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OUTCOME 2 - TUTORIAL 1
Heat transfer mechanism: description of flow in tubes, ducts and across surfaces; boundary
layer; laminar and turbulent; forced and natural convection; fluid properties; flow parameters;
boiling and condensation
Determine heat transfer coefficients: Dittus-Boelter equation for forced convection in circular
ducts and tubes, for various fluids, tube dimensions and flow parameters; use of charts and data
for fluid properties
You should judge your progress by completing the self assessment exercises. On completion of this
tutorial the student should be able to do the following.
This is the third tutorial in the series on heat transfer and covers some of the advanced theory of
convection. The tutorials are designed to bring the student to a level where he or she can solve
problems involving practical heat exchangers.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 1 1
DERIVATION AND CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
The surface heat transfer coefficients depend on many things such as shape and orientation of the
surface, the velocity of the fluid and the properties of the fluid. The fluid properties also depend on
the temperature. The velocity of the fluid is a major consideration and this varies with distance from
the surface in the boundary layer and distance from the leading edge. All these factors are involved
when deriving formula from basic principles. Perhaps the best place to start is with boundary layers.
When a fluid flows over a surface, the velocity grows from zero at the surface to a maximum at
distance . In theory, the value of is infinity but in practice it is taken as the height needed to
obtain 99% of the mainstream velocity and this is very small.
The diagram shows how the temperature varies from the hot
fluid on one side of a wall to cold fluid on the other side.
There is a boundary layer on both sides.
Consider the hot side only. Using the conduction law from
the bulk fluid :
So the surface heat transfer depends on the thickness of the boundary layer and the thermal
conductivity of the fluid. The boundary layer thickness depends on several factors such as the
velocity and distance from the leading edge making the calculation of h a lot less simple than
implied above. The boundary layer shape is discussed next.
There are many theories and formulae that describe the shape of the boundary and this is covered in
fluid mechanics. The following is a summary.
When the flow is laminar the boundary layer is a curve following the precise law
dp u o
u = y +
2 dL
When the flow is turbulent, the shape of the boundary layers waivers and the mean shapes are
usually shown.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 2
Comparing a laminar and turbulent boundary layer reveals that the turbulent layer is thinner than
the laminar layer.
When laminar flow occurs in a round pipe the boundary layer grows in three dimensions from the
wall and meets at the middle. The velocity u in a pipe of radius R at any radius r is given by
u=
p
4 L
(
R2 r2 ) p is the pressure drop.
There are many formulae and theories for the shape of the boundary layer such as that given by
Prandtl.
u = u1(y/)1/7
This law fits the turbulent case well for Reynolds numbers below 107:
When a fluid first encounters a solid surface, the boundary layer grows with distance until it
becomes fully formed. Eventually it changes from laminar to turbulent. This also affects the heat
transfer.
DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS
One of the best ways to analyse how all the factors come together is the use of dimensional analysis
and the dimensionless groups that they form. Those required to study this topic should refer to the
fluid dynamics module.
A dimensionless group is a combination of variables that have no overall dimensions when grouped
in a certain pattern and when evaluated yields a number with no units.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 3
LIST OF VARIABLES THAT AFFECT HEAT TRANSFER
Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity = /
Density
Thermal conductivity k
Specific heat capacity cp
Temperature
Mean velocity uo
Characteristic length l or diameter D or distance from leading edge x.
Coefficient of cubical expansion
There are many dimensionless groups for heat transfer and a summary is given next.
u o D u o D u x u x
REYNOLDS NUMBER Re d = = or Re x = o = o
This group occurs in studies of fluid friction and is widely used in determining whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. It may be based on pipe diameter D or distance from the edge of a surface x.
hx
NUSSELT NUMBER Nu x =
k
This group is very important for convection. The solution of h often depends on evaluating Nux
first.
c p
PRANDTL NUMBER Pr =
k
This is a group that relates some of the thermal properties.
g 2 x 3
GRASHOF NUMBER Grx =
2
This is a group is important in convection because it determines how the buoyancy of the fluid is
affected by temperature.
h Nu
STANTON NUMBER St = =
u c p Re Pr
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Tutorials on dimensional analysis may be found in the modules on fluid mechanics. The following
is the application of this method to heat transfer. There are many dimensionless groups for heat
transfer. A dimensionless group is a combination of variables that have no overall dimension when
grouped in a certain pattern and when evaluated yields a number with no units.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 4
The solution to this problem is much easier if we use energy E as a base unit.
There are 8 quantities and 5 dimensions so there will be 8 5 = 3 dimensionless groups. The
solution is easier if told in advance that we solve a, b, c ,e and g in terms of d and f
ET-1 L-2 -1 M0 = constant (ML-1T-1)a (ML-3)b (ET-1 L-1 -1)c (EM-1 -1)d e (LT-1)f Lg
The Prandtl number is a function of fluid properties only and so may be looked up in tables at the
appropriate temperature.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 5
SOME STANDARD CASES
Studies of fluids and boundary layers have led to formulae for the surface heat transfer coefficient
under specified conditions. In the following you need to be conversant with tables of fluid
properties in order to look them up. Here are some of the better known formulae.
This has an approximate solution of h = 1.42 (T/D)1/4 when Gr is in the range 104 to 109 and
h = 0.93 (T/D)1/4 when Gr is in the range 109 to 1012
Air at 288 K and bulk velocity 6 m/s flows over a flat horizontal plate with a temperature of
823 K at all points on its surface. Given that Nu = 0.332 Pr1/3 Re1/2 (Ta/Ts)0.117
Calculate the heat transfer rate from both sides over the first 150 mm.
Ta is the bulk air temperature and Ts is the surface temperature. The fluid properties should be
obtained at the mean temperature.
SOLUTION
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 6
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2
Calculate the heat transfer to air at 15oC by natural convection with a vertical surface 0.6 m tall
and 3 m wide maintained at 79oC at all points.
SOLUTION
Use the fluid tables for dry air at (15oC) 288 K and atmospheric pressure
Taking atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar
Gas constant R = 287 J/kg K
= p/RT = 1.013 x 105/(287 x 288) = 1.226 kg/m3This can be also be found in the tables.
is the dynamic viscosity = 1.788 x 10-5 kg/m s
Pr = 0.69
Thermal conductivity k = 2.53 x 10-2 W/ m K
Taking x as the height of the wall
1 3
3 9.81 x 1.226 (0.6) x 288
gx 288
Grashof Number Grx = = = 9.959 x 10 9
2
(1.788 x 10 )
5 2
1 1 1
Nux = 0.509(Pr )3 (Pr + 0.952) ) (Grx )4
4
( )
1 1 1
Nux = 0.509(0.69)3 (1.642) ) 4 9.959 x 10 9 4 = 125.531
hx
Nu = 125.531 =
k
k 2.53 x10 -2
h = 125.531 = 125.531 = 5.293 W/m 2 K
x 0.6
This the value at height 0.6 m. We need the mean over the height and this is 4/3 of the value
h = (4/3)5.293 = 7.057 W/m2 K
Heat Transfer from one side = = h A (79-15) = 7.057 x (0.6 x 3) x (79-15) = 813 W
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 7
WORKED EXAMPLE No.3
Calculate the heat transfer to air at 15oC by natural convection with a vertical surface 0.6 m tall
and 3 m wide maintained at 79oC at all points.
SOLUTION
Use the fluid tables for dry air at (15oC) 288 K and atmospheric pressure
Taking atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar
Gas constant R = 287 J/kg K
= p/RT = 1.013 x 105/(287 x 288) = 1.226 kg/m3This can be also be found in the tables.
is the dynamic viscosity = 1.788 x 10-5 kg/m s
Pr = 0.69
Thermal conductivity k = 2.53 x 10-2 W/ m K
Taking x as the height of the wall
1 3
3 9.81 x 1.226 (0.6) x 288
gx 288
Grashof Number Grx = = = 9.959 x 10 9
2
(1.788 x 10 )
5 2
1 1 1
Nux = 0.509(Pr )3 (Pr + 0.952) ) (Grx )4
4
( )
1 1 1
Nux = 0.509(0.69)3 (1.642) ) 4 9.959 x 10 9 4 = 125.531
hx
Nu = 125.531 =
k
k 2.53 x10 -2
h = 125.531 = 125.531 = 5.293 W/m 2 K
x 0.6
This the value at height 0.6 m. We need the mean over the height and this is 4/3 of the value
h = (4/3)5.293 = 7.057 W/m2 K
Heat Transfer from one side = = h A (79-15) = 7.057 x (0.6 x 3) x (79-15) = 813 W
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 8
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4
Dry saturated steam at 177oC flows in a pipe with a bore of 150 mm with a mean velocity of 6
m/s. The pipe has a wall 7 mm thick and is covered with a layer of insulation 50 mm thick. The
surrounding atmospheric air is at 17 oC. Calculate the heat transfer rate for 1 m length. The
Nusselt number is given by Nu = 0.23 Re0.8 Pr0.4
k for pipe = 50 W/m K
k for insulation = 0.06 W/m K
The surface heat transfer coefficient for a long horizontal cylinder is h = 1.32(T/D)1/4
SOLUTION
From the fluids table for d.s.s. at 177oC we find Pr = 1.141 and
vg = 0.2 m3/kg
= 14.88 x 10-6 kg m/s
k = 33.65 10-3 W/m K
D = 0.15 m
u = 6 m/s
Re = u D/ vg = 30242
k for pipe = 50 W/m K
k for insulation = 0.06 W/m K
Because the surface temperature is unknown we need the heat transfer between the steam and
the surface and the surface and the air.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 9
= 0.733(177 Ts) = 0.733(177 45) = 102.4 W
= 1.527(Ts 17)5/4 = 1.527(45 17)5/4 = 102.8 W Say 102.6 W
1. Air at 300 K and bulk velocity 8 m/s flows over a flat horizontal plate with a temperature of
900 K at all points on its surface. Given that Nu = 0.332 Pr1/3 Re1/2 (Ta/Ts)0.117
Calculate the heat transfer rate from one side over the first 100 mm and the first 200 mm..
Ta is the bulk air temperature and Ts is the surface temperature. The fluid properties should be
obtained at the mean temperature.
(1.16 kW and 1.64 kW)
2. Calculate the heat transfer to air at 2oC by natural convection with a vertical surface 1 m tall and
1 m wide maintained at 110oC at all points.
1 1 1
The Nusselt Number is given by Nux = 0.509(Pr )3 (Pr + 0.952) ) (Grx )4
4
3. Dry saturated steam at 5 bar flows in a pipe with a bore of 200 mm with a mean velocity of
4 m/s. The pipe has a wall 4 mm thick and is covered with a layer of insulation 60 mm thick.
The surrounding atmosphere is at 0oC. Calculate surface temperature of the lagging and the heat
transfer rate for 1 m length. The Nusselt number is given by Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 10