Chapter 9 Representation, Elections and Voting

Representation:
Debate in 19th and 20th centuries whether representation should be restricted to those who have the com
petence, education and leisure to act wisely and think seriously about politics.
Now there is widespread acceptance of political equality (universal suffrage, one person, one vote)
What does the representative truly represent? The views of the people, their best interests, the groups fro
m which they come?
Theories of Representation
1. Trusteeship
2. Delegation
3. The mandate
4. Resemblance
1. Trustee Model
Trustee - someone who acts on behalf of others using their superior knowledge/experience
Altruism - concern for the welfare of others based on recognition of common humanity
Burke believed those who were lucky enough to have an education should act in the interests of the less
fortunate
Supports elitism because once the person has been elected they act in which ever way they think is best
Based on the belief that knowledge and education are unequally distributed in society and not all people
know what is best for them
John Stuart Mill suggested that certain people should have more votes based on their education level
2. Delegate Model
Delegate - person who is chosen to act for another on the basis of clear guidance and instruction
Initiative - type of referendum through which the public is able to raise legislative proposals
Recall - process in which the electorate can call unsatisfactory officials to account and remove them
In his pamphlet Common sense, Thomas Paine elected should never form themselves an interest
separate from the electors.
Frequent interchange- mechanisms that ensure that the politicians are bound as closely as possible to
the views of the represented
Popular sovereignity- there is no higher authority than the will of the people
Ensures that politicians are closely bound to the views of the represented
Provides more opportunities for popular participation and limits the ability of representatives to act in th
eir own selfinterest
Can breed narrowness and conflict because representative must be very closely bound to represented
Representatives are unable to provide vision and inspiration to the people as they are simply reporters of
their wishes
3. Mandate Model
Doctrine of the mandate in winning an election, the party is authorized to carry out whatever policies
they outlined in their election campaign
Manifesto- document outlying the the policies and programme a party proposes to pursue if elected into
power.
Referendum- vote in which the electorate can express a view on a particular issue of public policy
Referendums may be either advisory or binding; initiatives or propositions or plebicites
Politicians remain loyal to their party and its policies
 Provides a way of keeping politicians to their word
Criticism voters can be persuaded by the personalities of the party leader; as well voters may be in favo
ur of one element of the partys plan but opposed to another (no way around this)
4. Resemblance Model
A representative government would constitute a microcosm of the larger society, containing members dr
awn form all groups and in numbers that are proportional to the society
Microcosm- a miniature version of a larger body, but with exact natures and proportions
Descriptive representation- model of representation that takes account of politicians racial and other
characteristics, in which they should be a representative sample of a larger society
Usually endorsed by socialist, feminist and radical thinkers
Only people who come from a particular group and can share their experiences may be a representative
of that group
Elections:
An intrinsic part of the democratic process is competitive elections
Elections are widely used to fill public offices whose holders have policymaking responsibilities; there
are some exclusions i.e. the monarchs
Forms that elections can take
1. Which offices/posts are subject to elective principle?
2. Who is entitled to vote, how widely is the franchise drawn?
3. How are votes cast?
4. Are elections competitive or non-competitive?
The secret ballot method to elections are usually seen as the only way to guarantee a fair election
Functions of Elections
Harrop and Miller explained 2 contrasting views of the function of competitive elections
1. Conventional view elections as mechanisms through which politicians are forced to introduce polici
es that reflect the public opinion
2. Radical view (Ginsberg)elections as means through which governments exercise control over their p
opulations (shaping public opinion)
Central functions of elections:
1. Recruiting politicians
2. Making governments
3. Providing representation demands are channeled from the public to the government o Influencing policy
4. Educating voters information about parties, candidates, policies, the govt, the political system etc.
5. Building legitimacy reason why dictatorships sometimes hold elections
6. Strengthening elites vehicle through which elites manipulate the minutes
Electoral Systems: Debates and Controversies
Electoral system- set of rules that governs the conduct of elections (vary greatly in different states)
Voter can either choose between candidates or between parties
Voter can elect a single candidate or rank the candidates running
Electorate grouped into units or constituencies (constituencies are like components)
Constituencies may return a single member or number of members
Can win either from plurality (over 50% of voters) or an absolute majority (____% of population want
ed them)
Plurality-the largest number out of a collection of numbers, not necessarily an absolute majority
Two categories on how the electoral system converts votes into seats:
 1. Majoritarian systems larger parties typically win a higher proportion of seats than the proportion of vot
es they gain in an election
2. Proportional systems guarantee an equal relationship between the seats won and the votes earned in the
election (single party majority rule less likely)
The electoral reform debate is at heart a debate about the desirable nature of government and the principl
es that underpin good government
Twoparty systems can create circumstances in which radical, ideologicallydriven parties can stay in pow
er for prolonged periods
Proportional electoral systems make coalition governments much more likely
Supporters of PR suggest that strong government is one with popular support and willingness of citize
ns to obey and respect the government
What Do Elections Mean
Elections provide the public with its clearest formal opportunity to influence the political process and de
termine who will hold power
Elections are a visible manifestation of the public interest (can see shifts in popular moods)
Difficulties arise because the public interest can be understood as interests of the public as a collective
whole OR the selfish interests of each individual person
Difficult to interpret voting results because it is impossible to know why voters vote as they do
Economic theory of democracy suggests that the act of voting reflects and expression of selfinterest on t
he part of the voters
The winning party can thus claim that its policies most closely correspond to the interests of the majority
Election results may be skewed by images in the mass media, misinformation and propaganda
Perhaps the most significant function of elections is to set limits to arbitrary govt by ensuring politician
s who claim to speak for the public are ultimately judged by the public
Types of Electoral Systems
1. SingleMember Plurality (SMP):
Examples: USA, Canada, India
Type: Majoritarian
Features:
Country is divided into singlemember constituencies (usually of equal size) o
Voters select a single candidate
Winning candidate needs to achieve a plurality of votes (could win with less than 50%)
Advantages:
Clear link between reps and parties, ensuring that the duties of the party are carried out
Offers voter a clear choice of potential parties of government
Allows for clear formation of government based on electorate preference
Keeps extremism at bay by making it difficult for small radical parties to gain seats
Makes for strong and effective government because winning party usually has majority contro
Singleparty governments rarely collapse as a result of internal friction
Disadvantages:
The system wastes votes (those cast for losing parties and those cast for winning party over plu
rality mark) o Distorts electoral preferences by underrepresenting small parties
Offers limited choice because of its twolead parties tendency
Creates instability because a change I government can result in radical shift in policies and direct
ion
 Leads to unaccountable govt because the majority of members are supporters of the governing p
arty
Discourages the selection of a socially broad spread of candidates in favour of those who are attr
active to a large body of voters

2. Second Ballot:
Examples: Austria, Chile, Russia
Type: Majoritarian
Features:
1. Singlecandidate constituencies and singlechoice voting
To win the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority (51%) of the votes cast
If no candidate gains a firstballot majority, a second ballot is held between the top two candid
ates
Advantages:
Voters can vote with their heart in the first ballot and with their head in the second
Candidates are encouraged to make their appeal as broad as possible as candidates can only win
majority support
Strong and stable government is possible
Disadvantages:
It distorts preferences and is unfair to third parties
Runoff candidates are encouraged to abandon their principles in search of shortterm popularity
the holding of a second ballot may strain the voters patience and interest in politics

3. Alternate Vote (AV):

Examples: Australia
Type:Majoritarian
Features:
Single member constituencies
Voters rank the candidates in order of preference
Winning candidates must gain 50% of all the votes cast
Votes are counted according to the first votes. If no candidate reaches 50%, the bottom candidate
is eliminated
and their votes are redistributed according to the second preference. This continues until someon
e gets the majority
Advantages:
Fewer votes are wasted than in the SMP system
The outcome cannot be influenced by deals made between candidates
Single party majority government is not ruled out
Disadvantages:
Biased in favour of large parties
The outcome may be determined by the preferences of those who support small extremist parties
Winners may not be widely supported as they are just the least unpopular
4. MixedMember Proportional (MMP)
Example: Germany, Italy, New Zealand
Type: Proportional
Features:
A proportion of seats are filled by the SMP system using singlemember constituencies
The remaining seats are filled using the partylist system
Electors cast two votes: one for candidate and the other for the party
Advantages:
Balances the need for party representation against the need for electoral fairness
It keeps the possibility alive for a singleparty government
Allows voters to choose a party representative from one party and yet support another party to fo
rm a government
Takes account of the fact that representing constituents and holding office are very different job
Disadvantages:
Prevents high levels of proportionality
The system creates two classes of representatives, one burdened by insecurity and constituency d
uties, the other having higher status and the prospect of holding ministerial office
Constituency representation suffers because of the size of constituencies
Parties become more centralized and powerful under this system

5. SingleTransferableVote (STV):
Example: Ireland
Type: Proportional
Features:
Multimember constituencies, each of which usually returns 38 members
Parties may put forward as many candidates as there are seats to fill
Electors vote preferentially (ranking)
Candidates are elected if they achieve a certain quota according to the Droop formula
Votes are counted according to first preferences. If not all seats are filled, the bottom candidate is
eliminated and his or her votes are redistributed
Advantages:
Capable of achieving highly proportional outcomes
Competition amongst candidates from the same party means that they can be judged on their rec
ords and on where they stand on issues that cut across party lines
Voters can choose to whom they take their grievances because of the availability of several mem
bers
Disadvantages:
The degree of proportionality achieved varies, largely on the basis of the party system
Strong and stable singleparty government is unlikely
Intraparty competition my be divisive and allow members to evade their constituency responsibil
ities

6. PartyList System:
Example: Israel, Belgium, Switzerland
Type: Proportional
Features:
 Either entire country is treated as one constituency or there are a number of large multimember c
onstituencies
Parties compile lists of candidates to place before the voter, in descending order of preference o
Electors vote for parties, not candidates
Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion to the amount of votes they gain in the election. Th
ey fill these seats from their party list
A threshold may exist to exclude small, extremist parties from representation (ex. 5% in Germa
ny)
Advantages:
Only potentially pure system of proportional representation and is fair to all parties
Promotes unity by encouraging electors to identify with their nation/region
This system makes it easier for women and minorities to be elected, provided they feature on the
party list
The representation of a large number of small parties ensures that there is emphasis upon negotia
tion
Disadvantages:
The existence of many small parties can lead to weak and unstable government
The link between representatives and constituencies is entirely broken
Unpopular candidates who are wellplaced on a party list cannot be removed from office
Parties become heavily centralized, because leaders have to draw up party lists
Theories of Voting
1. Party Identification model sense of psychological attachment that people have to parties
2. Sociological model links voting behaviour to group membership
3. Rational choice model voting is viewed as a rational act
4. Dominant ideology model voters attitudes conform to the tenets of a dominant ideology
Chapter 12 Governments, Systems and Regimes Traditional
Systems of Classification:
Government= the institutional processes through which collective and binding decisions are made
Political system= the mechanisms of government and the institutions of the state, along with the structur
es and processes through which these interact with society
Regime= a system of rule that endures even though governments come and go
Why Classify Political Systems?
By highlighting similarities and differences in diff. types of political systems we can evaluate which syst
ems tend to work best
One disadvantage to classification is that regimes of the same type will be oversimplified and their differ
ences will be ignored
Another disadvantage is that value biases are often imposed on classifications
Classical Typologies
Most famous system of classification is Aristotles who rules? and who benefits from rule? question
Who can rule= One, Few, Many
Whos benefit= One, Few, Many
Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy were all perverted forms of rule;
Monarchy, aristocracy and polity were preferred
Demagogue= a political leader whose control over the masses is based on the ability to whip up hysteric
al enthusiasm
 Later theorists were more concerned with sovereignty which means the most high power that alone co
uld guarantee orderly rule
Jean Bodin concluded that absolutism was the most defensible of regimes
Montesquieu proposed a separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judicial institutio
ns
The Three Worlds Typology
The belief that the political world could be divided into three distinct blocs:
A capitalist first world populations enjoy the highest levels of mass affluence; private enterprise, mate
rial incentives, free market
A communist second world largely industrialized and capable of satisfying the populations basic mat
erial needs; social equality, centralized planning
A developing third world economically dependent and often suffer widespread poverty
Since the 1970s this system of classification has been increasingly hard to sustain
Deep poverty in some areas has arguable created a fourth world
Second and third world regimes collapsing because of the recognition that capitalism can lead to econo
mic prosperity and political stability
Regimes of the Modern World:
1. Constitutionalinstitutional approach to classification was influenced by classical typologies
Structuralfunctional approach developed out of systems theory and concerned with how political system
s work in practice
2. Economicideological approach attempts to take account 3 key features of a regime (political, economic
and cultural aspects)
Significant because it emphasizes the degree to which formal political and economic arrangements may
operate differently depending on their cultural context
Five regime types of the modern world:
1. Western polyarchies
2. New democracies
3. East Asian regimes
4. Islamic regimes
5. Military regimes
1. Western Polyarchies
Polyarchy= rule by many; the institutions and political processes of modern representative democracy
that operate by forcing rulers to take account for the publics wishes
Equivalent to liberaldemocracies (North America, western Europe, and Australia)
Polyarchial regimes are distinguished by two main features:
1. A high tolerance of opposition (i.e. political party competition, healthy civil society)
2. The opportunities for political participation are widespread in order to guarantee responsiveness
These regimes respect the idea of liberal individualism by protecting individual rights, encouraging choi
ce and competition, and implementing some fear of government
A Polyarchy can either have majoritarian tendencies or consensual tendencies
2. New Democracies New democracies followed the fall of communism and the overthrow of rightwing di
ctatorships (Greece, Portugal, Spain)
Multiparty elections and marketbased economic reform
Lack political culture and must handle strains caused by external forces of globalization
Reemergence of military forces into politics
Postcommunist regimes must deal with the consequences of communist rule but this usually is diffic
ult to repair leads to discrepancies between parties
 The transition from central planning to capitalist economies can lead to insecurities and social inequa
lity
The weakness of state power can lead to the emergence of ethnic and nationalist tensions
3. East Asian Regimes
Orientated more around economic goals than around political goals
Focus on boosting growth and prosperity than individual freedoms
Broad support for strong government and a general respect for the state
Respect leaders because of a stress on loyalty, discipline and duty which at times invests East Asi
an regimes with authoritarianism
Large emphasis on community and social cohesion, as well as family (group think)
4. Islamic Regimes
Islam is not just a religion, it is a complete way of life, defining moral, political and economic be
haviour for people and nations
Political Islam aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are stru
ctured according to higher religious principles
5. Military Regimes
Military regimes belong to a broader category of dictatorship
The leading positions in the government are filled on the basis of the persons position within the
military chain of command
3 types where the military took power
1. Military junta= the armed forces assume direct control of government and there is a rivalry
between the three categories of military (army, navy and air force)
2. Another form of military regime is a militarybacked personalized dictatorship
3. Final form of military regime is where the military works behind the scenes as leaders (t
hrough the front of another face)
Political Executives and Leadership
Parliamentary Executive composed of Prime Minister and a cabinet
Presidential Executive headed by a president, who enjoys political and constitutional independence
from the parliament
3 dimensions of power
a. Formal
b. Informal
c. External
Impeachment formal process for the removal of a public official in the event of a professional
wrongdoing
Cohabitation - An arrangement in a semi-presidential system in which the president works wih a
government and assembly controlled by a rival party or parties
Prime Minister primus inter pares (first among equals)
Thatcherism UK version of New Right Political project/ free market and strong state
Cabinet committee of senior officers who represent the various government departments or ministries
France and EU small groups of policy advisers who support individual ministers
Core executive network of institutions and people who play a key role in overall direction of
government policy
Theories of Leadership
a. Natural gift
b. Sociological phenomenon
c. An organizational necessity
d. Political skill
Styles of Leadership
 a. Laissez-faire leadership
b. Transactional leadership
c. Transformational leadership
Assemblies
Elective dictatorship imbalance bet. Executive and the assembly
Lobby-fodder pejorative term denoting assembly members who vote consistently and
unquestioningly as their parties dictate
Immobilism political paralysis stemming from the absence of a strong executive
Checks and balances internal tensions within the governmental system that results from institutional
fragmentation
Functions of Assemblies
a. Legislation
b. Representation
c. Scrutiny and Oversight
d. Recruitment and Training
e. Legitimacy
Committes power houses of assemblies (chambers are for talking, committes are for working)
Do assemblies make policy?
a. Policy-making assemblies has most autonomy
b. Policy-influencing assemblies can transform policy but only by reacting to executive
initiatives
c. Executive-dominated assemblies mere rubber stamp