of 5 and 6, evaluate the
performance of the capacitors in terms of voltage stability and total power savi
ng.
Discuss the result with and without capacitor placement to the power transmissio
n
system.

CAPO places capacitors on the network as long as they are economic (i.e., as lon
g as the value of
the monetary savings from the placement is greater than the cost of the capacito
r itself). CAPO
selects the node for the n
th
capacitor that results in the largest monetary savings. Load snapshots
are implemented in PSS/ADEPT to provide modeling of the load variations, which o
ccur with time,
temperature, or other factors. When switched capacitors are placed by CAPO, the
capacitor
switching increment for each snapshot is also calculated.
The following paragraphs provide a complete description of CAPO, considering fix
ed and switched
capacitors and multiple snapshots. First, for each snapshot a load flow is done
to let transformer
taps and existing switched capacitors adjust. These transformer tap and capacito
r increment settings
are then saved
with
each
snapshot.
There
will be no further adjustments
of these
transformer/capacitor
settings
as
CAPO
progresses.
CAPO first considers fixed capacitors, which, by definition, are on during all l
oad snapshots. All the
eligible nodes in the network are then examined to see at which one the capacito
r placement offers
the greatest monetary savings. Since there are multiple snapshots, this reductio
n is calculated as
the weighted sum from each snapshot, where the weighting factor is the snapshot
duration. The
following conditions can then stop the capacitor from actually being placed on t
he selected node:
The present worth of the savings does not offset the present worth of the costs.
With
multiple snapshots the savings are evaluated as in the simple example considered
above, except now a weighted sum over all the profiles is calculated.
There are no more fixed capacitors available to be placed (actually, this can be
checked
before all the nodes are searched, but is listed here for completeness).
An upper voltage limit is violated in one of the profiles (the network upper vol
tage limit
is set from the Analysis Options Property sheet under the General tab).
Fixed capacitors continue to be placed until one of the above three conditions a
re encountered; at
that point the fixed capacitor placement ends and the switched placement begins.
This procedure
is a bit more complicated, and before we begin this is probably a good point to
make a comment. If
only one load snapshot is used, you might expect that after the fixed capacitors
are placed there
will be no placement of switched capacitors. There are at least four conditions
where this is not true:
You had only a few fixed capacitors available, and there was still considerable
opportunity
for
savings
when
these
fixed
units
were
depleted.
The eligible nodes for switched capacitors are different than those eligible for
fixed
capacitor placement.
You make the cost of switched capacitors less than that of fixed capacitors, and
after
the fixed capacitors are placed it will still be cost effective to place switche
d capacitors.
You make the size of the switched capacitor bank smaller than that of the fixed
bank.
The eligible nodes (for switched capacitors) in the network are reviewed to find
the node, which produces the greatest savings summed over all the snapshots. There
are a couple of
subtleties in this
evaluation. First, if placing the switched capacitor causes a voltage violation
in any snapshot, the
capacitor is turned off during that period. Second, if the capacitor causes a co
st penalty for a snapshot, it is also turned off for that snapshot. The calculation
of the present wo
rth of the savings is then
calculated considering only the snapshots during which the capacitor is turned o
n. This process
continues until a point is reached where:
The savings do not offset the cost of the switched capacitor.
CAPO runs out of switched capacitors to place.
In summary, CAPO places fixed capacitors on the network until one of the stop co
nditions are
encountered. Then switched capacitors are placed until one of the switched capac
itor stop conditions
occurs.
The
total
cost of
the
optimization
is then the installation
and
maintenance
cost
of
all
the
capacitors
placed;
the
total
savings
is
the
sum
of the
savings
from
each
capacitor.
PSS/ADEPT 5.2
U
SERS MANUAL
June 2005
Siemens Power Transmission & Distribution, Inc.
Power Technologies International
1482 Erie Boulevard
P.O. Box 1058
Schenectady, NY 12301-1058 US
Phone 518-395-5000
www.pti-us.com
1) D. P. Kothari and I J Nagarath, Modern Power System Analysis , Tata Mc Graw Hil
l, Third Edition,
2005.
2) Chapman,S.J, Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals , McGrawHill 2002
3) "PSS/ADEPT 5.2 USERS MANUAL June 2005",Siemens Power Transmission & Distributi
on, Inc. Power Technologies International, 1482 Erie Boulevard
P.O. Box 1058, Sc
henectady, NY 12301-1058 US, Phone 518-395-5000, www.pti-us.com
4) Mohan, W.; Scott, M. "Modeling Power Electronics in Power System Using EMTP"
. University of Minnesota - BPA. 1993
5) Saadat, H, "Power system Analysis Paperback", PSA Publishing; THIRD EDITION
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