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Formal Definitions
L+
L
f(x)
L-
a-x a a+
3 of 3
Formal Definitions
L+
L
f(x)
f(x)
L-
N x
2 of 3
Formal Definitions
f(x)
a- x a a+
Intuitive Definitions
lim f ( x) L Means that f(x) is really close to L
when x is close to a.
x a Is it a little more or a little less?
Simplify algebraically
Especially rational expressions
Rationalize numerator/denominator
f ( x)
lim
Rule 3 Quotients xa g ( x)
m over n f ( x) m
lim
xa g ( x) n
0 over n f ( x)
lim 0
xa g ( x)
f ( x)
lim
Rule 3 Quotients xa g ( x)
m over 0
f ( x)
lim or or DNE
x a g ( x)
over n f ( x)
lim or or DNE
x a g ( x)
f ( x)
lim
Rule 3 Quotients xa g ( x)
m over f ( x)
lim 0
xa g ( x)
over 0 f ( x)
lim or or DNE
x a g ( x)
f ( x)
lim
Rule 3 Quotients xa g ( x)
0 over f ( x)
lim 0
xa g ( x)
0 times f ( x)
lim f ( x) g ( x) lim
x a x a 1
g ( x)
Then use
LHpitals Rule
Case 2: f(x) and g(x) as xa
minus
lim f ( x) g ( x) lim h( x)
x a x a
i.e. Change
Algebraically
Rule 4 Other
Indeterminate Forms
ln( f ( x ))
lim
lim g ( x )ln( f ( x )) x a 1
lim f ( x) g ( x)
e x a e g ( x)
xa
Then use
LHpitals Rule
Rule 5 Limits of Rational
Functions as x
ax
m
Case 1: m<n lim n 0
x bx
ax
m
Case 2: m>n lim n
x bx
ax
m
a
Case 3: m=n lim n
x bx b
1 of 4
lim
cot x lim
cot x
x k x k
2 of 4
lim
sec x lim
sec x
x k x k
2 2
3 of 4
lim
csc x lim
csc x
x 2 k x 2 k
4 of 4
lim e 0
x
lim e 1
x
lim e
x
x x 0 x
Algebraic Functions
All functions that can be expressed using a finite
number of elementary operations (, , , , and
roots); along with their inverses.
Formally:
A function whose domain is a set of integers.
Intuitively:
An ordered list of numbers (called terms).
The Domain:
Usually, the positive integers (can start anywhere).
Can be finite, however this chapter is only concerned
with infinite sequences and therefore sequence will
imply infinite sequence.
A function whose domain
Sequence is the set of integers [n,).
Notation:
a
n n1
General
Term
Meaning:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , ... , an , ...
Example:
2n 1
n1 1, 3, 5, 7, ... , 2n 1, ...
2 4 6 8 2n
, , , , , ,
3 4 5 6 n2
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , n 1 ,
3 9 27 3
1 2 6 24 n 1 n!
, , , , , (1) ,
7 11 15 19 4n 3
Sequences One More Example ...................
3 n 1
1, 3, 5,
What does this imply? ODD Integers!
1, 3, 5, 5, 1, 9, 27,
Careful, dont jump to conclusions to quickly!
Graphing Sequences
Domain?
Integers in the interval [a,).
Graph?
Disconnected set of points (i.e. not continuous)
Given: a
n n1
With sequences n Z+
and an is not continuous,
therefore the limit
definition must be
Find: lim an modified.
n
Limit definition
lim f ( x) L 0 N 0
for x and x
f(x) a continuous
function. such that f ( x) L if x N .
Limit of a Sequence
Given: a
n n1 L+
L
L
Find: lim an 1 2 3 4 N
n
lim c c
n Also, all methods of
limit evaluation for
lim can c lim an functions, applies to
sequences.
n n
x1 k xn 1 f ( xn )
OR
x1 k1 x2 k2 xn 1 f ( xn 1 , xn )
OR
whatever
Fibonacci Sequence: x1 1 x2 1 xn 1 xn 1 xn
MTH 253
Calculus (Other Topics)
Chapter 10 Infinite Series
This Section:
Determining if a sequence
converges without finding the
actual limit.
an n1
Terminology
Increasing: an an 1 , for all n
Two Tests
1
Determine the Behavior of 1
n n1
(use both methods)
Is an n1 (strictly) monotone?
1
Determine the Behavior of 1
n n1
Properties that Hold Eventually
If a finite number of the terms from the beginning of a
sequence are discarded and the resulting sequence
has a property, then the original sequence has that
property eventually.
Example
What can be 2 3 4 n 3
said about:
5, 2, 9,3, , , ,..., ,...
3 4 5 n2
Examples
2 n Eventually decreasing and
n 1
2 Eventually increasing but no
3
n 0.3, 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003, ...
10 n1
1
0.3333...
3
9
What would be the sum of the terms of n ?
10 n 1
Infinite Series
The sum of the terms of a sequence is called an
infinite series.
Notation:
u
k 1
k u1 u2 u3 u4 ...
NOTES:
u
k 1
k u1 u2 u3 u4 ...
s1 u1
s2 u1 u2
sn n1
s3 u1 u2 u3
Sequence of
n partial sums.
sn u1 u2 u3 ... un uk
k 1
Converging/Diverging Series
u
k 1
k u1 u2 u3 u4 ...
sn n1
If converges to S,
then the series converges and u
k 1
k S
ar
k 0
k
a ar ar 2
ar 3
...
Example:
3
a
1 2 10
3 3 31 31
k 0 10
k 1
...
10 10 10 10 10 1
r
10
Geometric Series ar
k 0
k
ar
k 0
k
a a a a ...
k 0
sn a(n 1) lim sn
n
Divergent!
Geometric Series ar
k 0
k
Case 1b: r = -1
ar
k 0
k
a a a a ...
k 0
a, if n is even
sn lim sn DNE
0, if n is odd n
Divergent!
Geometric Series ar
k 0
k
Case 2: |r| 1
times
sn a ar ar ar ... ar
2 3 n
r rsn ar ar 2 ar 3 ar 4 ... ar n 1
subtract
sn rsn a ar n 1
a ar n 1 a
sn (1 r n 1 )
1 r 1 r
Geometric Series ar
k 0
k
Case 2: |r| 1
a
, if r 1
lim sn 1 r
a ar n 1 ,a if r 1n 1
n
sn (1 r )
1 r 1 r
Convergent if |r| < 1; Divergent Otherwise
The Harmonic Series
1 1 1 1
k 1 k
1 ...
2 3 4
s1 1
1
sn n1
s2 s1
2
1
s3 s2
3 is a strictly increasing sequence
1
sn sn 1
n
u
k 1
k
Does the Series Converge?
The next three sections:
Each test has it limitations (i.e. conditions where the test fails).
Algebraic Properties of Infinite Series
If u
k 1
k & v
k 1
k are convergent
then
u v (u
k 1
k
k 1
k
k 1
k vk )
are convergent.
If c0
then
u
k 1
k & cu
k 1
k c uk
k 1
u
k 1
k & u
k K
k
u
k a
k u
k a b
k b u
k a b
k b
Example:
5k 5(k 4)
k 1 k !
k 5 ( k 4)!
5(k 1)
k 0 (k 1)!
Change of Index
Simplifying the
NOTE Notation!
Since u
k 1
k & u
k K
k
u k
2k 1 2k 1
k 3 lim
k k 3
2 Divergent!
2k 2k 2
2k lim k lim k
k 2 k 2 ln 2
0
Test Fails!
REMEMBER: p q does NOT imply that ~p ~q.
The Integral Test u k
If the Integral
f(x)
u1
f ( x )dx u k diverges, so does
u2
u3
a
k a the series.
.
.
. u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 u6 NO upper bound for an increasing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
sequence of partial sums.
The Integral Test: Examples
k x
1 k 2
1 1 1
1 1 x 2
dx
2 2 u
dx
2
ln u
2
Divergent!
1 1
( 4 2k ) 3 2
1 (4 2 x) 32
dx
1 1 1 1
Convergent!
2 6 u 3 2
dx 1 2
u 6 6
p=2 1 1 1 1
k 2 1 4 9 ...
p=1/2 1 1 1 1 1
k 1 2 k 1 2 3 ...
1
p-Series kp
For p 0
1
kp
k p
k q
Note: -p = q 0
lim k
q
k
1 x
1 p
b1 p 1
1 x p
1
x p blim
1 p 1
1 p
1 p
Convergent if p > 1
Divergent if 0 < p 1
MTH 253
Calculus (Other Topics)
Chapter 10 Infinite Series
u
k 1
k
Does the Series Converge?
Divergence Test
10.4 Integral Test
p-Series Test
The test
Comparison Test tells you
Limit Comparison Test nothing!
10.5
Ratio Test
Root Test
Alternating Series Test
Each test has it limitations (i.e. conditions where the test fails).
The Comparison Test
Basic Idea:
If you can show that a first series is less
than a second series, and the second a b
k k
series is know to be convergent, then so
is the first series (sn increasing w/ upper bound).
Helpful Ideas:
Increasing the numerator or decreasing the
denominator gives something bigger.
Decreasing the numerator or increasing the
denominator gives something smaller.
Examples w/ the Comparison Test
k 1 k 1 k k 1
k2 k 2
k k k k k
2
2
k
Larger than the divergent harmonic series Divergent
2 2 2 1
k4 k 4 2 4
k k k
4
k
Smaller than twice a convergent p-series Convergent
1 1 1 1
9k 6
9k 6 9k k
Smaller than the divergent harmonic series NOTHING!
The Limit Comparison Test
Basic Idea:
If two series essentially differ by a constant
(except for possibly the first finite number of terms),
then they have the same behavior.
ak
lim 0 and finite
k b
k
1k 9k 6
lim lim 9
k 1 9k 6 k k
uk 1 uk 1
Let: lim L r where r L k K
k u uk
k
uk 1 r u1 k
Geometric Series!
Convergent if |r|<1
uk 1 uk 1
Let: lim L s where s L k K
k u uk
k
uk 1 s u1 k
Geometric Series!
Divergent if |s|>1
1 1 ( k 1) k
k diverges lim
k 1k
lim
k k 1
1
1 1 (k 1)2 k2
k 2 converges lim
k 1k 2
lim 2
k k 2k 1
1
Divergent!
The Root Test
2
k
1 e
k
1 e k
1
lim k
lim 1
k k
2 2 2
Convergent!
MTH 253
Calculus (Other Topics)
Chapter 10 Infinite Series
u k 1
k
Does the Series Converge?
Divergence Test
10.4 Integral Test
Series p-Series Test
with The test
positive Comparison Test tells you
terms! Limit Comparison Test nothing!
10.5
Ratio Test
Root Test
10.6 Alternating Series Test
Each test has it limitations (i.e. conditions where the test fails).
Alternating Series
(1) k 1
ak a1 a2 a3 a4
OR
(1) a k
k a1 a2 a3 a4
(1) k 1
ak a1 a2 a3 a4
OR
(1) a
k
k a1 a2 a3 a4
Converges if
1. ak ak 1 k
2. lim ak 0
k
The Alternating Series Test
(1) k 1
ak a1 a2 a3 a4
Converges if 1. ak ak 1 k 2. lim ak 0
k
Proof:
lim s2 n a1
n
increasing and bounded s2 n S E
lim s2 n1 0
n
decreasing and bounded s2 n1 SO
Since: s2 n 1 s2 n a2 n
ln k
(1) k 1
k
Decreasing?
d ln x x(1/ x) ln x 1 ln x
0 when x 3
dx x x 2
x 2
Limit?
ln k 1/ k
lim lim 0
k k k 1
Therefore, convergent.
Approximating Alternating Series
S sn an1
Example: k 1
( 1)
k 1 k!
1. Estimate the error if 4 terms are used to
approximate the sum.
(1)51 1
.008333
5! 120
Approximating Alternating Series
Example: k 1
( 1)
k 1 k!
2. How many terms are need to make sure the
error is less than 0.01?
(1)( n1)1 1
0.01 .041666
(n 1)! 4! Therefore,
four terms
1 are needed!
1
0.01 .008333
(n 1)! 5!
Absolute Convergence
u k converges absolutely if
uk is convergent.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
uk 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
1
uk 2k 1 Convergent geometric series,
therefore the first series
converges absolutely.
Absolute Convergence: Example 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
uk 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
1
uk k Divergent harmonic series,
therefore the first series
diverges absolutely.
u u
k k uk uk uk uk uk
uk uk 0 or 2 uk convergent
u k u k 2 u k 2 u k
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
uk 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
1
uk 2k 1 Convergent geometric series,
therefore the first series
converges absolutely.
Example:
1
(1) k 1
k
Convergent alternating series.
1 1
(1) k 1
k
k
Divergent harmonic series.
Given uk
uk 1
Let: lim L
k uk
f(x)
Slope: m f '( x0 )
Tangent Line
f x0
Point: x0 , f ( x0 )
x0
y f ( x0 ) f '( x0 )( x x0 )
Local Quadratic Approximations
Find a quadratic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first & second derivatives of the
function at that point.
f(x) y a b( x x0 ) c( x x0 ) 2
y ' b 2c( x x0 )
f x0 y '' 2c
x0
y ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) a
f ''( x0 )
y '( x0 ) f '( x0 ) b y f ( x0 ) f '( x0 )( x x0 ) ( x x0 ) 2
2
y ''( x0 ) f ''( x0 ) 2c
Local Cubic Approximations
Find a Cubic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first, second, and third derivatives
of the function at that point.
f(x) y ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
y '( x0 ) f '( x0 )
y ''( x0 ) f ''( x0 )
f x0
y '''( x0 ) f '''( x0 )
x0
f ''( x0 ) f '''( x0 )
y f ( x0 ) f '( x0 )( x x0 ) ( x x0 )
2
( x x0 )3
2 6
Local Cubic Approximations
Find a Cubic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first, second, and third derivatives
of the function at that point.
f(x) y ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
y '( x0 ) f '( x0 )
y ''( x0 ) f ''( x0 )
f x0
y '''( x0 ) f '''( x0 )
x0
f ( x) tan 1 x f (1) 4
1
y ( x 1)
4 2
1 1
f '( x) f '(1)
1 x2 2
1 1
y ( x 1) ( x 1)2
4 2 4
2 x 1
f ''( x) f ''(1)
(1 x 2 ) 2 2
1 1 1
y ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)3
2
6 x2 2 1 4 2 4 12
f '''( x) f '''( x)
(1 x 2 )3 2
1
Example f ( x) tan x
Find the Linear, Quadratic, and Cubic equations that
approximate the above function around x0 = 1.
1
y ( x 1)
4 2
1 1
y ( x 1) ( x 1)2
4 2 4
1 1 1
y ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)3
2
4 2 4 12
Taylor Polynomials
If f(x) can be differentiated n times at x0, then
the nth Taylor Polynomial for f(x) about x = x0 is
n (k )
f ( x0 )
pn ( x ) ( x x0 ) k
k 0 k!
f ( x0 ) f '( x0 ) f ''( x0 )
( x x0 ) ( x x0 ) 2
0! 1! 2!
(n)
f '''( x0 ) f ( x0 )
( x x0 )
3
( x x0 ) n
3! n!
Maclaurin Polynomials
A Taylor Polynomial where x0 = 0.
n (k )
f (0) k
pn ( x ) x
k 0 k!
n k 2 3 n
x x x x
pn ( x ) 1 x
k 0 k ! 2! 3! n!
12 13 13 13 13
Using the first 7 terms e 11
with x=1 gives an 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
approximation for e 1 1 1 1 1
11 2.7180555
2 6 24 120 720
Maclaurin Polynomials Examples
Find the nth Maclaurin Polynomials for sin x & cos x.
x 2 n 1
f ( x) sin x x3 x5
p2 n 1 ( x) x
3! 5!
( 1)n
(2n 1)!
n 2 k 1
x
(1) k
k 0 (2k 1)!
f ( x) cos x x2 x4 2n
x
p2 n ( x) 1 ( 1) n
2! 4! (2n)!
n 2k
x
(1) k
k 0 (2k )!
The nth Remainder
If pn ( x) is used to approximate f ( x),
then Rn ( x) f ( x) pn ( x) is the n remainder.
th
Remainder Estimation
Where:
M n 1
Rn ( x) x x0 M f ( n 1)
( x)
(n 1)!
x [ x0 , x]
The nth Remainder Example
3 6 1
R6 ( x) 1 0 5.95 104
(6 1)!
k 0 k!
f ''( x0 )
f ( x0 ) f '( x0 )( x x0 ) ( x x0 ) 2
2
(3) (n)
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
( x x0 )
3
( x x0 ) n
6 n!
k 0 k!
Maclaurin
x0 = 0
f ''( x0 )
f ( x0 ) f '( x0 )( x x0 ) ( x x0 ) 2
2
(3) (n)
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
( x x0 )
3
( x x0 )
n
6 n!
c x
k 0
k
k
where, each ck is a constant.
c0 c1 x c2 x c3 x cn x
2 3 n
Yes: x 0
k 0
ck (0) k
c0
Convergence Power Series
For what values of x is c x
k 0
k
k
convergent?
f ( x) 1 x ( x) 2 3 1 x
1 4
1 f (3)
3!
x 0 x 0
f '( x) 1 x f (4) ( x) 2 3 4 1 x
2 5
1 4!
x 0 x 0
f ''( x) 2 1 x ( x) n !1 x
3 ( n 1)
2 f (n)
n!
x 0 x 0
Power Series: Example
1 and determine
Find the power
series for
f ( x) its interval of
1 x convergence.?
Ratio Test:
1
xk x k 1
1 x k 0 lim k x 1
k x
Divergent if x 1 (Why?)
c (x x )
k 0
k 0
k
where, each ck is a constant.
c0 c1 ( x x0 ) c2 ( x x0 ) c3 ( x x0 )
2 3
cn ( x x0 ) n
lim Rn ( x) 0
n0
M n 1
0 Rn ( x) x x0 M f ( n 1) ( x )
(n 1)! [ x , xo ]
k
x
Example, show that e
n 1
x 3x
0 Rn ( x)
k 0 k ! (n 1)!
n 1 n n n
3x 3x x 3x x 3x
lim lim lim lim lim 0 0
n (n 1)! n n! n 1 n n! n n 1 n n!
lim Rn ( x) 0 x
n0
Some important Maclaurin Series
If f ( x) ck ( x x0 ) k converges over (x0 R, x0 R)
k 1
then f '( x)
d
ck ( x x0 ) k over (x0 R, x0 R)
k 1 dx
then f ( x) k
c ( x x0 ) k
dx over (x0 R, x0 R )
k 1
f ( x)
b b
and
a
k 1
a
ck ( x x0 ) k dx
Example 1
1
1 x x 2 x3 let x = -x2
1 x
1
1 x 2
x 4
x 6
integrate
1 x 2
1 x3 x5 x 7
tan x x
3 5 7
Much easier than finding a general formula for
the nth derivative of the tan-1x function.
Determining Taylor/Maclaurin Series
Use Differentiation, Integration,
Substitution, Multiplication, Addition, etc.
Example 2
2 3 4
x x x x2 x4
ex 1 x cos x 1
2 6 24 2 24
Multiply
3 4
x x
e x cos x 1 x
3 6
n
sn ak a1 a2 an
k 1
lim sn L
n
lim ak 0
k
If the series is
of the form ar
k 0
k
1 r
P-Series Test
1
If the series is
of the form
k 1 k
p
f ( x) ak when x k
1
f ( x)dx
a
k 1
k b
k 1
k a
k 1
k b
k 1
k
and and
b
k 1
k b
k 1
k
If
ak
lim 0 and finite
k b
k
If
ak 1
lim L
k a
k
then
If
lim k ak L
k
then
For a series of
the form (1)
k 0
k
ak where ak 0 k
If
ak ak 1 and lim ak 0
k
If a
k 0
k
converges,
then a
k 0
k converges absolutely.
Absolute Divergence
If a
k 0
k diverges,
then a
k 0
k diverges absolutely.
Conditional Convergence
If a
k 0
k diverges and a
k 0
k converges,
then a
k 0
k converges conditionally.