Moan - Energy Use Worldwide - A Reference Handbook (ABC-CLIO, 2007) PDF

00-ENUSWW_FM.
qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page i
ENERGY USE
WORLDWIDE
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page ii
Selected Titles in ABC-CLIOs

CONTEMPORARY
WORLD ISSUES
Series
Abortion in the United States, Dorothy E. McBride

Adoption, Barbara A. Moe
Capital Punishment, Michael Kronenwetter
Chemical and Biological Warfare, Al Mauroni
Childhood Sexual Abuse, Karen L. Kinnear
Conflicts over Natural Resources, Jacqueline Vaughn
Domestic Violence, Margi Laird McCue
Emergency Management, Jeffrey B. Bumgarner
Euthanasia, Martha L. Gorman and Jennifer Fecio McDougall
Food Safety, Nina E. Redman
Genetic Engineering, Harry LeVine III
Gun Control in the United States, Gregg Lee Carter
Human Rights Worldwide, Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat
Illegal Immigration, Michael C. LeMay
Intellectual Property, Aaron Schwabach
Internet and Society, Bernadette H. Schell
Mainline Christians and U.S. Public Policy, Glenn H. Utter
Mental Health in America, Donna R. Kemp
Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation, Sarah J. Diehl and James
Clay Moltz
Policing in America, Leonard A. Steverson
Sentencing, Dean John Champion
U.S. Military Service, Cynthia A. Watson
World Population, Geoffrey Gilbert
For a complete list of titles in this series, please visit

www.abc-clio.com.
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page iii
Books in the Contemporary World Issues series address vital

issues in todays society, such as domestic politics, human
rights, and homeland security. Written by professional writers,
scholars, and nonacademic experts, these books are
authoritative, clearly written, up-to-date, and objective. They
provide a good starting point for research by high school and
college students, scholars, and general readers as well as by
legislators, businesspeople, activists, and others.
Each book, carefully organized and easy to use, contains an

overview of the subject, a detailed chronology, biographical
sketches, facts and data and/or documents and other primary-
source material, a directory of organizations and agencies,
annotated lists of print and nonprint resources, and an index.
Readers of books in the Contemporary World Issues series will

find the information they need in order to have a better
understanding of the social, political, environmental, and
economic issues facing the world today.
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page iv
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page v
ENERGY USE
WORLDWIDE
A Reference Handbook
Jaina L. Moan and

Zachary A. Smith
CONTEMPORARY
WORLD ISSUES
Santa Barbara, California

Denver, Coloirado
Oxford, England
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page vi
Copyright 2007 by ABC-CLIO, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior
permission in writing from the publishers.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moan, Jaina L.
Energy use worldwide : a reference handbook / Jaina l. Moan and
Zachary A. Smith.
p. cm. (Contemporary world issues)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-85109-890-3 (hard copy : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-1-85109-891-0 (ebook) 1. Power resourcesHandbooks,
manuals, etc. 2. Energy consumptionHandbooks, manuals, etc. I.
Smith, Zachary A. II. Title.
TJ163.2.M62 2007
333.7913dc22
2007007414
11 10 09 08 07 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ABC-CLIO, Inc.
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911
This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.

Visit abc-clio.com for details.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Manufactured in the United States of America

00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page vii
This book is dedicated to Benjamin Moan.

Thank you for all of your love and support.
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page viii
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page ix
Contents
List of Figures, xiii

List of Tables, xv
1 Background and History, 1

Introduction, 1
Energy Concepts, 1
Physical Definitions, 2
Energy Conversion and Efficiency, 3
Electricity, 4
Energy Measurement and Units, 6
Sources of Energy, 8
How Does Society Use Energy? 9
Fossil Fuels, 10
Natural Gas, 10
Petroleum (Oil), 11
Coal, 12
Nuclear, 14
Renewable Sources, 16
Solar Energy, 16
Water Energy, 18
Wind Energy, 19
Biomass Energy, 19
Geothermal Energy, 20
History of Energy Use, 21
Preindustrial Energy Consumption, 21
Industrial Revolution: 18501914, 23
Energy, War, and Global Expansion:
19141945, 26
ix
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page x
x Contents
Middle-Eastern Oil: 19451970, 29

Energy Crisis: 19701980, 34
Conclusion, 37
References, 37
2 Problems, Controversies, and Solutions, 41

Introduction, 41
Energy and Economics, 41
Energy Markets and Pricing, 44
Globalization, 46
Energy Trends, 48
Environmental and Social Problems, 51
Environmental Problems, 51
Social Problems, 65
Solutions, 70
Sustainable Development, 70
Technology Solutions: Transition to Renewable
Sources, 72
Policy Solutions, 74
Personal Energy Responsibility, 79
Conclusion, 80
References, 81
3 Special U.S. Issues, 85

Introduction, 85
Energy Facts and Statistics, 86
Energy and Environmental Policy, 88
National Energy Policy, 89
Nuclear Energy Policy, 95
Environmental Regulation, 97
U.S. Energy Issues, 102
Energy and Federal Lands, 103
Utility and Electricity Regulation, 109
Conclusion, 113
References, 113
4 Chronology, 117
Introduction, 117
Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, and Natural
Gas, 118
Nuclear Energy, 121
Renewable Energy, 124
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page xi
Contents xi
Electricity, Engines, Lights, and Energy

Services, 127
World Energy, 130
U.S. Energy, 136
5 Biographical Sketches, 143

Introduction, 143
Juan Perez Alfonzo, 144
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, 144
John Browne, Lord Browne of Madingley, 145
Gro Harlem Brundtland, 146
Lzaro Crdenas, 147
Andrew Carnegie, 147
Hugo Chvez, 148
William Knox DArcy, 149
Thomas Edison, 149
Albert Einstein, 150
Michael Faraday, 151
Henry Ford, 151
James B. Francis, 152
Albert Arnold Gore, 153
Otto Hahn, 153
Marion King Hubbert, 154
Kenneth Lay, 155
Mohammad Mossadegh, 156
Jawaharlal Nehru, 156
J. Robert Oppenheimer, 157
Medha Patkar, 158
Roger Revelle, 159
John D. Rockefeller, 159
Zhu Rongji, 160
Franklin D. Roosevelt, 161
Kenule Beeson Saro-Wiwa, 162
Joseph Stalin, 162
Maurice Strong, 163
Nikola Tesla, 164
James Watt, 164
Frank Whittle, 165
6 Data and Documents, 167

Introduction, 167
Energy Overview, 168
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/13/07 2:47 PM Page xii
xii Contents
Energy Resources, 176

Fossil Fuels, 184
Electricity, 191
Nuclear, 195
Renewable Energy, 198
Energy Trade, 203
Environment, 207
U.S. Data, 210
References, 228
7 Directory of Organizations, 229

Introduction, 229
8 Resources, 265
Introduction, 265
General Energy, 265
Books, 265
Periodicals, Journals, and Newsletters, 273
Films and Videorecordings, 277
Databases and Internet Resources, 278
Energy Resources, 280
Books, 280
Databases and Internet Sites, 291
Energy Problems and Solutions, 294
Books, 294
Databases and Internet Resources, 307
Glossary, 309
Index, 317
About the Authors, 337
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Different Ranks of Coal, 13

Figure 2.1 A General Correlation between GDP and Energy
Consumption, 43
Figure 2.2 General Trends in Energy Intensity during
Industrial Development, 45
Figure 6.1 Primary Energy Production and Consumption by
Region (19802004), 177
Figure 6.2 Regional Primary Energy Consumption by Fuel
Type (2004), 180
Figure 6.3 Petroleums Cycle, 185
Figure 6.4 Natural Gas Cycle, 186
Figure 6.5 Coals Cycle, 187
Figure 6.6 Regional Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Coal
Consumption (19802004), 189
Figure 6.7 World Electric Capacity by Fuel Type (2004), 194
Figure 6.8 Nuclear Fuels Cycle, 196
Figure 6.9 Nuclear-Electricity Generation by Region (2004), 198
Figure 6.10 Renewable Energys Cycle, 199
Figure 6.11 Global CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels
(18002003), 207
Figure 6.12 Global CO2 Emissions by Fuel Type (2004), 209
Figure 6.13 U.S. Energy Consumption by Regional Division
(2003), 213
Figure 6.14 U.S. Crude Oil Production (19002005), 214
Figure 6.15 U.S. Crude Oil Production by PAD District (2005)
(thousand barrels), 215
Figure 6.16 U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region
(2005), 216
xiii
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page xiv
xiv Figures
Figure 6.17 U.S. Natural Gas Production (2004) (million

cubic ft), 217
Figure 6.18 U.S. Net Electric Generation by Energy Source
(2005), 218
Figure 6.19 U.S. Renewable Energy Consumption (2004)
(quadrillion Btu), 219
Figure 6.20 U.S. Petroleum Trade (19602005), 220
Figure 6.21 Top Ten U.S. Petroleum Suppliers (2004), 221
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page xv
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Metric Conversion Factors, 6

Table 1.2 Energy Equivalents, 8
Table 2.1 Common Air Pollutants and Their Environmental
and Health Effects, 57
Table 6.1 Global Total Energy Production, Consumption, and
Population by Country and Region (2004), 169
Table 6.2 Fossil Fuel Production by Region (2004), 188
Table 6.3 Fossil Fuel Consumption by Region (2004), 188
Table 6.4 Top Ten Petroleum-Producing and -Consuming
Countries, 192
Table 6.5 Top Ten Natural Gas-Producing and -Consuming
Countries, 192
Table 6.6 Top Ten Coal-Producing and -Consuming
Countries, 193
Table 6.7 Electricity Capacity, Generation, and Consumption
by Region (2004), 194
Table 6.8 Nuclear Reactors, Generation, and Capacity by
Country (2005), 197
Table 6.9 World Hydroelectricity Capacity, Generation, and
Consumption by Region (2004), 200
Table 6.10 Top Ten Manufacturers of Photovoltaic Solar
Cells, 201
Table 6.11 Wind-Electric Capacity and Generation by Region
(2002), 201
Table 6.12 Top Ten Wind-Power-Generating Countries (2002)
Ranked by Capacity, 202
Table 6.13 Geothermal Electric and Direct-Use Capacity by
Region (2002), 202
xv
00-ENUSWW_FM.qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page xvi
xvi Tables
Table 6.14 Top Ten Importers and Exporters of Crude Oil

(2004), 203
Table 6.15 Top Ten Importers and Exporters of Coal and
Natural Gas (2004), 204
Table 6.16 Top Twenty-five Global Energy Companies
(2005), 205
Table 6.17 Energy and Economic Indicators by Region and
Selected Country, 206
Table 6.18 CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels by Region
(2004), 208
Table 6.19 Top Ten CO2 Emitters (2004), 208
Table 6.20 U.S. Energy Overview by State and Region
(2003), 211
Table 6.21 U.S. Census Bureaus Regional Divisions of the
United States, 212
Table 6.22 State Division by PAD District, 213
Table 6.23 U.S. Coal-Producing Regions, 215
Table 6.24 National-Energy-Policy Legislation, 222
Table 6.25 Nuclear-Energy Legislation, 223
Table 6.26 Renewable-Energy Legislation, 224
Table 6.27 Regulation of Electricity and Utilities, 225
Table 6.28 Pollution-Control Acts, 226
Table 6.29 Clean Air Acts, 227
Table 6.30 Federal Lands Acts, 228
01-ENUSWW_Ch1.qxd 6/1/07 2:58 PM Page 1
1
Background and History
Introduction
E
nergy is an essential part of our world. Plants depend on solar
energy to grow; our bodies depend on food energy to maintain
their metabolism; our society depends on energy for electricity,
transportation, and industry. This chapter provides an overview
of the fundamental aspects of energy: what it is, where it comes
from, how it is measured, why it is important to society, and the
historical development of energy resources globally. The first part
of this chapter describes the physical properties and fundamental
concepts of energy. The second part of the chapter discusses re-
newable and nonrenewable sources of energy and how these
sources are converted into energy used by society. Finally, a third
part highlights important historical events in energy use.
Energy Concepts
Because energy makes up such a large part of our world, it is im-
portant to understand the basic physical concepts of energy and
where it comes from. This section examines physical definitions,
energy conversion and efficiency, electricity generation, and en-
ergy units. These topics are fundamental in the disciplines of
physics and engineering. Physics is a subject that explains many
of the energy dynamics observed in our world. Engineering is a
field that utilizes physical laws to design systems for harnessing
1
2 Background and History
and distributing energy to society. These concepts are important

for understanding how energy resources are used and consumed
in our society.
Physical Definitions
The meaning of energy embodies many concepts and means dif-
ferent things to different people. Because of this complexity, it is
impossible to give a set definition for energy. However, the gen-
erally agreed upon physical description of energy is the capacity
to do work (Smil 1999, xiii). In order to understand what this
means, the concepts of force and work must be described.
Mathematically, force is the product of an objects mass and
its acceleration.
Force = mass x acceleration (change in velocity over time)
Essentially, force is the phenomenon that causes an object to

change its motion (Wolfson and Pasachoff 1995, 95). Work, then,
is defined as the product of force and distance.
Work = Force x Distance
In other words, in order to quantify mechanical work, one

must first measure the amount of force that was applied to a
given object and multiply it by the distance that the object moved.
The number given for this measurement is equivalent to the
amount of energy used to move the object and the value is ex-
pressed in joules (J).
Work and force are simple equations useful for understand-
ing that energy is observable and can be measured by the forces
exerted on an object in motion. There are two forms of energy.
Kinetic energy is energy that is moving. Electrical and thermal
energies are examples of kinetic energy. Another form, potential,
is the energy that is stored in objects. Chemical (the energy
stored in chemical bonds) and stored mechanical energy (e.g.,
the energy stored in water held by a dam) are two examples of
potential energy. Distinguishing between these two forms of en-
ergy is important because society extracts useful work by con-
verting energy from one form (potential) to another (kinetic). For
example, when coal is burned, or combusted, its chemical energy
Energy Conversion and Efficiency 3
is released in the form of heat (steam). The steam turns large tur-
bines to produce mechanical energy, which is then converted by
a generator to electrical energy. Similarly, when stored water
from a dam is released, the falling water turns large turbines pro-
ducing mechanical energy. Efficient energy conversion is funda-
mental to societys ability to harness energy from primary
sources. The next section examines the energy laws associated
with this process.
Energy Conversion and Efficiency

Energy conversions are processes that determine how energy is
harnessed from sources like coal or solar radiation to serve the
needs of society. When energy is converted from one form to an-
other, it is constrained by physical laws, or the laws of thermody-
namics. The first law is the conservation of energy. This law states
that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be con-
verted from one form to another. In society, consumption is a term
that is used to describe the process of conversion. Energy is not
actually created or destroyed in the process of consumption; it is
converted from one form to another (Ramage 1997, 98).
The second law states that although energy is never de-
stroyed, it does decrease in quality. As energy is converted from
one form to another, the amount of useable energy in the system
declines and more energy is needed to extract the same amount
of mechanical work. In every energy system (one that utilizes en-
ergy conversions from its initial state to its final end use), all en-
ergy ends up as waste heat. This process is not reversible. That is,
the useful energy obtained can never be captured and reused as it
was in its stored form. Hence, the second law of thermodynamics
states that as a system converts energy to a useful form, the sys-
tem becomes more entropic, or disorganized, and the resulting
energy is less useful for doing work.
Another important aspect to the second law of thermo-
dynamics is that as a system converts energy from one form to an-
other, it is not possible to extract the same amount of energy in the
form of work that is contained in the system (Wolfson and Pasa-
choff 1995, 528). In any system, some energy will inevitably be
lost as heat energy. The system can never be 100 percent effi-
cient. Because of this, the energy efficiency, or the ratio of useful
energy output to total energy input, is a valuable measure for
understanding how much energy can be harnessed from a partic-

ular source.
Energy efficiency is an important value to quantify because
different conversion processes have different efficiencies. The
most efficient systems are those that can directly convert potential
(or stored energy) into useable energy without the input of addi-
tional energy, such as heat. For example, the motion of falling
water is a much more efficient energy conversion than the burn-
ing of coal. Water only needs to fall from a high point to a low
point to release energy. Coal, on the other hand, needs to be
heated in the presence of oxygen (or combusted) in order to re-
lease its chemical energy. This process not only requires the addi-
tion of heat energy to combust the fuel, it also releases a large
amount of energy as waste heat. Any energy system that relies on
the addition of heat energy is much less efficient in converting its
input into heat energy.
Electricity
Electricity is a very important secondary energy source. It is gen-
erated from primary sources (e.g., fossil fuels) and is used for
many purposes; electric appliances, lighting, heating, and cooling
all are powered by electricity. The physical properties of electrical
energy allow for its transmission across long distances from its
source of generation. This section discusses the fundamental as-
pects of electrical energy, magnetism, and transformers. These
concepts describe how electricity is generated and transported.
Electrical energy is primarily derived from electrons, very
small particles that orbit around the nuclei of atoms and are held
to the nucleus with an electric force. Certain elements, like metals,
have a large amount of electrons that orbit their nuclei. The elec-
trical energy that holds these particles to the nucleus can be
released with the introduction of a charge. When this happens,
electrons become disassociated from the atoms and move freely
within the matrix of the element. Metals, like copper, are good
conductors of electricity because they contain large amounts of
electrons that become dissociated easily from their atoms with the
application of an electrical force (Ramage 1997, 153). When this
force travels along the length of a wire, it is called a current. When
the ends of the wire are connected in a closed path, the current
Electricity 5
creates a circuit and electrical energy can be used to light homes

and power appliances.
The concept of magnetism is also important for the genera-
tion of electricity. Magnetism is a property found in iron, or ma-
terials that attract iron, that exerts an attractive or repulsive force
on other objects with magnetic fields (Wolfson and Pasachoff
1995, 723724). It is thought that magnetic forces are generated
from the quantum mechanics that define the structure of atoms
and nuclei. Magnetism is important because it interacts with elec-
trical forces to produce an electric current. A generator, which is a
machine that produces electrical energy from mechanical energy,
produces an electromagnetic current by passing a coil of conduc-
tive wire past the positive and negative poles of a magnet.
The concept of induction describes how electricity is trans-
ported from its source to its final end use. Induction is the
process by which electrical current can be generated in a charged
circuit from an adjacent charged circuit by proximity and
grounding (Wolfson and Pasachoff 1995, 852). Transformers are
devices that embody the concept of induction and allow for elec-
tricity to travel long distances. A transformer consists of two or
more coils of wire that are situated in such a way that a second-
ary wire can pick up the charge of a primary wire carrying elec-
tric current. The transformer can also increase or decrease the
voltage that is flowing through a wire. This feature of transform-
ers is useful for distributing safe amounts of electricity from
high-voltage wires.
The fundamental ideas behind electrical energy and mag-
netism can be applied to illustrate how an electrical power plant
generates electricity. Electricity is made from primary sources of
energy, such as coal combustion or wind power. For example, a
coal-fired power plant combusts coal to create hot steam. The hot
steam turns large turbines that are connected via a long shaft to a
generator. The generator contains a magnet. The turning shaft
from the turbines has a long metal coil wrapped around it. As the
coil turns between the positive and negative poles of the magnet,
an electrical current is generated. This current is transmitted
along high-voltage power lines to substations that contain trans-
formers. The substations then release low-voltage electricity to
distribution lines in communities where it is used. When a light
switch is turned on, a circuit is connected to the electrical power
in the wires and light is provided.
Energy Measurement and Units

Because energy is such an important part of our lives, it is impor-
tant to understand the value of energy units. Units are a way of
measuring and quantifying how much energy is available, pro-
duced, and consumed in our society. This section provides a
working understanding of what energy units are and how to in-
terpret them.
Energy values can either be expressed in basic physical units
(e.g., joules), or in units that refer to a particular energy source
(e.g., barrels of oil equivalent). The magnitude of units is often
portrayed in metric scale, so it is important to grasp how differ-
ent values are described when they increase or decrease in size.
For example, 1 million joules is equal to 1 megajoule (MJ), and 1
billion joules (J) is equal to 1 gigajoule (GJ). Table 1.1 describes
basic metric conversion factors between magnitudes of units.
The joule is the standard unit of energy according to the In-
ternational Standard (SI) system of units. One joule is a physical
unit of energy that describes how much work is done on a system
when an applied force of one newton is required to move an
TABLE 1.1
Metric Conversion Factors
Prefix Abbreviation Scientific notation Name Value

-1
Deci D 10 Tenth 0.1
Centi C 10-2 Hundredth 0.01
Milli M 10-3 Thousandth 0.001
Micro 10-6 Millionth 0.000001
Nano N 10-9 Billionth 0.000000001
Pico P 10-12 Trillionth 0.000000000001
Femto F 10-15 Quadrillionth 0.000000000000001
Atto A 10-18 Quintillionth 0.000000000000000001
Deka Da 101 Ten 10
Hector H 102 Hundred 100
Kilo K 103 Thousand 1,000
Mega M 106 Million 1,000,000
Giga G 109 Billion 1,000,000,000
Tera T 1012 Trillion 1,000,000,000,000
Peta P 1015 Quadrillion 1,000,000,000,000,000
Exa E 1018 Quintillion 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
Energy Measurement and Units 7
object one meter. (A newton is the standard unit of force.) The

joule also describes how much energy is stored in a particular ob-
ject. For example, the amount of energy stored in a barrel of crude
oil is approximately 6 GJ. In other words, 6 billion joules of en-
ergy can potentially be extracted from a barrel of oil (Smil 1999,
xiv). However, because of the second law of thermodynamics, it
would be impossible to convert 100 percent of the potential en-
ergy into useable energy.
Another unit used to describe energy quantities is the British
thermal unit (Btu). This unit is often used to express the heat en-
ergy content of fuels (e.g., coal), and it is defined as the quantity
of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
one degree Fahrenheit (EIA 2003). The definition of a Btu is bet-
ter understood as being a measure of energy stored in an object.
Used the same way a joule is, one Btu is equivalent to 1,055 joules.
So, one barrel of oil (which contains 6 GJ of energy) contains ap-
proximately 5,687,204 Btu of energy.
Other units that are used to describe amounts of energy are
the calorie and the kilocalorie (kcal, which is 1,000 calories). The
calorie is defined as the amount of energy required to heat one
gram of water one degree Celsius. The calorie is a measure of en-
ergy used to describe the energy released in chemical reactions
(Wolfson and Pasachoff 1995, 165). This unit is also used for de-
termining the amount of energy that is contained in food. An
adult human male, for example, needs to consume approximately
2,500 kcal per day. Since 1 kcal is equal to 4,200 joules, this energy
requirement is approximately 10 MJ, or 10 million joules of en-
ergy (Smil 1999, xv).
Rates are a way of expressing how much energy society is
consuming in a given amount of time. The rate at which energy is
converted to useable forms of energy is called power. The watt,
which equals one joule per second, is the unit that describes this
rate. So, a 500-watt generator converts mechanical energy to elec-
trical energy at a rate of 500 joules per second. A large coal-fired
power plant generates electricity (converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy) at a rate of 500700 megawatts (MW, or 1 mil-
lion watts), or 500 million joules per second (Ramage 1997, 161).
The kilowatt-hour is another common unit for energy rates. It de-
scribes how many kilowatts of electricity are used in one hour.
The KWh is the typical unit of measurement that power compa-
nies use when billing for electricity.
Energy units are also expressed in terms of the type of fuel

they quantify. The petroleum industry measures energy by
tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) or barrels of oil equivalent (boe). A
standard barrel of oil contains 42 U.S. gallons, or 159 liters. There
are approximately 7.3 barrels of oil in a tonne, so approximately
41.9 GJ of energy are contained in one tonne. Tonnes of coal
equivalent (tce) is a measure that is used to describe the energy in
coal. The amount of energy in a tce can vary because of different
coal types, but the value of 29 GJ per tonne is accepted as an in-
ternational standard (Ramage 1997, 13). Table 1.2 describes unit
conversions of different energy units in terms of joules. Energy
units also describe quantities of energy resources. Oil is measured
in barrels of crude. Coal is measured in tonnes, or short tons (one
short ton equals 2,000 pounds, or 907.2 kilograms). Natural gas is
measured in cubic feet. Society often describes resource availabil-
ity and consumption quantities using these units.
Sources of Energy
Humans use a vast amount of energy. In 2002, the world con-
sumed 412 quadrillion Btus of energy, which is equivalent to ap-
proximately 435 EJ (EIA 2004b, 298). Most of the primary energy
sources used today are nonrenewable. Approximately 85 percent
of all energy produced and consumed is derived from finite sup-
plies of fossil-fuel primary-energy sources. The remaining 15 per-
cent of energy comes from nuclear and renewable sources (294).
TABLE 1.2
Energy Equivalents
Unit Equivalent amount

1 Btu 1055 J
1 calorie 4.2 J
1 kcal 4200 J or 4.2 kJ
1 kilowatt-hour 3,600,000 J or 3.6 MJ
1 boe 6,000,000,000 J or 6 GJ
1 toe 41,868,000,000 or 41.9 GJ
1 tce 29,000,000,000 J or 29 GJ.
1 watt 1 joule/second
How Does Society Use Energy? 9
Nonrenewable energy sources are those that become depleted

with use and cannot be replenished within a reasonable amount
of time. A renewable energy resource is defined as natural energy
flows that are not depleted with use and can be regenerated as
they are depleted (Alexander 1996, 27). It is important to note the
difficulty in measuring exact values for the production and con-
sumption of energy from different primary sources. Commer-
cially traded sources provide the best data since they have a
market value and hence quantity is tracked. Other sources, such
as biomass, are more difficult to measure because they are not
traded on a commercial basis.
This section discusses the characteristics of primary energy
sources: what they are, where they are found, and how energy is
harnessed from each resource. Fossil fuels and nuclear sources
(the nonrenewable sources) are discussed first since they provide
such a large portion of energy needs. Then, because of its future
importance, renewable energy is examined.
How Does Society Use Energy?

Before describing the various ways in which energy can be har-
nessed, it is important to understand how energy resources are
used in society. There are four primary end uses of energy: in-
dustrial, residential, commercial, and transportation applications.
In the industrial sector, energy is used to make metal and paper,
for petroleum refining, agriculture, the chemical industry, and the
manufacturing industry. This sector comprises approximately 33
percent of the energy used in a developed society. The residential
sector uses energy in homes for heating and cooling, lighting,
electrical appliances, and water heating. This sector comprises 22
percent of the energy used by society. The commercial sector uses
energy for much of the same applications as the residential sector.
Heating, cooling, and lighting are the main uses of energy in
restaurants, retail and office buildings, schools, hospitals, and
churches. Commercial energy uses comprise 18 percent of energy
consumed in society. Finally, transportation is the fourth sector.
All vehicles use some form of energy to move from one place to
another, and most of this energy is derived from fossil fuels. This
sector comprises 27 percent of energy used by society (EIA 2004b).
It is important to note that the energy distribution to each
sector is different in every country. The percentages listed above
correspond to the United States. Similar patterns exist in other de-

veloped countries. In general, developed countries allocate more
energy to industrial and transportation sectors. Less developed
nations allocate more of their energy consumption to domestic
uses. Additionally, the primary sources used to meet the energy
needs of industrialized nations are different from those con-
sumed in developing countries. These energy dynamics and their
implications are discussed further in chapter 2.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil energies are extracted from beds of once-living organic
matter (primarily plant) that was compressed among and be-
tween layers of rock throughout geologic history. The heat and
pressure caused by compression in different types of rock layers
formed the different types of fossil fuels. The composition of
these fuels is primarily made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydro-
gen, but depending on the fossil fuel type, may contain many
other elements and impurities. Hydrocarbons, which are mole-
cules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, are a group of
important compounds associated with these fuels. Fossil fuels
provide heat energy when they are burned (or combusted). The
resulting heat is converted to mechanical energy by the use of
combustion engines (as in the case of vehicles) or to electricity by
turbines and electric generators (as in the case of power plants).
This section examines the general characteristics of coal, oil,
and natural gas. It describes the extraction, processing, and trans-
portation of each of these fuels, followed by a brief overview of
estimated global totals of reserves (the amount of a particular re-
source that is estimated and recoverable) and consumption. En-
ergy statistics are presented in greater detail in chapter 6.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is 80 to 95 percent methane (CH4), which is a simple
fuel containing one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms
(Stoker, Seager, and Capener 1975, 113). In its natural state in the
environment, natural gas deposits may also contain heavier hy-
drocarbon impurities (such as propane or butane), water, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Seismic and drilling explorations
are used to reveal the potential sites that contain natural gas.
Fossil Fuels 11
Once these sites are discovered, natural gas is extracted from the
subsurface by drilling a well. Gas is piped to a processing plant
where hydrocarbon impurities are removed with heavy oils,
water is removed with drying agents, hydrogen sulfide com-
pounds and carbon dioxide are removed, and finally an odor
agent is added to the processed gas for purposes of leak detec-
tion. Natural gas is generally transported by pipeline from pro-
cessing plants to areas of use. An extensive natural gas pipeline
network lies across large land areas. An alternative method of
storage and transportation is made possible by compressing
natural gas into liquefied natural gas (LNG), which reduces the
volume of the gas by 600 times. LNG operations cool the gas to a
liquid (259 degrees Fahrenheit; 162 degrees Celsius), and then
re-gasify it when it reaches its destination or when demand for
natural gas is higher (135).
Natural gas is the least consumed of all the fossil fuels, ac-
counting for approximately 23 percent of energy production in
2002 (EIA 2004b, 300). It is estimated that global recoverable re-
serves total anywhere between 6,040 and 6,805 trillion cubic feet
(EIA 2005). In 2004, approximately 91.76 trillion cubic feet of nat-
ural gas was consumed in the United States, which comprised ap-
proximately 25 percent of global natural gas consumption (EIA
2004b, 316). It is estimated that the use of natural gas will increase
in the future as prices of petroleum rise and the undesirable ef-
fects of coal reduce that sources demand (Smil 2003, 213).
Petroleum (Oil)
Petroleum is composed of a complex mixture of hundreds of dif-
ferent hydrocarbons. Petroleum may also contain impurities,
such as sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of metals.
Because of the complexity of its composition, refining is necessary
for getting it into a useable form. There are many useable prod-
ucts that petroleum resources provide. Gasoline, jet fuel,
kerosene, and lubricants are a few of the commercial substances
extracted from petroleum.
Crude oil, a thick, viscous fluid, is extracted from the ground
by drilling and pumping. It is then transported either by ship or
pipeline to a refinery where the different components of the crude
oil are partitioned using a process called distillation, which sepa-
rates out the hydrocarbon compounds using their different boil-
ing points. Secondary conversion processes, such as thermal and
catalytic cracking, chemically transform less useful fractions of

hydrocarbons into marketable commodities (e.g., gasoline). These
processes break large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller con-
stituents. Petroleum is then purified to remove any impurities
that produce harmful substances when burned. Gasoline and jet
fuel are the most marketable products of petroleum, and they are
used mainly for transportation purposes.
Global production of petroleum has risen drastically since
1950. It is now the most utilized energy resource, comprising 37.7
percent of global energy production in 2003 (153 quadrillion Btus
in 2002) (EIA 2004b, 294). The United States is by far the largest
user of petroleum, consuming 19.8 million barrels of oil per day
(312). This consumption is supported from both domestic and
foreign sources. The largest reserves of petroleum, estimated at
670 to 690 billion barrels, are found in the Middle East (300). So-
cial tensions arising from resource availability, limited supplies of
recoverable petroleum, and environmental effects of fossil fuel
combustion may limit the use of this resource in the future.
Coal
Coal is the most chemically complex fossil fuel that is burned for
energy purposes. Although it consists mainly of carbon, the
chemical structures within coal matrices contain significant con-
centrations of nitrogen and sulfur, and trace amounts of many
other elements, including mercury, lead, and other metals that are
toxic to humans. Volatile gases and water are also bound within
coals chemical structure, and their release to the atmosphere dur-
ing combustion can be very harmful to human health and the en-
vironment. Coal was formed from the fossilization and compres-
sion of large swampy areas or peat bogs. Different coal types
were formed from varying degrees of heat and pressure exerted
on the organic matter in these environments over long periods of
geologic history. Coal types are ranked according to the amount
of fixed carbon and volatile matter; the higher the rank of coal,
the greater the amount of fixed carbon and the lower the amount
of volatile matter (Miller and Miller 1993, 28). Figure 1.1 describes
the rank of coal from lignite to anthracite.
Coal has many uses in society. Anthracite is a high-ranking
coal that is used mostly for domestic heating purposes. Bitumi-
nous coal is primarily used in electricity generation and coke
Fossil Fuels 13
FIGURE 1.1
Different Ranks of Coal
Rank
Low High
Lignite Brown Coal Bituminous coal Semianthracite Anthracite highest
C: 30 to 55 percent C: 48 to 73 percent C: 83 to 90 percent ranking. Similar to
VM: 18 to 20 percent VM: 30 to 40 percent VM: 10 to 15 percent semianthracite, but
M: 30 to 43 percent M: 3 to 11 percent M: NA less friable
C = fixed carbon, VM = volatile matter, M = moisture
Source: Miller and Miller, 1993, 28
production. (Coke is produced from the pyrolysis of coal. Because

it has a higher heat value than coal, it is used as a fuel source for
iron ore smelting for steel production.) Coal is extracted from the
ground by a variety of different mining techniques. Deep shaft
mining is used in areas where coal seams are located 100 feet or
greater below the surface. In other regions, where coal is located
closer to the surface, the land is stripped away to reach the coal
beds below. This is called strip or surface mining, and while it is
safer for miners, it is devastating to the landscape.
After extraction, coal bound for power plants is pulverized
before being transported. The power plant blows the coal dust
into a furnace in the presence of oxygen. The hot gas that is cre-
ated from the combustion process is directed into a boiler con-
taining water pipes. The water is heated from the hot gas to cre-
ate steam, which is directed to a turbine electric generator. Steam
leaving the generator is cooled and condensed back into water
and transported back to the boiler (Stoker, Seager, and Capener
1975, 161). Electricity generated from coal combustion is trans-
ported via high-voltage power lines to areas where it is needed.
The largest global coal reserves are found in the United
States (272 billion short tons), Russia (173 billion short tons), and
China (126 billion short tons) (EIA 2004b, 318). Global consump-
tion of coal in 2002 was 5,262 million short tons (EIA 2004c).
China was the largest consumer, using approximately 27 percent
of the global total (EIA 2004b, 322). Despite the large amounts of
coal reserves, global demand for coal has declined in the past fifty
years because of its undesirable environmental effects and the
availability of more concentrated stores of energy found in nu-
clear fuel.
Nuclear
The conversion of energy from nuclear primary sources also cre-
ates steam to power an electric generator, but the main difference
occurs in how the energy is released from the fuel. With fossil
fuels, the process of combustion releases chemical energy that is
stored in the chemical bonds between molecules in the fuel. A nu-
clear reaction, on the other hand, releases energy contained in the
nuclei of atoms.
To understand a nuclear reaction, it is necessary to define the
structural parts of an atom. Atoms are the smallest components of
any given element. They are made up of a nucleus that contains
protons, neutrons, and a system of electrons that exists outside
the nucleus. Protons and neutrons together make up most of the
mass of an atom. (An elements atomic number is calculated by
summing numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, while
its atomic weight is calculated from the mass of the protons, neu-
trons, and electrons.) In general, most atoms of a particular ele-
ment have the same number of protons and neutrons, but many
elements have isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that
contain more neutrons than protons in their nuclei. Isotopes can
either be stable (do not release energy, or decay, over time) or ra-
dioactive, meaning their nucleic structure is unstable and decays
over time releasing energy. This spontaneous nuclear reaction is
the process by which new elements are formed.
The nuclear reaction can be manipulated in order to produce
forms of energy that are useful (or harmful) to humans. In order
to harness this energy, neutrons are used to split radioactive
atoms, a process called fission. The splitting of one atom releases
additional neutrons that split additional atoms. Hence, a nuclear
reaction is a sustained chain reaction that releases energy from
atomic nuclei. Instead of using energy from chemical bonds (the
process that occurs in fossil fuel combustion), a nuclear reaction
utilizes energy contained in the nuclei of atoms.
Uranium is one fuel that is required in a nuclear reaction.
Thorium and plutonium also are elements that sustain nuclear
Nuclear 15
reactions, but this brief discussion focuses on the uranium fuel

cycle since it is the main fuel used in nuclear reactors. Two ura-
nium isotopes are important in the nuclear fuel cycle, U-235 and
U-338. Uranium has 92 protons, so U-235 contains 92 protons and
143 neutrons, and U-238 contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons.
Although U-235 is the same element, it exhibits vastly different
characteristics. One of its characteristics is the ability to fission
upon impact with other neutrons.
Uranium fuel is produced from uranium ore, whose largest
quantities are found in the deserts of the southwestern United
States. After the ore is mined, it is milled to produce U3O8, or
yellowcake. The yellowcake is then converted to its gaseous
phase, uranium hexafluoride (UF6), in preparation for enrich-
ment. At this point, the uranium resource contains only about
0.71 percent U-235 and approximately 99.3 percent U-238 (Rose
1986, 287). In order to be effective in a nuclear reaction, it must be
enriched so that it contains at least 3 percent U-235. Essentially,
the process of enrichment works to increase the ratio of U-235 to
U-238. The enriched fuel is then converted to uranium oxide
(UO2) in the form of small, ceramic pellets that are packed in
zircaloy fuel rods. Zircaloy is a metal alloy consisting of zirco-
nium, tin, chromium, and nickel known for its heat-resistant
properties. The fuel rods are bundled into fuel assemblies and are
used in nuclear reactors for electricity generation.
A nuclear reactor is composed of four parts: (1) the fuel rods
described above; (2) control rods that control the rate of the reac-
tion; (3) the coolant that carries the heat away from the reactor;
and (4) the moderator that slows the speed of the reaction. Reac-
tors normally contain between 100 and 300 fuel assemblies, which
can operate continuously for approximately two years (EIA
2004a). Spent fuel rods are transported to a secured area for
storage. Because of their high radioactivity, fuel rod assemblies
are first stored in shallow pools of water so that short-lived, in-
tense radioactivity can be reduced. The fuel rods are either then
reprocessed to try to recover useable uranium or are moved to
long-term storage.
Radioactive waste disposal and storage is difficult because
high-level radioactive material is very harmful to human health
(see chapter 2). Radioactive waste is stored with nitric acid solu-
tion in stainless steel tanks in many different locations. There
have been efforts to find one single repository for all of the nu-
clear waste produced in the United States. Yucca Mountain in
south-central Nevada was chosen as this site; however, the stor-

age of nuclear material there has been delayed for many reasons,
including issues of transportation and scientific integrity in site
selection. Yucca Mountain is discussed in chapter 3.
Some 6.7 percent of the energy produced worldwide is from
nuclear power. The United States is the largest producer of nu-
clear energy, generating approximately 780 billion kilowatt-hours
in 2002 (EIA 2004b, 328), providing 20 percent of U.S. electrical
energy needs. Western European countries also produce signifi-
cant amounts of nuclear power. France obtains 78 percent of its
electricity needs from nuclear energy (EIA 2004a). Belgium re-
ceives 55 percent of its electricity and Sweden harnesses 51 per-
cent of its power from nuclear sources (NEA 2005). Japan also
uses nuclear power for 30 percent of its electricity. Nuclear energy
is likely to be considered more in the future as the concern over
global warming increases. However, because of the negative ef-
fects of radioactivity and the lack of public acceptance for nuclear
power, it remains to be seen what role nuclear power will play.
Renewable Sources
Renewable sources of energy are becoming increasingly impor-
tant as potential energy resources. This section discusses five cat-
egories of renewable energies: solar (active, passive, and photo-
voltaic); water (hydroelectricity, tidal, and wave); wind; biomass;
and geothermal. Globally, these resources comprise somewhere
between 8 and 16 percent of primary energy use (EIA 2004a; Ra-
mage 1997, 20). Most of the renewable energy used is in the form
of hydroelectricity and biomass, with the remaining renewable
sources contributing less than 1 percent.
Solar Energy
Most of the energy sources on the planet are indirectly derived
from the Sun. It is estimated that approximately 170,000 terawatts
(TW) of solar radiation is constantly impacting the surface of the
Earth (Rose 1986, 71). Two-thirds of this radiation is reflected back
into space, but the remaining energy is greater than one hundred
times the amount of power presently available on Earth (Ingersoll
1990, 207). Although not all of this energy can be harnessed, the
Renewable Sources 17
Sun represents a potentially large primary source. Solar energy is

the cause of many natural processes on Earth that provide re-
newable resources. The Sun provides the energy for photo-
synthesis to occur, resulting in the large amount of biomass
resources. Solar radiation causes shifts in wind patterns and the
hydrologic cycle, creating the potential for wind and water en-
ergy. Other sections of this chapter are devoted to those energy
sources. This section focuses on active and passive solar tech-
nologies, solar thermal engines, and photovoltaics as ways of har-
nessing solar energy to meet the needs of society.
Solar thermal energy can be captured in either active or pas-
sive ways. Active solar heating uses a device called a solar collec-
tor to gather and concentrate solar radiation (Everett 1996, 41).
Generally, active solar technologies are used for water and space
heating applications. Passive solar technologies are also used for
heating, but they incorporate building design elements that cap-
ture heat and light from solar radiation. In recent years, many ad-
vances have been made in passive solar designs that decrease a
buildings reliance on fossil-fuel-derived energy sources.
Unlike active and passive technologies for capturing solar ra-
diation, solar thermal engines are a way to convert solar radiation
into mechanical work for the production of electricity. This
process uses mirrors to concentrate solar radiation for boiling
water to create steam for electric generators. The first and largest
thermal engine power plant was built in the Mojave Desert in
California in 1984. It was operated by Luz International. The com-
pany went bankrupt and the plant closed in the 1990s, but during
its operation, the plant had an electricity-generating capacity of
80 MW (Everett 1996, 78).
Photovoltaics (PVs) are another way of capturing solar en-
ergy. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly to electricity
using solid-state, crystalline materials (Boyle 1996, 92). Some ma-
terials, like selenium, exhibit electric properties when exposed to
light. When these materials are crystallized with semiconducting
elements (nonmetallic materials that are able to conduct electric-
ity), like silicon, a PV cell is formed and electricity can be con-
ducted. PV systems have the potential to supply power away
from utility grids if needed and have been used to supplement
power grids. For example, the German electric utility company
RWE has used a PV plant to supply approximately 250,000 kilo-
watt-hours per year to its electricity grid (122).
Water Energy
The energy that is stored in water can be converted into electric-
ity. Conversion is done using hydroelectric dams, capturing wave
energy, and also by exploiting the tidal forces on the planet.
The energy that is provided by hydroelectric dams is indi-
rectly supported from solar energy. Solar radiation hitting the
Earth is the main driver of the hydrologic cycle, which is the geo-
chemical cycle that recycles water among the land, water bodies,
and atmosphere. Solar radiation drives the weather patterns that
allow for rainfall and runoff to occur, making it possible to cap-
ture running water and harness its energy. Hydroelectricity pro-
vides 20 percent of the worlds power, making it the most widely
exploited renewable source of energy (Ramage 1996, page 181). A
hydroelectric dam captures energy through large water turbines
placed at the bottom of the dam to intersect the water as it falls
from a high point to its low point. The turbines are connected to
large electricity generators. The efficiency of this process is very
high since it does not involve a heat engine.
Tidal power uses tidal forcesthose that result from the
moons gravitational pull on the seasas its driving force to
move water. In order to exploit this force, large barrages, which
are a type of dam, are constructed in estuaries for the purpose of
capturing water as the tide rises. As the tide comes in, water flows
through sluice gates. At high tide, the gates close. When the tide
recedes, a head of water is produced across the barrage and the
water is passed over turbines connected to electric generators (El-
liot 1996, 231). Small tidal power plants operate around the globe.
The largest tidal plant is located in the Rance estuary of Brittany,
France. La Rance has a 240 MW capacity, with an average annual
output of 480 GWh per year (242).
Energy can also be harnessed from ocean waves as they ap-
proach coastal areas. Waves are created indirectly from the solar
radiation that drives wind currents. Waves are formed as wind
blows across large bodies of water. This energy travels in water,
and as it approaches coastal areas, the wavelengths become
shorter and the amplitude (or peak height) of the waves is in-
creased (Duckers 1996, 320). Wave energy converters are devices
that capture the stored energy in waves and convert it to me-
chanical energy. They can either be placed perpendicular or par-
allel to the incident wave front and may be fixed or floating
structures. The Aguadoura wave farm project, the worlds first
Renewable Sources 19
wave power plant, was built off the coast of Portugal in 2006 by
Ocean Power Delivery Ltd. (Mellgren 2005).
Wind Energy
Like many of the water energies, wind energy is also formed in-
directly from solar energy. Solar radiation causes differential heat-
ing and pressure effects to occur in the atmosphere, forming wind
currents and weather patterns. The differential heating of land-
scapes and oceans allows for certain areas in the world to be con-
sistently windy. The kinetic energy of wind can be converted into
mechanical power with wind turbines and used to generate elec-
tricity. The concept of a wind turbine is the same as that for water
or gas turbines, but the design is different in order to exploit the
aerodynamic properties of wind. Although there are many differ-
ent wind turbine designs, two main types are made commer-
cially: horizontal and vertical (whose axis of rotation is vertical).
Significant wind power industries are found in California,
Denmark, and the United Kingdom. In California, there are over
15,500 operational wind turbines in the state, with a generating
capacity of 16,200 MW. In Denmark, there are over 2,800 opera-
tional wind turbines, with a generating capacity of 343 MW. The
United Kingdom has been the most recent site for commercial
wind energy developments, with over 170 MW of installed wind
capacity (Taylor 1996, 304). In addition to large commercial-scale
projects, wind power is significantly used in local communities
and for small-scale applications.
Biomass Energy
Biomass is the term that is used to describe living matter that is
found on the Earths surface. In terms of energy sources, it refers
to the massive amounts of plant (e.g., wood), animal (e.g., dung),
and municipal solid waste (MSW) matter that can be used as a
fuel to extract useful energy. Like many other renewable sources,
biomass energies are indirectly formed from solar energy by pho-
tosynthesis, which is the biological process that plants use to con-
vert light energy, carbon, and water into living tissue.
Energy can be extracted from biomass in a variety of ways.
Many people rely on direct combustion for the purposes of space
heating and cooking. Wood and dung are the most commonly
used fuels for these purposes. Thermochemical processing is used
to convert biomass to energy. Gasification (when a gaseous fuel is

produced from a solid fuel using steam) and pyrolysis (when a
material is heated in the absence of air) are two types of thermo-
chemical reactions that are used to produce biofuels with more
concentrated energy stores. For example, charcoal is made from
wood pyrolysis and coke is made from coal pyrolysis.
Natural processes can also provide fuels for combustion.
Anaerobic digestion, which occurs during bacterial decomposi-
tion of organic matter in anoxic environments, produces
methane. Fermentation is similar to anaerobic digestion, but this
process involves organisms that live in oxygenated, or aerobic,
environments. Fermentation produces ethanol. These processes
can be used to produce fuels from agricultural wastes, municipal
solid waste, and even sewage.
Biomass energy represents a significant portion of the re-
newable energy that is used globally. It is especially important in
developing countries where biofuels comprise approximately 35
percent of primary energy sources (Ramage and Scurlock 1996,
139). It is important to highlight the difficulty that exists in mea-
suring biomass consumption. Unlike fossil fuels, which are
traded on a global market, many biomass fuels are consumed by
people in developing countries who gather their own energy re-
sources. Although it is a significant source for many people
around the world, the exact value of its use cannot be quantified
(Ramage 1997, 2223).
Geothermal Energy
Unlike the other forms of renewable energy, geothermal energy is
not derived from solar energy. Rather, it arises from heat that ex-
ists in the core of the Earth. This heat can be stored in the rocks of
the Earths crust as hot water or in pockets of dry steam. Geo-
thermal energy can either be used to create electricity, or as a di-
rect source of energy for heating. Hydrothermal reservoirs, geo-
pressurized reservoirs, hot dry rock, and magma are the four
types of geothermal energy that can be exploited, but the most
widely utilized are hydrothermal and hot dry technologies.
Geothermal power plants can utilize both dry steam from
hot dry rock reservoirs (vapor that does not contain water) and
wet steam from hydrothermal reservoirs, but dry steam is easier
to process. A well is drilled into the steam or water reservoir to
allow the steam to escape. Once it reaches the surface, dry steam
History of Energy Use 21
is used to turn turbines for electric generators. If wet steam is ex-

tracted, water is separated from the steam at the power plant.
This process is called flashing and is employed to protect the tur-
bines from water damage (Brown 1996, 374).
There has been substantial utilization of this resource in the
United States, Mexico, and the Philippines. Iceland derives most
of its energy from geothermal resources. Globally, over 6 GW of
electrical power are produced with geothermal energy, and ap-
proximately 4 GW of geothermal power are used annually for do-
mestic heating (Brown 1996, 356).
Despite the variety of renewable energy sources, fossil fuels
are consumed far more than any other source. This dependence
has many adverse consequences. The next section reveals how
fossil fuels came to be the dominant energy resource.
History of Energy Use

The nature and abundance of global energy consumption has
drastically changed in the past 150 years. Understanding histori-
cal trends and transitions in global energy consumption is impor-
tant for grasping the complexity of energy use today. This section
examines the growth and expansion of usage of the worlds
energy resources. In particular, it focuses on shifts in primary en-
ergy sources, increasing consumption, and the political impli-
cations of fossil fuel dependence. First, preindustrial energy
consumption and the industrial revolution are discussed, and
then, important global events during the twentieth century are
examined. Prominent themes in this chapter are the reliance on
fossil fuels, the impact of industrialization on energy consump-
tion, and increasing globalization of the energy economy.
Preindustrial Energy Consumption

Throughout most of human history, energy consumption has
been relatively low. Human and animal labor provided most of
the energy used for agriculture, transportation, and societal
growth. Wind, water, and biomass sources were the primary
means by which domestic and trade needs were met. This section
examines the use of these resources by humans until the 1850s.
Waterwheels were the first devices designed to harness the
kinetic energy of flowing water. The first uses of water mills can
be traced back to first century BCE, where Romans used them to

power grain mills (Smil 1994, 225). Water mills became more
common in Europe after 1000 CE. For example, in 1086, it was re-
ported that there were over 5,600 water mills operating in south-
ern and eastern England alone (103). Initially, water mills were
used for grain milling, but design innovation and mechanization
allowed waterwheels to replace other manual tasks, from paper-
making to ore crushing. In the nineteenth century, the waterwheel
design was replaced by water turbines, which were more efficient
and hence increased power output.
Wind was also an important primary resource. The harness-
ing of wind energy occurred in the twelfth century in regions of
Europe and Asia where water power was not feasible (e.g., in
low-lying areas where water heads were nonexistent or in desert
areas where water was scarce). The Dutch made vast improve-
ments to windmill design in the 1600s. European use of wind-
mills was by far the greatest in the Netherlands, where in
addition to milling grain and pumping water, the Dutch utilized
windmills to drain low-lying areas. In the 1800s, the more than
30,000 windmills operating around the North Sea region pro-
vided an important source of energy for Europe (Smil 1994, 112).
Biomass energy sources have been extremely valuable to hu-
mans throughout history. Wood, dried dung, crop residues,
animal oils, and waxes were important for domestic heating,
lighting, and food preparation. Additionally, charcoal (the carbon
substance produced when wood undergoes pyrolysis) was used
for smelting, a process used to purify iron ore (Fe2O3). During
smelting, high temperatures separate the iron from the oxygen,
combining it with carbon to strengthen the alloy. Metallurgy
proved to be the most energy-intensive process of the time period.
Metal ore needed to be mined, crushed, and then smelted. This
final stage required vast amounts of charcoal, and deforestation
became a major problem in societies with intense iron trades. By
the early 1700s, it is estimated that English iron production re-
quired approximately 1,100 square kilometers (approximately
425 square miles) of forest per year to sustain production (Smil
1994, 151). In the 1800s, U.S. iron production required approxi-
mately 2,600 square kilometers (approximately 1,004 square
miles) of forest (156).
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, deforestation
that occurred in England from iron production caused an energy
crisis as shortages of fuelwood, lumber, and charcoal increased
the prices of these resources. Coal, which was first commercially

extracted in Belgium in 1113 and shipped to England as early as
1228, became increasingly used in response to the fuel shortages
(Smil 1994, 159). Between 1540 and 1640, most of the coalfields in
England were being actively mined. Coke (a carbonized sub-
stance produced from the pyrolysis of coal) replaced charcoal as
the primary fuel used in metallurgy in the 1700s. The first major
energy transition from renewable sources to fossil energies oc-
curred in England during this time.
Industrial Revolution: 18501914

The industrial revolution is a broad term used to describe the pe-
riod in history that marks the rise in manufacturing and industry.
During this period, global energy needs dramatically increased
and population demographics shifted from rural to urban re-
gions. This section examines energy transitions and energy use
during the industrial revolution. Fossil fuels, especially coal, re-
placed biomass, water, and wood energies as the dominant re-
source used in society. Technological innovations in engine
design and resource extraction allowed industry to become in-
creasingly mechanized and transportation to be revolutionized.
Finally, the birth of the oil industry in the 1850s is significant as
the beginning of the oil transition.
Coal
In Europe, the transition to coal occurred in the eighteenth cen-
tury. In the 1700s, European cities were using coal gas as a source
for lighting and anthracite for heat. Anthracite was also impor-
tant in metallurgy as it provided more heat energy than charcoal
for the purposes of iron ore smelting. Steam engines were first de-
veloped in the late 1600s to increase coal mine production. These
engines used either wood or coal combustion to convert the
chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy. It wasnt until
James Watts innovations in design and efficiency in 1769 that the
steam engine became an important part of the industrialized
world (Smil 1994, 161). After Watts patent expired in 1800, a large
number of improvements made the steam engine compact, trans-
portable, and efficient. The steam engine powered railways and
steamboats, allowing faster transport of goods and people.
In the United States, wood was initially the primary resource
that fueled the industrial revolution. The vast amount of forest
resources in North America allowed the dependence on biomass

energy to continue longer than in Europe. Transportation and do-
mestic heating were the two primary uses of wood in the nine-
teenth century. In the 1850s, it was estimated that eighteen cords
of wood annually were used for home heating (Melosi 1985, 19).
(A cord of cut wood is 128 cubic feet and equals a stack that is 4
ft x 4 ft x 8 ft. The energy content of a cord of wood varies from
18,700 MJ/cord for softwood to 30,600 MJ/cord for hardwoods.)
Steam engines used approximately 3 million cords of wood per
year by the 1830s, and railroads consumed 140 cords per mile per
year as late as the 1870s (21). The reliance on wood during the
nineteenth century had established a wood-based infrastructure
for energy consumption. Industry was designed for charcoal
combustion and wood fireplaces dominated space heating appli-
cations (23).
Despite the availability of extensive wood resources, coal
came to be the dominant fuel that powered the latter half of the
industrial revolution in the United States. Anthracite became a
vital resource for domestic heating and lighting in urban areas
where coal oil and coal gas were cheaper alternatives to wood.
Between 1830 and 1850, anthracite coal was used for the smelting
of iron. This was especially important during the growth of rail-
ways as anthracite allowed ties, rails, and other iron products to
be produced more efficiently. Iron smelting became even more
efficient with coke made from bituminous coal. Coke replaced an-
thracite as an industrial fuel in the late 1800s; its use was paral-
leled by the rise in the steel industry. Innovations in smelting
techniques and the availability of coke allowed more efficient re-
moval of impurities and a greater amount of carbon to be forged
with the iron alloy.
As an industrial fuel, bituminous coal burned easier and
was more compatible with furnace design; however, it did not
burn as clean as anthracite, and smoke pollution became a seri-
ous problem in urban areas that supported iron and steel indus-
tries. While the electric utility industry mainly used anthracite,
bituminous resources were utilized during anthracite shortages,
causing a brown haze to settle over industrial regions. Smoke
pollution in cities, such as Pittsburgh and St. Louis, caused res-
piratory and public health problems leading to the formation of
smoke abatement coalitions, which were important for drawing
attention to public health issues associated with energy con-
sumption.
Oil
The Chinese were the first to utilize petroleum products for do-
mestic and commercial purposes. During the Han Dynasty, in 200
BCE, the Chinese used percussion drilling and bamboo pipelines
to transport natural gas for the purpose of brine evaporation
(Smil 1988, 167). Despite this innovation, the global petroleum in-
dustry was not born until the industrial revolution. The distilla-
tion of kerosene from petroleum first occurred in 1853 in London
by Abraham Gesner. Kerosene was a cheaper illuminant than
whale oil, and petroleum became an attractive commodity. In
1859, oil was struck in Titusville, Pennsylvania, by Colonel
Edwin Drake. The strike caused many oil prospectors to drill in
the area. By 1881, Pennsylvania was producing 95 percent of the
oil in the United States (Melosi 1985, 39).
In 1863, John D. Rockefeller invested in the new oil industry,
purchasing oil refineries in Pennsylvania and Ohio. By 1870,
Rockefeller established the Standard Oil Company, which came
to be the dominant producer in the oil industry. Standard Oil was
effective because it vertically integrated its ventures, operating
the drilling, refining, transport, and marketing of oil under the
same company. Because of its growth, Standard Oil organized the
Standard Oil Trust in 1882. This structure gave the company
greater flexibility in managing its business affairs by granting the
companys assets to a board of nine individuals (or trustees) who
would manage the companys affairs. The arrangement allowed
for greater flexibility to control prices in the oil market, granted
the company larger tax breaks, and provided a higher return to
investors. By 1904, Standard Oil was in control of 90 percent of
the kerosene production in the United States; however, the com-
pany faced antitrust lawsuits and accusations of operating a mo-
nopoly (Melosi 1985, 42). In 1911, a decision by the Supreme
Court disbanded the trust into thirty-four separate companies.
Three of these companies, Standard Oil of New Jersey (Exxon),
Standard Oil of New York (Mobil), and Standard Oil of California
(Socal) emerged as dominant players in the global oil industry.
The Pennsylvania boom set off a flurry of oil exploration.
Prospects for oil in California began in the 1860s, and other oil
fields were discovered in the midwestern and eastern states
through the 1890s. The discovery of an extensive oil field in
Spindletop, Texas, in 1901 challenged the dominance of the Stan-
dard Oil Company. The strike established the oil industry in
Texas and gave rise to the Texas Company (Texaco) and Gulf Oil,
which became the two other dominant U.S. oil companies in the
global market.
In addition to the large U.S. oil companies, two other oil gi-
ants emerged during the late 1800s. Royal Dutch Shell and British
Petroleum (BP) originated in Western Europe. Shell was founded
by Marcus Samuel as a shipping industry that transported coal
from Asia in the 1870s. In 1873, Shell gained access to the Russian
oil fields in Caucasus. In 1897, the Shell Transport and Trading
Company provided intense competition to Standard Oil on the
global oil market. At the same time, Royal Dutch, a Netherlands
company, began producing oil in the East Indies and was effec-
tively competing against Shell and Standard Oil. In 1906, Shell
merged with Royal Dutch.
BP, the other major European oil company, originated in
Great Britain. It was founded by William Knox DArcy as the
Anglo-Persian Company. Having obtained concessions to explore
and drill for oil in Persia, it was the first company to exploit oil
from the Middle East. Winston Churchill provided a major boost
to the Anglo-Persian Company in 1914 when the British govern-
ment bought half of the company for the purposes of supplying
the navy during wartime.
By 1910, these companies, (Standard Oil, Exxon, Mobil,
Socal, Texaco, British Petroleum [BP], and Royal Dutch Shell)
often called the Seven Sisters, had established themselves as
the dominant participants in the global oil market. During the
next fifty years, they expanded their operations throughout the
rest of the world. The next section discusses the evolution of the
major oil companies and how the world wars of the twentieth
century fueled the rise of oil.
Energy, War, and Global Expansion:

19141945
In the first half of the twentieth century, the importance of coal in
world markets waned and petroleum rose to be the dominant
global energy resource. Technology and electricity brought new
products to the consumer market, and the mass production of the
automobile increased the demand for gasoline. World Wars I and
II revealed energy security issues for the United States and West-
ern Europe, and the world emerged from these wars dependent
on cheap and abundant supplies of oil. This section addresses im-
portant events between 1914 and 1945 that allowed oil to become
the dominant resource used in the industrial world and expanded
the oil industry into Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East.
World War I began in Europe in 1914. Although the United
States did not become an active participant in the conflict until
1917, it aided French and British allies with energy resources and
supplies. Coal was still the dominant energy source used in West-
ern Europe and North America, but it was oil that powered motor
vehicles, airplanes, and cargo transport during the war. The
abundant oil resources from North America allowed the Allies to
defeat the Axis powers in 1919 and the United States to emerge
from the war as one of the dominant global economic powers.
In contrast to Europe, which sank into a postwar economic
depression, the United States experienced a boom of con-
sumerism in the 1920s. Cheap gasoline and efficient production
lines increased the availability of the automobile. By 1929, 5.6 mil-
lion cars had been produced in America, roughly one vehicle for
every five Americans (Melosi 1985, 108). The availability of cheap
electricity also accounted for increasing energy consumption in
the United States. Electrical appliances improved the efficiency of
domestic tasks, and radios and telephones marked the beginning
of the mass communication industry.
After the war, the seven major oil companies expanded their
ventures into the Middle East. BPs concessions were already es-
tablished in Persia (Iran), and Shell had taken part in the estab-
lishment of the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) in 1912 in
Iraq. Shell also had large concessions in Russia. In 1920, Russian
oil supplied 15 percent of global consumption, with Shell pro-
ducing two-thirds of this oil (Sampson 1975, 69). U.S. companies
were increasingly left out of Middle Eastern concessions until the
1920s, when the TPC was reorganized to form the Iran Petroleum
Company (IPC) and Exxon, Mobil, and Standard Oil gained 23.75
percent of the concessions (Melosi 1985, 107). Two important
agreements arose from this alliance. The first was the 1928 Red
Line Agreement, which designated an area in the Middle East
where IPC companies could not independently seek concessions.
This contract discouraged competition from outside companies
because much of the area (except for Saudi Arabia) was already
controlled by the IPC. It also limited competition between IPC
members. The second agreement was the 1928 Achnacarry (As-
Is) Agreement. It created a secret arrangement among the major
oil companies to fix oil prices to the Gulf Plus System, which
priced oil produced from the participating companies as if it had

been produced and shipped from the Gulf of Mexico (Sampson
1975, 73; Melosi 1985, 169). This agreement established the prece-
dent of the petrodollar, where the value of petroleum traded on
the world market is measured using the U.S. currency (see chap-
ter 2). The Gulf Plus System protected the market for expensive
U.S. oil and allowed Shell and BP to reap large profits from their
cheap oil. It was a way for the major oil companies to regulate
production among themselves in order to avoid oversupply. It
was originally made by Shell, BP, and Exxon, but approved by fif-
teen other companies including Gulf, Texaco, Socal, and Mobil.
The details of this agreement were not fully disclosed until 1952
(Sampson 1975, 7374).
Although Saudi Arabia contained the largest oil reserves in
the world, development of Saudi Arabian oil did not begin until
the 1930s. Saudi Arabia was one of the few areas that fell within
the Red Line that had not been explored by the major oil compa-
nies. In 1933, King Saud, the ruler of Saudi Arabia, granted Socal
a concession to explore for oil in the eastern half of the country.
Socal and Texaco were not a part of the Red Line Agreement and
therefore could seek Middle Eastern concessions independent of
the other major oil companies. Socal established the California
Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC), but was not successful
in marketing their resources. In 1936, Texaco joined the conces-
sion, and the merger formed the Arabian-American Oil Company
(ARAMCO). This marked the first all-U.S. company established
in the Middle East.
When World War II started, Socal and Texaco became con-
cerned about the security of their Saudi Arabian concessions. In
order to protect the resource, the United States lobbied the British
and French governments to release the other major oil companies
from the Red Line Agreement. In 1948, BP and Compagnie Fran-
caise de Petroles (CFP, the largest French oil producer) compro-
mised and were given expansions and infrastructure in Iraq in
exchange for the dissolution of the Red Line Agreement. With the
Red Line erased, Exxon and Mobil joined ARAMCO, with Mobil
receiving 10 percent of the concession and the other three compa-
nies receiving 30 percent (Sampson 1975, 104).
U.S. oil companies also obtained petroleum concessions in
Latin America. World War I increased Mexicos production sub-
stantially, but tensions persisting from the Mexican Revolution
discouraged investment in Mexicos resources in the 1920s. In
1938, Mexico nationalized its petroleum industry. It created

Petromex Petroleos Mexicanos (Pemex) and took possession of
the property and oil infrastructure that had been established by
seventeen U.S. and European companies. The Mexican expropri-
ation motivated additional tensions between oil companies and
the governments of producing countries. Venezuela, which be-
came the leading producer of oil during World War II, demanded
greater returns from the oil companies that were operating in
their country (namely Shell, Exxon, and Gulf). In order to main-
tain stability and avoid a trend of nationalism, an agreement was
reached in 1948 that provided a fifty-fifty share in all oil profits
with the Venezuelan government (Sampson 1975, 109).
World War II demanded high use of energy resources. Oil
was important to supply gasoline, jet fuel, and lubricants, while
coal was needed for steel manufacturing. The United States max-
imized production of these resources and provided 80 percent of
the oil used by European allies between 1941 and 1945 (Melosi
1985, 181). More efficient transport methods of crude oil were also
developed. During the war, the United States constructed two
large oil pipelines, the Big Inch, which delivered crude from the
Southwestern United States to Pennsylvania, and the Little Big
Inch, which stretched from Texas to New Jersey. Although the
United States sought to establish a policy of hemispheric solidar-
ity for the purpose of energy security, it recognized the future im-
portance of Middle Eastern oil and made attempts to ensure U.S.
concessions in that region. During the next thirty years, the pro-
ducing countries of the Middle East challenged the power of the
Seven Sisters, creating a climate of energy uncertainty.
Middle Eastern Oil: 19451970

Oil production and supply became more unstable for the United
States and Europe after World War II. Although the United States
and Europe remained strong economic powers, they relied in-
creasingly on Middle Eastern oil to supply rising domestic de-
mand. Control of resources by the major oil companies faltered as
political tensions halted oil transport and demands for national-
ism from producing countries threatened concessions. The devel-
opment of other energy resources was important during this
period, as they provided alternatives to coal and petroleum for
electricity generation. This section examines how Middle Eastern
tensions and the influence of oil-producing countries shifted the
balance of power away from the large multinational companies.

Then, it discusses the growth and early development of nuclear
power, natural gas, and hydropower resources.
Oil and the Middle East

World War II was devastating to Western Europe. Coal mines that
had been under the control of Nazi Germany were damaged and
mines in Britain were not able to supply the necessary resources
to make up for the shortage. As a result, Europe experienced a
large domestic energy crisis. The European Coal Organization
(ECO) was formed as the first transnational alliance to respond to
an energy crisis. It was responsible for regulating the allocation of
coal resources among its ten member states. The member states of
the European Coal Organization were Belgium, Denmark,
France, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Turkey,
the United Kingdom, and the United States. The Eastern Euro-
pean states were left out of the association because of the refusal
by the Soviet Union to participate in the ECO (Kapstein 1990, 29).
In order to aid its allies, the United States produced the Marshall
Plan in 1947, which provided economic and energy aid to Europe
by supplying equipment for mine recovery and emphasized a
transition to a petroleum-based economy using imports from the
Middle East. The Marshall Plan also contained political motiva-
tions, as the United States sought to discourage coal imports from
Poland, an ally to the Soviet Union. The United States feared that
if Poland became economically important to Europe, Communist
influence would dominate European politics. In 1947, the ECO
was dissolved and the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) formed in its place (Hunter and Smith, 2005). The ECSC
united European countries and was responsible for responding to
energy crises in addition to allocating coal and maintaining mar-
kets for coal resources.
The end of World War II was also important for energy dy-
namics in the United States. In 1947, America became a net im-
porter (rather than a net exporter) of oil. This shift was due to
increasing consumption of oil, insufficient means for controlling
waste during the production of petroleum, and the large use of oil
during the war. It is a significant point in energy history because
it marks the beginning of the United States dependence on for-
eign oil. Although the United States still supplied a significant
amount of oil to the energy market, its influence in the energy
economy increasingly relied on the ability of multinational
companies to secure international oil resources. For the next

thirty years, this reliance proved to be difficult as political ten-
sions hindered the flow of oil from the Middle East and produc-
ing countries became more powerful.
Following the nationalization and profit-sharing success that
occurred in Latin America, Middle Eastern producing nations be-
came interested in examining their own relationships with oil
companies. From 1951 to 1954, Iran was the first country to at-
tempt nationalization of its oil reserves. In 1951, after profit-shar-
ing negotiations failed with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company
(AIOC, previously known as the Iran Petroleum Company), the
AIOC refinery complex was shut down. The Iranian nationaliza-
tion was not completely successful. Iran was not able to secure
contracts with other oil companies, and overproduction in world
oil allowed supplies from other producing countries to supple-
ment the market. In 1954, an agreement was reached between
Iran, the United States, and Great Britain that provided for na-
tional ownership of all AIOC properties by the National Iranian
Oil Company (NIOC), but relied on a consortium of foreign oil
companies to produce the oil.
Although the energy market emerged from the Iranian crisis
relatively unscathed, the Suez Crisis in 1955 proved to be more
devastating to European energy security. By 1956, oil accounted
for approximately 22 percent of total European energy con-
sumption with 90 percent of this oil being supplied by the
Middle East and 70 percent shipped through the Suez Canal (a
man-made waterway that was operated by the British-owned
Suez Canal Company) (Kapstein 1990, 103105). In July 1956, the
Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nassar, nationalized the Suez
Canal. Great Britain, France, and Israel, fearful that the oil sup-
ply would be disrupted, responded by organizing a coordinated
attack against Egypt (without the support of the United States)
for the purpose of taking control of the canal. Although the fight-
ing ceased by December 1956, the canal remained closed to oil
shipments until May 1957 and an extensive energy crisis plagued
Europe. The closing of the canal shut off two-thirds of the oil
shipped to Europe. Although emergency supplies flowed from
the United States, this nation was reluctant to provide support
and Europe realized the consequences of its reliance on Middle
Eastern oil. In response to the crisis, the Organization for Euro-
pean Economic Cooperation (OEEC) developed energy strate-
gies for future shortages that created emergency petroleum
stockpiles and diversified member countries oil resources by se-

curing reserves in North Africa and Russia.
The Suez Crisis also impacted energy policy in the United
States and raised concern over increasing reliance on foreign
sources. In 1959, President Dwight Eisenhower established the
Mandatory Oil Import Program (MOIP), which limited petro-
leum imports at a set amount and controlled them with the is-
suance of quota tickets to individual companies. Although it
was a national policy constructed to address energy security is-
sues in the United States, the MOIP affected the global energy
market by lowering the price of international oil. Because of the
quotas, demand for foreign oil was lowered in the United States,
but world supply of oil remained the same. This imbalance cre-
ated a trend of decreasing oil prices. Additionally, the opening of
new oil markets in northern Africa (Algeria) increased the supply
of world oil and caused oil companies to implement two succes-
sive price reductions in 1959 and 1960. In light of the declining
world oil prices, major producing countries faced declining rev-
enue and in response formed the Organization of Petroleum Ex-
porting Countries (OPEC) in 1960. Members of OPEC (Saudi Ara-
bia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela) required that original
prices be restored and demanded consultation prior to price re-
ductions. OPECs influence was minor throughout the 1960s, but
the cartel contributed to the increasing unease that was felt by
consuming nations. In response to OPEC, major industrialized
nations established the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) in 1961. This organization replaced the
OEEC and extended membership to the United States, Canada,
Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. Although not established to
deal with energy matters exclusively, the OECD in part devel-
oped strategies to deal with energy shortages among industrial-
ized nations.
The energy emergency strategies that were developed after
the Suez Crisis helped alleviate the impacts of another oil crisis
that emerged in 1967 when tensions escalated between Israel and
Arab nations. In June 1967, Israel preemptively attacked Egypt,
marking the beginning of the Six-Day War. Because of their sup-
port for Israel, Arab states implemented an oil embargo against
the United States and Europe. The oil shortage that followed was
alleviated by an increase in exports from Venezuela and Iran
(which did not participate in the embargo) and from an increase
in U.S. production. Although the embargo was lifted by the end
of July, unrest intensified among Arab producing nations over

Western support for Israel. In 1968, Arab states founded the Or-
ganization for Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) for
the purpose of uniting political interests in the Arab nations. The
conflict between Arab and Israeli nations was heightened during
the seventies, leading to energy crises that altered the global en-
ergy economy.
Natural Gas, Hydropower, and Nuclear Energy

Natural gas, hydropower, and nuclear energy are three primary
sources that became important during the twentieth century. Nat-
ural gas resources are generally found associated with oil re-
serves, but it wasnt until the 1920s, when advances in pipeline
design allowed for easier transport, that gas became a commod-
ity. Natural gas burned cleaner than oil or coal and hence was at-
tractive as a domestic fuel. In the United States, an extensive gas
pipeline network was constructed following the passage in 1938
of the Natural Gas Act, which regulated the price of natural gas
between producing states and consuming states. In Russia, dis-
covery and expansion of natural gas fields in Siberia, the Ukraine,
and North Caucasus in the 1950s and 1960s led to the develop-
ment of an extensive natural gas pipeline through central Russia
(Dienes and Shabad 1979, 75). The development of natural gas
pipelines in Russia also allowed Europe to import natural gas.
European gas consumption increased with the discovery of gas
and oil reserves in the North Sea in the 1960s.
Hydropower also came to be an important energy resource
for the generation of electricity. Governments in industrialized
countries sponsored large water projects. The United States con-
structed large dams along many rivers and developed river basin
co-operations to coordinate the distribution of electricity. One
such project, the Tennessee Valley Authority, was created in the
1930s. In the Soviet Union, development of large-scale hy-
dropower projects also began in the 1930s along the Dnieper
River, and hydropower developments expanded drastically in
the 1950s into Siberia and Central Russia (Dienes and Shabad
1979, 136137). Hydropower provided a cheap, efficient resource
for electricity and irrigation. Large water projects were extended
into many developing countries, such as Brazil and India,
throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Worldwide, construction of large
dams peaked in the mid-1960s, with approximately 1,000 large
dams being constructed per year (Khagram 2004, 8).
Nuclear power emerged in the United States with the devel-

opment and use of the atomic bomb during World War II. After
the war, nuclear energys promise as an alternative to polluting
coal made it an attractive energy source to the power industry. In
1953, Eisenhowers famous Atoms for Peace speech at the
United Nations pledged support for the peaceful development of
nuclear technology. This speech led to the establishment of the In-
ternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1956 with eighty-
one member countries. Its goal was to act as a watchdog agency,
providing verification of the safety and security of nuclear devel-
opment around the world (Fischer 1997, 1).
In the United States, the federal government passed the
Atomic Energy Act in 1946, which established the Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC) and the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
(JCAE) in Congress. These two governing bodies regulated the
nuclear power industry and established federal ownership of
nuclear fuels. The 1954 Atomic Energy Act and the 1957 Price-
Anderson Act provided incentives for private nuclear power de-
velopment by allowing private firms to own nuclear reactors and
by limiting the liability of potential nuclear accidents with subsi-
dies that would cover the damages. Although these measures in-
creased the development of nuclear resources, public health and
safety concerns hindered the expansion of nuclear power.
The nuclear power industry was also adopted in other parts
of the world. In Russia, the first nuclear reactor became opera-
tional in 1954. By 1975, more than 6,200 MW of generating capac-
ity was installed (Pryde 1979, 151). In Europe, nuclear energy of-
fered an alternative to coal and a buffer against the volatility of the
oil market in the 1960s and 1970s. Coordination of nuclear tech-
nology and resources was examined by Euratom, an organization
established by the ECSC in 1955 to research nuclear technology
development in European nations. Euratoms influence grew after
the Suez Crisis, but multinational coordination was ultimately un-
dermined by initiatives in member countries to develop nuclear
resources independently. This was the case in the 1970s when the
security of energy resources was increasingly threatened.
Energy Crisis: 19701980

The energy crisis that emerged during the 1970s resulted from in-
creasing tensions in the Middle East and a growing concern for
environmental degradation from energy use. Conflict between

Israel and the Arab world intensified, creating drastic conse-
quences for the energy market. Additionally, increasing appre-
hension over the environmental impacts of energy production
and consumption altered the regulatory climate in which the en-
ergy industry operated. This section describes the energy crises
that emerged from the 1973 oil embargo and how these events
changed the energy industry. The environmental effects of energy
consumption are examined further in chapter 2.
Oil Embargo
Until 1970, impacts to the energy market as a result of Middle
East tensions were buffered by the capacity of the major oil com-
panies to control production and prices in other parts of the
world. Major consuming nations also cushioned the impact to
world markets through cooperation and support. This alliance
changed in the 1970s as allied nations sought to protect their own
energy interests over global energy stability (Kapstein 1990, 152).
Throughout the 1960s, the Middle East became the center of
world oil, accounting for 38 percent of world production and 90
percent of international trade (Melosi 1985, 249). The Yom Kippur
War of 1973 provided the catalyst for OPECs emergence as the
leader in oil production and pricing. When Egypt and Syria
launched a surprise attack on Israel in October 1973, the United
States airlifted weapons to aid the Israeli defense. In response,
members of OAPEC initiated an oil embargo against the United
States and other allies of Israel. Saudi Arabia participated in the
embargo, and ARAMCO was ordered to cut production by 25
percent and cease shipments to the United States. Additionally,
OPEC increased world prices of oil from $3.00 per barrel to $11.65
per barrel (Hatch 1986, 32). Although the major oil-producing
companies responded by increasing production in other coun-
tries, shipments of crude to the United States dropped from 6 mil-
lion to 5 million barrels per day, and the country experienced the
largest energy crisis in its history (Melosi 1985, 238).
The embargo ended in March 1974, six months after it had
been initiated. It was largely aimed at the United States and al-
lies of Israel, but the action by OPEC had produced drastic price
increases in crude oil. Although a global recession resulted in a
decrease in demand for OPEC oil, the cartel maintained its pric-
ing power and the oil market remained relatively stable be-
tween 1974 and 1978. In 1978, tensions in the Middle East again
demonstrated the volatility of the oil market when the Iranian
Revolution raised the price of oil on the spot market to as high
as $45 per barrel (Melosi 1985, 282).
Global Response to the Embargo

The oil embargo of 19731974 not only demonstrated the conse-
quences of dependence on foreign oil, it also showed the devel-
oped world that it could not always rely on cheap, abundant oil.
In 1974, the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established
within the framework of the OECD as a direct response to the em-
bargo. Its mission was to develop strategies for energy security
during emergencies and to reduce member countries depend-
ence on oil (IEA 2005). Non-OECD countries also developed
strategies for oil emergencies. The Association for Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) developed a Council on Petroleum (AS-
COPE) to coordinate the management of energy resources in
member countries in the event of shortages or oversupply of pe-
troleum (Karki, Mann, and Salehfar 2005, 499). (The ASEAN was
established in 1967. It is made up of ten countries: Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei Darussalam,
Vietnam, Laos Peoples Republic, Myanmar [formerly Burma],
and Cambodia.)
Many countries implemented national energy policies to ad-
dress concern over energy security. In Europe, France, Germany,
and the Netherlands began to expand their nuclear programs.
Great Britain continued to diversify its oil imports, exploiting re-
sources in the North Sea and Algeria. Europe also began to in-
crease oil imports from the Soviet Union. In the United States, the
embargo spurred development of domestic supplies as well as
the formation of a unified energy policy and conservation mea-
sures. U.S. energy policy is discussed further in chapter 3.
Despite the many actions taken to alleviate concerns over oil
security, no significant measures were taken to move energy de-
pendence toward renewable sources. Consequently, global en-
ergy use has become more reliant upon fossil fuels in the thirty
years since the oil embargo. In addition, the use of these sources
has rapidly accelerated with the industrialization of many devel-
oping countries. In the next chapter, events associated with global
energy use are described in the context of the social and environ-
mental problems they create.
References 37
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of energy fundamentals
and historical energy trends and transitions. Major themes of
the chapter focus on the nature of energy, the sources of energy,
and the importance of energy to society. The historical account
of energy transitions highlights the dominance of fossil fuels
throughout the past 150 years and the importance of energy sta-
bility for national security. As the world becomes more industri-
alized, the demand for energy is going to dramatically increase.
The reliance on fossil energies is problematic for nations as they
seek to secure adequate supplies of energy resources and for the
world as it battles environmental and social problems associ-
ated with the trends in energy use. The next chapter describes
these problems.
References
Alexander, G. 1996. An Overview: The Context of Renewable Energy
Technologies. In Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future, edited
by G. Boyle, 139. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Boyle, G. 1996. Solar Photovoltaics. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Sustainable Future, edited by G. Boyle, 89136. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
Brown, G. 1996. Geothermal Energy. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Sustainable Future, edited by G. Boyle, 353392. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Dienes, L., and T. Shabad. 1979. The Soviet Energy System: Resource Use
and Policies. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Duckers, L. 1996. Wave Energy. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Elliot, D. 1996. Tidal Power. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2004a. Energy Kids.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/index.html (accessed July
7, 2005).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2004b. International

Energy. In Annual Energy Review. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/
contents.html (accessed June 30, 2005).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2004c. World Consumption
of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups
(Standard Units), 19802002. International Energy Annual 2002.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/ (accessed June 29, 2005).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2005a. International Energy
Annual 2003 Glossary. May 25, 2005. http://www.eia.doe.gov/
emeu/iea/glossary.html (accessed July 7, 2005).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2005b. World Proved
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/ (accessed June 29, 2005).
Everett, B. 1996. Solar Thermal Energy. In Renewable Energy: Power for
a Sustainable Future, edited by G. Boyle, 4188. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
Fischer, D. 1997. History of the IAEA: The First Forty Years. Vienna:
International Atomic Energy Agency.
Hatch, M. T. 1986. Politics and Nuclear Power: Energy Policy in Western
Europe. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
Hunter, J., and Z. A. Smith. 2005. Protecting Our Environment: Lessons
from the European Union. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Ingersoll, J. G. 1990. Solar Thermal Energy. In The Energy Sourcebook:
A Guide to Resources, Technology and Policy, edited by R. Howes and A.
Fainberg. New York: American Institute of Physics.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2005. An Overview.
http://www.iea.org/ (accessed July 21, 2005).
Kapstein, E. B. 1990. The Insecure Alliance: Energy Crises and Western
Politics since 1944. New York: Oxford University Press.
Karki, S. K., M. D. Mann, and H. Salehfar. 2005. Energy and
Environment in the ASEAN: Challenges and Opportunities. Energy
Policy 33, 4 (March 2005): 499509.
Khagram, Sanjeev. 2004. Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles
for Water and Power. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Mellgren, D. 2005. Groundbreaking Wave Power Electricity Project to
Be Built off Portugal. Associated Press Environmental News Network.
May 23, 2005. http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=7791 (accessed July
7, 2005).
Melosi, M. V. 1985. Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in
Industrial America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
References 39
Miller, E. W., and R. M. Miller. 1993. Energy and American Society: A

Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA). 2005. Facts and Figures. Nuclear
Energy Data 2005. http://www.nea.fr/html/general/facts.html
(accessed August 3, 2005).
Pyrde, P. R. 1979. Nuclear Power. In The Soviet Energy System:
Resource Use and Policies, edited by L. Dienes and T. Shabad, 151182.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Ramage, J. 1996. Hydroelectricity. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Ramage, J. 1997. Energy: A Guidebook, New Edition. Oxford, England:
Ramage, J., and J. Scurlock. 1996. Biomass. In Renewable Energy: Power
for a Sustainable Future, edited by G. Boyle, 137182. Oxford, England:
Rose, D. J. 1986. Learning about Energy. New York: Plenum Press.
Sampson, A. 1975. The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the
World They Shaped. New York: Viking Press.
Smil, V. 1988. Energy in Chinas Modernization. Armonk, NY: M. E.
Sharpe.
Smil, V. 1994. Energy in World History. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Smil, V. 1999. Energies: An Illustrated Guide to the Biosphere and
Civilization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Smil, V. 2003. Energy at the Crossroads: Global Perspectives and
Uncertainties. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Stoker, H. S., S. L. Seager, and R. L. Capener. 1975. Energy: From Source
to Use. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Taylor, D. 1996. Wind Energy. In Renewable Energy: Power for a
Sustainable Future, edited by G. Boyle, 270-320. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
Wolfson, R., and J. M. Pasachoff. 1995. Physics: With Modern Physics for
Scientists and Engineers. 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins College
Publishers.
2
Problems, Controversies,
and Solutions
Introduction
C
hapter 1 described how energy is a vital, fundamental compo-
nent of society. Society depends on energy availability and dis-
tribution to function. It showed how humans have harnessed
and used energy from different sources and how the primary
sources of energy have changed over time.
This chapter discusses trends that impact worldwide energy
use, the global environmental and social problems associated
with energy consumption, and potential solutions to problems.
The first section describes how energy systems and economics
are intertwined and develops the context necessary for under-
standing global energy issues. The second section examines en-
vironmental and social problems of energy use. Finally, potential
solutions to energy problems are discussed.
Energy and Economics

Energy is fundamental to economic development. Without en-
ergy resources, businesses would not be able to light their stores,
people and goods would not be able to reach markets on the other
side of the world, homes and schools would be more difficult to
heat, and manufacturing sectors would not be able to produce
41
42 Problems, Controversies, and Solutions
clothes, radios, or any products used on a daily basis. In short, the

world economy depends on energy, and the largest economies of
the world (i.e., those of industrialized countries) rely on cheap
and abundant supplies of energy. This reliance has large social
and environmental costs. In order to understand those costs, one
must first understand the link between energy and the economy.
Energy use in society is often correlated with the gross do-
mestic product (GDP) of national economies. GDP is simply a
measure of the goods and services produced annually in a partic-
ular country. For example, according to the World Bank, the GDP
of the United States was $11.667 trillion in 2004 (World Bank
2005), making it the largest in the world. GDP is often used in dis-
cussions of energy use because there is a strong linear correlation
between the amount of energy consumed in a society per capita
(per person, per year) and a nations GDP (Smil 2003, 68). That is,
in general if a countrys GDP is higher relative to other countries,
more energy is consumed per capita in that country (figure 2.1).
This link is often described using a measure called energy inten-
sity (EI), which is the ratio of energy use in common units of en-
ergy (e.g., gigajoules [GJ]) to GDP (e.g., measured in dollars).
EI = energy consumed (GJ) / GDP per capita (U.S. dollars)
So if a countrys EI value is relatively low, then it is not

thought to consume a lot of energy and it might have a lower
GDP. Conversely, a high EI would indicate that both energy con-
sumption and GDP are high.
It is important to note that the relationship between energy
consumption and GDP is not always as clear as the simple linear
model described above. Because of this, EI by itself cannot be
used to make sweeping claims about energy consumption. A
country may have a relatively high GDP and a low EI if its in-
dustries are more efficient at producing and consuming energy
resources. Recall that energy efficiency was a term introduced in
the previous chapter as being the ratio of useful energy output to
total energy input. At a societal level, the idea of energy efficiency
can be thought of as how much energy services are gained (i.e.,
lighting, transportation, etc.) from the same energy inputs (i.e.,
coal, oil, etc.) (Smil 2003, 318). Efficiency in energy use depends
upon what energy resources are used and the technology used in
energy conversions. For example, hydropower plants are 90 per-
cent efficient in converting stored potential energy into electricity,
Energy and Economics 43
FIGURE 2.1
A General Correlation between GDP and Energy Consumption
HIGH
Energy
use
per
capita
(GJ)
LOW
LOW HIGH
GDP per capita (dollars)
whereas coal-fired power plants are between 30 and 40 percent

efficient depending on what combustion technology is used
(Manahan 2000). Because energy efficiencies are different for all
countries, it is important to understand that GDP may not always
be the best indicator of energy use in a society and vice versa.
While energy intensities are a common descriptive measure used
to understand energy dynamics, they should be considered
within the context of what a countrys primary energy resources
are and the efficiency of its infrastructure. This is also true for
linking energy use to quality of life measures. Analysts often as-
sume that high energy use in society correlates with a higher
quality of life. While this may be the general case, energy dy-
namics need to be considered in context.
Despite these difficulties, broad observations regarding EI
trends over time and economic development have been useful
for predicting future energy trends. In general, energy intensities

increase as a country begins to industrialize (Smil 2003, 68). That
is, as a country starts to produce more in manufacturing (e.g.,
textiles) and industrial (e.g., steel) sectors, it uses more energy.
GDP increases because more goods and services are being pro-
duced, but because the energy infrastructure is not developed
compared to its industrialized counterparts, energy is being used
less efficiently. After a relatively short peak, a countrys EI drops
as its energy systems become more efficient (figure 2.2). This par-
ticular correlation is important in examining global energy
trends as well as other significant aspects of global energy use
and economics.
Energy Markets and Pricing

The global market for energy is the means by which energy re-
sources are traded among countries and within entities that sup-
ply, produce, and distribute energy. Most nations do not have
domestic natural resources available to support their energy
needs, so they buy energy from other countries. These transac-
tions are most often carried out by large energy companies. Trans-
actions are complex and constantly changing to reflect variable
energy prices and investor attitudes. Energy giants, such as the oil
companies of BP, Shell, and Exxon-Mobil, dominate the global en-
ergy markets. Oil is not the only thing sold by energy companies,
which make an incredible amount of money selling energy re-
sources and services. It is important to consider the power
wielded by energy giants when thinking about the problems as-
sociated with global energy dynamics. This section describes why
energy pricing is important and how governments work to stabi-
lize prices.
Energy prices are important because cheap energy allows for
economic growth. Nations strive for continuous economic
growth because it increases the quality of life for citizens and pro-
vides greater trade opportunities. High energy prices and market
volatility make it difficult for some countries to obtain the neces-
sary resources. Hence, it is in a nations best interest to keep en-
ergy prices stable.
The most common way that prices are manipulated by gov-
ernments is through energy subsidies. These are payments or re-
wards granted by governments to energy companies for the
purpose of minimizing the cost of energy produced for public con-
FIGURE 2.2
General Trends in Energy Intensity during Industrial Development
Peak of energy intensity: GDP

increasing, energy consumption
high, EI high
Energy
Intensity GDP continues to increase,
improvements in energy
(EI)
efficiency result in lower EI
Initial period of industrial

activity: GDP low, energy
consumption low, EI low
Time
sumption. They are important components of national energy

policies because they are thought to promote economic growth.
Subsidies can be in the form of direct payments, tax exemptions,
or funding for research and development that may provide po-
tential energy sources in the future (EIA 1999). Since energy prices,
particularly for crude oil, are determined from fluctuations in de-
mand and supply curves, subsidies affect prices because they en-
courage a supply increase in a particular energy resource on the
market. By subsidizing certain resources, a government can influ-
ence which energy sources are utilized in society.
The main problem that arises with subsidies is that it makes
it more difficult to determine real energy prices based on costs of
production. Because of subsidies, people do not pay the real price
that it costs to produce the resource. Furthermore, the largest sub-
sidies go to energy sources that are damaging to the environment.
As a result, pricing schemes are distorted because they do not re-
flect the environmental and health costs associated with energy
production. Another aspect of energy subsidies is that they
encourage wasteful energy consumption. When energy is cheap,

people arent concerned about conserving resources. Moreover,
energy companies often promote excessive consumption because
they receive larger subsidies if they can supply more energy. Pro-
posed solutions to these issues are discussed a little later.
An interesting point to note regarding energy markets is that
the most traded energy commodity in the world today is crude
oil. About 65 percent of the oil that is produced globally is ex-
ported to more than 130 countries (Smil 2003, 45). Approximately
85 million barrels of oil per day were traded on the market in De-
cember 2005 at an average price of $59.45 per barrel (IEA 2006).
As of this publication, the only accepted currency for oil trade is
the U.S. dollar. This means that countries must have U.S. currency
in their treasuries or banks to purchase crude oil; they cannot use
their own national currencies. (The petrodollar was established
with the As-Is Agreement [see chapter 1].) The use of petrodol-
lars is particularly advantageous to the United States, as it gives
U.S. companies dominance in the oil markets. However, it is in-
evitable that this standard will be challenged as markets become
increasingly globalized.
Globalization
More and more, energy markets are becoming increasingly glob-
alized as companies are becoming more integrated within differ-
ent regions and across national boundaries. As information pro-
cessing and transportation rapidly expand across the globe,
access to energy resources becomes more available for developing
countries. Additionally, developing countries that have abundant
natural resources (i.e., the raw ingredients for energy conver-
sions) have increasing opportunities to access energy markets
and profit from the sale of oil or natural gas.
Market liberalization and privatization are important charac-
teristics of globalization. Globalization has increased the power of
transnational corporations (TNCs). TNCs are companies that own
industries, operations, and distribution centers outside of their
parent countrys borders. As TNCs become more powerful, na-
tional companies (those that produce and distribute goods within
the borders of their parent countries) are pressured to sell their as-
sets to TNCs. This process is market liberalization. Market priva-
tization occurs when energy companies owned by national
governments (i.e., state owned) sell their resources to private
companies and no longer control resource extraction. On one

hand, privatization gives developing countries a means to enter
the global market. On the other hand, it causes many developing
countries to lose access to their own natural resources. Critics
contend that these countries are being exploited for their oil and
gas reserves.
All in all, there are positive and negative aspects with respect
to globalization. Globalization has the potential to raise the stan-
dard of living in many impoverished countries. However, in the
absence of global environmental norms and economic accounta-
bility, this trend can be damaging to both the environments and
the economies of developing countries. Furthermore, high for-
eign investment in fossil energies can create a reliance on profits
that are characteristically subject to unstable price shifts. If a large
percentage of a countrys revenue is based on an unstable oil mar-
ket, its economy can experience boom and bust cycles, where
cheap prices encourage investment, but rapid price shifts can lead
to devastating recessions. These uncertain economic patterns can
increase a nations debt and exacerbate poverty (Clapp and Dau-
vergne 2005, 172).
Often developing countries do not have the resources to
adopt and enforce environmental standards. If transnational en-
ergy companies invest in these countries, they may not develop
the resources according to the environmental standards of their
parent country. Without regulation, oil and natural gas develop-
ment can significantly degrade the environment, reduce the
amount of arable land, and pollute the water and air. Such was the
case in Nigeria, Africas largest oil producer, where the oil giant
Chevron developed an incredible oil infrastructure and pipeline
system throughout the Niger Delta. Because Chevron did not need
to adhere to environmental laws, the safety of the Nigerian people
was at risk. For example, frequent gas flares (a practice used to
cheaply remove unwanted gas from the oil) endangered people
who lived close to the pipelines. Often the flares caused explo-
sions, like one in 2000 that killed more than 700 people (Goodman
and Goodman 2004, 71). Flares also released large amounts of pol-
lution, endangering human health and deteriorating ecosystems.
Despite these risks endured by millions of Nigerians, many still
live in desperate poverty, unable to afford the basic energy re-
sources that are exported from their own country.
The case of Nigeria provides an example of how globaliza-
tion can be important in understanding energy use, but what
about some of the other economic concepts? Why are energy

intensities relevant? What is the importance of a global energy
market? And why must governments carefully plan how they
subsidize energy? The next section demonstrates how these con-
cepts are important to trends in energy use.
Energy Trends
The linkage of energy to the global economy can only be put into
perspective with an analysis of events and trends highlighting
how these components of society are intertwined. The following
discussion seeks to deepen understanding of fundamental energy
and economy concepts using real examples and demonstrates
how energy planning has political and economic implications in
a countrys development. First is an examination of how highly
subsidized and state-centralized energy systems of the former So-
viet Union resulted in incredible energy inefficiencies, causing
former Soviet republics to be largely uncompetitive in a capital-
ist, global market. Next is a discussion of the rapid rate of indus-
trialization occurring in the developing world and how this trend
is important to consider in the context of depleting fossil fuel re-
serves.
Centralized Energy Systems

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 is an important example
of how economies are linked to energy systems. The Communist
regime developed many energy-intensive industries with little
regard to environmental effects. The Soviet republics pursued
many years of rapid economic growth without developing
means to increase energy efficiency. Energy resources were state-
owned and heavily subsidized by the government to promote
economic growth. This promotion led to excessive consumption
without regard to conservation. Because measures were never
taken to improve energy efficiencies, energy intensities in the re-
gion remained very high. In other words, despite producing only
a fraction of the GDP that was produced by the European Union
(EU), energy consumption in the republics was many times
greater.
Even though it has been over twenty-five years since the col-
lapse of the Soviet Union, the energy systems in former Soviet
bloc countries remain inefficient. In addition, ecological damage
that ensued as a result of grossly inefficient infrastructure poses a
problem for many of the countries. During the Communist era,

electricity generation relied mainly on coal-fired power plants.
These facilities often did not employ the efficient designs devel-
oped since the 1970s and pollution control measures were largely
absent. As a result, some countries have had to contend with pol-
luted waters and lower crop yields.
This example is important because it demonstrates how
poorly planned energy systems can cause long-term problems. In
order for former Soviet countries to become competitive in a
global, capitalist market, it is necessary for them to improve en-
ergy efficiencies. The transition is difficult because it requires
large amounts of capital funding, which is lacking in countries
whose economies have been devastated from the fall of their cen-
tralized economic and political systems. Hence, their assimilation
into capitalist economies has been difficult.
Industrialization of Developing Countries

World energy demand continues to rise as more developing
countries become industrialized. Increasing along with demand
is the scarcity of fossil fuel resources and the consequences of fos-
sil fuel reliance. Asia is the area of the world that is expected to
experience the largest increase in energy demand over the next
twenty years. This region, with over 50 percent of the global pop-
ulation, is expected to surpass the United States and Europe as
the worlds largest consumer of primary energy sources by 2010
(Manning 2000, 59). In a globalized economy, energy trends in
Asia are important for future global energy security. Economic
growth in Asia has rapidly increased over the last forty years, ris-
ing from 4 percent of world GDP in 1960 to 25 percent in 1995
(62). Much of the resulting increase in energy demand has oc-
curred in China.
China began its industrialization in the 1940s and 1950s dur-
ing a time when it supplied not only its own initial growth but
provided coal resources to Stalinist Russia (Smil 1998, 85). China,
endowed with abundant coal reserves, relies on coal to supply
approximately 68 percent of its energy needs, and petroleum re-
sources account for 25 percent of energy consumption (Manning
2000, 93). Chinese demand for oil has grown, and the country is
expected to become the worlds largest importer of oil by 2025
(105). This trend creates substantial impacts for the oil industry as
Chinese petroleum companies increase their influence in the Mid-
dle East. In 1997, the Chinese National Petroleum Company
(CNPC) outbid other major oil companies (including Exxon-

Mobil) to acquire oil fields in Kazakhstan and develop petroleum
resources in Iran, Iraq, Venezuela, and Sudan (Manning 2000, 86).
In 2005, the Chinese oil company Cnooc sought to purchase the
U.S. oil giant Unocal. Cnoocs $18.5 billion offer (the highest bid)
for the company resulted in heightened tensions between the
United States and China (Barboza and Sorkin 2005). Many U.S.
businesses and lawmakers protested the potential acquisition,
and in the face of mounting political opposition, Cnooc withdrew
its offer. Although Cnooc was not successful in acquiring Unocal,
the attempt demonstrates the growing Chinese presence in the
global market and potential threat to U.S. energy security because
of increased competition for Middle East oil resources. Chinese
energy companies are becoming increasingly globalized as they
seek ways to fuel their own economic growth via acquisitions of
foreign resources and companies. As Chinas power grows, it
could threaten the dominance of U.S. companies in the oil market,
resulting in strained political relations between the two countries.
Since China is the primary trading partner of the United States,
heightened tensions between the two countries could be detri-
mental to other business relations. (Conflicts associated with en-
ergy are discussed in greater detail later on.)
Increased energy consumption in China reflects a larger trend
of energy demand emerging from Asia. Energy consumption in
India, South Korea, and Indonesia has drastically increased, and
Japan continues to import the majority of its energy resources. Al-
though it is inevitable that these and other nations become indus-
trialized, it is important to remember that the energy resources
used to support this industrialization are nonrenewable fuels
(coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear). In China, 97.5 percent
of energy is derived from these resources (Manning 2000, 93). In
India, they account for 92 percent (125). (These numbers do not in-
clude estimates of biomass fuels. Biomass resources are especially
important in rural areas of China and India where they are used
for domestic heating and food preparation purposes.)
These trends are particularly relevant in light of the earlier
discussion regarding economic development and energy intensi-
ties. While the EI in China has been decreasing steadily since 1980
(Geller 2003, 96), EIs in many other developing countries are rap-
idly increasing as they use more energy in a less efficient way than
the developed countries of Western Europe and North America.
At some point, the EIs in these countries are expected to peak and
Environmental and Social Problems 51
then decrease. But until that happens, energy consumption is

greater than what it would be if more efficient systems were being
utilized. Inefficient consumption has both environmental and so-
cial implications. The next section discusses why growth in the en-
ergy sector is especially relevant in the context of the problems
that arise from dependence on fossil energies.
Environmental and Social Problems

Why do trends in global energy use matter? Economic growth is
good for developing countries; it creates jobs, increases trade, and
helps pull people out of poverty, right? Overall, its good when
countries experience economic growth, so why are people con-
cerned with the increasing demands for energy? These questions
are answered in the next couple of sections.
There are many social and environmental problems related
to the worlds reliance on commercial fossil energies. The
processes of extracting, refining, distributing, and using energy
create many problems, including air and water pollution and
land degradation. These impacts may have serious consequences
for human health and well-being. In addition to environmental
effects, current global energy dynamics result in an extreme im-
balance of energy distribution. While industrialized countries
enjoy the luxuries of motorized vehicles, TVs, and kitchen appli-
ances, many developing countries cannot even supply the basic
energy services needed for cooking, heating, lighting, and sanita-
tion. As a result, the quality of life for people in those parts of the
world remains very low. Projections of global energy use cause
concern that these problems may become exacerbated. This sec-
tion first examines the environmental problems that result from
energy use and then discusses the social problems associated
with the energy use trends.
Environmental Problems
The consumption of energy resources inevitably compromises en-
vironmental quality. There are no energy sources that are com-
pletely environmentally friendly, but some are more damaging
than others. Air pollution, water pollution, and land degradation
are a result of the extraction, transportation, processing, and com-
bustion of fossil fuels. Additionally, combusted fossil energies
release greenhouse gases that impact climate change. Nuclear en-

ergy, while it does not produce air pollution or greenhouse gases,
presents its own unique public health and environmental issues.
Even renewable energy resources have problems associated with
their use. This section first examines general problems caused by
fossil fuels and their consequences to human and ecosystem
health. Next, it discusses particularly harmful effects characteris-
tic to the nuclear fuel cycle. A fuel cycle is a term that refers to the
processes of extraction, transportation, processing, and consump-
tion for each fuel type. Finally, it briefly discusses environmental
impacts that occur from the use of renewable energies.
Production and Transportation (Fossil Energies)

Mining for coal and drilling for oil and natural gas have large en-
vironmental costs associated with them. Coal mining, which is a
very dangerous occupation, is devastating to the land. Coal can
be mined in two ways: deep shaft mining and surface mining.
Deep shaft mining is used in areas where coal seams are located
100 feet or greater below the surface. This type of mining requires
that miners work underground in mine shafts and extract coal by
hand. Deep mining is very dangerous to those who work in the
mines. Mine shafts can collapse, trapping and killing laborers.
Mine shaft explosions can also occur from volatile gas build-up
and poor ventilation. Despite numerous safety regulations, this is
still a frequent occurrence around the world. Indeed, in countries
that lack adequate safeguards, a great number of miners are killed
in this manner. Chinas coal industry is the most hazardous in the
world, officially registering 6,000 deaths in 2004 (Watts 2005). In
the same year, the United States registered some 28 deaths in the
coal mining industry (MSHA 2006). Another hazard posed to
miners is risk of black lung disease. This respiratory illness is
caused from chronic (i.e., long-term) exposure to mine dust. Al-
though it is not always fatal, black lung disease reduces life ex-
pectancy and makes miners more susceptible to respiratory
illnesses, including emphysema, bronchitis, pneumonia, and tu-
berculosis (Cohen 1990, 36).
In addition to the occupational hazards of deep shaft mining,
there are environmental problems. Land subsidence, where land
sinks down or collapses into abandoned mine shafts, has been
shown to occur in areas with numerous shafts. This settling can
damage structures and be dangerous to humans if abandoned
mines are not marked. It is estimated that approximately 2 mil-

lion acres above coal mines have subsided (Cohen 1990, 35).
Abandoned mines pose pollution problems, too. As water seeps
into abandoned shafts, it mixes with the sulfur compounds that
are in mining residues, creating acid mine drainage. If the mix-
ture leaches into rivers and streams, it can be very damaging to
fish and other aquatic organisms. Waste from the processing of
coal also can be hazardous. Coal is often washed after it is re-
moved from the ground. This process results in a black residue
that can be toxic. Generally this waste is piled near mining sites
or coal processing sites for later disposal, but removing these
piles is costly. Eventually the piles create a hazard by leaching
toxic chemicals into the ground.
In areas where coal is located closer to the surface, the land is
stripped away to reach the coal beds below. While surface mining
is safer for miners, it is devastating to the landscape. In addition
to removing all vegetation on the land, the top layers of soil (those
with the nutrients available for plant growth) are removed. After
mining operations are complete, regeneration of the landscape
takes many decades. Restoration projects have been implemented
in many areas, but many thousands of acres of land remain
scarred from strip-mining operations.
Strip mining is especially damaging in the process of moun-
taintop mining and valley fill operations (MTM/VF), a practice
that is widely used in the Appalachian region of the United
States. Mountaintop mining is a surface-mining procedure that
strips large portions of land off of mountaintops to reach low-sul-
fur coal veins found below. Valley fill is the rock and debris, or ex-
cess spoil, removed from the surface that is often difficult and
costly to return to the mountain and so is instead dumped in ad-
joining valleys. The valley fill procedure has been criticized for its
adverse effects on headwater streams. A draft Environmental Im-
pact Statement (EIS) released by several U.S. federal and state
agencies estimated that mountaintop removal has directly im-
pacted 1,200 miles of headwater streams and that biological
assemblages of fish and invertebrates are often less diverse in wa-
tersheds impacted by MTM/VF (USEPA 2003).
Oil and natural gas are often (but not always) found in the
same areas; hence development of oil fields often occurs congru-
ently with the drilling for natural gas resources. This process can
be disruptive to natural environments. The heavy equipment and
infrastructure needed to drill and pump oil create erosion prob-

lems for fragile ecosystems. Additionally, much of the develop-
ment of these resources is done offshore along continental shelf
regions in the oceans. These areas are very biologically produc-
tive, and fishing industries depend on their vitality for harvest.
Offshore drilling involves initial surveying and exploration,
development and production of the resource, and final decom-
missioning of the drilling rig when the well no longer produces
oil. All of these stages can be damaging to marine life. Exploration
techniques utilize seismic and electrosurveys, which impart
physiological damage to marine organisms. Well development
involves drilling operations that pollute the surrounding envi-
ronment. Although some care is taken to minimize pollution, it is
estimated that annual worldwide loss of oil at sea during stages
of extraction is 7 million tons (Patin 1999, 35). Pollution of hydro-
carbon compounds, drilling muds (industrial fluids that lubricate
the drilling process), and cleaning fluids can be toxic to marine
organisms and hence pose a threat to the fishing industry. When
a well does not produce any more oil, it must be capped and the
infrastructure removed from the offshore area. Unfortunately, this
is an expensive endeavor, and many times the equipment remains
in place for long periods.
Pipelines and oil tankers are the two main modes of trans-
port for petroleum. Oil spills are one of the most damaging and
highly publicized environmental issues associated with oil. Spills
occur both on land and in the ocean and are caused by accidents
on oil rigs, grounding of oil tankers, and intentional attacks
against oil pipelines. It is estimated that over 45 million tons of oil
per year are lost to the environment during the various stages of
production and transportation (Patin 1999, 35). While significant
losses occur in the ocean and on land, most of this oil (22 million
tons) is lost to land spills. Because of the danger of spills, many
people oppose the construction of oil pipelines across pristine
wilderness areas. For example, in the 1970s, several environmen-
tal groups opposed the construction of the Alaskan Oil Pipeline
because of the potential damage that a spill could cause to pris-
tine wilderness areas. The oil crisis of the 1970s eventually al-
lowed for the construction of the pipeline, but the debate over
Alaskas wilderness area remains. The debate is discussed in
greater detail in chapter 3.
Oceanic oil spills are very damaging to coastlines and marine
environments. The history of these spills dates back to when
companies first began to extract and transport oil, but major oil
spills began receiving a greater amount of press coverage in the
second half of the twentieth century. Oil spills can occur from
blowout accidents on tankers and oil rigs. (A blowout occurs
when a sudden and uncontrollable discharge of oil or gas erupts
from a well or offshore drilling platform.) Such was the case off
the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969 when a blowout on a well plat-
form released 230,000 gallons of crude oil, polluting Southern
California beaches (Rothman 1998, 101). The Santa Barbara spill
pales in comparison to a blowout that occurred from the IXTOC
1 well in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979. This incident released 140
million gallons of oil into the sea, the largest amount ever
recorded from an accidental release (Gorman 2001, 330).
Human-related accidents have also caused large oil spills.
The most publicized of these is the grounding of the Exxon Valdez
oil tanker in Prince William Sound in Alaska. The accident caused
some 11 million gallons of crude oil to spill out over 900 square
miles into the ocean (Smith 2004, 156). The sound, which was a
vital breeding ground for migratory birds, became a precarious
and dangerous habitat for the waterfowl. Besides being toxic, the
crude coated animals in black residue. The oil suffocated fish by
clogging their gills and coated the feathers of birds causing them
to drown. Because of the residue, many marine mammals per-
ished from the oil spill and the local fishing industry was devas-
tated. Other human-related oil spills have released larger vol-
umes of oil. The 1967 accident with Torrey Canyon in the English
Channel (36 million gallons) and the 1978 breakup of the Amoco
Cadiz off the coast of France (65 million gallons) were both larger
than the Valdez spill (Gorman 2001, 335). But because it occurred
in such a biologically diverse area after oil companies had sworn
to adopt higher safety standards, the Valdez spill was a greater
devastation in the eyes of the public. It demonstrated that the ex-
treme negative effects of oil pollution and the difficulties inherent
in preventing oil spills had yet to be resolved.
As the discussion above demonstrates, many environmental
and human health effects arise from the production and trans-
portation of fossil energies. The brief outline only scratches the
surface of the intricacies of these problems. It is important to re-
member that all of the processes and operations involved in the
extraction and transportation of coal, oil, and natural gas also re-
quire energy inputs. This energy comes from the combustion of
fossil fuels, which produces air pollution.
Air Pollution and Atmospheric Deposition

The combustion of fossil fuels is not only necessary to provide en-
ergy for the extraction process, it also is the main way that stored
chemical energy is converted from these fuels into useable forms,
such as electricity and transportation. Air pollution was one of
the first recognized problems with the burning of fossil fuels.
Black smoke poisoned the air surrounding early industrial cities.
It caused concern among citizens of urban areas. Beginning in the
late 1800s, antipollution coalitions worked to raise awareness to
public officials. These movements stimulated the first air pollu-
tion control laws in Europe and North America. During the latter
half of the twentieth century, many countries implemented con-
trols on the pollution emitted when fossil fuels are burned. How-
ever, there is still a long way to go. What are the pollutants that
are released from fossil fuel combustion? What harmful effects do
they have on our environment and human health? This section
answers these questions.
The burning of fossil fuels releases a variety of harmful pol-
lutants into the atmosphere. The most common emissions are car-
bon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrgen oxides (NOx),
ozone (O3), and particulate matter. In addition, toxic metals (such
as mercury and lead), hydrocarbons, and volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) are released into the atmosphere. Many of these
chemicals have been shown to have severely negative effects on
human health. Others create hazy smog, which reduces visibility
in many areas. Table 2.1 summarizes the different categories of air
pollutants.
Different types of fossil fuels release different pollutants
when combusted. Coal is the most polluting fuel; however, be-
cause it varies in chemical composition depending on the region
it is from, the amount of pollution produced varies. Coal com-
bustion produces large quantities of fly ash that most commonly
contains CO, particulate matter, SO2, and NOx. In modern power
plants much of this ash is collected before it is emitted from
smokestacks. Since it is impossible to remove all of the pollutants
from an emissions stream, regulations still allow for a permissible
level of pollution to be emitted in a particular region. These regu-
lations have reduced pollution significantly, but it is important to
point out that not all countries have the same regulations. Recall
the case of the former Soviet Union, whose archaic industries
were not only inefficient, they were also highly polluting.
TABLE 2.1
Common Air Pollutants and Their Environmental and Health Effects
Pollutant Impact on environment and human health

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Associated with and shown to exacerbate respiratory illnesses
(asthma, emphysema, bronchitis, etc.); causes acid rain when it
reacts with water in the atmosphere
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Irritates lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, elevates
pulmonary edema levels, and lowers resistance to other respiratory
infections. Contributes to smog formation
Carbon monoxide (CO) Affects the bodys ability to assimilate oxygen; increases the risks
for heart disease and impacts brain functioning
Particulate matter Scratches/damages the respiratory system; can cause acute or

chronic respiratory illness. Some particulates (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene)
can cause cancer
Hydrocarbons Causes smog and contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone
Ozone Irritates the eyes and mucous membranes of respiratory tract;

damages immune system; causes pulmonary congestion, chest pains,
coughing; can react with NOx to form smog.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Inhalation may cause cancer; can react with NOx compounds to form
smog
Toxic metals Most cause neurological damage to humans and are especially
(Cd, Pb, Hg, Ar, Ni, Cr, etc.) harmful to pregnant women, neurological development of fetuses
(increased instances of mental retardation, etc.), and children; can
contribute to high blood pressure, heart disease, respiratory illness.
Carbon monoxide is the most common pollutant that is

formed when fossil fuels combust completely. In high concentra-
tions, it can impair the ability to function properly, causing
drowsiness and headaches. Most people are never exposed to this
level of CO, but chronic exposure over time has been shown to in-
crease the rate of heart disease.
Particulate matter (PM) is classified according to size. For
example, PM-10 and PM-2.5 refer to particulate matter that is 10
and 2.5 micrometers in diameter, respectively (smaller than the
period at the end of this sentence). Scientists have discovered
that the smaller the particle size, the more easily it can become
embedded in lung tissues of humans. PM can cause damage to
the tissues of the respiratory system and is known to cause or ex-
acerbate many respiratory infections. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides
can also cause respiratory problems. Because of smokestack and
vehicle emissions, urban air pollution can cause life-threatening
health problems. Studies have shown that between 30,000 and
35,000 Americans die prematurely because of air pollution
(Smith 2004, 84).
Smog is another problem that occurs with the release of these
pollutants in the atmosphere. It forms when nitrous oxide mole-
cules (NO2, N2O, etc.) react with ozone and water vapor in the at-
mosphere. Smog produces a brown haze that settles over areas
where NOx is being emitted. It can cause hazy days and impact
visibility. VOCs can also react with NOx to form ground-level
ozone. Although ozone is a vital part of the upper regions of
Earths atmosphere, at the ground level it damages the mucous
membranes of humans, creates respiratory problems, and can ir-
ritate the eyes.
Air pollution can also cause significant damage to crops.
Crop yields can be reduced by as much as 10 to 15 percent in pol-
luted areas. Ground-level ozone is the most damaging of all air
pollutants to agricultural yields. For example, in the southeastern
United States, where O3 concentrations can reach between 50 and
55 parts per billion (ppb), 10 percent reductions in cotton, soy-
bean, and peanut crops were observed (Smith 2004, 86). In Spain,
watermelon yields decreased by 19 percent when O3 concentra-
tions were measured above regulatory limits.
Atmospheric deposition is one of the most pervasive and
damaging consequences of using coal for the generation of elec-
tricity. Many bituminous coal resources contain high amounts of
sulfur. When this sulfur is burned, it creates sulfur dioxide (SO2)
gas, which is emitted with the exhaust from the combustion. Acid
rain occurs when SO2 reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere
to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). During storm events, acid rain is
deposited into water bodies and on land surfaces. It is damaging
to ecosystems and plant life and can cause increased rates of ero-
sion in some areas (Alexander 1996, 21).
Deposition of solid forms of pollution can also be damaging
to ecosystems. Petroleum and coal contain many impurities,
including trace metals (for example, lead and mercury) that are
toxic to humans. This toxicity is the reason why unleaded
gasoline fuels vehicles. But while lead concentrations have been

regulated in petroleum products, mercury emissions are an in-
creasingly important problem for countries that rely on coal-fired
power plants to supply their electricity needs. Once mercury is
emitted into the atmosphere, it can be transported long or short
distances, depending on what chemical form it has assumed.
Mercury is eventually deposited onto land or water surfaces,
where it can settle into sediments and be chemically transformed
by microorganisms. This process is called methylation (USEPA
1997, vol. 3, 25). Methylated mercury bioaccumulates in the tis-
sues of organisms and becomes more concentrated as it moves
higher up the food chain. Studies reveal that methylated mercury
is extremely toxic for humans. It is considered to be a potent neu-
rotoxin (it damages the nervous system) capable of causing de-
velopmental problems in human fetuses and cognition problems
in adults. In ecosystems, methylated mercury can cause develop-
mental damage to several species of migratory birds and can im-
pair the developmental biology of fish (USEPA 1997, vols. 57).
The pervasiveness of mercury is the reason many governments
issue fish-eating advisories to their citizens.
The above example illustrates the complex nature of how air
pollutants behave in the environment. There are many other pol-
lutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels than those
mentioned. These pollutants, which can damage humans and the
environment, include other metals toxic to humans and volatile
organic compounds, many of which are known to cause cancer.
Discussion now turns to global climate change, which is one of
the most pressing global environmental problems caused by fos-
sil fuel combustion.
Global Warming
The problem of global warming receives a lot of publicity. Movies
like The Day After Tomorrow released in 2004 portray outrageous
events that can happen if measures to mitigate global warming
are not taken. While this movie may be sensational and unrealis-
tic, it does highlight an important and sobering fact: reliance on
fossil fuels is altering the global climate, and the consequences of
this change are potentially damaging to humans and the Earths
ecosystems.
The phenomenon of global warming is defined as the warm-
ing of the Earths surface temperature by several degrees. This
warming can have serious implications for weather patterns and
has been shown by many studies to impact ecosystem health and

biodiversity. It is a problem directly linked to energy consump-
tion from fossil fuels.
When fossil fuels are combusted, they release carbon diox-
ide (CO2), methane (CH4), water (H2O), and chlorofluorocar-
bons (CFCs) into the atmosphere. These gases are often called
greenhouse gases because they absorb infrared radiation from
the Sun and hence do not allow it to escape (Alexander 1996,
20). Because heat that is normally reflected is trapped in mole-
cules of these gases, a warming effect occurs on the Earths sur-
face. A great amount of evidence demonstrates that global
warming is occurring. The International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has determined that surface temperatures on
Earth have increased approximately 0.6 degrees Celsius (ap-
proximately 1.1 degrees Fahrenheit) since 1861, mountain gla-
ciers have retreated, and sea levels have risen between 0.1 and
0.2 meters in the twentieth century. Furthermore, the IPCC esti-
mates that these changes have occurred more rapidly than any
other warming event during the last 1,000 years. This change
has been largely attributed to the industrialization of society.
The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas releases substantial
amounts of CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere. In the last 150
years, atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased from 280
parts per million (ppm) to 350 ppm, and most of this increase
has occurred since 1960 (IPCC 2001). Additionally, CH4 concen-
trations have increased from 0.8 ppm to 1.7 ppm in the past 150
years. While concentrations of CH4 are lower than those of CO2,
methane is more effective at retaining heat. Most scientists now
agree that global warming is a serious issue that needs to be ad-
dressed in energy policies (UCS 2005).
Global climate change has the potential to significantly alter
the way humans live on the earth. Although these effects are
widely debated in the scientific community, concerns include an
increase in frequency and intensity of severe weather events
(such as hurricanes), an increase in drought cycles creating stress
in regions that already have a limited supply of freshwater, and a
shifting of many of the worlds ecosystems resulting in a loss of
biodiversity. Rising sea levels will inundate coastal cities (where
a large majority of the worlds population resides), a problem that
will create an incredible economic burden. Finally, many models
of climate change predict that disease outbreaks will become

more frequent and severe.
While it is difficult to determine the severity of these impacts,
there is a large amount of scientific evidence that supports these
predictions. Because of these potential consequences, many gov-
ernments are looking for energy resources that reduce green-
house gas emissions. Nuclear energy has been proposed as an
alternative, but it too has a variety of adverse environmental and
health impacts.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy has often been proposed as the ideal alternative
to fossil fuels. It does not produce harmful air pollutants or green-
house gases, and many energy security issues (described in the
next section) would be resolved with the introduction of more nu-
clear power sources. However, despite the positive attributes of
the technology, there are other environmental and health issues
associated with nuclear energy. This section examines these is-
sues, which include the harmful effects of radiation, the dangers
of a nuclear power plant explosion, and the problems that arise
with disposal of nuclear waste.
Radioactivity and radiation are words that many people have
heard before but have little understanding of their meaning.
Chapter 1 describes how a nuclear reaction is able to take place
because of the radioactive properties of certain elements like ura-
nium and plutonium. These elements spontaneously emit energy
in the form of particles, or rays. In other words, the reaction hap-
pens without any stimulus. Although the term radiation is used
to describe all types of energy (e.g., light energy or microwave en-
ergy), it is ionizing radiation that is of concern with nuclear fuel
and weapons. Radiation emitted from radioactive elements can
be dangerous for humans if they are exposed to high levels of ra-
diation. Such exposure is known to drastically increase a persons
risk for developing cancer. Some types of radiation also have ad-
verse effects on human and animal cells. They cause mutations to
occur in the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the basic
building block of all life), which may result in genetic effects that
can be passed on to future generations. If humans are exposed to
extremely high levels of radiation, they may develop radiation
sickness. This illness results in the loss of function from major
bodily organs. If too many cells in an organ are exposed to too

much radiation at one period of time, the organ will die. It is im-
portant to note that a persons risk of being exposed to this much
ionizing radiation in their lifetime is extremely low. These effects
are mentioned here so that the reader understands why high lev-
els of radiation exposure are dangerous and why there are public
concerns over radiation levels in the environment.
Accidents at nuclear power plants are an extreme illustration
of the problem with nuclear power generation. Accidents are dan-
gerous because they could release high levels of radiation into the
environment. Because of their severity, the development of nu-
clear power has been discouraged in many countries, including
the United States. The most common way that a nuclear accident
occurs is from overheating problems. If the coolant through a nu-
clear reactor is not operating properly, then the reactor will over-
heat. When this happens, the reactor can potentially be damaged,
resulting in a number of possible catastrophic events, including
explosions that could release large amounts of radioactive mate-
rial to the environment. The impacts from a nuclear meltdown are
widespread. (A meltdown occurs when the core of a nuclear reac-
tor overheats and melts.) If radiation from such an accident be-
comes airborne, not only will a large number of people be exposed
to toxic levels of radiation, but it will contaminate crops and live-
stock, creating a public health crisis impacting entire populations.
There are only a few instances of nuclear meltdowns in
global history. A significant scare occurred in March 1979 at Three
Mile Island in Pennsylvania. A faulty valve resulted in a loss of
coolant to a reactor. The coolant loss was not discovered for sev-
eral hours. By the time the malfunction in the reactor was discov-
ered, the core of the reactor had reached 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit
and the top of the reactor had melted (Rothman 1998, 146). Plant
operators flooded the reactor with water, which immediately
turned to steam and destroyed the remainder of the reactor. Ra-
dioactive steam was released into the atmosphere, but most of the
radioactive material was contained within the reactor. While no-
body was killed in the accident, the incident fueled public fear of
nuclear power. It was not until 1993 that cleanup crews finished
evaporating the radioactive coolant and the reactor was sealed
(Manahan 2000, 575).
A far worse accident occurred in 1986 at Chernobyl in the
Russian Ukraine when a nuclear reactor exploded, releasing a
plume of radioactivity all over Europe. The explosion, caused by

excessive heat and pressure that had built up in the reactor, cre-
ated a large fire that threatened other reactors at the plant. Emer-
gency workers who rushed to the accident to put out the fire were
exposed to deadly levels of radiation. Thirty-one people died as a
result of the accident (Cohen 1990, 111). The indirect damage to
human health was never quantified, but radiation spread
throughout Europe, contaminating crops in regions as far north
as Scandinavia (Manahan 2000, 576).
In addition to the threats to public health that can occur from
a reactor meltdown, radioactive waste produced from nuclear
fuel reactions poses a problem for waste managers. Because spent
fuel rods can release lethal amounts of radiation for an extremely
long period of time, the waste from these operations needs to be
stored in a safe enclosure. Waste that is produced from nuclear re-
actors can be handled in two ways. It can be sent to a reprocess-
ing plant where fuel can be recycled, or it can be sealed in solid
containers, usually made of glass, and stored in underground
vaults (Cohen 1990, 177). A number of issues need to be consid-
ered in choosing the process for radioactive waste management,
including transportation concerns and location of waste reposito-
ries. Since waste is often stored underground, the latter concern
involves selecting sites that are geologically sound and where
there will be minimal risk of groundwater contamination. Con-
troversy over one such site in the United States, Yucca Mountain,
is discussed in chapter 3.
Renewable Technologies
As mentioned before, all energy sources impact the environment
in one way or another including renewable energy resources. Hy-
dropower is probably the most damaging to the environment.
Often large dams are built to capture and store running water.
These dams can inundate sizeable areas of land and alter the
ecosystems of streams and rivers. While the benefits of dams may
outweigh the costs for some people, the drawbacks can be devas-
tating for downstream users. For example, dams along the Col-
orado River (and others) provide cheap water and power to large
cities in the southwestern United States. However, water in the
river is overallocated. It only intermittently flows to the Sea of
Cortez, and farmers in Mexico receive a fraction of what they
once did. By the time the water reaches southern Arizona, it is so
high in salinity and other pollutants that a desalinization plant

was installed in Yuma, Arizona, to purify the water before it
crosses the border into Mexico.
Dams can also pose a problem for fish. Large reservoirs that
fill up behind dams present enormous obstacles to migrating fish.
Salmon are a good example. Their lifecycle involves a period in
which they migrate from the ocean to streams to reproduce. By
using chemical cues from their environment, these fish amazingly
return to the same stream from which they hatched to spawn a
new generation. However, when a river is dammed, the fish need
to navigate through countless obstacles, including large reser-
voirs and high dams, to return to their spawning grounds. Many
fish have perished on this journey. Because of dammed rivers,
salmon and some other fish species are listed as threatened with
extinction. Not only has the impact of dams been an important
issue for wildlife conservation groups, it is one of concern to the
fishing industry.
Dam issues are also important in many developing countries
where large dams can potentially displace millions of people.
Protests in India over the Narmada Dam projects halted the con-
struction of several large dams because they threatened to dis-
place thousands of people. Perhaps the most egregious example
of displacement is occurring in China, where the construction of
the Three Gorges Damwhat will be the largest hydroelectric
dam in the world when it is completed in 2009will displace an
estimated 1.9 million people (IRN 2006). The project is so contro-
versial that the World Bank withdrew its financial support (Kha-
gram 2004, 175).
Wind and solar power also have environmental impacts.
Wind turbines have been criticized by environmentalists as being
a danger to migratory birds. Studies have also shown that large
wind farms can impact microclimates because they displace large
amounts of air. As for the issues of solar energy, photovoltaic cells
pose a problem because the most efficient designs contain toxic
chemicals that must be treated properly when disposed. Solar en-
ergies are also criticized for the large area of land that a solar
power plant needs to produce an economically viable amount of
power. This argument, however, is weak when one considers the
many millions of rooftops that could generate domestic sources
of power in the desert regions of the world. Finally, biomass en-
ergy can create problems if it is not managed properly. Histori-
cally, there are many instances of humans depleting their biomass
resources. Depletion remains a problem in many developing

countries where wood-gathering provides a main energy source
used for heating and cooking.
Social Problems
In addition to the numerous environmental problems described
above, global energy use raises social concerns. Like the environ-
mental issues, the root cause of many of the social problems dis-
cussed below lies in the fact that fossil fuels are the primary
energy resource used. This section examines these problems.
They include diminishing resources of fossil fuels, conflicts that
arise due to concerns over energy security, and inequality in
worldwide energy availability. It is important to keep in mind
that many of the issues discussed are complex and multifaceted.
While energy use is not the sole cause of the issues, energy-sector
dynamics often work to exacerbate many of these problems.
Diminishing Resources
In order for energy to work for society, it must be affordable,
available, and reliable. In general, an energy source is affordable
if it is abundant and accessible. Energy is available to a society if
that particular society has the proper means of obtaining energy
resources, converting them into energy services and products,
and distributing them. When the conditions of affordability and
availability are met, and as long as the energy systems are main-
tained, then an energy resource is reliable. Herein lies another
problem of fossil fuel dependence: the resource base for these
fuels, particularly petroleum, is diminishing. These resources are
finite and are being used at a much faster rate than they are being
replenisheda situation that will make it harder for countries to
meet the three conditions listed above. This discussion focuses on
petroleum because it is the main fossil fuel commercially con-
sumed worldwide.
It is harder and harder to find new areas of abundant oil re-
serves. New discoveries, such as those on the North Slope of
Alaska and in the North Sea in the 1970s, often prove to be
overexaggerated. Examples of other overstated potential oil de-
posits include the South China Sea, the Caspian Sea, and Balti-
more Canyon (an offshore area located off the eastern coast of the
United States) (Smil 2003, 189). Furthermore, as humans search in
more remote areas, it is questionable whether the resource can be

extracted in an economical manner. As a result, oil may no longer
be affordable.
The consequences of diminishing oil resources are debated
among economists and energy policy analysts. Pessimists in the
debate predict a rapidly approaching end of oil and forecast dire
consequences if society does not start to address the energy re-
source problem. They consider the reduction in available oil and
increased global demand (especially in light of Chinas develop-
ment) as evidence that a major global energy crisis is looming.
Optimists, on the other hand, contend that resources are not
so close to being diminished. Estimates are continuously revised
to reveal increasing amounts of recoverable petroleum. Because
techniques for discovering, extracting, and estimating oil reserves
are constantly improving, optimists think society will discover
more oil to support its needs. Even when oil resources are no
longer recoverable, human ingenuity will discover ways to sup-
ply necessary energy. Instead of drastic consequences, society will
slowly adapt to different energy resources.
This debate is important because it demonstrates the two
main sides of the argument involving oil resources. Regardless of
the analyses done by both sides, oil resources are finite and at
some point they are going to run out. In 1996, it was concluded
there are only 850 Gb (gigabarrels) of remaining oil, which is be-
tween 17 and 27 percent less than was originally thought at the
time (Smil 2003, 191).
What fossil fuel will replace oil? Perhaps natural gas, which
is considerably more abundant than oil, will. Natural gas burns
cleaner than either coal or oil, and many economists predict that
this resource will play a much more important role in the future.
On the other hand, coals future is not so bright. Despite its abun-
dance, concerns over pollution and global warming have caused
many countries to develop other energy sources, mainly nuclear.
There is no question that the Earth will eventually run out of
oil. In the meantime, society needs to be concerned with issues re-
lated to an increasingly scarce commodity. Conflict and energy
security issues are the next social problem discussed.
Security Issues and Conflict

The movie Syriana, released in 2005, told the deeply political story
of how the United States relates to petroleum-producing coun-
tries. In the movie, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency is working

to secure the favor of a fictional Middle Eastern country. Tension
arises when a new member of the royal family of the country is
chosen to ascend the throne. The movie unveils the corruption in-
volved in the oil industry and how oil deals between countries can
be tied to terrorist activities. Although the movie was fictional, it
illustrates the importance of energy security issues.
Conflict between countries is historically linked to resource
acquisition. Chapter 1 reveals that many of the energy crises in
the latter half of the twentieth century were caused from military
conflicts. First, the 1956 Suez Crisis brought about an energy
emergency in Europe. Then, the Arab Oil Embargo in 1973 caused
the worst energy crisis in U.S. history. While energy resources
were not the cause of these conflicts, energy supply was greatly
impacted, raising alarm over the extent of U.S. reliance on im-
ported fuels. Not only are industrialized countries already de-
pendent on foreign sources of oil, petroleum imports to these
countries are expected to increase by 70 percent by 2020 if current
demand remains the same (Gellar 2003, 11). These numbers raise
alarm with many energy security analysts when they consider the
tensions that exist in many oil-producing countries. The United
States imposes economic sanctions against many of these coun-
tries for various human rights abuses and terrorist activities
(Smith 2004, 148). The question inevitably arises, if these nations
are so unstable, how wise is it to rely on them for energy needs?
Energy security is of primary concern for industrialized
countries, and military intervention is being used more and more
to secure oil supply. Because energy availability is a vital part to
economies, industrialized countries will go to great lengths to en-
sure their supply. Most notable in recent history is the Desert
Shield/Desert Storm operations launched by the United States in
19911992. The conflict began when Iraq invaded the small coun-
try of neighboring Kuwait. If it had succeeded, Iraq would have
doubled its petroleum reserves (Smil 2003, 119). Such an acquisi-
tion would have not only threatened oil supply to the United
States, it would have challenged Saudi Arabias (a key U.S. ally)
hold on the oil markets. The United States responded to the Iraq
invasion of Kuwait by launching two coordinated offenses
against the Iraqi government, Operation Desert Shield (armed de-
ployment) and Operation Desert Storm (bombing campaign and
ground offensive) (94). While it is difficult to pinpoint a reason for
any military conflict, analysts concluded that energy security

played a large role in the U.S. military intervention in Iraq in the
early 1990s.
The problem of nuclear proliferation also raises energy secu-
rity concerns. Because of its nonpolluting attributes and cheap
operating costs, many developing countries have expressed
interest in developing their nuclear energy capabilities. However,
in light of increased terrorist attacks, concerns over the intentions
of some countries have surfaced. The possibility that these na-
tions will develop nuclear weapons in conjunction with nuclear
fuels raises fears in industrialized countries. While the United
Nations works to provide peaceful resolutions to these variances,
it seems apparent that disagreements over these issues are height-
ening. Countries seeking to produce nuclear power are becoming
increasingly frustrated at attempts to halt their development. At
the same time, industrialized countries are becoming more con-
vinced that illicit activities are occurring in other countries. For
example, the United States invaded Iraq in 2003 using the ration-
ale that Saddam Husseins regime was harboring weapons of
mass destruction. When evidence surfaced proving this claim
false, many critics contended that oil security was the reason for
the invasion. Either way, this example is another demonstration
of the conflicts that result over energy security concerns.
Inequalities
The issue of energy availability is important not only in the sense
of what energy resources can be extracted but also in who gets
these resources and how does that impact those who cannot af-
ford them. These concerns arise because of the increasingly in-
equitable trend in energy use. Rich, industrialized countries have
all of the energy they need and then some. They have cheap gaso-
line supplies and reliable electricity grids. Most people living in
industrialized countries are able to afford the energy they need
for heat, lighting, and cooking. If they are sick, they can go to
well-lighted and clean hospitals. The roads they travel on are
paved, and they have access to many different modes of trans-
portation. Energy is so abundant in the United States that its citi-
zens often take it for granted, not fully understanding the extent
of energy poverty in which others live.
It is estimated that over 2 billion people worldwide cannot
access basic energy services, relying instead on biomass energies
to support their needs (Goldemberg and Johansson 2004). The
necessity to find energy sources is most cumbersome to women

and children who spend a large part of their day gathering wood
and water. Not only is this physically burdensome, it limits their
educational opportunities as a large part of their time is devoted
to just trying to survive. Because their countries do not have es-
tablished energy infrastructure that provides transportation,
these people are rarely able to travel. Lack of access to energy
services also impacts the quality of health care. For these reasons,
many people lack the opportunities and abilities to change their
economic status. It is in this way that energy inequality exacer-
bates poverty. Furthermore, the income gap between rich and
poor countries is increasing due to energy inequality. If poor
countries are not able to develop their energy infrastructure, their
poverty will only increase.
The energy inequality problem is also tied to the trend of
globalization discussed in the first section of this chapter. While
globalization may help countries develop their energy resources,
the increasingly scarce quantities of fossil fuels and the unstable
nature of energy prices could be detrimental to those countries
seeking to participate in global energy markets. Because of the
potential for resource-related conflicts, energy prices are pre-
dicted to become more volatile in the future. Reliance on these
markets to provide energy services could be detrimental to coun-
tries that are trying to develop their infrastructure. Recall that, in
general, the initial stages of economic development require
greater energy inputs (figure 2.1). If these inputs are unreliable
because of unstable prices, then developing countries could be in
a precarious position and may fall even more behind in their de-
velopment prospects, all the while increasing their foreign debt
and further impoverishing their people.
Concerns of inequality also embody the means by which en-
ergy resources are extracted. As discussed in the energy and eco-
nomics section, the globalization of the economy has allowed
many energy companies to establish energy extractive resources
in developing countries. Many poor countries do not have the
same safety and environmental regulations that richer countries
have. Because of inadequate environmental and safety standards,
energy extraction industries can pose a great threat to the citizens
of poorer countries. While the energy resources extracted by
TNCs are exported to richer countries to supply their needs, the
citizens of poorer countries rarely see improvements in their own
energy infrastructure. They do see pollution increasing human
health problems and degrading arable land. They must endure

the negative consequences of energy resource extraction without
receiving the benefits of energy services.
It is difficult to understand the depth and intensity of in-
equality issues that relate to global energy use. Energy inequity is
related to global economic phenomena and is also intertwined
with how energy use affects the environment. Despite this com-
plexity, there are solutions that can be implemented by society to
alleviate the negative effects of energy trends. These are exam-
ined in the next section.
Solutions
The previous section illustrates the necessity to change the way
society consumes energy. It is apparent that social and environ-
mental problems caused by energy consumption are complex and
that there is no one solution to alleviate them. However, society
can take action to mitigate negative impacts. These solutions
range from dynamic, long-term shifts in the way that society op-
erates, to the implementation of national energy and environ-
mental policies, to the personal choices that you and I make on a
daily basis. This section discusses the various options for im-
proving the outlook of energy use in the future. First is an exam-
ination of the concept of sustainable development, a notion that
requires dramatic changes in the way society thinks about energy
resources. Second is a discussion of the necessity for a transition
to a renewable energy resource base. Third is a discussion of pol-
icy options at the national and global levels. The chapter con-
cludes with an examination of the personal changes that people
can make in their lives. It is important to note that all of these op-
tions (as opposed to one or another) must be considered in the de-
sign of future energy solutions.
Sustainable Development
The idea of sustainable development challenges the dominant
way in which humans view progress and economic growth in
society. This paradigm asserts that society not only needs to
change the way that it approaches energy, it also needs to ex-
amine the foundations of economic progress that underlie the
way people use resources. This approach requires a shift in the
Solutions 71
ways that energy resources are developed, distributed, and uti-

lized. It requires that energy use be organized in such a way that
it does not affect the ability of others to use energy and does not
jeopardize human health or the environment. There are both
ideal and practical ways of thinking about the concept of sus-
tainable development.
Sustainable development as an ideal embodies an ethic that
respects the environment and human rights. It contends that all
people living on this planet (and future generations to come)
should have the same opportunities for enhancing their quality of
life, and that in pursuing opportunities, they do not affect the
ability of others to do the same. This goal cannot be met with
mainstream, unsustainable models of economic growth. These
models are based on an anthropocentric philosophy that views
natural resources as tools for human progress. Because of this
view, environmental and social costs of energy production and
consumption are not considered in projections of future growth.
Unsustainable models of economic development do not value en-
vironmental and human resources; they violate human rights and
diminish environmental quality.
Conversely, sustainable models for economic growth con-
sider that healthy environments provide valuable services to hu-
manity. Environmental health must be a factor in economic
analyses because clean air, clean water, and productive lands pro-
vide long-term benefits for humans. Because of its inclusion of
environmental factors, the philosophy of sustainable develop-
ment promotes a way of approaching energy use that is funda-
mentally different than that of common economic growth
patterns. It promotes conservation of resources and the develop-
ment of alternative, eco-friendly energy services. Additionally,
asserting that access to energy services is a basic human right,
sustainability philosophies seek to reduce poverty and alleviate
human suffering from poor energy practices.
Practical ways of using the concept of sustainable develop-
ment involve increasing energy efficiencies and relying more on
renewable energy to supply the needs of society (Gellar 2003, 16).
Furthermore, sustainable approaches recognize that a variety of
energy resources can be used by societies. Rather than adopting
conventional, commercial techniques for energy provision (i.e.,
oil, coal, etc.), sustainable approaches empower local communi-
ties to develop and maintain energy sources that best fit their
society. Practical sustainable development also promotes
conservation. It requires that people and countries change waste-

ful energy habits. These approaches seek to raise awareness about
energy-saving lifestyles and help people obtain sustainable de-
velopment goals.
The concept of sustainable development has spilled over into
approaches for a society to take to alleviate energy concerns. The
next sections discuss the shift toward utilizing renewable energy
sources, how sustainable ideas can influence energy policies and
global norms, and how sustainable philosophies have motivated
personal choices.
Technology Solutions: Transition to

Renewable Sources
The discussion in chapter 1 on the history of energy use in part fo-
cused on the different energy transitions that have taken place
throughout history. It discussed historical trends in energy use as
being both the cause and the result of major energy transitions.
Recall that the term transitions refers to a shift in the primary re-
source that a society uses to obtain energy. Energy transitions are
long-term changes in the way that society operates. They involve
the construction of new infrastructure to harness energy from dif-
ferent sources, the application of new technologies to efficiently
utilize that energy source, and the continuous development of en-
ergy systems to accommodate changes in the demographics of
populations. Transitions occur slowly, but have always been nec-
essary for society to adapt to changing environments and re-
source needs.
As the world population increases, human society will un-
dergo further energy transitions. In light of the environmental and
social problems associated with global energy use, it seems that
humans are at the cusp of the next energy transition. Since finite
fossil fuels are being depleted, it is inevitable that society will shift
its energy resource base to one that is primarily driven by renew-
able technologies. The development of renewable energies will not
only alleviate energy supply issues, it will also address environ-
mental and social concerns. Even renewable technologies have
environmental consequences, but these impacts are much less
devastating to ecosystems and human health than those from fos-
sil energies. Additionally, many renewable resources can be locally
developed and managed, so the need to rely on foreign sources of
Solutions 73
energy is lessened. Hence, renewable energies do not carry the

burden of requiring military intervention to secure supply.
Early research and development of renewable energy re-
sources began in the United States in the aftermath of the oil
crises in the 1970s. The United States promoted renewable devel-
opment in policies such as President Carters National Energy
Policy (discussed in further detail in chapter 3). Despite early ini-
tiatives, interest in developing renewable energy technologies in
the United States waned in the 1980s. When Ronald Reagan be-
came president in 1980, he emphasized that the productive ca-
pacity of fossil fuels in the United States would solve economic
problems and alleviate energy shortages (Smith 2004, 152).
Hence, energy policy during the Reagan administration focused
on increasing domestic production of fossil fuels and emphasized
the ability of the energy market to provide cheap and abundant
fossil-fueled energy. Although other U.S. efforts have been made
in the area of energy conservation and renewable development
(most notably the Comprehensive Energy Plan in 1992 passed by
President George H. W. Bush), national promotion of alternative
energy resources has stagnated. Individual state governments in
the United States offer a notable exception, as thirteen states have
implemented Renewables Portfolio Standard (RPS) programs
that require a certain percentage of electricity sold to users be de-
rived from renewable sources (Coenraads and de Vos 2004, 59).
Despite the U.S. reluctance to support renewable energy,
other countries have made significant progress in this area. The
European Union (EU) has emerged as the world leader in renew-
able energy, obtaining approximately 390 TWh (terawatt hours)
of electricity from renewable sources in 2002 (Coenraads and de
Vos 2004, 58). In 1997, the European Commission issued its
White Paper for a Community Strategy, which outlined a pol-
icy of doubling the use of renewable energy (from 6 percent to 12
percent) for electricity generation by the year 2010 (EU 2005). The
European Union (EU) expanded this goal in 2001 with the Re-
newable Electricity Directive, which set the 2010 target at 21 per-
cent. In addition to the EUs multinational directive, fifteen of the
twenty-five member-nations have developed and implemented
policies that incorporate renewable technology into their electric
and transportation sectors.
Two other industrialized nations have also recently endorsed
the green energy market. In Australia, the Mandatory Renew-
able Energy Target (MRET) sets a target of 9,500 GWh by 2010,
with penalties issued to power companies that do not comply

with the program (Coenraads and de Vos 2004, 59). The voluntary
Green Power Program in Australia generated 400 GWh of renew-
able electricity in 2004. In 2003, Japan developed a Renewable
Portfolio Standard (RPS) that sets an electricity production goal
using renewable energy at 12.2 TWh by 2010.
The efforts to generate renewable electricity are increasingly
significant and are expected to be enhanced in future energy pur-
suits. The development and introduction of new technologies are
not the only solutions to societys energy problems. In order to
utilize technologies effectively, they must be employed in con-
junction with sustainable energy and environmental policies. The
next section examines policy issues and global initiatives to pro-
mote changes in the energy sector.
Policy Solutions
Energy policies are important at both the national and interna-
tional levels. Good policies are dynamic and adaptive. They con-
sider issues of implementation and understand that economic
and environmental policies are also important in the effectiveness
of energy utilization. This section addresses concerns that should
be raised for national energy agendas. It then examines global ini-
tiatives and international environmental regimes. Finally, it
briefly describes the advances that have been made in addressing
global climate change.
National Policies
In order to address energy concerns effectively, countries must
prepare energy policy in conjunction with environmental and
economic policies. Energy use has important implications for
economic growth and is closely linked to environmental degra-
dation. Energy policy that does not include economic and envi-
ronmental considerations will be ineffective in alleviating the
problems associated with energy use. Because it is necessary to
move away from fossil energies, renewable energy technologies
should be promoted as much as possible in energy policy designs.
In constructing national energy policies, countries should
consider how renewable energy can be developed using the re-
sources found within a regions own borders. For example, in the
United States, solar energy is a good source of electricity for the
Solutions 75
desert regions of the Southwest. However, this type of resource

would not be as effective in the Northwest where cloudy, rainy
days are more common. Similarly, tidal power and wave energy
technologies can be important resources for coastal cities but are
not feasible for inland areas. These examples illustrate that differ-
ent renewable energy sources can be utilized effectively in dif-
ferent regions. Often this utilization involves decentralizing
energy resources and distribution centers to provide greater man-
agement flexibility in local regions.
One goal of energy strategy as it relates to economic policy
should be to move away from dependence on fossil fuels by in-
creasing the costs of their use at the same time as increasing the
accessibility, availability, and affordability of renewable energies.
Policies must carefully consider how energy subsidies are distrib-
uted. Energy subsidies are most often awarded to fossil fuel tech-
nologies. Not only does this promote further development of
these resources, it also has the potential to encourage wasteful en-
ergy consumption. When the cost of fossil fuel production is off-
set by subsidy, there is no incentive for either producers or con-
sumers to conserve energy. Alternatively, energy policies that
subsidize research and development of renewable resources
while at the same time impose taxes on fossil fuel consumption
would promote consumption of renewable resources and dis-
courage the use of nonrenewable energy. Carbon taxes, those that
impose a fee for CO2 emissions, are another option that can be
used to increase energy efficiency and shifts to cleaner sources. It
is important to note that these policy changes need to be phased
in over time. Recall that energy subsidies are developed for the
purpose of promoting development opportunities to all members
of society. If subsidy policies are not implemented properly, they
may adversely impact poor people by increasing the costs of en-
ergy services.
Environmental regulations are also an important part of a na-
tional energy policy because, while their immediate goal is to re-
duce pollution, they incorporate the environmental costs of fossil
energies. It is expensive for companies to install pollution control
devices in their energy systems. As a result, environmental pro-
tections are reflected in the cost of energy services. Over time, as
pollution control technology becomes standard, energy prices re-
flect the environmental costs of production. So through environ-
mental regulation, renewable energies, whose environmental
costs are much less than those of fossil energies, can be promoted.
Goals of energy efficiency could also be met with the enforcement
of environmental regulations, as it will cost energy producers
(and consumers) more to produce more energy than is necessary.
Because energy markets are becoming increasingly global-
ized, global environmental norms and standards are increasingly
important for ensuring sustainable energy development. These
initiatives are discussed in the next section.
Global Policy
Earlier sections mentioned the problem of globalized energy
companies operating in countries that do not have established or
enforceable environmental standards. This lack of national stan-
dards becomes a global problem when the environments that are
being polluted from energy industries are considered common
pool resources. A common pool resource can be conceptualized
using the analogy of a common green, as described by Garrett
Hardin in his essay The Tragedy of the Commons. He explains
that individual people sharing a common pasture will seek to
maximize their own returns from that pasture by grazing as
many sheep on the land as they can afford. Inevitably, this prac-
tice will lead to a depletion of resources in the pasture and de-
struction of the land from overgrazing (Hardin, 1968; Smith 2004,
5). In addition to land, air and water are also considered to be
common pool resources. Because they are not owned by anyone
in particular, polluters of these resources do not have any short-
term incentive to limit their emissions; hence they continue to
pollute.
Air pollution, ocean pollution, and global climate change are
good examples of common pool pollution problems. As these
problems have become increasingly worse, there have been ef-
forts to address them. International environmental regimes have
been proposed as one solution for alleviating these problems. An
international environmental regime can be defined as social in-
stitutions consisting of agreed upon principles, norms, rules, pro-
cedures, and programs that govern the interactions of actors in
specific issue areas (Young and Levy 1999, 1). In terms of world-
wide energy actors, regimes seek to develop global environmen-
tal standards that will be respected by energy companies
operating all over the world. The goal of these regimes is to en-
hance communication and cooperation among different entities
Solutions 77
to alleviate the environmental and social problems associated

with energy use. International environmental regimes work pri-
marily through global institutions, such as the United Nations, to
induce acceptance of environmental standards in the operations
and practices of TNCs and the countries that they operate in.
The effort to establish oil pollution control measures for ves-
sels carrying crude oil is an example of an environmental regime.
The section on production and transportation of fossil fuels de-
scribed problems of oil pollution in the worlds oceans. Largely, it
focused on oil spills. In addition to these disasters, oil pollution
problems occur from the practice of intentional discharge from oil
tankers. After a ship dispensed of its oil, common practice was to
fill the ballast with seawater in order to stabilize the tanker for the
journey back to the producing region. Residual oil from the
tanker would mix with the seawater, which was released once
again to the ocean before the tanker received more oil. It is esti-
mated that for every 100,000-ton vessel, approximately 300 to 500
tons of oil were discharged during each shipment (Mitchell et al.
1999, 34). It is apparent that this practice introduced a large
amount of oil pollution to the ocean.
In order to deal with this problem, the International Conven-
tion for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) was
developed in 1998. Supported by the United Nations, the con-
vention is an agreement by oil-producing and -consuming coun-
tries to adopt standards for oil shipments that oil companies must
adhere to. MARPOL created rules that banned oil vessels from
discharging oil into oceans. It also required that vessels install
pollution reduction equipment. In addition, countries were re-
quired to establish enforcement measures that allowed them to
monitor the actions of oil companies. MARPOL is an effective
international regime because it targets the many different actors
involved in the problem. It requires standards for oil shipping
companies, the parent countries of these companies, and even the
insurance companies that insured oil vessels against damage
(Mitchell et al. 1999, 85).
Efforts to address global climate change are also taking place
in the arena of international environmental regimes. Although
concerns over the impacts of global climate change have been
voiced since the 1960s, it was during the 1980s and 1990s that
these concerns were addressed by policymakers on a global level.
The recession of glaciers and ecosystem shifts were noted by
scientists to be consequences of rising levels of greenhouse gases.

In response to these concerns, the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) pact was opened for
signatures in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (UNFCCC 2004a). Countries
that signed the pact agreed to find ways to bring their emissions
of greenhouse gases under levels measured in 1990. By 1993, the
pact had been signed by 166 nations. The UNFCCC created the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for the pur-
pose of gathering and assessing information about the impacts of
human-induced global climate change.
The most important global effort that has been developed to
address the issue of climate change is the Kyoto Protocol. It was
developed in December 1997 during a meeting of the UNFCCC.
The goal of the protocol was to establish a legally binding docu-
ment with defined targets and penalties for countries that
exceeded their emissions of greenhouse gases (GCMD 2004). Rep-
resentatives from over 170 countries participated in the meeting.
In order for the treaty to be effective, it stipulated that support
was needed from fifty-five parties to the convention, including
industrialized countries whose emissions totaled 55 percent of all
global emissions in 1990 (UNFCCC 2004b). The treaty became ef-
fective in 2005 after Russia agreed to its ratification.
Although the Kyoto Protocol is the first step toward a global
commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, it has been
hindered by the 2001 decision by the United States not to ratify
the treaty. The retreat of the United States created controversy
around the world, as U.S. emissions accounted for 36.1 percent,
making it the largest producer of greenhouse gases. Some states
in the United States have since developed their own regulations
for greenhouse gases; however, the United States remains one of
the few industrialized countries that has not addressed the prob-
lem of climate change on a national level.
While international agreements and environmental regimes
are important for implementing change at a global level, they
often seem too big for the individual person to grasp. They deal
with numerous actors operating across the world. Often the is-
sues they are addressing are complex, involving scientific in-
quiries and technological jargon that is difficult for anyone
operating outside the fields to understand. It almost seems that
these issues are untouchable to individuals because they are so
complex. Is there anything that everyday people can do to help
Solutions 79
alleviate energy problems? The answer to this question is yes. The

next section describes decisions that people can make in their
everyday lives to limit their own energy consumption.
Personal Energy Responsibility

As a resident of an industrialized country (and likely of the
United States, the most energy-intensive society in the world),
there are many ways you can reduce your consumption of energy.
These measures begin with conserving energy services. As a
child, you were probably taught that turning off lights when you
leave a room and turning down the heat (or turning up the air
conditioning) while you are away from home are ways to con-
serve energy. Actions like these are simple; once you are in the
practice of doing them, they become second nature. For example,
walking or riding your bike instead of driving reduces the
amount of fossil fuels you need to burn to go somewhere. It is by
simple habits like these that you can reduce your consumption of
energy resources. By being mindful of the energy resources you
are using, you can modify your life to adopt simple practices that
can go a long way in minimizing your own energy consumption
and helping society reduce its consumption.
The design of your home and the food you eat afford other
ways in which you can conserve energy resources. Depending on
the region in which you live, you can exploit nature to make your
home more energy efficient. For example, adobe-style housing in
the southwestern United States is energy efficient because it re-
mains cooler in the summer (when temperatures can get above
100 degrees Fahrenheit) while trapping heat in the winter. Addi-
tionally, other designs, such as awnings on windows, can capture
sunlight when it is most needed for heat and provide shade in
hotter temperatures. Designs like these are simple. They utilize
materials that reduce the amount of energy needed from central-
ized fossil fuel sources.
Another way in which you can reduce your own personal en-
ergy use is by eating out less, eating less meat, and supporting
community-based agriculture. Restaurants are very energy inten-
sive. To increase food productivity, their kitchens operate at high
temperatures. Fast food restaurants are even more energy inten-
sive because they produce incredible amounts of waste in food
packaging. Additionally, meat-based items are featured on most
restaurant menus. While the choice to become a vegetarian or a

vegan is extreme for many people, it is important to realize that
reducing your personal consumption of meat reduces the amount
of energy that you use in society. Not only do meat processing
plants use large amounts of water and energy, the process of
breeding animals requires that large fields of alfalfa be planted.
Growing crops like alfalfa has its own energy requirements for
pesticide production, water irrigation, and planting, tilling, and
harvesting. Finally, choosing local food sources is a way that you
can reduce your energy demand. Foods sold in supermarkets
have often traveled for several thousand miles before they are
available on the market. Alternatively, local agriculture opera-
tions have a wide variety of foods without the additional energy
requirements of long-distance travel. If one were to trace back all
of the energy inputs that are involved in processing and distrib-
uting food, it would be surprising to realize the amount of energy
that goes into just eating in our society! We often take these things
for granted, but by recognizing the many ways in which we use
energy, we can also find ways in which we can change our habits.
Eating one or two vegetarian meals per week and supporting
local agriculture rather than buying food from supermarkets that
support agribusiness can reduce energy consumption.
There are countless ways in our lives to reduce energy use.
By recognizing them and acting on them, we can individually be
solutions to energy problems. By example, we can perhaps col-
lectively change our energy ways.
Conclusion
This chapter examined the many, complex issues that are associ-
ated with global energy use. First, it established a conceptual
framework linking energy to economics for the purpose of un-
derstanding energy problems. Next, it exemplified these concepts
by examining how they are relevant to energy trends. It then dis-
cussed the many environmental and social problems that arise
from societys current fossil-fueled energy path. Finally, it consid-
ered different strategies that can be employed for alleviating
these problems. In this chapter, the focus was on global energy
trends and issues. The next chapter focuses on specific energy
problems in the United States.
References 81
References
Alexander, G. 1996. An Overview: The Context of Renewable
Energy Technologies. In Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable
Future, edited by Boyle, G., 139. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
Barboza, D., and A. R. Sorkin. 2005. Chinese Company Drops Bid to
Buy U.S. Oil Concern. New York Times, August 3, A1.
Clapp, J., and P. Dauvergne. 2005. Paths to a Green World: The Political
Economy of the Global Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Coenraads, R., and R. de Vos. 2004. Europe Set the Pace: An
Overview of Australia, Japan, USA and EU Green Power Markets.
reFocus November/December: 5859.
Cohen, B. L. 1990. The Nuclear Energy Option: An Alternative for the
90s. New York: Plenum Press.
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2000. Federal Financial
Interventions and Subsidies in Energy Markets 1999: Primary Energy.
SR/OIAF/9903. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.
European Union (EU). 2005. Energy for the Future: Renewable
Sources of Energy. http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/res/
index_en.htm (accessed July 21, 2005).
Gellar, H. 2003. Energy Revolution: Policies for a Sustainable Future.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Global Change Master Dictionary (GCMD). 2004. Kyoto Protocol
FAQ. http://gcmd.gsfc.nasa.gov/Resources/FAQs/kyoto.html
(accessed November 13, 2005).
Goldemberg, J., and T. Johansson, eds. 2004. World Energy Assessment:
Overview 2004 Update. New York: United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP).
Goodman, A., and D. Goodman. 2004. The Exception to the Rulers:
Exposing Oily Politicians, War Profiteers and the Media That Love Them.
New York: Hyperion.
Gorman, H. S. 2001. Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns,
Regulatory Mechanisms, and Technological Change in the U.S. Petroleum
Industry. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press.
Hardin, G. 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons. Science 162
(OctoberDecember): 12431248.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. Oil Market Report, January
17. http://omrpublic.iea.org/ (accessed January 23, 2006).
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2001. Summary for

Policymakers. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/005.htm (accessed
November 13, 2005).
International Rivers Network (IRN). 2006. Three Gorges Project.
http://www.irn.org/programs/threeg/ (accessed January 26, 2006).
Khagram, S. 2004. Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles for
Water and Power. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Manahan, S. E. 2000. Environmental Chemistry. 7th ed. Boca Raton, FL:
Lewis Publishers.
Manning, R. A. 2000. The Asian Energy Factor: Myths and Dilemmas of
Energy, Security and the Pacific Future. New York: Palgrave.
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). 2006. MSHA Fatality
Statistics. http://www.msha.gov/stats/charts/chartshome.htm
(accessed January 23, 2006).
Mitchell, R., M. L. McConnell, A. Roginko, and A. Barrett. 1999.
International Vessel-Source Pollution. In The Effectiveness of
International Environmental Regimes, edited by O. R. Young. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Patin, S. 1999. Environmental Impact of the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry.
East Northport, NY: EcoMonitor Publishing.
Rothman, H. K. 1998. The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the
United States since 1945. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
Smil, V. 1998. Energy in Chinas Modernization: Advances and Limitations.
Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
Uncertainties. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Smith, Z. A. 2004. The Environmental Policy Paradox. 4th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). 2005. Global Warming
Overview. http://www.ucsusa.org/global_environment/
global_warming/index.cfm (accessed June 21, 2005).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The Convention and Kyoto Protocol. 2004a.
http://unfccc.int/resource/convkp.html (accessed October 21, 2005).
(UNFCCC). 2004b. Russia Decision on Ratification: Major Step Toward
References 83
Entry into Force of Kyoto Protocol. http://unfccc.int/files/press/

releases/application/pdf/pr040930.pdf (accessed November 13, 2005)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Mercury Study
Report to Congress. Vols. 18. EPA-492/R-97006. December. Washington
DC: Author.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2003. Mountaintop
Mining/Valley Fill Draft EIS, Executive Summary. http://www
.epa.gov/region3/mtntop/pdf/Executive%20Summary.pdf (accessed
November 13, 2005)
Watts, S. 2005. A Coal Dependent Future? BBC News, March 9.
World Bank. 2005. World Development Indicators Database.
http://www.worldbank.org/ (accessed February 10, 2006).
Young, O. R., and M. A. Levy. 1999. The Effectiveness of International
Environmental Regimes. In The Effectiveness of International
Environmental Regimes, edited by O. R. Young. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
3
Special U.S. Issues
Introduction
C
hapter 2 demonstrated how economic activity is linked to en-
ergy consumption. It described that in general if a countrys
GDP (gross domestic product) is high, the country uses a lot of
energy relative to other countries. While not always the case, this
correlation is accurate for the United States. Globally, despite
making up only 4.6 percent of the worlds population, the United
States is by far the worlds largest consumer of energy and the
largest producer in terms of GDP. In reflecting on the points made
in chapter 2 regarding energy inequality and security, this attrib-
ute is particularly troubling in the context of U.S. relations with
the rest of the world. Because of its incredible energy needs, the
United States relies heavily on foreign sources, and as a result, se-
curity issues are an important part of its energy policy. But U.S.
energy issues are even more multifaceted. Other important issues
include public land use, environmental health, and management
of energy provision.
This chapter examines energy issues in the United States.
First, there is a basic overview of energy facts and statistics. Then
there is a brief history of energy and environmental policy. Fi-
nally, there is a discussion of current, relevant, U.S. issues.
85
86 Special U.S. Issues
Energy Facts and Statistics

This section examines basic facts and statistics of energy use in
the United States. It provides an overview of energy resources
that are utilized in the United States, where they are used, how
much is consumed, and where they come from. The goal of this
section is to present the reader with a background of how energy
is produced, distributed, and consumed in the United States. The
statistics described in this section were obtained from the U.S. En-
ergy Information Administration (EIA). More information and
the historical trends of these figures are graphically represented
in chapter 6.
The United States is an incredibly energy-intensive nation. In
2004, it consumed an estimated 100.4 quadrillion Btus of energy,
double the amount that was consumed in 1963 (EIA 2005a, v). This
works out to be more than 340 million Btus of energy per person.
Of this energy, approximately 21.2 percent was consumed in the
residential sector, 27.8 percent in the transportation sector, 17.5
percent in the commercial sector, and 33.2 in the industrial sector.
Natural resources are the raw ingredients of the energy sys-
tem in the United States. Fossil fuels provided the majority of the
energy consumed in 2004 (86.3 quadrillion Btus), nuclear energy
provided 8.2 quadrillion Btus, and renewable energy provided
the rest (EIA 2006a). Much of the oil consumed came from other
countries. In 2004, the United States imported 4.81 billion barrels
of petroleum products (EIA 2006c). Approximately 2.01 billion
barrels came from Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun-
tries (OPEC) nations and the remaining 2.69 billion barrels from
eighty non-OPEC nations (EIA 2006c). In the same year, the
United States exported 383.6 million barrels (EIA 2006b).
Despite importing a large share of its oil, the United States
had oil reserves estimated to be between 22 and 29 billion barrels
in 2004 (EIA 2005c). Most of these reserves (17 billion barrels of
oil) are located in twenty-four states and three offshore sites (one
in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California and two in the Gulf
of Mexico located off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana).
Natural gas is increasingly being used as a utility in the resi-
dential sector for heating and cooking purposes. It is also used ex-
tensively in the industrial sector. Because it is less polluting, it has
been promoted as a potential alternative to petroleum for trans-
portation. Natural gas reserves in the United States are estimated
Energy Facts and Statistics 87
to be around 204.4 trillion cubic feet (EIA 2005c). In 2006, the

United States consumed 21.9 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and
produced 18.8 trillion cubic feet (EIA 2005a, 186). The United
States imported 4.3 trillion cubic feet and exported 854 billion
cubic feet.
Most of the natural gas in the United States is produced
from onshore wells. Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma are the
three primary producing states, but wells are located in many
other states (mostly in the western United States). The use of off-
shore wells is also increasing, the bulk of which are located in the
Gulf of Mexico.
Coal is the main energy source used in electricity production
in the United States. The countrys estimated recoverable reserves
of coal are 18.1 billion short tons (EIA 2005b). Because coal re-
sources are abundant, most of the coal consumed is produced
domestically. In 2004, of the 1,111.5 million short tons of coal pro-
duced, only 48 million short tons were exported. The United
States imported 27.3 million short tons and consumed a total of
1,104.3 million short tons (EIA 2005a, 206).
Coal is mined in many states east of the Mississippi, where
most of the coal reserves are anthracite. It is mainly extracted
using shaft mining techniques. Since the 1980s, surface mines
have been increasingly popular, and the production of coal west
of the Mississippi (where most of the coal is located close to the
surface) has increased dramatically. There are many reasons for
this trend. One is that surface mining techniques are safer. An-
other is that the sulfur content in western coals is found to be
much lower than in coals from the east. Lower sulfur content is
an attractive attribute to electricity producers because it reduces
the amount of SO2 that is produced during coal combustion.
The utilization of nuclear energy has not lived up to the ini-
tial expectations of many energy analysts. Public outcry to the
Three Mile Island scare caused a decrease in support for nuclear
energy; because of the scare no new nuclear power plants have
been built in the United States since 1979. In 2004, there were a
total of 104 nuclear generators operating in the United States,
generating a total of 788.6 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity
(EIA 2005a, 276). The United States relies mostly on uranium im-
ports to supply fuel for its nuclear generators. It purchased 66
million pounds of uranium oxide in 2004 (277).
Renewable energy sources comprise only a small part of the
energy equation. These sources provide only 6 percent of the total
energy consumed in the United States. Most of the renewable en-

ergy consumed is derived from hydropower (45 percent). Wood
comes in second at 33 percent, and then waste (9 percent), geo-
thermal (6 percent), alcohol fuels (5 percent), wind (2 percent),
and solar (1 percent) (EIA 2005a, 280). Most of this energy is con-
verted to electric power production. The industrial sector is the
main user of renewable energy, followed by the residential, trans-
portation, and commercial sectors (282). The transportation sector
is one area where renewable energy use is dramatically growing
as alcohol-based fuels are being developed.
Electricity is an important part of the energy system. The
United States generated approximately 3.9 trillion kilowatt-hours
of electricity in 2004 (EIA 2005a, 226). Electric utility companies
produce most of the electricity in the United States, with the in-
dustrial and commercial sectors also generating some. Coal is the
main source of energy for electricity generation (50 percent), nu-
clear provides 20 percent, natural gas generates 18 percent, and
hydropower contributes 7 percent. The residential sector uses the
greatest amount of electricity, purchasing 1.3 trillion kilowatt-
hours in 2004 (267). The commercial and industrial sectors were
not far behind, consuming 1.2 and 1.0 trillion kilowatt-hours,
respectively. And recall that not all of the chemical energy con-
tained in coal and nuclear fuels can be harnessed for energy ser-
vices. A substantial amount of energy is lost as heat energy in
generating electricity.
What is the point of all this information? It is easy to look at
these numbers and become overwhelmed with the amount of
data associated with energy use. However, these statistics are es-
sential for describing energy dynamics. From them, one can un-
derstand how much and what kind of energy is used, where en-
ergy savings can be found, and what future energy trends might
be. This information is also useful in making decisions about en-
ergy provision and distribution in society. However, as the next
section describes, despite having loads of information, it has been
difficult to formulate a comprehensive energy policy for the
United States.
Energy and Environmental Policy

Energy policy in the United States is multifaceted. It integrates
many issues that are important for both U.S. international
Energy and Environmental Policy 89
relations and domestic environmental and natural resources pol-

icy. This section examines the history of U.S. energy and environ-
mental policies. First under consideration is the progression of
U.S. national energy policy over the past seventy years. Next is a
description of nuclear energy policy. Finally, there is a discussion
of environmental policies that have been developed to deal with
energy issues.
National Energy Policy

Because so many different interests are involved in energy issues,
it has been difficult for the United States to implement a compre-
hensive energy policy. Prior to the late 1940s, federal involvement
in energy policy was limited to regulatory oversight of utility
distribution (discussed later in this chapter) and intervention in
energy supply during times of war. In World War I, a mandatory
energy conservation program was necessary to overcome a fuel
crisis that occurred from lack of foresight in coal production. Dur-
ing World War II, a rationing program issued gasoline coupons to
U.S. motorists (Melosi 1985, 187). Subsidies for electricity infra-
structure are another way that the federal government intervened
in energy production. For instance, many of the large dams in the
western United States were built using federal funds. The federal
government also played a large role in developing nuclear energy
policy, both through subsidies and regulations regarding the pur-
chase of nuclear fuels (nuclear energy policy is discussed later in
this chapter).
Despite these early interventions, the U.S. government gen-
erally let the market regulate energy provision unless an energy
crisis occurred. After World War II, the federal government
played a larger role in energy pricing, requiring petroleum im-
port quotas for the purpose of protecting U.S. companies and pro-
moting domestic energy resources. The Mandatory Oil Import
Program (MOIP) was established in 1959 by the Eisenhower ad-
ministration. It created a quota system for the amount of oil im-
ports allowed into the country. Individual oil companies were
issued licenses for their imports. The effect of the MOIP allowed
domestic companies to keep their prices high and also reduced
global demand for oil, resulting in a downward pressure on
global prices (Kapstein 1990, 132).
Other than the federal influence on pricing and subsidies
provided to particular industries, a long-term plan that addressed
the energy needs of the entire country was elusive. The Truman,
Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations failed to de-
velop comprehensive energy plans. Instead, the pattern was cri-
sis management substituting for a well-thought-out long-term
program (Smith 2004, 150).
In 1971, Nixon eliminated the MOIP but maintained price
controls on the petroleum market. When OPEC raised energy
prices in 1973 and the subsequent oil embargo ensued, many an-
alysts became concerned over the uncertainty in the energy mar-
kets. Nixon responded by initiating Project Independence, a plan
to make the country energy self-sufficient by 1980 (Miller and
Miller 1993, 21). The Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act
(EPAA) was also passed. It established pricing controls for the
purpose of equitable distribution of petroleum resources.
President Gerald Ford had difficulty in addressing energy
issues. His administration pursued Project Independence and
emphasized the role of national planning and federal control in
energy issues. Although his plan embodied many of the same
measures undertaken by the Nixon administration, he was un-
able to develop a unified approach to energy.
The Carter administration attempted to formulate a long-
range, comprehensive energy program for the country. President
Jimmy Carters agenda not only addressed long-term concerns of
energy availability, it sought ways in which the United States
could maintain a secure energy future. In 1977, the Department of
Energy Reorganization Act created the Department of Energy
(DOE). The newly created agency consolidated the many energy
programs and agencies of the federal government into one bu-
reaucratic structure (Fehner and Holl 1994, 22). President Carter
emphasized that energy goals needed to reduce energy demand,
reduce dependence on foreign oil, and increase energy efficiency.
The creation of the DOE was essential for the accomplishment of
these goals. Carter also announced his National Energy Plan
(NEP) in 1977, emphasizing the serious nature of the energy cri-
sis by calling it the moral equivalent of war. The president rec-
ognized that by ignoring the increasing scarcity of petroleum, the
United States would subject our people to an impending catas-
trophe. The NEP focused on energy conservation. It called for
major improvements in energy efficiency for existing buildings
and acceleration of the applications of solar technology. It also
contained various conservation incentives, such as insulation
credits, weatherization grants, energy audits, and loans for solar

energy systems. It taxed gas-guzzling cars and prohibited the use
of oil or gas in new electricity generation and new industrial
plants and established voluntary electrical rate designs. Addi-
tionally, the plan called for a reduction in average annual energy
growth to less than 2 percent; reduction in natural gas consump-
tion by 10 percent; and continued reductions in imported oil
(Smith 2004, 151). The Natural Gas Act was also an important part
of the NEP. It is discussed later in this chapter.
One of the most important parts of the NEP bill was the
Crude Oil and Equalization Tax (COET). It proposed raising oil
prices over the next three years to encourage the application of
energy efficiency measures and thereby reduce demand. The rev-
enues from the tax were to be diverted into several government
programs. The idea behind the COET was that price incentives
were needed to encourage efficiency. Higher prices not only pro-
mote efficiency, they are also necessary to reduce energy demand
and promote the development of better technologies (Smith 2004,
151; Nivola 1986).
Many parts of the National Energy Plan were very contro-
versial. Northeastern congressional representatives with con-
stituents dependent on home heating oil, as well as westerner
representatives whose constituents used their automobiles for ex-
tended travel, denounced various parts of the plan that would
have increased the price of energy (Smith 2004, 151). Ultimately,
the NEP failed to present a pricing strategy. While it did succeed
in promoting conservation strategies among the U.S. public, the
most ambitious aspects, like the COET, failed to pass Congress.
A major piece of legislation that did pass during the Carter
administration was the Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act of
1978 (PURPA). PURPA required that utilities purchase electricity
from independent generators. These generators, known as qual-
ifying facilities, utilized their waste heat to produce electricity, a
process called cogeneration. By supporting facilities that recycled
their waste heat, PURPA sought to encourage greater energy sav-
ings. In order to encourage cogeneration, PURPA allowed quali-
fying facilities to be exempted from state and federal regulations.
At the same time, utilities that wished to purchase power from
qualifying facilities were required to pay what the utilities would
otherwise spend to generate or procure power. Hence, an incen-
tive existed for power plants to install cogeneration technology.
Energy policy during the Reagan administration shifted

away from conservation goals. Rather it focused more on the abil-
ity of free markets to satisfy current and future energy needs. One
dramatic example of this occurred just after Reagans inaugura-
tion when he removed all price controls on crude oil (Davis 2001,
153). Reagan never adopted a unified energy plan. Instead, the
administration worked to limit enforcement of existing environ-
mental laws and promote drilling and mining on federal lands.
The idea was that if energy companies were granted access to the
lands, and if prices were determined in a competitive market, en-
ergy concerns would be alleviated. Not only would the market
provide cheap energy, it would promote innovation in energy ef-
ficiency measures. Federal government spending on research and
development of alternative energy sources was cut dramatically.
Although market forces did prove to be pragmatic and energy
usage as a percentage of GNP declined from the adoption of en-
ergy efficiency measures, the reduction in renewable energy re-
search caused greater reliance on fossil energies (Smith 2004, 152).
Following the Regan administration, attitudes toward fed-
eral control of energy provision became more moderate. The
Comprehensive National Energy Policy Act (CNEPA) was signed
by President George H. W. Bush on October 24, 1992. CNEPA
promoted increased energy efficiency, established targets for de-
creasing oil consumption, implemented energy efficiency stan-
dards for federal buildings, and instigated measures to address
global warming.
The legislation addressed efficiency concerns in the indus-
trial, commercial, and residential energy sectors. Efficiency stan-
dards for lights, showers, toilets, faucets, small motors, and com-
mercial heaters and air conditioners were to be met by federal
buildings and public housing. Federal technical assistance and in-
centives, such as utility grants, were given to states to update
their building codes. Grants were also available for industry to
promote efficiency. Voluntary guidelines were issued for homes
along with a mortgage pilot program for energy-efficient homes
and retrofitting. CNEPA also created a director of climate protec-
tion to oversee greenhouse gas research and policy-making, for-
eign aid, and exploration of technology to combat global warm-
ing. It also targeted a 30 percent increase in energy efficiency by
2010, a 75 percent increase in the use of renewable energy sources
by 2005, and a decrease in oil consumption from 40 percent of
total energy use to 35 percent by 2005 (Idelson 1992).
Although improvements in energy efficiency standards were

made, CNEPA was not entirely environmentally friendly. The leg-
islation did not promote an energy tax increase (which would
have decreased demand), nor did it increase gas mileage stan-
dards. In fact, the bill provided $1 billion in tax breaks to inde-
pendent oil and gas drillers. Finally, despite the devastating
Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Bush promoted the
opening of Alaskas Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) for
oil exploration. The ANWR provision was dropped from the final
version of CNEPA, but it initiated a long battle over the rights to
drill in the arctic wilderness area (discussed later in this chapter).
The election of Bill Clinton in 1992 increased hopes that
energy policies would be connected to environmental goals. Pres-
ident Clinton publicly endorsed voluntary compliance in fuel ef-
ficiency standards and promoted greenhouse gas reductions.
During his administration, the White House Office on Environ-
mental Policy (OEP) was created with an agenda to stress the
economics of environmentalism, including creating jobs and busi-
ness opportunities for new technologies (Sullivan 1993). Addi-
tionally, research funding for renewable energy sources was
dramatically increased. Despite these measures, the Clinton ad-
ministration failed to link energy policy with other issues such as
conservation and environmental protection. Furthermore, Clin-
ton was initially unable to formulate a comprehensive plan for
energy policy. While an additional gasoline tax of 4.3 cents a gal-
lon was enacted into law, it was part of an economic stimulus
package and was not expected to affect consumption to any sig-
nificant degree (Smith 2004, 152).
In the spring of 1998, the Clinton administration released the
Comprehensive National Energy Strategy intended to provide
long-term guidance for the countrys energy needs. The five goals
of the strategy sought to improve energy efficiency; ensure
against energy disruptions; promote energy production and use
in ways that respect health and the environment; expand energy
choices; and enhance international cooperation (DOE 1998, viii).
Specific initiatives were outlined that promoted the development
of alternative fuel vehicles, promotion of natural gas over coal
and oil, and a proposed mandate requiring that electric utilities
obtain at least 5.5 percent of their power from renewable re-
sources by 2010.
Electricity regulation was also an important issue in the
1990s. During this time, state governments sought to increase
competition among power companies by either repealing or oth-

erwise disabling the restrictions PURPA placed on electric utilities
and how they obtain their power (Smith 2004, 153). Critics of
PURPA requirements contend that the regulations interfere with
competition in the energy market, resulting in higher prices for
the consumer. The question of energy regulation is an important
issue in U.S. energy policy, and it is discussed in greater detail
later in the chapter.
The George W. Bush administration moved away from the
goals of Clintons energy strategy. In many ways, sustainable en-
ergy measures were abandoned in favor of further promoting fos-
sil energies. Vice President Dick Cheney promoted the position of
the Bush administration well when he announced in 2001 that the
main energy problem that the nation will face is one of supply
(Kahn, 2001a). The vice president did not mention reducing de-
mand, only increasing supply. The focus is on technological fixes,
with the more immediate concern of increasing traditional energy
supplies, including obtaining more energy from the U.S. Arctic.
Energy plans drafted by the Bush administration also promote
tax breaks to companies that seek to increase domestic produc-
tion of oil and natural gas.
The attention and incentives given to increasing supplies of
fossil fuels has prompted criticism that the Bush administration is
dominated by industry interests. This suspicion was sparked
early in the administration with the formation of the Energy Task
Force headed by Cheney. The main goal of the task force was to
find ways to secure the energy supply for the United States.
When the task force released its report, the General Accounting
Office (GAO) requested that Cheney release information regard-
ing the executives that advised the energy panel in closed-door
meetings (Kahn 2001b). Cheney refused, and the GAO sought a
court order to obtain the documents. A federal judge ordered the
release of documents in 2002. It was uncovered from those docu-
ments that the Energy Task Force had met with eighteen of the en-
ergy industrys twenty-five top contributors to the Republican
Party (Van Natta and Banerjee, 2002).
In August 2005, President Bush signed the Energy Policy Act
of 2005. This legislation promoted a mixed approach to energy
policy that on one hand expanded the use of biomass energies
and biofuels and provided incentives for efficiency gains, but on
the other hand provided subsides for oil and gas development.
The bill also made dramatic changes to electricity regulation
(discussed later). Furthermore, it focused on increasing the use of

nuclear energies by granting an estimated $7 billion in subsidies
via an electricity production tax credit (UCS 2005). The Bush ad-
ministration has shown strong interest in enhancing nuclear ca-
pabilities, but as the next section shows, it has been difficult to
promote nuclear energy in U.S. society.
Nuclear Energy Policy

The development of nuclear energy policy deserves special men-
tion because it has been guided by the federal government since
the initial discovery of nuclear power. The government has subsi-
dized much of the research and development of nuclear technol-
ogy, has controlled the allocation and distribution of nuclear fuel,
and has established various programs for the storage of radioac-
tive waste. In short, nuclear energy is unique because the entire
fuel cycle is regulated by the federal government. This section de-
scribes the various nuclear energy policies that have been enacted.
Nuclear power was first developed for military purposes.
The detonation of atomic bombs in the cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945 demonstrated the power of nuclear weapons to
the world. The two bombs killed over 340,000 people either from
the direct blast of the bomb or from radiation exposure (Fehner
and Holl 1994, 11). The devastation not only changed the nature
of international relations, it also demonstrated the necessity for
government control of nuclear power. In order to promote peace-
ful uses of nuclear energy and to ensure that international control
over nuclear energy was maintained, the United Nations Atomic
Energy Commission (UNAEC) was created in 1946.
With domestic nuclear policy, the United States sought to
maintain control over its atomic energy monopoly. In 1946, Pres-
ident Truman signed the Atomic Energy Act. This bill created two
government agencies, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and
the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE). The AEC was
given ownership of all nuclear materials and reactors in the
United States. It acted as a regulatory agency for radioactive
materials, granting licenses to facilities generating, using, and re-
searching nuclear energy. The JCAE was established as a con-
gressional information and watchdog agency to oversee the
nuclear activities of the AEC.
In 1954, the United States sought to enhance development
of the nuclear power industry. The 1954 Atomic Energy Act
promoted private nuclear development by granting subsidies for

research and development of nuclear reactors. It stipulated that
private companies could own nuclear reactors while the federal
government retained ownership over nuclear fuels. The goal was
to motivate a greater private interest in nuclear energy and to en-
sure the public that nuclear energy would provide the United
States with cheap, abundant sources of electricity for many gen-
erations.
Despite these efforts, support for nuclear plant construction
remained low. Nuclear energy was still very expensive to de-
velop, and the prevailing idea in industry was that nuclear power
would cost more to produce than could be gained from profit.
Additionally, the potential damage that would result from a nu-
clear accident substantially increased the liability for private op-
erators of nuclear power plants. In an effort to address the liabil-
ity issue, Congress in 1957 passed the Price-Anderson Act
limiting the liability of individual companies. The Price-Ander-
son Amendments in 1988 raised the liability limits from $5 mil-
lion per facility per incident to $63 million per facility per inci-
dent. Furthermore, plant operators (or licensees) were not
required to pay out more than $10 million in any one year in case
of liability under the act (Smith 2004, 149). Although liability is-
sues were addressed by the Price-Anderson Act, nuclear power
only became a viable option when electricity shortages and envi-
ronmental concerns shifted interest away from the coal-fired
power plants. Consequently, the 1960s saw a dramatic growth in
the nuclear power industry.
The 1970s were a difficult decade for the development of nu-
clear power. The Ford administration significantly changed the
structure of federal energy agencies with the Energy Reorganiza-
tion Act of 1974. This legislation dissolved the Atomic Energy
Commission and created the Energy Research and Development
Administration (ERDA) in its place. The ERDA took over the re-
search and development of all energy forms, and the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) assumed the AECs regulatory
function over the nuclear industry. The 1974 act proved to be dif-
ficult for the nuclear power industry, and demand for reactors
dropped after 1975 (Melosi 1985, 308). The organizational
changes of the 1977 Energy Reorganization Act also undermined
nuclear promotional campaigns and placed the NRC under the
administration of the newly established Department of Energy
(DOE). A final devastating blow to the nuclear power industry
Environmental Regulation 97
occurred with the Three Mile Island (TMI) accident in 1979. After
the accident, all existing orders for reactors were canceled, and as
of 2006, none have been placed since in the United States.
In the 1980s, safety and waste issues dominated the nuclear
energy agenda. The Nuclear Safety Research, Development, and
Demonstration Act was passed in 1980 largely as a response to
the TMI accident. This legislation sought to improve the safety of
existing nuclear power plants. It mandated that standards be es-
tablished for the construction of nuclear facilities and ensured
that safety rules be implemented in the United States nuclear
power plants. Conflict over nuclear waste storage also became a
heated issue in the 1980s as regulators sought agreement on site
feasibility for long-term storage. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act in
1982 mandated that geologic disposal was the solution for nu-
clear waste storage, and federal agencies were charged with the
task of finding suitable locations for nuclear waste repositories,
one in the East and one in the West (Long and Ewing 2004). In
1987, this ruling was revised to only one central storage location,
as it proved impossible to locate an appropriate site in the East.
Nuclear-storage issues are discussed later in the chapter.
Despite the setback of the 1970s, the pursuit of nuclear power
was not eliminated. Concerns over increasing reliance on foreign
energy sources and global climate change have caused President
George W. Bush to rekindle efforts to develop nuclear resources.
The Bush administration promoted nuclear energy as a means of
addressing the problem of climate change. Abandoning the Kyoto
Protocol was one particularly glaring consequence of the admin-
istrations approach to energy use. Stating it would be devastat-
ing to the economy, the administration asserted that it was not
fair that developing nations like India and China would not have
to meet the same requirements as the United States. The nuclear
option was offered as an alternative approach for reducing green-
house gas emissions. It remains to be seen whether the energy is-
sues associated with nuclear power will be resolved.
Environmental Regulation
Chapter 2 discussed the problems of air and water pollution and
land degradation that result from fossil fuel combustion.
Throughout most of the twentieth century, there have been leg-
islative and regulatory efforts in the United States to minimize
the impact of energy industries on the environment. This section

provides a brief overview of the laws that govern how the
United States deals with environmental problems.
Environmental concerns associated with energy use were
first addressed in the early 1900s. In urban areas, smoke abate-
ment coalitions were formed to raise public awareness about air
pollution problems associated with industrial activities. Other en-
vironmental efforts sought to reduce pollution from oil indus-
tries. The process of drilling and refining produced sludge waste
that would pollute aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, the practice
of gas flaring, used to remove unwanted gas from crude oil, en-
dangered both human health and the environment. The 1924 Oil
Pollution Control Act was developed to control pollution that
was emitted during the extraction and production of petroleum
products. Although it developed standards for handling sludge
waste, oil vessel effluent, and gas flares in the process of oil
drilling and refining, this legislation did not provide the neces-
sary enforcement to ensure pollution abatement.
Pollution issues were not seriously addressed until the latter
half of the twentieth century. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s,
negative environmental consequences associated with energy
consumption were apparent as air and water pollution became
more visible. The 1969 oil spill off the coast of California raised
public awareness about the negative impacts of oil spills. In 1975,
a total of 12,000 oil spills were reported in the United States
(Melosi 1986, 299).
The United States became a world leader in the area of envi-
ronmental regulation when the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) was passed in 1969 and the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) was formed in 1970. NEPA required that an Envi-
ronmental Impact Statement (EIS) be prepared for potentially en-
vironmentally damaging activities. Other environmental laws
specified standards for air and water pollution, land degradation,
and wildlife protection. Overall, the 1970s were a pivotal time pe-
riod for environmental legislation. Although they have been re-
vised many times, these laws serve as the foundation for how the
United States addresses the negative impacts from energy use.
Since a large amount of environmental damage occurs from
the use of fossil fuels, the United States has developed extensive
air pollution laws to limit the various pollutants emitted during
fossil fuel combustion. The following discussion of air pollution
illustrates how environmental regulation can change over time.
For instance, the Clean Air Act was originally passed in 1963 and
amended in 1967, 1970, 1977, and 1990. Not only do these laws re-
flect prevailing interests in the regulatory bodies of government,
they also became more nuanced as more information became
available and new technologies were adopted.
The issue of air pollution was initially considered to be a
state regulatory responsibility. Federal intervention began in 1955
when Congress offered technical expertise and financial assis-
tance to the states to reduce air pollution. The Clean Air Act of
1963 empowered federal officials to intervene in interstate air pol-
lution matters only at the request of state governments. Under
this law, the apparatus for enforcing pollution abatement was so
cumbersome that between 1965 and 1970, only 11 abatement ac-
tions were initiated under the 1963 Clean Air Act (Rosenbaum
1973, 153). The Air Quality Act of 1967 further addressed the
problem by mandating the secretary of the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare to establish Air Quality Control Regions
(AQCRs), where states within each region were mandated to es-
tablish air quality standards. Because they deferred enforcement
to the states, these early acts were largely ineffective at mitigating
air pollution. Not only did state governments lack the resources
needed to enforce these laws, there was no incentive for them to
do so. Additionally, air pollution regulations were not consistent
from state to state. National air quality standards were necessary
in order for air quality to improve uniformly across the country.
The Clean Air Act of 1970 and subsequent amendments in
1977 and 1990 represented significant increases in federal in-
volvement in air pollution regulation. The act directed the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency administrator to establish national
ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). The NAAQS defined
set limits of pollution that could be emitted for six primary pol-
lutants: SO2, NOX, ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter,
and lead. It also required uniform national standards for haz-
ardous air pollutants, or those known to severely impact human
health. Under the 1970 act, states were required to develop state
implementation plans (SIPs) that described their implementation
of NAAQS. The act was to be federally enforced by the newly es-
tablished EPA.
The Environmental Protection Agency created a number of
classification schemes in its implementation of the provisions
of the Clean Air Act. Emission sources are divided into major
or minor and are found either in attainment areas (where air
quality goals are met) or in nonattainment areas (where air

quality does not meet standards). Standards were developed for
both stationary (e.g., power plants) and mobile sources (e.g., ve-
hicles) of air pollution. Sources can be new or existing, de-
pending on if the source of emission was in place when permits
were first issued. Regulations vary, taking into account whether a
source is major or minor, in an attainment area, is stationary or
mobile, or new or existing (Smith 2004, 91).
The 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act placed Air Qual-
ity Control Regions into specific classes that detailed how much
air pollution could be emitted in a specific area. They also estab-
lished emission standards for automobiles and trucks requiring a
reduction in carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions. The
amendments also provided that federal implementation plans
(FIPs) could be imposed on a region if SIPs had not been submit-
ted to the EPA. As a result of several lawsuits by environmental
organizations, the EPA was forced to develop air pollution FIPs in
Phoenix, Arizona; the metropolitan Los Angeles area; Bakersfield,
Sacramento, Ventura, and Fresno, California; and Chicago, Illinois.
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) further re-
vised regulations for six criteria pollutants: ground-level ozone,
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, and par-
ticulate matter. It clarified nonattainment status and developed
classification schemes for three pollutants, ozone, particulate
matter, and carbon monoxide, based on their level of severity.
These classifications specified increasingly stringent abatement
measures. Stationary sources were redefined according to the
nonattainment level of their location. For areas that had not at-
tained ambient air quality levels, SIPs were required to specify
abatement measures. The 1990 CAAA also established an operat-
ing permit program, which required sources to provide informa-
tion on which pollutants are being released, in what quantities,
and to provide plans to monitor levels of pollution. Other parts of
the 1990 CAAA deal with air toxics, protecting stratospheric
ozone, and acid rain.
One innovation that is particularly noteworthy of the 1990
CAAA is the use of cap-and-trade programs to reduce SO2 and
NOx emissions. Cap-and-trade programs are market-based mech-
anisms that cap emissions at a certain level and issue permits to
companies that specify how much of a certain pollutant they are
allowed to emit. If a company exceeds its allowable emissions, it
has the opportunity to buy pollution credits from another
company that emits less than its allowable limit. Hence, a cap-
and-trade system turns pollution into a commodity by allowing
companies to trade their pollution permits. The 2005 Clear Skies
legislation expands the use of cap-and-trade programs. The bill
still has yet to be enacted, but if the legislation passed, it would
reduce the caps of allowable emissions for NOx and SO2. The 2004
Mercury Rule implemented a cap-and-trade system for mercury
emissions (USEPA 2005). The mercury provision is controversial
because mercury is listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP).
Critics note that previously it was illegal to implement a trading
system for emissions that are categorized as HAPs.
Air pollution was not the only concern addressed in the 1970s.
Environmental issues associated with water bodies were ad-
dressed with legislation. The Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed
in 1972. It created a system for monitoring point source pollution
(i.e., pollution that is emitted from a known source and can be
measured). It established standards for certain effluents and re-
quired that the best available pollution control technology be used
to remove pollutants from water that is discharged into the envi-
ronment. It established a National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit program that requires polluters to obtain
a permit for discharge. Although the CWA applied to all polluting
industries, it affected the energy companies because it established
a system for regulating much of the waste that was produced in
water effluents during the process of energy production.
Important regulations for land management were also estab-
lished during the 1970s. The 1976 Federal Land Policy and Man-
agement Act (FLPMA) mandated that the Department of the In-
terior (DOI) outline land use plans for over 488 million acres of
land (Davis 2001, 147). It specified coordination among different
land management agencies and required careful consideration of
environmental issues in long- and short-term planning initiatives.
Although the FLPMA was not specifically designed to address
energy issues, it had implications for the various extractive in-
dustries that sought to develop energy on public lands.
The 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
(SMCRA) was a significant land management law for the coal in-
dustry. It mandated that coal industries reclaim land after mining
operations ceased, and it established a revolving fund for the pur-
pose of reclaiming abandoned mine sites. The legislation also cre-
ated the Office of Surface Mining (OSM) to manage the regulatory
duties that SMCRA required.
The coal industry was also affected by the 1969 Federal Mine
Safety and Health Act, which sought to improve labor conditions
in mines by implementing mandatory safety standards to be en-
forced by mine operators and followed by miners. The goal of the
law was to reduce the number of fatal mining accidents and risks
of exposure to toxic chemicals. It was revised in 1977. The Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) was established to en-
force safety standards and educate the mining industry, both min-
ers and operators, about the new regulations.
In addition to land management and air and water pollution
laws, there are several other federal laws that impact the energy
industry. Waste disposal laws, such as the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) (mandates how waste should be dis-
posed) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Com-
pensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (dictates rules for the
cleanup of hazardous waste sites), have had important implica-
tions for energy production. These regulatory laws specify how
toxic and hazardous waste produced by the drilling, mining, and
refining industries should be disposed of and how contaminated
sites should be cleaned.
The environmental legislation passed during the 1970s in the
United States was monumental in its acknowledgement of envi-
ronmental problems associated with energy use. Although envi-
ronmental regulations are not specifically a part of energy policy,
they must be considered by facilities that extract, produce, and
distribute energy resources. Regulations need to be revisited and
revised regularly in order to adapt to the changing trends in en-
ergy industries. Even when environmental and energy legislation
is implemented, issues arise with how those laws are interpreted
and the appropriate measures that need to be taken to address
new problems. The next section addresses issues that are impor-
tant for U.S. society.
U.S. Energy Issues

The previous sections on U.S. energy and environmental policy
demonstrate how incredibly difficult it is to develop and imple-
ment a comprehensive national energy policy that incorporates
these components. Energy issues are dynamic and evolving.
There are not always clear-cut strategies for managing the various
components involved in energy production and distribution.
U.S. Energy Issues 103
When new energy issues arise, it is often difficult to implement

policies that satisfy the various interests involved. This section
addresses energy issues important to U.S. society. First it exam-
ines debates over energy development on federal lands. Then it
examines the problem of electricity regulation.
Energy and Federal Lands

One of the most important energy issues in the United States is
the use of federal lands for purposes of energy development and
nuclear waste storage. Federal lands consist of more than 700 mil-
lion acres of land owned and managed by federal government
agencies. There are four major federal land management agen-
cies: the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) (465 million acres of
land used mostly for mining and ranching); the U.S. Forest Ser-
vice (USFS) (187 million acres of forestlands managed for multi-
ple uses); the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (26.5 million
acres of varied lands where wildlife populations are managed);
and the National Park Service (NPS) (23 million acres comprised
of national parks and monuments preserved for their unique
characteristics and beauty) (Clarke and Angersbach 2001, 35). The
federal government has also designated national wildlife refuges,
wild and scenic rivers, and wilderness areas for the purpose of
preserving wildlife habitat and pristine areas from development.
In addition, Indian reservations are considered to be federal
lands, but often the tribes manage their own lands.
Despite who manages the land, these areas belong to the
American people. They do not belong to any one entity, but are
managed for the benefit of the public. Because of this, many is-
sues are raised regarding how the land can be used and who can
profit from its development. The Mineral Leasing Act (MLA) of
1920 gave energy companies the opportunity to lease land from
the federal government for oil and gas drilling. The federal gov-
ernment collects royalties from the leases, which amount to a
substantial revenue source for the U.S. Treasury (Laitos and
Tomain 1992, 271). Between 1982 and 2002, the Minerals Man-
agement Service collected over $127 billion from oil and gas roy-
alties (MMS 2003). Land managed by the BLM and the Forest
Service can be opened for leasing, but federal lands that are des-
ignated as national parks and monuments, national wildlife
refuges, wild and scenic rivers, and wilderness areas cannot be
leased for drilling. Offshore drilling activities are also leased
from the federal government pursuant to the 1953 Outer Conti-

nental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), a law that gave the Department
of the Interior management responsibility over offshore drilling
leases. Coal resources can also be mined on federal lands, but
they are leased according to provisions defined in the 1976 Fed-
eral Coal Leasing Amendments Act.
Drilling in the Alaskan National Wildlife Refuge and the des-
ignation of Yucca Mountain in Nevada as a nuclear waste reposi-
tory site are two examples of issues that concern the use of federal
lands for energy development and nuclear-waste storage.
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

As fossil fuel resources become increasingly scarce, and because
energy security in the United States is threatened by its reliance
on foreign energy sources, the federal government has expressed
greater interest in promoting energy development on federal
lands. As noted above, much of this development occurs on land
leased from the federal government by resource extractive indus-
tries. However, the debate is increasingly being centered on
whether or not to allow energy development on federal lands that
were set aside for conservation purposes: lands that are located in
national parks, monuments, wilderness areas, and wildlife
refuges. While energy development on federal lands is being
debated for areas all over the country, development of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is the most publicized and
contentious of these discussions.
The issue of oil development along the North Slope in Alaska
began in 1968 when oil was discovered in Prudhoe Bay. Soon after
the discovery, oil companies announced plans to develop the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), a forty-eight inches in di-
ameter pipeline that would transport crude oil over 800 miles
from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez (Gorman 2001, 290). The develop-
ment of TAPS, however, was a difficult matter. The pipeline
would need to transverse federally owned land over fragile
stretches of permafrost. Issues of habitat fragmentation for cari-
bou migrations and questions of what would happen to the land-
scape in the event of pipeline damage raised concerns that
required resolution for the proposed pipeline. Additionally, pub-
lic attitudes toward pipeline development were wary as images
of the Santa Barbara oil spill were burned into Americans mem-
ories. Many preservationist and environmentalist organizations
in the United States rallied against the pipeline and sued the
government for failing to follow newly enacted NEPA guidelines

in its overview of the proposed pipeline. Additionally, they con-
tended that the area of land to be used for pipeline operation
exceeded the allowable limit of land under the 1920 Mineral Leas-
ing Act (291).
In response to these criticisms, the DOI completed two drafts
of an Environmental Impact Statement that addressed the envi-
ronmental concerns raised. By 1972, the U.S. District Court of Ap-
peals ruled the federal government had met NEPA guidelines,
but stated that Congress needed to revise MLA guidelines before
pipeline construction would be allowed. Although the vote in
Congress was close, energy concerns that arose over the 1973 oil
embargo provided enough impetus to vote for the pipeline. Con-
struction began in 1974. As a result of the EIS, several modifica-
tions were made to the original design, including 400 miles of
elevated pipeline to protect permafrost and short segments of
buried, refrigerated pipeline to accommodate caribou migrations
(Gorman 2001, 294). Additionally, the pipeline was equipped
with check valves to monitor for the occurrence of leaks. Oil first
arrived in Valdez from the pipeline in 1977.
Energy development in Alaska grew after the construction of
the pipeline, and by 2001 eighteen fields in the North Slope were
producing oil (Streever 2002). Oil drilling and production are
mostly conducted on Alaska state lands, but industry expansion
has been proposed for surrounding lands to the east, toward the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), and for offshore opera-
tions into the Beaufort Sea.
ANWR is a 19-million acre stretch of land located along the
eastern region of the North Slope. The refuge was established by
the Eisenhower administration. Although it was designated as a
wilderness area, wording in the designation did not preclude fu-
ture oil and gas development. It is by far the largest wildlife
refuge in the United States. It is the summer home of many
species of migratory animals. An estimated 180 species of migra-
tory birds and 129,000 porcupine caribou migrate to the refuge to
breed in the summer (Cronon 2001). Bowhead whales also thrive
off the coast of the North Slope. The animals are important for the
livelihood and spirituality of the Gwichin and the Inupiaq
people who inhabit the area.
Since the 1990s, energy development in ANWR has been one
of the most controversial energy issues in the United States. De-
velopment in the refuge was first considered in the early part of
the decade, when oil concerns were heightened with the start of
the Persian Gulf wars. Environmentalists fought the development
of ANWR and succeeded in obtaining a ban on drilling in the area
with the 1992 Energy Policy Act. The issue surfaced again during
the George W. Bush administration, which made it a fundamen-
tal part of its energy plan.
The Bush administration has argued that as energy needs in
the United States grow, the oil that lies underneath this wildlife
refuge will be integral for maintaining supply. Furthermore,
arctic drilling has been promoted for its importance to national
security. Soon after September 11, 2001, the administration ap-
pealed to Congress to open ANWR to drilling, emphasizing the
need to pass legislation that would allow the United States to rely
less on sources of foreign oil. After meeting with his cabinet a
month after the terrorist attacks, Bush told the press, The less de-
pendent we are on foreign sources of crude oil, the more secure
we are at home (Seelye 2001).
Environmental groups are strongly opposed to drilling in
ANWR. Such groups often cite a study performed by the U.S. Ge-
ological Survey (USGS) that found oil development would most
likely restrict the calving grounds of the caribou as well as result
in higher calf mortality rates and weight reductions in both preg-
nant females and calves (Verhovek 2002). The Bush administra-
tion has dismissed the report as being based on outdated drilling
practices. To alleviate environmental concerns, the administration
asserted that technology has made exploring, drilling, and trans-
porting oil more efficient and less damaging to the environment.
Mark Pfeifle, a spokesperson for the Department of the Interior,
noted that the report demonstrates that with new technology,
tough regulations and common-sense management, [the United
States] can protect wildlife and produce energy (Revkin 2001).
Concern for wildlife is not the only criticism that environ-
mental groups have expressed. They also contend that the costs
for drilling in the refuge far outweigh the benefits. The amount of
oil that could be recovered from the refuge is estimated by the
USGS to be between 5.7 and 16.0 billion barrels, with a mean av-
erage of 10.4 billion barrels (USGS 1998). This small amount of oil
is only enough to support the U.S. fuel supply for one year at
best. Critics also note that ANWR is only a distraction from the
other drilling sites that Bush has proposed. The energy policy rec-
ommends more than fifty new drilling areas in the western
United States, most of them in the Rockies and some in national
parks (Seelye 2002). It also grants tax breaks to oil and gas com-
panies for greater production from offshore and marginal wells
and provides money for coal mining technology.
As of 2006, the proposal to open ANWR for drilling had not
succeeded in gaining congressional approval. Because of con-
tentious opposition, the measure was not included in the 2005 En-
ergy Policy Act.
Yucca Mountain
The location of a nuclear waste repository site has also been a
contentious energy and land use issue. Currently the United
States has over 40,000 tons of spent nuclear fuel and over 400,000
cubic meters of high-level radioactive waste located in 100 differ-
ent sites in forty-two states (Long and Ewing 2004). Although this
issue has plagued the federal government for five decades, the
terrorist attacks of September 11 heightened concerns over the se-
curity of these facilities, the danger in transporting radioactive
waste to various different sites, and the cost of storing nuclear
waste in several different locations.
As noted in an earlier section, the Nuclear Waste Policy Act
(NWPA) of 1982 mandated that the safe disposal of nuclear waste
was the responsibility of the federal government. In 1987, an
amendment to the NWPA established that waste disposal needed
to be centralized in a single location, Yucca Mountain. Studies on
the feasibility of Yucca Mountain as a potential site began in 1978.
It is located in a remote region approximately 100 miles north-
west of Las Vegas, Nevada, at the edge of the Nevada Test Site, an
area that supported hundreds of nuclear tests. Yucca Mountain
was chosen because feasibility studies demonstrate that the re-
gional dry climate and its geologic stability are conducive condi-
tions for waste storage. Most important, many studies show that
the underlying water table is extremely deep and the mountain is
situated in a closed water basin, meaning any water that flows
into the area will not leave (OCRWM 2006).
One of the major problems with radioactive waste is that it
persists in the environment for incredibly long periods of time.
For example, the half-life of plutonium is estimated to be 24,000
years (Long and Ewing 2004). Throughout this time, the waste
emits radiation that can be hazardous to human health. It also
creates heat as it decays, making waste sequestration a difficult
issue because storage conditions change over time. Due to the
persistent nature of radioactive waste, public health and safety
standards must consider extremely long time periods. In order to

comply with the 1987 NWPA, the EPA developed a 10,000-year
compliance period for determining public health and safety stan-
dards. Presidential authorization for the Yucca Mountain storage
facility was finalized when President George W. Bush signed
House Joint Resolution 87 in 2002.
Controversy in selecting one nuclear waste repository is in-
evitable. By doing so, the federal government made one state the
nuclear garbage dump for the country. Although the Yucca
Mountain site is on federal land, the repository imposes a burden
on state government. Several issues must be addressed. How
does Nevada deal with nuclear waste transport and what disas-
ter plans are necessary should an accident occur? What types of
implications does this selection have for growth in Las Vegas,
Nevadas largest city? How does the state deal with negative
publicity associated with nuclear waste? Although these concerns
are often brushed off as being a not-in-my-backyard-syndrome
(NIMBY), they are very legitimate logistical concerns that need to
be considered.
Some critics say Yucca Mountain may not be as safe as the
feasibility reports have determined. Scientists note that Yucca
Mountain does not satisfy all of the technical conditions deter-
mined for safe geologic storage (Long and Ewing 2004). Further-
more, predicting geologic stability for extremely long periods of
time is difficult. Changes to the Earths hydrology in a particular
area are not easy to predict, and Yucca Mountain could become an
unsuitable repository over time. Others have criticized the federal
government for determining Yucca Mountain to be the most suit-
able site before all the necessary studies were completed. Once
the site was chosen, it was difficult to change course. Finally, crit-
ics declare reprocessing is a viable option for drastically reducing
the amount of nuclear waste that needs to be stored. If the gov-
ernment were to fund reprocessing projects, perhaps a geologic
repository would not be needed.
As of 2007, the Yucca Mountain Project has been stalled. In
2004, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the selection of
Yucca Mountain as the nations nuclear waste repository, but re-
jected the 10,000-year compliance period after hearing the case
Nuclear Energy Institute Inc. v. Environmental Protection Agency
(D.C. Cir. 2004). This ruling extended the projects timeline for de-
velopment. In order to comply with the courts ruling, the EPA
must develop new standards that take into account the findings
of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). The NAS concluded

that the 10,000-year compliance period is not sufficient. Exposure
periods are likely to occur after 10,000 years and a 1 million-year
compliance period would be more consistent with available sci-
entific evidence (Reblitz-Richardson 2005).
Utility and Electricity Regulation

Reliable electricity and utilities are important in every aspect of
life, from the gas used to cook with to the electricity that lights
homes and powers refrigerators. Because of this reliance, the dis-
tribution of electricity and natural gas is an extremely important
component of the energy cycle in U.S. society. The regulation of
electricity and utility distribution provides an interesting exami-
nation of federal and state interactions and how government
regulation can impact the market for electricity and natural gas
commodities. This section describes the development of utilities
regulation in U.S. history. The electricity and natural gas indus-
tries sometimes are collectively referred to as utilities.
Before the history and development of utilities regulation is
examined, it is important to understand what a monopoly is and
how monopolies create problems for market-based economies.
Market-based systems operate on the basic foundations of supply
and demand, which interact with one another to create the most
efficient price structures. For example, if a supplier is charging
too much money for a commodity, the demand for that good or
service will decrease, forcing the supplier to lower the price in
order to sell the good or service. Hence, the price of commodities
changes according to shifts in supply and demand. A free market
maximizes the efficiency of supply and demand because all par-
ticipants have the equal opportunity and ability to buy and sell
goods and services. In free markets, competition induces innova-
tion, and the production of goods and services becomes increas-
ingly efficient, provided there are plenty of players in the market.
A monopoly is described as a market failure. It occurs when
there is only one or a few providers of a good or service that con-
sumers can choose from. In society, natural monopolies exist
because large amounts of capital funds are required in order to
provide certain goods and services. For example, natural gas
pipelines and electricity distribution systems cost a lot of money
to construct and maintain. Additionally, they are most efficient
when designed to service large numbers of people. Because of
such large initial costs, efficiency is achieved when only one or

two providers are operating on the market. This situation pre-
cludes everyone from being able to participate in the market and
presents a problem for consumers. If only one or two providers
are available for a necessary good and prices are dramatically in-
creased, the consumer does not have the choice to switch to an
alternate provider. Government regulations have been imple-
mented as a solution to natural monopolies. By requiring price
caps for certain industries, governments can ensure that prices for
necessary goods and services are not dramatically increased.
In the early twentieth century, natural gas industries were
regulated by state public utility commissions (PUCs). The 1938
Natural Gas Act established the Federal Power Commission
(FPC) (which later became the Federal Energy Regulatory Com-
mission [FERC]). The FPC was responsible for regulating inter-
state sales of natural gas, but not those of intrastate gas. Soon
after the act became law, several issues became apparent. Since
natural gas distribution operated on two different markets, inter-
state providers could not operate in intrastate markets and in-
trastate providers could not operate in interstate markets. The
distribution restrictions created artificial shortages. For example,
a natural gas shortage would occur in an intrastate market even
though interstate providers had plenty of gas to sell; federal reg-
ulations prevented interstate providers from supplying gas ser-
vices to consumers in intrastate markets. Pricing issues were also
a concern, as consumers in intrastate markets were charged
under a different structure than those serviced by interstate
providers, whose prices were subject to regulation by the federal
government. These issues created tensions between two groups
of people. The first sought to deregulate the market, claiming that
the natural gas industry was competitive enough to avoid the
dangers of a monopoly. The second group was wary of deregula-
tion, citing concerns over the effects that a free natural gas market
could have on consumers.
Regulatory changes in the 1970s attempted to address the is-
sues that arose from the 1938 law. Most significant, the Natural
Gas Act of 1978 eliminated the distinction between inter- and in-
trastate markets and resulted in the federal government having a
stronger role in the pricing of natural gas. The 1978 legislation also
revised pricing structures for natural gas markets that ultimately
sought to eliminate price controls (Laitos and Tomain 1992, 500).
The authorization of PURPA (discussed earlier) also affected the

design of gas rate structures. Throughout the 1980s, FERC sought
to adapt to the market with several regulatory changes. Despite
the regulatory changes, many utility companies have been pres-
suring federal and state governments for deregulation.
Electricity regulation in the twentieth century experienced a
similar trend of increasing federal involvement. In the 1920s, util-
ity holding companies dominated the electricity market. These
companies did not actually produce or distribute electricity;
rather they consolidated and acquired control over smaller elec-
tricity providers. The smaller providers gained the capital funds
required for electricity distribution, and the utility holding com-
panies made a share of their profits. Unfortunately, this system
was prone to abuse as stock manipulation and profiteering artifi-
cially bolstered the market (Melosi 1995, 119). Ultimately, the
setup was detrimental to the electricity consumer, who experi-
enced drastic and unpredictable price fluctuations.
In an effort to break the monopoly of utility holding compa-
nies, the Federal Power Act of 1935 was passed. The legislation
partially alleviated the monopoly problem by allowing FERC to
regulate interstate electricity rates while states provided their
own rate structure for intrastate markets. The Public Utility Hold-
ing Company Act (PUHCA) of 1935 abolished the utility holding
companies that comprised several levels of management (i.e.,
pyramid companies) and allowed the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) to investigate and regulate the business trans-
actions of holding companies.
The 1978 enactment of PURPA was another important law af-
fecting the electricity industry. It granted FERC the authority to
intervene in the functioning of transmission lines. For example, it
gave FERC the authority to order electricity companies to distrib-
ute electricity over another companys transmission lines (a
process know as wheeling) if such an action would promote
conservation and efficiency (Laitos and Tomain 1992, 512). The
law also increased FERCs jurisdiction in the area of utility rate-
making. PURPA also required electricity generators to develop
plans for electricity shortages. Finally, as discussed above,
PURPA promoted energy conservation by mandating that elec-
tricity be purchased from cogeneration facilities.
The 1990s saw other changes proposed in the regulation of
energy. State governments sought to deregulate their electricity
markets in an effort to increase competition among power com-

panies by either repealing or otherwise disabling PURPA regula-
tions. Proponents of deregulation contended that by releasing
utility companies from restrictions specifying what types of
power they can utilize (e.g., cogeneration) and by allowing rates
to be set by the market, prices would be more competitive and
electricity consumers would have more choice. Opponents of the
deregulation move contended that increased competition would
foster a market situation oriented toward short-term economic
returns rather than the long-term sustainability of renewable
power resources.
The major impetus behind the deregulation debate has been
the proliferation of large independent power producers who are
not considered qualifying facilities under PURPA. It is argued
that the tax advantages given to qualifying facilities unfairly dis-
criminates against larger providers and stifles competition (Smith
2004). Additionally, consumers would likely benefit financially
from the lower prices that could result from increased competi-
tion. The perceived advantage of the consumer being able to
choose his/her own source of power, rather than being at the
mercy of a single utility company, is one of the forces at the cen-
ter of the deregulation debate.
The State of California experimented with utility deregula-
tion. In 1996, Governor Wilson signed a law restructuring Cali-
fornias energy markets to allow for competition in electricity
generation in order to drive costs down. Flaws in the deregula-
tion plan ultimately led to a power crisis in California beginning
in June 2000 when prices skyrocketed and supply plummeted,
causing consistent rolling blackouts. Rolling blackouts occur
when utilities do not have a large enough supply of electricity to
meet demand. In order to deal with the shortage, utility compa-
nies shut off power to certain neighborhoods for several specified
hours. In the case of the 2000 rolling blackouts in California, the
problem was not one of supply. California had enough generating
capacity to provide electricity for its residents. The problem arose
with large energy providers that manipulated the energy markets
to enhance profits. The most well-known example of this practice
was the abuses of Enron Corporation. The company used energy
trading schemes to increase its profits as the cost of energy for
consumers skyrocketed. In one example, Californias consumers
paid in excess of $5.5 million for their electricity while Enron
References 113
recorded a $10 million profitin one day (Swartz and Watkins

2003, 240)!
The case of California demonstrates why regulation is neces-
sary in a market prone to monopoly. Despite abuses like these,
many still contend that deregulation would provide a more re-
sponsive and adaptive energy system for consumers. This view
was expressed in the Energy Policy Act of 2005. While the legis-
lation provided protection to utility customers from Enron-like
scandals, it also repealed the 1935 PUHCA. The repeal of PUHCA
is significant because it rescinded the fundamental legislation
that dissolved the corrupt activities of utility holding companies
in the 1930s. The 2005 act also repealed the PURPA requirement
that utilities must purchase electricity from qualifying facilities
(UCS 2005).
Conclusion
This chapter described energy dynamics of the United States.
This country is the most energy-intensive society in the world.
Throughout history, it has gone to great lengths to secure energy
supplies. Despite these efforts, a comprehensive energy policy
has remained elusive. This lack of a unified policy is due to the
complex nature of energy use, as well as to political tensions and
special interests that have steered the direction of energy and en-
vironmental policy throughout U.S. history. This history has been
complex and multifaceted. In an effort to summarize information
on energy use history and issues, the next chapter provides a
chronological overview of the first three chapters.
References
Clarke, J. N., and K. Angersbach. 2001. The Federal Four: Change and
Continuity in the Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Forest Service and National Park Service, 19702000. In
Western Public Lands and Environmental Politics, edited by C. Davis. 2nd
ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Cronon, W. 2001. Neither Barren nor Remote. New York Times,
February 28, Section A, p. 19.
Davis, D. H. 2001. Energy on Federal Lands. In Western Public Lands

and Environmental Politics, edited by C. Davis. 2nd ed. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2006a. Table 1.3: Energy
Consumption by Source. Monthly Energy Review (January 2006): 7.
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2006b. U.S. Crude Oil and
Petroleum Products Exports. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/
pet/hist/mttexus1A.htm (accessed January 10, 2006).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2006c. U.S. Crude Oil and
Petroleum Products Imports from All Countries. http://tonto
.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/hist/mttimus1A.htm (accessed January 10,
2006).
Energy Information Administration (EIA) 2005a. Annual Energy Review
2004. Washington, DC.: DOE/EIA-0384(2004).
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2005b. Table 14.
Recoverable Coal Reserves and Average Recovery Percentage at
Producing Mines by State, 2004, 2003. Annual Coal Report, 2004.
DOE/EIA-0584(2004). September. Washington, DC: Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration.
Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2005c. World Proved
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/ (accessed January 10, 2006).
Fehner, T. R., and J. M. Holl. 1994. Department of Energy 19771994: A
Summary History. DOE/HR-0098.
Gorman, H. S. 2001. Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns, Regulatory
Mechanisms, and Technological Change in the U.S. Petroleum Industry.
Akron, OH: University of Akron Press.
Idelson, H. 1992. National Energy Strategy Provisions. Congressional
Quarterly Weekly Report 50 (47): 37223731.
Kahn, J. 2001a. Cheney Promotes Increasing Supply as Energy Policy.
New York Times, May 1, Section A, page 1.
Kahn, J. 2001b. Cheney Withholds List of Those Who Spoke to Energy
Panel. New York Times, June 26, Section A, p. 17.
Kapstein, E. B. 1990. The Insecure Alliance: Energy Crises and Western
Politics Since 1944. New York: Oxford University Press.
Laitos, J. G., and J. P. Tomain. 1992. Energy and Natural Resources Law in
a Nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
Long, J. C. S., and R. C. Ewing. 2004. Yucca Mountain: Earth-Science
Issues at a Geologic Repository for High-level Nuclear Waste. Annual
Review of Earth & Planetary Sciences 32 (1): 363401.
References 115
Melosi, M. V. 1985. Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in

Industrial America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Miller, E. W., and R. M. Miller. 1993. Energy and American Society: A
Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minerals Management Service (MMS). 2003. MMS Facts and Figures
2003. http://www.mms.gov/ooc/newweb/publications/
2003%20FACT.pdf (accessed February 6, 2006).
Nivola, P. S. 1986. The Politics of Energy Conservation. Washington, DC:
The Brookings Institute.
Nuclear Energy Institute Inc. v. Environmental Protection Agency. 373 F.3d
1251 (D.C. Cir. 2004).
Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM). 2006.
Why Yucca Mountain? http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/ymp/
about/why.shtml (accessed February 7, 2006).
Reblitz-Richardson, B. 2005. D.C. Circuit Rejects EPAs Proposed
Standards and Extends Timeline for Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste
Repository. Ecology Law Quarterly 32 (3): 743748.
Revkin, A. C. 2001. Hunting for Oil: New Precision, Less Pollution.
New York Times, January 30, Section F, p. 1.
Rosenbaum, W. A. 1973. The Politics of Environmental Concern. New
York: Praeger.
Seelye, K. Q. 2001. Bush Promotes Energy Bill as Security Issue. New
York Times, October 12, Section A, p. 18.
Seelye, K. Q. 2002. Bush Favors Dozens of Sites for Exploration. New
York Times, April 19, Section A, p. 18.
Smith, Zachary A. 2004. The Environmental Policy Paradox. 4th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Streever, B. 2002. Science and Emotion on Ice: The Role of Science on
Alaskas North Slope BioScience 52 (2): 7984.
Sullivan, C. C. 1993. Economy and Ecology: A Powerful Coalition.
Buildings 87 (5): 47.
Swartz, M., and S. Watkins. 2003. Power Failure: The Inside Story of the
Collapse of Enron. New York: Doubleday.
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). 2005. Summary of the Energy
Bill: Conference Report to HR 6. http://www.ucsusa.org/
clean_energy/clean_energy_policies/energy-bill2005.html (accessed
February 6, 2006).
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 1998. Comprehensive National Energy
Strategy. Washington, DC: DOE/S-0124.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2005. Clear Skies: Basic

Information. http://www.epa.gov/air/clearskies/basic.html
(accessed February 6, 2006).
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1998. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge,
1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic Analysis.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0028-01/fs-0028-01.htm (accessed January
21, 2006).
Van Natta, D., Jr., and N. Banerjee. 2002. Top G.O.P. Donors in Energy
Industry Met Cheney Panel. New York Times, March 1, Section A, p. 1.
Verhovek, S. H. 2002. Drilling Could Hurt Wildlife, Federal Study of
Arctic Says. New York Times, March 30, Section A, p. 12.
4
Chronology
Introduction
U
nderstanding the current state of energy dynamics in society
would be impossible without consideration of historical
trends. Such hindsight also provides a valuable component
in the development of sustainable energy policy. In this chapter,
chronologies summarize and highlight important events in
global energy use. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a
useable format for providing quick reference to important en-
ergy events.
Energy dynamics permeate many areas of human life. List-
ing associated events in one extended timeline does not fully
highlight their relevance in society. Additionally, such a format
may be frustrating to readers seeking information relevant to
one aspect of energy use. For this reason, energy events are di-
vided into six chronologies within this chapter. The first four de-
scribe notable milestones and achievements in the development
and production of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, renewable re-
sources, and energy services such as electricity and transporta-
tion. The fifth chronology details important political and
economic events in global energy history, while the sixth focuses
on U.S. events.
117
118 Chronology
Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, and Natural Gas

Carboniferous Period (286 million to 360 million years ago)
Bituminous coal found in the eastern United States
and Europe is formed.
Permian Period (240 million to 286 million years ago)

Coal found in eastern Asia, Siberia, western United
States, Indonesia, and Australia is formed.
2000 BCE Ancient Egyptians use petroleum oil for medicinal

purposes.
1000 BCE China uses coal for smelting copper.
480 BCE Persians use oil as a flammable material in warfare

during invasion of Athens.
200 BCE China uses percussion drilling to extract natural gas

for salt-brine evaporation.
1200s CE Coal is extensively mined in Europe for metal smelting.
1709 Abraham Darby develops a technique for producing

pig iron using coke (pyrolyzed coal).
1748 The first commercial coal production in the United

States begins near Richmond, Virginia, where coal
was discovered in 1701.
1800 Great Britain is the largest global coal producer, sup-

plying over four-fifths of global coal resources.
1807 The first municipal coal-gas system lights up Pall Mall

in London.
1816 Baltimore, Maryland, is the first city in the United

States to use coal gas for lighting.
1821 William Hart digs the first natural gas well in the
Chronology 119
United States in Fredonia, New York. He later founds

the Fredonia Gas Light Company.
1830s Coal companies flourish in the Appalachian regions in

the United States and along the Ohio, Illinois, and
Mississippi rivers.
1850s Coke is the dominant fuel used in English blast fur-

naces.
1853 Abraham Gesner separates kerosene from gasoline

using a process called distillation.
1859 Colonel Edwin Drake makes the first oil strike in the
United States in Titusville, Pennsylvania.
1866 Strip mining for coal in the United States begins near
Danville, Illinois.
1880s Petroleum production begins in Russia with the de-

velopment of the Baku oil fields.
1890s Royal Dutch, an Indonesian company, begins oil ex-

traction in the Dutch East Indies.
1891 The first natural gas pipeline is constructed in the

United States, extending 120 miles and supplying
Chicago with natural gas from gas fields in Indiana.
1901 Foreign oil companies begin production in Mexico.
The technique of rotary drilling is used for the first

time to develop the Spindletop wells in Beaumont,
Texas.
1908 William DArcy strikes oil at Masjid-i Suleiman in Per-

sia (modern-day Iran).
1913 Foreign oil companies begin production in Trinidad.
1914 Foreign oil companies begin production in Venezuela.

120 Chronology
1925 Annual global petroleum production exceeds 1 billion

barrels.
1930s The United States begins constructing natural gas

pipeline networks, most notably completing a
pipeline that extends from western Texas to Chicago.
1938 The California Standard Oil Company (CASOC)

strikes oil in Saudi Arabia.
1940s The United States expands its gas pipeline network.
1940 Annual global petroleum production exceeds 2 billion

barrels.
1960 Oil production begins in the oil fields of Daqing,

Chinas largest oil fields.
Oil is discovered in the Konda River valley in western

Siberia, marking the beginning of oil production in
Siberia.
1970s The worlds largest oil pipelines are built to transport

petroleum from Siberia to Europe.
1980s Conflict between Iran and Iraq cause unstable fluctu-

ations in the global oil market.
1996 Shell Oil announces plans to drill for oil at record

depths of 4,000 feet in the Gulf of Mexico. Production
tests began in 2006.
1999 British Petroleum Company (U.K.) and Aramco (fifth-

largest U.S. oil company) sign a $53 billion merger.
2000 A large natural gas reserve is discovered in the Tarim

Basin in the Xinjiang region of Western China.
2001 The first stage of the Caspian Pipeline, a 1,510-kilome-

ter-long oil pipeline from the Tengiz field in western
Kazakhstan to Russias Black Sea coast opens with the
capacity to transport 350,000 barrels of oil per day.
Chronology 121
2005 Royal Dutch Shell reduces it estimates of energy re-

serves by 1.4 billion barrels of oil equivalent.
Oil giant Chevron (U.S.) purchases U.S.-based Unocal

for $16.7 billion increasing its oil reserves by 1.8 billion
barrels of oil equivalent.
Chevron begins construction on the West African Gas

Pipeline, which will stretch 450 miles from Nigeria to
Benin, Ghana, and Togo.
2006 A 600-mile oil pipeline stretching from Kazakhstan to

China is completed with a capacity of delivering
210,000 barrels per day.
Nuclear Energy
1896 French physicist Antoine-Henri Becquerel discovers
the radioactive properties of uranium.
1898 French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie discover the

radioactive elements plutonium and radium.
1908 British physicists Ernest Rutherford and Frederick

Soddy discover alpha and beta radiation and describe
the theory of radioactive transformation.
1938 German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

demonstrate the phenomenon of nuclear fission.
1942 Enrico Fermi sustains the first controlled nuclear

chain reaction for 28 minutes at the University of
Chicago.
1945 The first atomic bomb is denoted on July 16 near

Alamogordo, New Mexico.
The United States drops an atomic bomb on the Japan-

ese city of Hiroshima on August 6. On August 9, the
United States detonates a second atomic bomb on Na-
gasaki, Japan.
122 Chronology
1951 The first breeder reactor produces useable electric

power from atomic energy, illuminating four lightbulbs.
1952 The first hydrogen bomb, a device 1,000 times more

powerful than the atomic bomb, is detonated on the
Pacific Island of Eniwetok Atoll.
1954 The first nuclear power plant commences operation in

Obninsk, Russia, marking the first time that electricity
is derived from nuclear energy for civilian use.
1955 Arco, Idaho, is the first U.S. town to receive electricity

generated using nuclear energy; the power comes
from the Idaho National Energy Laboratory, a U.S. De-
partment of Energy facility.
1957 The first large-scale nuclear power plant, the Shipping-

port Atomic Power Station, commences operation in
Pennsylvania.
An English nuclear power plant, Windscale Pile

Number One, catches on fire, releasing radioactive
contaminants into the atmosphere.
1958 A moratorium is placed on nuclear weapons testing

operations.
1961 The United States and the Soviet Union resume nu-
clear weapons testing.
An experimental nuclear reactor explodes at the Idaho

National Reactor Testing Station, killing three people.
1962 The first nuclear power plant in Antarctica com-

mences operation.
1963 The Limited Tests Ban Treaty is signed by the United

States, Russia, and Great Britain, banning the under-
water, atmospheric, and outer-space testing of nuclear
weapons.
Chronology 123
1964 Private ownership of nuclear fuel in the United States

is allowed through the Private Ownership of Nuclear
Materials Act.
1968 The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty is signed by

forty-eight countries. Aimed at halting the spread of
nuclear weapons, the treaty details provisions for the
peaceful development of nuclear technology. The
treaty is fully ratified in 1970.
1977 A fire at the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant in Al-

abama causes a malfunction of safety systems at the
facility. Although no radioactive material was re-
leased to the environment, the accident raises con-
cerns about nuclear safety.
1979 Loss of coolant at the Three Mile Island nuclear power

plant in Pennsylvania causes an accident that raises
public fears about the nuclear power industry.
1986 A nuclear reactor meltdown occurs in at Chernobyl, in

Soviet-controlled Ukraine. The accident kills thirty-
one people and spreads radiation over Europe.
2000 The Nuclear Regulatory Commission grants twenty-

year operating extensions to two U.S. nuclear power
plants.
2002 The worlds first nuclear power plant shutdown hap-

pens in Obninsk, Russia.
2004 Great Britain closes its Chapelcross nuclear power

plant.
Citing safety concerns, Lithuania implements plans to

shut down one-half of its nuclear generating capacity.
2005 Germany closes its Obrigheim nuclear power plant as

part of an initiative to close all seventeen nuclear
power facilities in the country by 2021.
124 Chronology
2005 China experiences nationwide power shortages as

(cont.) electric capacity struggles to meet rapidly increasing
demand in response to record high temperatures.
2006 Turkey announces plans for the construction of its first

nuclear power plant, located at Sinop.
Renewable Energy
2 BCE Waterpower is used to mill grain in Middle Eastern
and Scandinavian countries.
1100s CE Wind power is used in Europe for the purpose of

milling grain.
1600s Waterpower is the main source of energy for milling

grain in Europe. By the end of this century, England
has more than 20,000 water mills.
1833 Benoit Fourneyron develops the first water turbine, an

invention that revolutionizes the use of water for
powering mills and other industrial machinery. Four-
neyrons design converts potential energy stored in
water to useful mechanical energy with 80 percent ef-
ficiency.
1839 French physicist Edmond Becquerel discovers the

photovoltaic effect when he measures an increase in
voltage of a battery exposed to sunlight.
1877 British scientists William Grylls Adams and Richard

Evans Day discover that the element selenium ex-
hibits electrical properties when it is exposed to sun-
light. This observation leads to the use of selenium in
photovoltaic solar cells.
1882 Water turbines are coupled to electricity generators

for the first time in the United States.
1883 Charles Edgar Fritts of New York develops the first

Chronology 125
selenium solar cell. The electricity conversion in the

cell is only around 1 percent.
1888 Charles F. Brush uses wind to create power in Cleve-

land, Ohio, marking the first time that a large wind-
mill in used to generate electricity in the United
States.
1904 Italy is the first country to use geothermal energy to

produce electricity.
1909 William J. Bailey patents the solar water heater.
1920 Southern Florida initiates development of the solar

heater market. Although business stagnates by the
1950s, the effort marks the first time that solar energy
is shown to be commercially viable in the United
States.
1941 Researchers at Bell Laboratories in the United States

discover photovoltaic properties of the element sili-
con.
1954 American researchers Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller,

and Gerald Pearson develop a silicon-based photo-
voltaic solar cell with an energy conversion efficiency
of 6 percent.
1958 Photovoltaic solar cells are used on the space satellite

Vanguard I to power a small radio transmitter.
1960 Pacific Gas & Electric starts up the first commercially

viable 10-megawatt geothermal generating station in
the United States.
1961 Construction begins on the worlds first tidal power

plant on the Rance River estuary in Brittany, France;
the plant first generates power in 1966.
1968 The Soviet Union opens a tidal power station in Mur-

mansk.
126 Chronology
1974 The first two-bladed wind turbine is developed by the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), marking a shift in wind turbine technology.
This design was perfected throughout the 1970s.
The Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) is

formed to provide lobbying support for the solar in-
dustry in Washington, DC.
1977 The Solar Energy Research Institute creates the first

federally funded research and development lab for re-
newable energy.
The first hot dry-rock reservoir is developed to exploit

geothermal energy in Fenton Hill, New Mexico.
1980s California provides generous tax cuts for wind energy

development; wind farms are developed throughout
the state.
1980 The Solar Rating and Certification Corporation is es-

tablished for the purpose of developing standards for
solar equipment.
The first U.S. power plant comprised of photovoltaic

solar cells opens in Utah as an experimental generat-
ing station.
1983 The first solar electric generating station, named

SEGS-I, is installed in Southern California.
1984 The first tidal power plant in North America com-

mences operation in Canada.
1986 The Itaipu Dam commences operation along the

Brazil and Paraguay border. At the time, it is the
largest dam in the world.
1988 The first European photovoltaic power station is built

near the city of Koblenz, Germany, for the purpose of
testing the feasibility of photovoltaic power contribu-
tion to local and regional power grids.
Chronology 127
1990 General Motors introduces the first electric vehicle.
1991 Approximately 15,500 wind turbines are in operation

in California, producing 2,700 MkWh of electricity.
The first wind farm in the United Kingdom com-

mences operation in Cornwall.
1993 U.S. Windpower makes commercially available a vari-

able speed wind turbine.
1994 There is an estimated 3.5 GW of installed wind power

capacity worldwide.
Electricity, Engines, Lights, and

Energy Services
1690 Denis Papin builds the first small coal-powered steam
engine. Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen later
modify the design. By 1750, water-pumping steam en-
gines are installed in English mines.
1765 James Watt expands the steam engine design by

adding a separate condenser, thereby increasing effi-
ciency and power output. Watts innovations mark the
rise in size and use of the modern steam engine (see
Watts biography in chapter 5).
1802 The Charlotte Dundras, built by Patrick Miller in En-

gland, is the first commercially successful ship to be
powered by a steam engine.
1808 Sir Humphrey Davy develops arc lighting, the first

form of electric lighting, in England.
1821 Michael Faraday discovers the principle of electro-

magnetic induction, the basic physical principle that
explains how electricity is generated by magnetism.
128 Chronology
1830 Steam engines become the primary energy sources

used for land and water transport. Steam-powered lo-
comotives and ships create the possibility for global
transportation and shipping networks.
The first public railway, powered by steam locomo-

tives, operates between Liverpool and Manchester in
England.
1833 The Royal William is the first steam-powered ship to

cross the Atlantic Ocean, traveling from London to
Quebec.
1856 Steel is made using blast furnace technology, a process

developed independently by Henry Bessemer and
William Kelly.
1868 The open hearth method for making steel, known as

the Siemens-Martin process, is developed.
1869 The first transcontinental railway link is completed in

the United States.
1878 Nikolaus Otto develops and patents a coal-powered

four-stroke horizontal internal combustion engine.
1879 Thomas Edison invents the first lightbulb by enclos-

ing a carbonized sewing thread inside a glass under
vacuum.
1882 Thomas Edison develops the first commercial electric

system using direct current (DC) at 110 volts for elec-
tricity transmission.
Americas first power plant, the Pearl Street Station, is

commissioned in New York.
Lewis Latimer invents an inexpensive method of

manufacturing carbon filaments for electric light-
bulbs. This work sets the foundation for widespread
lighting capabilities.
Chronology 129
The first U.S. hydroelectric station opens in Wisconsin.
1884 Charles Parsons introduces the first steam turbine in

England. His invention is a smaller, more efficient,
more powerful alternative to Watts steam engines.
1885 George Westinghouse develops alternating current

(AC) electrical systems.
William Stanley invents the transformer, a device

that allows for efficient electricity transmission and
delivery.
Robert Bunsen invents the Bunsen burner, a device

that uses natural gas to create a flame for cooking and
heating.
Karl Benz builds the first car powered by a horizontal

gasoline engine.
Gottleib Daimler and Wilhelm Myabach invent a

high-speed single-cylinder vertical gasoline engine.
1888 Nikola Tesla patents the three-phase AC electric motor.
1892 Rudolf Diesel patents the first diesel-powered engine.

This invention revolutionizes land and water trans-
port, replacing steam engines by the mid-twentieth
century.
1896 Henry Ford builds his first car.
1903 In North Carolina, Wright brothers Orville and Wilbur

achieve the first airplane flight.
1911 Electric air conditioning is first used.
1913 The electric refrigerator is invented.
1917 The first Russian transcontinental rail link is com-

pleted, extending from Siberia to Vladivostok.
130 Chronology
1928 The construction of Boulder Dam in Arizona is the

first large dam constructed in the West that incorpo-
rates hydropower in its principal design.
1930s Aviation was revolutionized when Frank Whittle and

Hans Pabst build the first experimental gas turbines
for powering military aircraft.
1958 The Boeing 707 is introduced as the first commercial

passenger airplane.
1998 The electric utility company Detroit Edison receives

funding from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to
construct the first high-temperature superconductor
power cable, a technology designed to increase the re-
liability and capacity of the electricity grid.
2004 The first U.S. hydrogen refueling station opens in

Washington, DC.
2006 The first wave power plant becomes operational off

the coast of Portugal.
World Energy
1884 The Anglo-American Company is formed as Standard
Oil Companys foreign associate.
1906 Shell Transport and Trading Company merges with

Netherlands oil company Royal Dutch to form one of
the largest global oil producers.
1909 William DArcy founds the Anglo-Persian Company.

The company changes its name to British Petroleum
(BP) in 1914 when the British government purchases
half of its holdings.
1912 The Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) is established

in Iraq.
Chronology 131
1914 World War I begins in Europe. The United States plays

a vital role in supplying the Allied Powers with en-
ergy resources.
1922 The TPC allows the entry of U.S. companies into its
holdings, marking the first time U.S. companies are al-
lowed to develop oil in the Middle East.
1928 The Red Line Agreement is signed, forming an al-

liance among Iran Petroleum Company (IPC, previ-
ously the TPC) companies that outlines concessions to
drill in the Middle East.
The Achnacarry (As-Is) Agreement is signed, creat-

ing a secret arrangement among major oil companies
to fix prices to the Gulf-Plus System.
1933 King Saud, the ruler of Saudi Arabia, grants oil explo-
ration concessions to the U.S. oil giant Socal, marking
the entry of U.S. energy companies in the Middle East.
1936 The Arabian-American Oil Company (ARAMCO) is

formed when Texaco joins Socals concessions in
Saudi Arabia.
1937 World War II begins in Asia, increasing the demand

for energy production.
1938 The Mexican expropriation occurs when Mexico na-

tionalizes its petroleum industry, forming the state-
owned and -operated company, Pemex. This marks
the first time that a developing country seizes control
of its oil resources from foreign ownership.
1945 The European Coal Organization (ECO) is formed,

making it the first transnational alliance to respond to
an energy crisis.
1946 The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission

(UNACE) is created to promote peaceful nuclear de-
velopment.
132 Chronology
1947 The United States approves of the Marshall Plan pro-

viding economic and energy aid to Europe during the
postwar reconstruction period.
The ECO is dissolved, and the European Coal and

Steel Community (ECSC) is formed in its place.
1948 The Red Line Agreement is dissolved.
The Fifty-Fifty Agreement is signed by Venezuela and

oil companies operating within the country, dividing
all profits equally.
1950 The Trans-Arabian oil pipeline (Tapline) is completed,

allowing Saudi Arabian oil to be delivered to the
Mediterranean Sea.
1951 Mohammed Mossadegh rises to power in Iran, mark-

ing the beginning of the Iran crisis. Opposing BP con-
cessions in the country, he attempts to nationalize
Irans oil industry.
1953 Mohammed Mossadegh is assassinated in a coup led

by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), mark-
ing the first time that a clear link is made between U.S.
foreign policy and energy policy.
1954 Seventy-one countries sign the International Conven-

tion for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil.
This treaty is the first international attempt to reform
oil tanker practices of hull flushing and oil dumping
into the sea.
1955 The ECSC forms EURATOM to promote nuclear de-

velopment and technology in European nations.
1956 The Suez Crisis closes the Suez Canal to oil shipments,
causing a massive energy crisis in Europe.
The International Atomic Energy Agency is formed

with eighty-one member countries.
Chronology 133
1957 The Organization for European Economic Coopera-

tion (OEEC) is established is response to the Suez
Crisis.
1960 The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

(OPEC) is formed.
1961 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and De-

velopment (OECD) is formed in response to OPEC.
This organization replaces the OEEC and extends
membership to the United States, Canada, Japan, New
Zealand, and Australia.
1967 Israel preemptively attacks Egypt, marking the begin-

ning of the Six Day War. Arab States implement an oil
embargo against the United States and Europe for
their support of Israel. Although the embargo was
lifted after the war, tensions between Arab and non-
Arab countries remain high.
The vessel Torrey Canyon releases over 36 million gal-

lons of crude oil into the English Channel.
1968 Arab states form the Organization for oil-producing

Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) to
unite the political interests of Arab nations.
1971 OPECs Tehran Agreement results in an eighty-cent

tax increase per barrel by 1975.
1973 The Yom Kippur War, also known as the Arab-Israeli

War, begins. U.S. support for Israel during this war
leads to an oil embargo against the United States, re-
sulting in the most crippling energy crisis in American
history.
The International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is signed by 125
countries. It mandates that oil tankers and receiving
ports revise their practices to reduce oil pollution into
the sea when transporting petroleum.
134 Chronology
1974 The International Energy Agency (IEA) is formed.
1977 Nigeria creates the Nigerian National Petroleum

Corporation (NNPC) to regulate Nigerias oil in-
dustry and joint venture contracts with foreign oil
companies.
1978 The Iranian Revolution begins, resulting in a drop in

oil production. Reduced production continues
throughout the early 1980s as security issues intensify
in the Middle East and OPEC requires low production
to keep oil prices high.
China develops its modernization plan, a strategy that

stipulates quadrupling the countrys industrial and
agricultural output by the year 2000.
Breakup of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker releases 65 mil-

lion gallons of oil into the ocean off the coast of
France.
1979 The oil tanker Atlantic Empress spills 76 million gallons

of crude oil into the ocean off the coast of the West
Indies.
A blowout on an oil platform, IXTOC 1 well, releases

140 million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico.
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air

Pollution is signed by forty-nine countries. The treaty
went into force in 1983.
China signs contracts with sixteen foreign oil compa-

nies to conduct geophysical surveys of its energy re-
sources.
1980 The Iran-Iraq War begins reducing oil production in

the Middle East.
1982 China establishes the China National Offshore Oil

Corporation to oversee drilling contracts with foreign
entities.
Chronology 135
1986 Saudi Arabia removes petroleum production controls,

resulting in a surplus of oil on the global market. Pe-
troleum prices drop, stimulating overconsumption.
1989 The dissolution of the Soviet Union results in a large

decrease in global energy demand and output from a
significant energy-producing region.
1990 Iraq invades Kuwait on August 2 resulting in a petro-

leum price increase.
1991 Iraqi armed forces deliberately damage oil pipelines

flowing to ports in Kuwait as an offensive measure
during the Gulf War. The leaks release an estimated
240 million gallons of oil into the ocean.
1992 The United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-

mate Change is signed by 188 countries, marking the
first international recognition of the issue of climate
change. The treaty went into force in 1994.
1997 The Asian Economic Crisis begins in Thailand. The

collapse of a large number of Asian economies de-
creases world energy demand.
The Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change is signed by

120 countries. The treaty went into force in 2004 when
Russia ratified the agreement.
1998 Global oil prices drop significantly as a result of the

Asian Economic Crisis and OPECs high production
quotas.
India and Pakistan begin testing nuclear weapons.
2000s In Nigeria, attacks against employees of foreign-

owned oil companies and oil production infrastruc-
ture increase, temporarily halting production in some
areas of the Niger Delta.
2003 The United States invades Iraq in March, resulting in

a drop in oil production from Iraq.
136 Chronology
2004 Nigerias government issues a mandate requiring

Royal Dutch Shell to pay $1.5 billion to the Ijaw
people for environmental and health damage caused
from oil operations.
2005 The European Union (EU) opens the first greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions trading system in Europe allow-
ing GHG emitters the ability to trade carbon credits.
The Kyoto Protocol goes into effect.
2006 Two hundred people in May and 269 people in De-

cember are killed in Nigeria after explosions occur
along oil pipelines that have been damaged to extract
oil for sale on the black market.
U.S. Energy
1813 A fuel crisis occurs in Philadelphia as coal prices in-
crease from $.30 a bushel to $1.00 in one month.
1840s Wood is the primary energy resource used in America

for domestic and industrial purposes.
1854 The New York Kerosene Company is founded by

Abraham Gesner. It is the first company in the United
States to manufacture and distribute coal oil for illu-
mination.
1870 The consumption of wood as a primary energy source

peaks.
John D. Rockefeller establishes the Standard Oil

Company.
1882 The Standard Oil Trust is established.
1890s Antismoke coalitions form throughout the country to

raise public awareness about the negative health im-
pacts of smoke pollution in urban areas.
Chronology 137
1892 The General Electric Company (GE) is formed by

a merger of the Edison Company and Thomas-
Houston.
Edward L. Doheny discovers oil near Los Angeles,

California.
1901 An extensive oil field is discovered in Spindletop,

Texas, giving rise to the Texas Company (Texaco) and
Gulf Oil, two dominant global oil companies of the
twentieth century.
1908 Henry Ford ushers in mass production when he de-

velops rapid assembly lines to cost-effectively pro-
duce his Model T. The cheap vehicles create demand
for gasoline.
1910 The U.S. Bureau of Mines is established to develop

and enforce coal mine safety standards.
1913 William Burton patents a catalytic cracking technique

that converts oil to gasoline.
1917 The United States enters World War I. The federal

government establishes the U.S. Fuel Administration
and the National Petroleum War Services Committee
to help with wartime production, allocation, and dis-
tribution of energy resources.
A fuel shortage stimulates an energy crisis in Eastern

cities.
1918 Crude oil flows through the first U.S. pipeline in

Wyoming.
1920s Coal ceases to be the dominant energy source in the

United States as the production and consumption of
oil increases.
1920 Nine million automobiles are operating in the United

States.
138 Chronology
1930s New Deal policies are enacted, creating an expansion

of publicly funded power projects and promoting the
development of electricity in rural areas.
1941 The Office of Petroleum Coordination for National

Defense is established for the purpose of controlling
petroleum production and consumption during
World War II.
1942 The War Production Board is established for the pur-

pose of coordinating industry for war production.
1943 Two major oil pipelines, The Big Inch and the Lit-
tle Big Inch, are completed to deliver petroleum to
the East Coast.
1946 The Oil and Gas Division (OGD) is established by the

federal government to develop a database on oil and
gas demand and to coordinate the implementation of
oil and gas policy.
The National Petroleum Council, comprised of indus-

try executives, is established to serve as an advisory
board to the federal government.
1947 The United States becomes a net importer (rather than

a net exporter) of oil.
1953 President Dwight Eisenhower delivers the famous

Atoms for Peace speech before the United Nations
delegation in which he calls for the establishment of an
International Atomic Energy Agency to oversee the de-
velopment and use of fissionable materials worldwide.
1959 President Dwight Eisenhower establishes the Manda-

tory Oil Import Program (MOIP) limiting petroleum
imports to a specified amount as a way to stabilize the
domestic oil market.
1960s Domestic electricity consumption increases with the

widespread distribution of television sets.
Chronology 139
1965 A switch malfunction at a power plant in Ontario

causes a massive blackout in the eastern United States
and parts of Canada, shutting power off for 13 hours
to an estimated 30 million people.
1968 Oil is discovered in Prudhoe Bay along the North

Shore of Alaska.
1969 The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is en-

acted mandating that an Environmental Impact State-
ment be drafted for development or extractive proj-
ects on federal land.
A blowout on an oil platform off the coast of Santa

Barbara, California, releases 230,000 gallons of crude
oil into the ocean, polluting beaches and the Califor-
nia Pacific Coast.
1970 Electricity brownouts occur in the Northeast as a re-

sult of an increase in electricity demand during a heat
wave.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is estab-

lished.
1972 Oil production reaches its highest level in the United

States.
1973 The Arab Oil Embargo stops shipments of oil from

Arab producing countries to the United States, result-
ing in an energy crisis. President Richard Nixon es-
tablishes Project Independence in response to the
Arab Oil Embargo. This plan aims to create energy
self-sufficiency in the United States. The Federal En-
ergy Office is created to oversee fuel pricing struc-
tures, oil rationing programs, and pricing.
1974 Construction begins on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Sys-

tem (TAPS).
The American Wind Energy Association is founded.

140 Chronology
1977 President Jimmy Carter announces the National En-

ergy Plan (NEP) on April 18. The plan calls for energy
conservation measures, implementation of the Crude
Oil and Equalization Tax (COET), and the integration
of inter- and intrastate natural gas markets.
Oil is pumped through the TAPS for the first time.
The United States commences storage of the Strategic

Petroleum Reserves in Louisiana.
1978 Important energy legislation is passed, including the

Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) and
the Natural Gas Act.
1981 President Ronald Reagan removes price and alloca-

tion controls on the oil industry.
President Reagan lifts the ban on reprocessing of nu-

clear fuel in an effort to stimulate the nuclear power
industry.
1984 The National Coal Council is established to act as an

industrial advisory committee to the federal govern-
ment.
1987 Yucca Mountain is selected as the United States na-

tional nuclear waste repository.
1988 President Reagan repeals the Windfall Profits Tax that

is levied against the profits of oil companies.
1989 The Exxon Valdez oil spill releases 11 million gallons of

crude oil into Alaskas Prince William Sound, creating
an oil slick over 900 square miles.
1993 The Climate Change Action Plan initiated by Presi-

dent Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore calls for
voluntary measures to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions to 1990 levels by the year 2000.
1996 The United States closes its largest plutonium

Chronology 141
processing plant, the Plutonium Uranium Extraction

Facility, used throughout the Cold War.
California governor Pete Wilson signs a law restruc-

turing Californias energy markets.
2000 Rolling blackouts occur in California as a result of

market restructuring.
2003 On August 14, the largest blackout in U.S. history

leaves most of the northeastern United States and
parts of Canada without power for several days.
Oil companies ConocoPhilips and Anadarko Petro-

leum Corp. are authorized to develop the National Pe-
troleum Reserve around the Alpine Field along the
North Slope of Alaska, marking the first time that na-
tional reserves are approved for development.
2005 Hurricane Katrina hits the city of New Orleans in

Louisiana, temporarily halting oil and natural gas
production in the Gulf of Mexico and shutting down
oil refineries in the southern United States, causing
gasoline prices to skyrocket.
The United States government agrees to release 30

million barrels of crude oil from the Strategic Petro-
leum Reserve.
2006 In August, British Petroleum Company shuts down

production along the eastern half of its production
fields along the North Slope of Alaska after discover-
ing multiple leaks in the pipeline network. Production
resumes in September.
Transport of crude oil and natural gas along the High

Island Pipeline System (HIPS) in the Gulf of Mexico is
shut down after it is damaged from a ship anchor.
5
Biographical Sketches
Introduction
T
he biographies in this chapter are glimpses into the roles of
people who had a large impact on the development, distribu-
tion, and use of energy resources. Because energy in society is
a complex and multifaceted topic, the people who have influ-
enced energy dynamics in modern society include a diverse array
of characters. Some sketches portray the lives of inventors and
scientists notable for their contributions to the development of
energy technology and the understanding of energys physical
properties. Other sketches examine political leaders important for
their roles in the development and promotion of energy resources
in their respective countries, and energy business and economic
leaders whose work has contributed to the modern structure of
energy markets. Also included are biographies of leaders in the
environmental and social movements who contributed to energy
dynamics by raising awareness about the negative consequences
of energy use.
It is important to note that this selection of biographies pro-
files only a few of the many notable people who have contributed
to energy dynamics in society. As stated in previous chapters, en-
ergy is an important issue in many aspects of society. It would be
impossible to include an exhaustive list of individuals in one
chapter. The key figures included were chosen because they fur-
ther illustrate the complexity of energy use in society and provide
the reader with a holistic understanding of energy issues.
143
144 Biographical Sketches
Juan Perez Alfonzo (19031979)

Born in Caracas, Venezuela, Juan Perez Alfonzo was one of the
most influential political figures involved in global energy dy-
namics in the twentieth century. Holding bachelors degrees in
physics and mathematics and a doctorate in political and social
sciences, he became involved in politics in 1936 when he joined
the Venezuelan Organization (Organizacin Venezolana, or
ORVE) and became a member of the National Democratic Party
in Venezuela. He became the minister of promotion for the
Venezuelan government in 1945. During that time, he crafted the
famous FiftyFifty Agreement between oil companies and the
Venezuelan government, a policy reform that sparked a trend
toward energy nationalization in Latin American countries. Al-
fonzos most notable influence in global energy dynamics oc-
curred during his tenure as the minister of mines and hydrocar-
bons. Holding this title, he served as the delegate to the Arab Oil
Congress in 1959, where he suggested the development of an oil
consultation commission to regulate oil production in producing
countries. This idea was the foundation for the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which enabled large oil-
producing countries to influence production and pricing in the
global oil market. In 1961, Alfonzo published the book Petroleum:
Earth Juice. He retired from his position as minister of mines in
1963. He died of cancer in 1979 in the United States when he was
76 years old.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (1956present)

Elected as president of Iran in 2005, Ahmadinejad is an impor-
tant contemporary figure in global energy politics. Born in
Garmsar, Iran, in 1956, his family soon relocated to Tehran. In
1976, Ahmadinejad attended the Iran University of Science and
Technology, where he received a bachelors and a masters de-
gree in civil engineering and in 1987, his doctorate in traffic and
transportation planning. After receiving his degrees, Ahmadine-
jad became a lecturer in civil engineering and planning. In 1986,
at the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War, he became a member of the
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. He began his political ca-
reer in 2003 when he was elected as the mayor of Tehran. In 2005,
Biographical Sketches 145
Ahmadinejad was elected the sixth president of the Islamic Re-

public of Iran. In addition to being the president of a large oil-pro-
ducing country, he is a significant figure in contemporary energy
dynamics because of his promotion of Irans nuclear develop-
ment. Following a brief moratorium, in August 2005, after Ah-
madinejads election, Irans nuclear facilities resumed uranium
enrichment. This action spurred European nations and the United
States to pressure the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) to report Irans nuclear facilities to the United Nations
Security Council, an action that the IAEA took in February 2006.
But Iran did not halt nuclear development, and on April 11, 2006,
Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully enriched ura-
nium that was suitable to use in a nuclear reactor for power gen-
eration. Since this announcement, tensions have existed between
the United States, the European Union, and Iran. Ahmadinejads
role in energy dynamics is significant because it represents the
dilemma that exists with nuclear energy. Iran has stated that its
interest in nuclear technology is peaceful and it has every right to
develop the power resources of its country. However, many de-
veloped nations are threatened by Irans obtaining nuclear power,
citing concerns of weapon development. This worry is likely to be
an ongoing debate as more developing countries turn to nuclear
sources to secure their energy needs.
John Browne, Lord Browne of Madingley

(1948present)
John Browne is the business leader of the worlds largest oil com-
pany, BP. He was born in Hamburg, Germany, in 1948 and be-
came introduced to the oil industry at a young age when his fa-
ther went to work for Anglo-Persian Oil (later British Petroleum
and BP). He received a bachelors degree in physics from Cam-
bridge University and a masters degree from Stanford Univer-
sity. He began his career at BP when he was still attending the
university. Between the years 1969 and 1983, Browne oversaw
production operations in Alaska, California, New York, the
United Kingdom, and Canada. In 1986, he joined the Standard Oil
Company of Ohio as vice president and chief financial officer.
Standard Oil and British Petroleum merged in 1989, becoming BP.
Browne was appointed chief executive production officer in 1991,

and in 1995, he accepted the position of group chief executive.
Browne is a significant leader in the energy business because of
his recognition of future energy trends. In 1997, Browne stated his
intentions of transitioning BP into the green energy business.
He acknowledged the problem of global warming as a pressing
issue and called for energy companies to address growing energy
demand with the development of renewable energy resources. In
1999, BP invested in renewable energy with its purchase of the
solar energy company Solarex. It also has investments in wind
power. Browne remains as the group CEO of BP and has an-
nounced that he will resign the post in December 2008.
Gro Harlem Brundtland (1939present)

Gro Harlem Brundtland is an influential doctor and politician
from Norway. She is noted in the area of energy dynamics for her
promotion of the concept of sustainable development. Born in
Oslo, Norway, in 1939, she developed a passion for political ac-
tivism and medicine. She received her doctorate in medicine at
the University of Oslo in 1963 and worked at the Norwegian Min-
istry of Health until 1974, when she was offered a position as min-
ister of the environment. In 1981, she became the first woman to
hold the office of prime minister in Norway, serving from
19861989 and again from 19901996. In addition to her service in
public office, Brundtland made a significant contribution to
global energy dynamics when she developed and chaired the UN
World Commission of Environment and Development in 1983.
Also known as the Brundtland Commission, this United Nations
working group was charged with the task of examining the link
between the environment and the global economy. The final re-
port produced from this investigation in 1987 was titled Our Com-
mon Future. It introduced the concept of sustainable development
as a new way of thinking about economic growth and develop-
ment. The impact of this idea was important for the global envi-
ronmental movement. It offered ideas for the global economy that
would allow developing countries to promote economic and en-
ergy development in ways that were environmentally sustain-
able. Brundtland retired from her position as prime minister of
Norway in 1996. In 1998, she became the director-general of the
World Health Organization.
Lzaro Crdenas (18951970)

Lzaro Crdenas was one of the most influential political leaders
in Mexican history. Born in Jiquilpan, Michoacn, in 1895, he was
able to complete only six years of formal education before his fa-
ther passed away, leaving him to care for his mother and sib-
lings. He began his career in civil and military service in 1913
during the Mexican Revolution. In 1928, he became the governor
of the Mexican state of Michoacn. He became the president of
Mexico in 1934. Many of Crdenass administrative efforts in-
volved constructing a modern democracy in Mexico that worked
to the advantage of working-class people. His most significant
contribution to global energy dynamics was the expropriation of
Mexicos petroleum industry. After a series of failed negotiations
with foreign oil companies, Crdenas nationalized Mexicos oil
industry and expropriated the property of seventeen foreign oil
companies that operated in the country. He formed the national-
ized oil company Pemex to assume operations of the oil industry
in Mexico. This action was significant for world energy dynam-
ics because it marked the first time that a country assumed con-
trol of its oil and natural gas industry from foreign entities. The
Mexico appropriation served as an example worldwide that oil
exporting countries had the ability to control their own oil re-
sources. Crdenass presidential term ended in 1940. He served
as the secretary of defense until 1945. He died of cancer in 1970
in Mexico City.
Andrew Carnegie (18351919)

Andrew Carnegie was an influential business leader in the in-
dustrial revolution. Born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in 1835,
Carnegie was raised in poverty. His family immigrated to Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, in 1848. Once in Pittsburgh, Carnegie
began to build his fortune by working in a variety of trades, in-
cluding the railroad and iron industries. He is most noted in en-
ergy history for his role in the steel industry, where he became a
leader in steel refining and manufacturing. In 1865, he founded
the Carnegie Steel Company, which soon became the worlds
largest steel company. The thriving steel industry was vital to
the development and expansion of the railroad in the late 1800s,
allowing for the rapid settlement of the western United States. It

also transformed the eastern United States, creating a surging
demand for coal. (Recall that steel was produced primarily from
coke, a carbonized substance made from the pyrolysis of coal.)
Coal mining increased in part to supply the burgeoning steel in-
dustry, and many eastern U.S. cities (notably Pittsburgh, where
Carnegie had established his empire) became choked with coal-
smoke pollution. In 1900, Carnegie sold his steel company to J.
P. Morgan for $480 million. Throughout the remainder of his
life, he used much of his fortune for philanthropic activities, cre-
ating the Carnegie Corporation, an organization devoted to pro-
moting education in the United States, and establishing over
2,000 free public libraries in the United States and Europe. He
died in Massachusetts in 1919.
Hugo Chvez (1954present)

Hugo Chvez, the current president of Venezuela, is a notable,
contemporary person in global energy affairs. He was born in 1954
in the town of Sabaneta, in the Venezuelan state of Barinas. He
graduated with a degree in military arts and sciences in 1975 from
the Venezuelan Academy of Military Sciences. Chvez began a
military career that lasted for seventeen years, during which he es-
tablished the Revolutionary Bolivarian Movement, which sought
to overthrow the presidency of Carlos Andrs Prez. After a failed
coup dtat in 1992, Chvez was imprisoned for a short period and
later pardoned. He was elected president of Venezuela in 1998.
Upon arriving in office, he implemented programs to combat
poverty and promote social development and oppose the rise of
global market liberalism. During his presidential terms, Chvez
has faced immense criticism and accusations of human rights vio-
lations. He is influential in the scope of global energy dynamics for
his strong positions promoting the nationalization of Venezuelas
oil industry. As a member of the Organization of Petroleum Ex-
porting Countries (OPEC), Chvez has pushed for cartel-wide re-
ductions in oil production as a mechanism for increasing global
energy prices. He has also sought to renegotiate oil contracts with
Exxon-Mobil operations in Venezuela. These actions have made
him unpopular with many consumer nations, most notably the
United States. His position in the global oil market is notable
because it serves as an example of the link between foreign rela-

tions, national energy security, and conflict.
William Knox DArcy (18491917)

William Knox DArcy was the founder of the first foreign oil com-
pany in the Middle East. Educated at Westminster in London, he
moved to Australia in 1866, where he founded the Mount Morgan
Gold Mining Company. He returned to England with his family
in 1889. In 1900, he began financing oil exploration expeditions to
Persia (modern-day Iraq), where oil was struck by his ventures in
1908. He founded the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) in
1909 and began exporting oil resources from Persia. DArcys role
in oil development in the Middle East is notable for two reasons.
First, his ventures were the first oil exploitation operations that
occurred in the most oil-rich region in the world. Second, he
founded the worlds largest oil company. APOC later became
British Petroleum (BP), an oil giant that continues to develop pe-
troleum resources and operations in countries worldwide and
whose record profits in 2006 made it the largest global oil com-
pany as measured by production. DArcy became a wealthy man
through his investments in the oil industry. He died in 1917.
Thomas Edison (18471931)

Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio. Although he became
partially deaf in childhood, Edison began his career as a telegraph
operator in the 1860s. Edison established himself as an inventor
in 1877 when he patented the phonograph, a device designed to
record and reproduce sound. In the late 1870s, Edison founded
the first industrial research laboratory at Menlo Park in New Jer-
sey to develop industrial technologies. It was at this facility that
Edison and his research team invented the first commercially
practical incandescent electric lightbulb by placing a carbonized
filament in a vacuum and using electricity to produce light. This
invention proved to be a major step in the widespread use of elec-
tric lighting. In 1878, Edison founded the Edison Electric Light
Company, the first electric utility company. In 1882, he used in-
candescent lighting to operate at the Pearl Street Station, the first
electric utility company. The company utilized direct current

(DC) (as opposed to alternating current [AC], the current system)
for electric power distribution. Although much of Edisons work
was carried out by his research team at Menlo Park, Edison is an
important figure in energy history because of his contribution to
the cheap and efficient distribution of electric lighting for homes
and businesses. This accomplishment paved the way for the nu-
merous electric utility companies that would follow in his path.
Prior to his death in 1931, Edison coordinated the first commuter
electric train system in the United States, a line that stretched
from Hoboken to Dover in New Jersey. He passed away in 1831
at the age of eighty-four in New Jersey.
Albert Einstein (18791955)

Albert Einstein is perhaps the most well-known physicist world-
wide. His theories and ideas are notable in energy history for
their contribution to the field of electromagnetism. Einstein was
born in Wrttemberg, Germany, in 1879. He received a formal ed-
ucation in physics and mathematics at the Swiss Federal Poly-
technic School, receiving a diploma in 1901 and his doctorate in
1905. In Switzerland, he published his special theory of relativity,
which challenged traditional Newtonian physical laws. In 1914,
he moved to Germany, where he became a professor at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. It was also during this year that he published his
general theory of relativity, a document that contains his most
renowned work. Einsteins theories formed the basis for the field
of quantum mechanics. This discipline contributed to the funda-
mental laws of physics, allowing for a deeper understanding of
the forces that operate at the subatomic level. Einsteins theories
are important because they provide the foundation for the devel-
opment of atomic theory and nuclear energy. His theories al-
lowed for an understanding of nuclear dynamics. These ideas
were conceptualized in the development of the atomic bomb and
the harnessing of nuclear energy for society. In 1933, Einstein em-
igrated to the United States, where he accepted a position as pro-
fessor of theoretical physics at Princeton University. He achieved
a number of awards for his work, including the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1921, the Copley Medal from the Royal Society of
London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal from the Franklin Insti-
tute in 1935. He died in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1955.
Michael Faraday (17911867)

Michael Faraday was an English chemist and physicist who is
known for his contributions to the study of electricity and mag-
netism. He was born in Newington, Surrey, England, in 1791. Al-
though he had little formal education, he was appointed as an as-
sistant to the English chemist Humphry Davy at the Royal
Institute of London in 1812. He initially worked as a chemist, but
soon became interested in the phenomenon of electromagnetism.
In 1821, Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic rota-
tion, the theoretical principle for the electric motor. His most no-
table discovery relating to the history of energy is the concept of
electromagnetic induction. This principle was the foundation for
the development of transformers (a device that converts electric
current from high to low voltages) and generators (a machine that
converts mechanical energy into electricity). These developments
paved the way for the efficient and reliable distribution of elec-
tricity to society because they allowed electricity to be generated
using a wide variety of energy resources. Faraday made two
other important discoveries in the field of electromagnetism: the
magneto-optical effect, where magnetic forces affect light; and the
concept of diamagnetism, where substances align themselves
with a magnetic field. Faraday concluded from these experiments
that magnetism is a property of matter. Faraday continued to ex-
periment in science until his death in 1867.
Henry Ford (18631947)

Henry Ford was born on July 30 on a Michigan farm. During his
childhood and adolescence, he demonstrated an interest in engi-
neering and in 1879 left his family farm to become an apprentice
machinist in Detroit. In 1896, Ford built his first car, a gasoline-
powered vehicle named the Quadricycle. Ford continued to work
on his vehicle design and founded the Ford Motor Company in
1903. He is notable in energy history for his role in expanding the
transportation industry. In 1913, Ford devised the assembly line,

a manufacturing method that promoted the specialization of one
task by laborers who completed their task on a product moving
along a connected belt, ultimately resulting in a finished product.
This labor innovation allowed Fords Model T vehicle to be pro-
duced cheaply and efficiently. Fords labor organization was in-
credibly effective; it revolutionized the transportation industry,
giving American families the ability to purchase inexpensive ve-
hicles. By 1918, half of all the vehicles purchased in America were
Model Ts. Another notable point about Ford was his philosophy
of labor. He strongly advocated for fair wages to be paid to his
employees, a policy that allowed for the effective implementation
of the assembly line. During his career, Ford also dabbled in the
aviation industry, creating the Ford 4AT Tri-Motor, first flown in
1926 and also the first aircraft designed to transport passengers.
He died in Dearborn, Michigan, from a cerebral hemorrhage in
1947. He was eighty-three years old.
James B. Francis (18151892)

James Francis made an important contribution to energy history
when he designed the Francis water turbine. He was born in En-
gland in 1815 and came to the United States in 1833 when he was
eighteen years old. He gained experience in the water infrastruc-
ture industry when he got a job with the Locks and Canal Com-
pany in Massachusetts. He became chief engineer of this company
in 1837. During his career, Francis was interested in improving the
design of hydraulic systems. He achieved success and made an
important contribution to the way that humans harness energy
when he developed the Francis turbine. This water turbine uti-
lized the basic design of the turbine, a device that directed water
in an outward flow, causing it to spin. The Francis turbine oper-
ated in a similar fashion, but it harnessed more energy from falling
water by using water pressure changes to spin the turbine faster.
In an ideal installation, the turbine was placed in an area where
water under high pressure entered the turbine and was released
into a low pressure environment; hence the pressure change
helped extract useable energy from falling water. The design con-
verted potential energy in water to mechanical energy with 90 per-
cent efficiency. It also allowed for efficient operation in a range of
water flow conditions. Because of these aspects, the Francis tur-

bine is the most widely used design for water turbines in the
world. It is a significant contribution to energy use, as hydropower
accounts for approximately 20 percent of electricity generation
worldwide. Francis is also notable as a founder of the American
Society for Civil Engineers in 1880. He died on September 18, 1892.
Albert Arnold Gore (1948present)

A political figure and environmental activist, Al Gore is a notable
figure in energy dynamics for his campaign to raise awareness
about global warming. He was born in Washington, DC, in 1948.
The son of a U.S. senator, Gore spent his childhood between
Washington, DC, and a farm in Tennessee. He obtained a bache-
lor of arts degree in government in 1969 and enlisted in the army
during the Vietnam War. He was granted an honorable discharge
in 1971. Gore began his political career when he became a U.S.
representative from the state of Tennessee in 1976. He held that
office until 1984, when he was elected to the U.S. Senate. In 1993,
Gore became vice president under President William Clinton. In
2000, he campaigned for the presidency of the United States, and
although he won the nations popular vote, he failed to win
enough votes in the Electoral College and conceded the election
after a contentious challenge. Gore is an important figure in
global energy dynamics for his efforts to raise awareness and
combat global warming. Throughout his service in Congress,
Gore worked to promote sustainable energy programs and enact
environmental education programs. He supported the enact-
ment of the Kyoto Protocol by the U.S. Senate and cosponsored
hearings on global warming. After his defeat in the 2000 election,
Gore has devoted his time to global warming outreach and edu-
cation. His efforts are documented in the film An Inconvenient
Truth (2006).
Otto Hahn (18791968)

Otto Hahn was one of the most influential nuclear chemists in
energy history. He was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1879. He
received his doctorate in organic chemistry from the University
of Marburg in 1901. In 1904, he accepted a position at the Uni-

versity College of London, where he discovered radiothorium, a
new radioactive substance. Hahn continued his work in nuclear
chemistry at McGill University in Montreal, where he discov-
ered radioactinium. In 1907, Hahn returned to Germany as a lec-
turer at the University of Berlin. In 1938, Hahn made the most
important discovery of his career and his largest contribution to
energy history. In collaboration with Fritz Strassmann, he found
that the element barium was produced when uranium atoms
were bombarded with neutrons. Hahn and Strassmann had dis-
covered nuclear fission, the main chemical process that occurs in
a nuclear reaction. Their discovery paved the way for the devel-
opment of the atomic bomb and nuclear energy. Hahn received
the Nobel Prize in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear fission.
Hahn continued research in the development and separation of
new elements through the process of nuclear fission. He died in
1968.
Marion King Hubbert (19031989)

Marion King Hubbert was born in San Saba, Texas, in 1903. He
earned his bachelor of science, master of science, and doctoral de-
grees in geophysics from the University of Chicago. While earn-
ing his degrees, Hubbert was employed as a geologist for the
American Petroleum Company, a job that would introduce him to
the dynamics of the oil and natural gas industries. He worked as
a researcher for Shell Oil Company from 1943 to 1964. He left the
oil industry to work as a senior researcher for the U.S. Geological
Survey until 1976. He is notable in the field of geophysics for his
demonstration of the phenomenon of plasticity, a process by
which extreme heat and pressure can transform rock masses deep
in the surface of the earth. His main contribution to energy dy-
namics came in 1956 when he presented a theory to the American
Petroleum Institute. The Peak Oil Theory predicted that U.S. oil
production would peak in the 1960s and then decline in subse-
quent years. The prediction proved true in the 1970s as produc-
tion began to fall; and in 1975, the National Academy of Sciences
gave further credence to the theory when the organization noted
its previous estimates of oil and gas reserves had been overstated.
The Peak Oil Theory is significant in energy history because it
represents the first time that a renowned scientist warned of the

depletion of an important energy resource. Hubbert received
many awards for his scientific work, notably the Geological Soci-
ety of Americas Arthur L. Day Medal in 1954 and the National
Academy of Sciences (NAS) Penrose Medal in 1973. He became
the president of the NAS in 1962. He died on October 11, 1989. He
was eighty-six years old.
Kenneth Lay (19422006)

Kenneth Lay was born into a poor family in Tyrone, Missouri, in
1942. He attended the University of Missouri and received a doc-
torate in economics from the University of Houston in 1970. Lay
became introduced to the oil industry when he went to work as
an economist for the Exxon Corporation in 1965. In the early
1970s, Lay worked as an energy regulator, first for the Power
Commission and then as the undersecretary for energy issues at
the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1974, he returned to the
private energy industry. Throughout the late 1970s and 1980s, he
held executive positions in several oil and natural gas compa-
nies. In 1985, he formed the Enron Corporation from a merger of
Houston Natural Gas and the natural gas company Inter-North.
In 1986, he assumed the position of chief executive officer of
Enron. Enrons success was unprecedented. The company be-
came a powerful electricity and natural gas utilities company,
employing over 21,000 people and trading in the markets of over
800 energy service products. Lay is an important figure in energy
dynamics not only for Enrons success but also because of the
companys collapse. In 2001, Enrons stock declined dramatically
when it was revealed that fraudulent accounting practices had
inflated the companys wealth. The company went bankrupt,
and thousands of employees lost their pension benefits and stock
options. Lay and several of his associates were put on trial for the
collapse of Enron. During the proceedings, Enrons abuses of
Californias deregulated energy market were revealed. In 2006,
Lay was found guilty on six charges of financial crimes. He
would not live to receive sentencing; he died of congestive heart
failure on July 5, 2006. The story of Ken Lay and the Enron Cor-
poration is a notable occurrence in energy dynamics because it
describes the problems that may occur in a deregulated energy
market. Lays (and his associates) actions resulted in rolling

blackouts in California, the loss of pensions and retirement funds
for thousands of workers, and overall public distrust of energy
providers.
Mohammad Mossadegh (18821967)

Mohammad Mossadegh was an important political figure in Iran-
ian history. He received a Ph.D. from Neuchatel University in
Switzerland. He returned to Iran in 1914 to become a public ser-
vant and elected official and aligned himself with the nationalist
party, a political organization that opposed foreign-owned oper-
ations in Iran. He served as the prime minister of Iran from 1951
to 1953. He is notable in energy history for his attempts to na-
tionalize the countrys oil resources. Soon after Mossadegh be-
came prime minister, the Iranian parliament, under his direction,
voted to adopt the Oil Nationalization Act and seize control of as-
sets held by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British
firm. The British government responded by creating a blockade
against Irans oil shipments, and the AIOC removed British per-
sonnel from the country. Without a market for its oil resources
and lacking the expertise to operate oil refineries, Iran fell into an
economic crisis. Mossadeghs government was removed from
power in 1953 during a coup organized by the U.S. Central Intel-
ligence Agency. This event is notable in energy history because it
illustrates the significance of energy resources in the foreign pol-
icy decisions of oil-dependent nations. Irans democratically
elected government was removed from power because of its
threat to the global oil industry. Mossadegh was arrested and
tried for treason. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest
and died in 1967. After his overthrow, a monarchy was reestab-
lished in Iran, and foreign operation of Irans oil industry re-
sumed in 1954.
Jawaharlal Nehru (18891964)

Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the most influential leaders in In-
dian history. Born on November 14, 1889, Nehru was the son of a
prominent member of the Indian National Congress. He was
educated in England, where he received a law degree from Cam-

bridge University. He returned to India in 1912 and after practic-
ing law for several years, became an influential political leader,
campaigning for Indias freedom from British rule. Nehru
worked closely with Mahatma Gandhi in his campaign for social
reform and independence. Although he was jailed several times
in his early political career for his radical political views, Nehru
became the president of the Indian National Congress in 1929. On
August 1, 1947, India was granted independence from Great
Britain and Nehru became Indias first prime minister. Nehru is
an influential leader in Indias energy history. Soon after Indias
independence, he adopted an industrialization planning and de-
velopment policy. He promoted the importance of increasing
Indias electricity and coal production as a means of protecting
Indias independence. Indias energy planning initiatives in-
cluded the doubling of electricity and coal production, tripling
iron ore production, commencing oil drilling operations in the In-
dian Ocean, and instituting a program of nuclear development.
Energy intensities in India dramatically increased during this pe-
riod of time as petrochemical and electronics industries were de-
veloped. As a result of these economic and industrial policies,
India became an increasingly productive nation. Because of
Nehrus industrialization policies, India is now considered one
the most rapidly developing nations, a status that has large im-
plications for global energy use. Nehru held his position as prime
minister until he died on May 27, 1964.
J. Robert Oppenheimer (19041967)

J. Robert Oppenheimer was an influential nuclear energy scien-
tist. He was born in New York City on April 22, 1904. He received
a degree in chemistry from Harvard College in 1925 and received
a Ph.D. from Gttigen University in Germany in 1927. After re-
ceiving his doctorate, Oppenheimer returned to the United
States where he worked as a professor of theoretical physics at
the University of California, Berkeley. During his time at
UCBerkeley in the 1930s, he developed the first theories that
hypothesized the existence of black holes. Oppenheimer is no-
table in energy history because he led the team of scientists that
built and detonated the first atomic bomb. Known as the
Manhattan Project, this top secret assignment was carried out at

the Los Alamos weapons lab in New Mexico. The atomic bomb
was first exploded on July 16, 1945. Three weeks later, two
atomic bombs would be dropped on the Japanese cities of Hi-
roshima and Nagasaki, ending World War II and forever chang-
ing the atmosphere of global political and strategic relations.
After the development of the atomic bomb, Oppenheimer be-
came interested in promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
He was appointed the first chairman of the General Advisory
Committee to the Atomic Energy Commission in 1946. During
his time as chairman, he discouraged the development of the hy-
drogen bomb, a bomb based on principles of nuclear fusion and
more powerful than the atomic bomb. Because of his opposition
to the H-bomb, he made several enemies in the U.S. government,
and his security clearance was eventually revoked. He died in
Princeton, New Jersey, of throat cancer in 1967.
Medha Patkar (1954present)

Medha Patkar is one of the most influential environmental and
social leaders in India. She was born December 1, 1954, in Bom-
bay, India. Her fathers involvement in Indias independence
movement introduced her to activism. She earned an M.A. degree
in social work from the Tata Institute of Social Sciences. In 1988,
she formed the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Move-
ment), a grassroots movement that sought to halt the construction
of dams in the Narmada River Valley in India. The Narmada Val-
ley Development Project, designed as part of Indias economic
development and planning, was to build an extensive network of
hydroelectric dams. Although intended for the advancement of
India, the dams would displace thousands of people, mostly re-
siding in poor tribal and peasant communities. They would also
inundate hundreds of acres of forested lands. The Narmada
Bachao Andolan was successful in raising global awareness about
the negative consequences of dam construction. In 2001, the Gu-
jarat High Court ordered the Indian government to reconsider the
project. Patkar has been granted many awards for her work, most
notably Amnesty Internationals Human Rights Defenders
Award. Her achievements are significant in global energy dy-
namics because they have raised awareness about the negative
consequences of large dam construction.
Roger Revelle (19091991)

Roger Revelle was one of the first scientific pioneers to study the
phenomenon of global warming. He was born in Seattle, Wash-
ington, in 1909 and raised in Pasadena, California. He received a
B.S. in geology from Pomona College in 1929 and a Ph.D. in
oceanography from the University of California, Berkeley, in
1936. He worked as a professor with the Scripps Institute of
Oceanography in San Diego. After service in the navy during
World War II, Revelle returned to Scripps to serve as its director
from 1951 to 1964. During this time, he became interested in the
dynamics of atmospheric CO2 and ocean environments. Revelle is
notable in energy history for his extensive research in the area of
global warming. In 1957, Revelle partnered with Hans Suess to
propose that human contributions of CO2 to the atmosphere
could lead to increased global warming. He prompted the scien-
tific community to begin monitoring CO2 in the oceans, in terres-
trial ecosystems, and in the atmosphere. Revelles own research in
the area focused on the uptake of atmospheric CO2 in ocean
ecosystems. His studies concluded that the rate of CO2 sequestra-
tion in ocean waters was much lower than initially estimated.
These results, coupled with data demonstrating rapidly increas-
ing atmospheric CO2 concentrations, provided the foundation for
contemporary studies of climate change. Revelle received many
awards for his work, including the William Bowie Medal from the
American Geophysical Union in 1968 and the National Medal of
Science in 1991. He died on July 15, 1991. He was eighty-two
years old.
John D. Rockefeller (18391937)

John D. Rockefeller was the pioneer of the modern U.S. petro-
leum company. Rockefeller became interested in the oil industry
after the first American oil strike in Pennsylvania. He built an oil
refinery there in 1863 and began oil development operations. His
operations grew, and by 1870, he had formed the Standard Oil
Company, unique for its vertically integrated organization. Not
only did the company operate the extraction and production fa-
cilities, it also controlled the petroleum transportation network by
offering incentives to railway and pipeline operators. This
arrangement allowed the company to own and manage all as-

pects of oil production and distribution and led to monopoly con-
trol over the industry. In 1882, the company formed the Standard
Oil Trust, an organization owned by nine trustees that further in-
fluenced pricing structures for oil markets. Because of its influ-
ence in the oil market, the trust came under attack by the antitrust
movement and was eventually dissolved in 1911. Although this
business structure was challenged and eventually dissolved be-
cause of its monopolistic nature, the trust initiated the develop-
ment of similar arrangements in other industries. Rockefeller is
an important person in energy history because his business
ventures in the oil industry established a precedent for energy
industries. He promoted the early development of petroleum in-
dustries and created a business model pursued by other energy
companies. In 1897, John D. Rockefeller retired his position as
president of the Standard Oil Company and became a full-time
philanthropist, establishing charitable organizations for educa-
tion and medical research.
Zhu Rongji (1928present)

Zhu Rongji is an important contemporary figure in the develop-
ment of Chinas energy resources. He was born in 1928 in Chang-
sha, Hunan Province, China. He attended the Qinghua University
and graduated with a degree in electrical engineering in 1951.
From 1952 to 1969, Rongji worked for the state planning commis-
sion, where he was charged with helping to implement the Great
Leap Forward reforms. These policies, instituted by President
Mao Zedong, called for a rapid industrialization of Chinas econ-
omy and an increase in production from Chinas coal industry.
Rongji criticized the Great Leap Forward, stating that its goals
were unattainable. When Deng Xiaoping rose to power in 1978,
Rongji was selected as an adviser for economic reforms. In 1979,
Rongji became the chief of the Bureau of Fuel and Power Indus-
try within the State Economic Commission. In 1989, he became
the mayor of Shanghai, a post that he held until 1991, when he be-
came the director of the State Council Production Office. In 1998,
Rongji became the premier of the Peoples Republic of China.
Rongji is an important figure in Chinese energy history because
of his role in advancing the Chinese economy, including
improving energy sectors and increasing energy production and

industrialization. Rongjis experience in energy sectors and
knowledge of economics have facilitated Chinas rapid industri-
alization. This rapid industrialization is significant because it has
substantially increased Chinese energy consumption. Rongjis
service as premier ended in 2003.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (18821945)

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) was one of the most influential
presidents of the United States. He was born in Hyde Park, New
York, in 1882. He obtained a B.A. degree in history from Harvard
University and attended New Yorks Columbia University, where
he studied law. He began his political career in 1910, holding var-
ious state and federal offices. In 1932, he became the 32nd presi-
dent of the United States. He was reelected in 1936, 1940, and
1944, becoming the only U.S. president to serve for more than two
terms. FDR is an important figure in energy history because many
of the policies enacted by his administration facilitated the
growth of energy industries in the United States. During the
1930s, FDR enacted a large number of federal regulations de-
signed to pull the country out of the Great Depression. Many of
these policies were designed to improve the U.S. economic situa-
tion, but they directly influenced energy growth and consump-
tion. For example, the development of the Civilian Conservation
Corps (CCC) employed thousands of young men in the con-
struction of new roads and damsprojects that expanded the
transportation and electricity industries in the nation. He also
supported the development of the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA), a publicly owned and operated utility company that
brought hydropower to communities in the southeastern United
States, and the Rural Electrification Act, which mandated the ex-
pansion of the electricity grid to rural areas of the country. In the
latter half of his presidential career, World War II broke out. The
United States rapidly increased production of energy and
wartime resources and joined the war effort in 1941. FDRs poli-
cies ensured the supply of adequate energy resources to the Al-
lied forces. FDR died of a cerebral hemorrhage during his fourth
term in the presidential office. He was sixty-three years old.
Kenule Beeson Saro-Wiwa (19411995)

Kenule Beeson Saro-Wiwa was a Nigerian-born environmental
activist and writer who initiated a campaign to raise awareness
about the environmental degradation occurring from Shell Oil
Companys activities in the Niger Delta. Born in Bori, he was a
member of the Ogoni tribe that occupied the Niger Delta, an
oil-rich region of Nigeria. After receiving degrees from the Gov-
ernment College in Umuahia, the University of Ibadan, and com-
pleting graduate studies at the University of Nigeria, he began a
career in 1968 as a public servant for the Rivers State, a govern-
ment entity created during Nigerias civil war. In 1973, he was
released from his position and became a writer, creating a satiric
television comedy (Basi and Company) and several novels, most
notably Sozaboy: A Novel in Rotten English in 1985 and On a Dark-
ling Plain in 1987. He became an environmental activist in 1991
when he founded the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni
People (MOSOP) for the purpose of raising awareness about the
environmental damage and injustices caused by the Shell Oil
Company in Nigeria. He also spoke against the Nigerian govern-
ment, accusing it of genocide against the Ogoni people. In 1993,
Shell halted its oil development efforts on Ogoni tribal land. In
1994, he was awarded the Right Livelihood Award, an interna-
tional honor, for his activism. In May 1994, Saro-Wiwa and eight
other tribal members were accused of aiding in the deaths of four
Ogoni chiefs at a political rally. They were found guilty in what
many have determined to be an unfair trial and executed by
hanging in 1995.
Joseph Stalin (18791953)

Joseph Stalin was an influential leader of the Soviet Union. Born
to a poor family in Gori, Georgia, a province of the Russian Em-
pire, he was originally named Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili.
He renamed himself Stalin, meaning man of steel, in 1913. In
1894, Stalin began his education at the Russian Orthodox Tiflis
Theological Seminary. He was expelled from the seminary in
1899 for his involvement in the Georgian Social-Democratic or-
ganization, a political movement that promoted Marxist ideol-
ogy. After his expulsion, Stalin was a fighter in an underground
political movement until 1917, playing key roles in the Bolshevik

Revolution, overthrow of the Russian Empire, and establishment
of the ruling Communist Party. After the death of Russian leader
Vladimir Lenin, Stalin quickly rose to power and by the late
1920s was the ruling dictator of the Soviet Union. He is impor-
tant in Russian energy history because during his reign Russia
experienced rapid, state-centralized industrialization under the
implementation of a series of five-year plans. During this period,
energy intensity rose dramatically as the production of coal dou-
bled and iron ore more than tripled in the first five-year period.
The rapid industrialization of Russia was spurred by the use of
brutal, forced labor and wasteful practices of energy production.
Because of these practices, Stalins regime was highly criticized
for its human rights violations and its decimation of the envi-
ronment. Although Russia rose to be one of the most productive
nations in the world, it serves as an example of poor energy plan-
ning. Following World War II, Stalin implemented a nuclear pro-
gram that not only developed weapons but also promoted the
use of nuclear energy for electricity generation. Stalin remained
the dictator of Russia until 1953, when he died of a cerebral
hemorrhage.
Maurice Strong (1929present)

Maurice Strong is one of the most influential figures in the global
environmental movement. He was born in Manitoba, Canada, in
1929. In 1948, Strong began a career as an oil and gas executive,
eventually becoming the president of the Power Corporation of
Canada. In 1966, Strong resigned from this position to become the
head of Canadas International Development Office. In 1970, he
became a leader in the global environmental movement when he
assumed the position of secretary general of the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment. In 1973, Strong became the
first executive director of the newly created United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme, a UN affiliation whose mission is to pro-
mote global environmental stewardship through development
assistance, education, and collaboration. Strong is an important
figure in global energy dynamics because he bridged the gap be-
tween environment and energy development at the United Na-
tions and facilitated the spread of global environmentalism. His
connection to the energy industry allowed him to understand the
importance of energy and environmental issues. From 1976 to

1984, Strong returned to the private sector, where he became the
chief executive officer (CEO) of Petro-Canada until 1978, after
which he served as chairman of various development corpora-
tions. In 1992, he became the CEO of North Americas largest util-
ity company, Ontario Hydro. That same year, Strong returned to
the United Nations, where he served as the secretary general of
the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel-
opment, also known as the Earth Summit. He serves as the presi-
dent of the Council of the United Nations University for Peace.
Nikola Tesla (18561943)

Nikola Tesla is most notable in energy history for his develop-
ment of alternating current electrical systems. He was born in the
Croatian town of Smiljan in 1856. He received formal education at
the Polytechnic School in Graz and later attended the University
of Prague. He began a career in electrical engineering in Europe
before moving to the United States in 1884. He worked with
Thomas Edison for a time; however, the two inventors did not get
along, and in 1885, Tesla began working with George Westing-
house on an electrical distribution system that utilized alternating
current (AC). The use of AC in electrical networks is Teslas most
notable contribution to energy history. This technology was first
used in 1893 by the Westinghouse Electric Company to light the
World Colombian Exposition in Chicago. AC proved to be a more
efficient and effective way than Edisons direct current (DC) sys-
tem to transport electricity in a grid, and it became the basis for
most modern electricity distribution systems. In addition to the
AC system, Tesla contributed to the development of generators
and turbine design. He also demonstrated fluorescent lighting.
He continued to promote ideas of electricity generation and tur-
bine design throughout the remainder of his life. He died in New
York City in 1943.
James Watt (17361819)

James Watt developed one of the most important machines for so-
cietythe modern steam engine, which allowed humans to more
efficiently capture the energy from coal combustion. Born in
Greenock, Scotland, in 1736, Watt gained experience in carpentry

and shipbuilding. In 1755, he moved to London to become an
apprentice to instrument maker John Morgan. In 1756, Watt re-
turned to Scotland to work as an instrument maker at the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. It was at this position that Watt developed his
greatest contribution to energy history. In 1765, Watt redesigned a
bench-scale model of the Newcomen steam engine by adding a
separate condenser to the design. This innovation allowed for
steam to be cooled and recycled in the engine, making the device
more efficient and powerful. After his discovery, Watt worked to
develop a large-scale engine to be used for the purpose of pump-
ing water from coal mines. In 1773, Watt partnered with business
industrialist John Boulton. They produced the Boulton-Watt
steam engine in 1774. The engine was first used in an industrial
setting by the Bentley Mining Company in March 1776. After
patenting his engine design, Watt continued to work on improv-
ing efficiency in steam engines, inventing a rotating piston and a
double-acting engine (a device that made use of the power cre-
ated during both the upward and downward stroke of the pis-
ton). In addition to water pumping, Watts engines were used in
transportation and milling applications. Watt died in 1819 at the
age of eighty-three. In his honor, the international unit for power
was named the watt.
Frank Whittle (19071996)

Frank Whittle was an inventor whose design of the modern jet
engine had large impacts for energy dynamics of the twentieth
century. He was born in Earlsdon, England, in 1907. He attended
Leamington College until 1923, when he left to join the Royal Air
Force (RAF). In 1928, he graduated from officer training at the
College of Cranwell after completing a thesis on the principle of
motorjet operation. In 1929, Whittle developed the idea of using
a gas turbine to create a jet propulsion effect in an airplane en-
gine, a process that would allow airplanes to travel at faster
speeds and higher altitudes. He patented this design in 1932. In
1935, Whittle received financial support to build a prototype en-
gine using his design. Initial models failed, but in 1941, the engine
was tested on the trial plane, E.28 Pioneer, which flew a distance
of 200 yards. After the initial flight testing of the jet engine, inter-
est grew for the technology. It was a significant invention in
regard to air travel, revolutionizing the development of com-

muter and war planes. In 1948, Whittle retired from the RAF. In
1953, he became an engineering specialist for Shell Oil Company,
where he worked on developing a more efficient pump for oil
drilling operations. In 1976, he was knighted in Great Britain.
Soon after his knighthood, Whittle moved to the United States,
where he became a researcher and professor for the U.S. Naval
Academy. He died in Baltimore, Maryland, in August 1996.
6
Data and Documents
Introduction
U
nderstanding energy use in society requires the compilation
of a broad array of facts and statistics. These numbers de-
scribe how much energy is harnessed, what resources are ex-
tracted and consumed, the energy services that are delivered to
various end users, and the waste that is created from the energy
structure. Because energy systems are an extremely large and
vital part of every society, understanding the numbers associated
with them can be confusing. The approach of this chapter is to
dissect various energy statistics, providing the reader with a
clearer understanding of their importance in the broader picture
of energy and society.
The purpose of this chapter is twofold. First, it is intended to
be a quick reference for global and U.S. energy statistics. Second,
it is to be used in conjunction with previous chapters in this book
to provide a graphical and schematic overview of energy trends
and flows in society. To meet these purposes, a broad overview
of energy production and consumption is presented first. Next,
statistics are broken down according to each energy resource
used by society. Third, trends in global energy trade and carbon
dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption are examined.
Finally, an overview of energy use in the United States is pro-
vided. It is important to note that the statistics in this chapter
represent a small fraction of the vast amount of data that is
167
168 Data and Documents
collected for energy analyses. The numbers reported here were

chosen because they characterize the fundamental facts of en-
ergy use worldwide.
Energy Overview
Worldwide energy use is usually broken down into two statistics:
primary energy production and primary energy consumption.
These two figures offer a useful description of the total amount of
energy harnessed by society, but sometimes the terminology used
to generate these numbers can be confusing. Primary energy cal-
culations generally represent the amount of energy contained in
raw fuels (e.g., petroleum or coal), but do not include values for
electricity generation and consumption, which is considered a
secondary energy resource. However, to account for resources
that do not have thermal energy equivalents (e.g., wind), in-
formation agencies often include electricity generated from
hydropower and other renewable sources in their primary pro-
duction and consumption figures. It is important to consider def-
initions when using energy statistics.
Table 6.1 provides a basic overview of primary energy pro-
duction and consumption for each country worldwide. Countries
are organized into seven geographic regions. These regional divi-
sions are used throughout the rest of the chapter to illustrate
global energy trends in the various statistics presented. Popula-
tion data for each country are also provided. This table is in-
tended to provide the reader with an overall picture of energy use
for each nation and region worldwide.
Although the information in table 6.1 is useful for illustrat-
ing how much primary energy is produced and consumed in
society at a given time, the values represent only a snapshot of
energy use in 2004. These statistics can also be helpful for under-
standing how energy use has changed over time. Figure 6.1 il-
lustrates how energy production and consumption have evolved
in each world region over a period of twenty-four years
(19802004). A couple important trends can be found from ana-
lyzing these graphs. First, there is a large gap in magnitude of
energy use between certain regions. For example, Africa and
Central and South America are two regions where more energy
is produced than consumed, energy production and consump-
tion are relatively low, and these values have remained fairly
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
TABLE 6.1
Global Total Energy Production, Consumption, and Population by Country and Region (2004)
6/1/07
Population Production Consumption Population Production Consumption

Country (millions) (1015 Btu) (1015 Btu) Country (millions) (1015 Btu) (1015 Btu)
Africa
3:46 PM
Algeria 32.13 7.144 1.239 Madagascar 17.50 0.006 0.036

Angola 11.52 2.284 0.141 Malawi 12.41 0.013 0.024
Benin 7.44 0.00002 0.030 Mali 11.13 0.002 0.011
Botswana 1.64 0.024 0.053 Mauritania 3.00 0.0004 0.051
Burkina Faso 13.09 0.001 0.018 Mauritius 1.22 0.002 0.055
Page 169
Burundi 7.52 0.001 0.008 Morocco 32.21 0.024 0.444

Cameroon 16.64 0.181 0.086 Mozambique 19.11 0.119 0.139
Cape Verde 0.42 .0000 0.002 Namibia 2.01 0.014 0.055
Central African Republic 4.17 0.001 0.006 Niger 11.81 0.005 0.017
Chad 9.38 0.390 0.003 Nigeria 125.74 5.901 1.012
Comoros 0.65 0.00002 0.002 Reunion 0.77 0.006 0.044
Congo (Brazzaville) 3.50 0.502 0.017 Rwanda 8.24 0.001 0.013
Congo (Kinshasa) 58.92 0.116 0.087 Saint Helena 0.01 .0000 0.0002
Cote dIvoire (Ivory Coast) 16.94 0.142 0.110 Sao Tome and Principe 0.18 0.0001 0.001
Djibouti 0.47 .0000 0.026 Senegal 11.43 0.002 0.067
Egypt 76.12 2.829 2.523 Seychelles 0.08 .0000 0.012
Equatorial Guinea 0.52 0.747 0.006 Sierra Leone 5.73 .0000 0.014
Eritrea 4.55 .0000 0.011 Somalia 8.30 .0000 0.010
Ethiopia 71.34 0.023 0.084 South Africa 44.45 6.065 5.119
Gabon 1.36 0.528 0.040 Sudan 39.15 0.648 0.148
continued
Energy Overview 169
TABLE 6.1, continued
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07
Africa
Gambia 1.55 .0000 0.004 Swaziland 1.14 0.011 0.021

Ghana 21.48 0.063 0.142 Tanzania 36.07 0.024 0.072
3:46 PM
Guinea 9.23 0.005 0.023 Togo 5.26 0.003 0.034

Guinea-Bissau 1.39 .0000 0.005 Tunisia 9.97 0.270 0.333
Kenya 32.98 0.056 0.175 Uganda 26.39 0.019 0.041
Lesotho 2.04 0.003 0.005 Western Sahara 0.27 .0000 0.004
Page 170
Liberia 2.81 .0000 0.007 Zambia 11.03 0.104 0.122

Libya 5.63 3.609 0.749 Zimbabwe 12.08 0.156 0.204
Total 872.11 32.043 13.706
Asia and Oceania

Afghanistan 28.51 0.006 0.016 Malaysia 23.52 4.096 2.519
American Samoa 0.06 .0000 0.008 Maldives 0.34 .0000 0.015
Australia 19.91 10.555 5.266 Mongolia 2.75 0.070 0.093
Bangladesh 141.34 0.477 0.658 Nauru 0.01 .0000 0.002
Bhutan 2.19 0.022 0.020 Nepal 27.07 0.024 0.063
Brunei 0.37 0.851 0.100 New Caledonia 0.21 0.003 0.028
Burma 46.52 0.479 0.202 New Zealand 3.99 0.681 0.884
continued
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07

Asia and Oceania

3:46 PM
Cambodia 13.40 0.0004 0.008 Niue .0000 0.00004

China 1,298.85 55.948 59.573 Pakistan 159.20 1.395 1.986
Cook Islands 0.02 .0000 0.001 Papua New Guinea 5.42 0.108 0.075
East Timor 1.02 0.101 .NA Philippines 86.24 0.498 1.310
Fiji 0.88 0.007 0.028 Samoa 0.18 0.0004 0.002
Page 171
French Polynesia 0.27 0.001 0.013 Singapore 4.35 .0000 1.936

Guam 0.17 .0000 0.034 Solomon Islands 0.52 .0000 0.003
Hong Kong 6.86 .0000 1.091 Sri Lanka 19.91 0.029 0.197
India 1,065.07 11.055 15.417 Taiwan 22.75 0.471 4.399
Indonesia 238.45 8.842 4.686 Thailand 63.73 1.596 3.423
Japan 127.33 4.034 22.624 Tonga 0.11 .0000 0.002
Kiribati 0.10 .0000 0.0004 U.S. Pacific Islands 0.26 0.0003 0.004
Korea, North 22.70 0.852 0.891 Vanuatu 0.20 .0000 0.001
Korea, South 48.43 1.355 8.985 Vietnam 82.66 1.574 0.948
Laos 6.07 0.046 0.050 Wake Island .0000 0.019
Macau 0.45 .0000 0.032
Total 3,572.39 105.177 137.613
continued
Energy Overview 171
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07
Central and South America
Antarctica .0000 0.003 Guyana 0.76 0.0001 0.024

Antigua and Barbuda 0.07 .0000 0.008 Haiti 7.94 0.003 0.027
3:46 PM
Argentina 39.14 3.756 2.788 Honduras 7.01 0.018 0.101

Aruba 0.07 .0000 0.014 Jamaica 2.71 0.002 0.158
Bahamas 0.30 .0000 0.057 Martinique 0.43 .0000 0.032
Barbados 0.28 0.003 0.024 Montserrat 0.01 .0000 0.001
Page 172
Belize 0.27 0.001 0.014 Netherlands Antilles 0.22 .0000 0.153

Bolivia 8.72 0.509 0.198 Nicaragua 5.36 0.011 0.069
Brazil 184.10 7.210 9.078 Panama 3.09 0.038 0.209
Cayman Islands 0.04 .0000 0.005 Paraguay 6.19 0.519 0.420
Chile 15.82 0.306 1.181 Peru 27.54 0.418 0.577
Colombia 42.31 3.203 1.193 Puerto Rico 3.89 0.001 0.550
Costa Rica 3.96 0.096 0.186 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.04 .0000 0.002
Cuba 11.31 0.178 0.469 Saint Lucia 0.16 .0000 0.006
Dominica 0.07 0.0003 0.002 Saint Vincent/Grenadines 0.12 0.0003 0.003
Dominican Republic 8.92 0.017 0.301 Suriname 0.44 0.037 0.038
Ecuador 13.21 1.242 0.383 Trinidad and Tobago 1.08 1.377 0.593
El Salvador 6.59 0.034 0.123 Turks and Caicos Islands 0.02 .0000 0.0002
Falkland Islands .0000 0.0005 Uruguay 3.40 0.081 0.173
French Guiana 0.19 .0000 0.015 Venezuela 25.02 8.031 2.884
continued
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07


3:46 PM
Grenada 0.09 .0000 0.004 Virgin Islands, U.S. 0.11 .0000 0.244
Guadeloupe 0.44 .0000 0.028 Virgin Islands, British 0.02 .0000 0.001
Guatemala 11.73 0.076 0.180
Total 443.22 27.169 22.517
Page 173
Eurasia
Armenia 2.99 0.046 0.180 Lithuania 3.61 0.174 0.356

Azerbaijan 7.87 0.889 0.655 Moldova 4.45 0.003 0.127
Belarus 10.31 0.085 0.967 Russia 143.97 51.689 30.062
Estonia 1.34 0.117 0.223 Tajikistan 7.01 0.164 0.272
Georgia 4.69 0.068 0.143 Turkmenistan 4.86 2.617 0.808
Kazakhstan 15.14 4.932 2.331 Ukraine 47.31 3.244 6.486
Kyrgyzstan 5.08 0.141 0.170 Uzbekistan 26.41 2.516 2.227
Latvia 2.31 0.028 0.172
Total 287.36 66.714 45.179
Europe
Albania 3.54 0.071 0.114 Italy 58.09 1.303 8.265

Austria 8.17 0.521 1.456 Luxembourg 0.46 0.002 0.200
Belgium 10.35 0.501 2.784 Macedonia 2.04 0.058 0.112
Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.35 0.160 0.215 Malta 0.40 .0000 0.041
Energy Overview 173
continued
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07
Europe
Bulgaria 7.52 0.389 0.846 Netherlands 16.32 2.940 4.103

Croatia 4.50 0.161 0.387 Norway 4.57 10.784 1.941
3:46 PM
Czech Republic 10.25 1.137 1.770 Poland 38.58 3.041 3.667

Denmark 5.41 1.281 0.864 Portugal 10.52 0.123 1.111
Faroe Islands 0.05 0.001 0.011 Romania 22.36 1.146 1.644
Finland 5.21 0.471 1.346 Serbia and Montenegro 10.83 0.520 0.772
Page 174
France 60.46 5.185 11.250 Slovakia (Slovak Republic) 5.42 0.286 0.797
Germany 82.42 5.358 14.693 Slovenia 2.01 0.151 0.330
Gibraltar 0.03 .0000 0.054 Spain 40.28 1.479 6.402
Greece 10.65 0.426 1.446 Sweden 8.99 1.449 2.317
Hungary 10.03 0.393 1.065 Switzerland 7.48 0.616 1.287
Iceland 0.29 0.100 0.148 Turkey 68.89 1.000 3.533
Ireland 3.97 0.044 0.637 United Kingdom 60.27 9.511 10.038
Total 584.72 50.610 85.647
Middle East
Bahrain 0.68 0.457 0.414 Lebanon 3.78 0.009 0.238

Cyprus 0.78 .0000 0.114 Oman 2.90 2.258 0.374
Iran 67.50 12.050 6.449 Qatar 0.84 3.450 0.706
continued
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd

6/1/07

Middle East
3:46 PM
Iraq 25.37 4.376 1.207 Saudi Arabia 25.80 24.159 6.100

Israel 6.20 0.029 0.873 Syria 18.02 1.258 0.824
Jordan 5.61 0.012 0.280 United Arab Emirates 2.52 7.424 2.336
Page 175
Kuwait 2.26 5.706 1.061 Yemen 20.02 0.888 0.164

Total 182.28 62.078 21.139
North America
Bermuda 0.06 .0000 0.008 Mexico 104.96 10.305 6.609

Canada 32.51 18.617 13.600 Saint Piere and Miquelon 0.01 .0000 0.001
Greenland 0.06 .0000 0.008 United States 293.03 70.388 100.414
Total 430.62 99.310 120.641
World Total 6,372.72 443.100 446.442
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2004, International Data. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed September 25, 2006.
Energy Overview 175
stagnant since 1980. In comparison, Europe, North America, and

Asia and Oceania consume more energy than they produce and
use considerably more energy overall.
A second important trend is the growth in energy production
and consumption in the Asia and Oceania region, as evidenced by
the steep slopes of their curves. This increase in energy use is
indicative of the rapid industrialization that is occurring in coun-
tries like India and China (see chapter 2 for discussion). In com-
parison, other industrialized regions that have higher energy use
values, like Europe and North America, have remained relatively
static in their growth.
Two additional trends worth pointing out are seen in Eurasia
and the Middle East. In Eurasia, there is an obvious dip in both
energy production and consumption beginning around 1990 and
persisting for about a decade. This decrease in energy use repre-
sents the fall of the Soviet Union (see chapter 2 for discussion).
The Middle East, notably, is the only region where energy pro-
duction is considerably greater than consumption. This trend
supports the fact that the Middle East contains the largest re-
serves of the worlds most traded energy commodity, petroleum.
The Middle East chart shows a significant dip in production
around 1982. This decline in production was the result of the Iran-
Iraq War that began in 1980 and lasted until 1988.
Figure 6.1 demonstrates the utility of overall energy produc-
tion and consumption data. The previous paragraphs pointed out
how these statistics can be indicators for major global and re-
gional events. However, as useful as these facts are, they only
scratch the surface of what energy data can reveal. The numbers
used in the previous table and figure lump together information
gathered for all energy resources used by society; however, earlier
chapters demonstrated that not all energy resources are created
equal. The energy produced and consumed from individual re-
sources must be considered to paint a complete energy picture.
The next section breaks down total energy figures into their re-
spective resource origins.
Energy Resources
In preceding chapters, it was noted that over 85 percent of the en-
ergy consumed worldwide is from fossil fuels. But that fact does
not tell what specific resources are used in different regions.
Energy Resources 177
FIGURE 6.1
Primary Energy Production and Consumption by Region (19802004)
Africa
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004 Asia and Oceania
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004

140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0 Production
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Consumption
continued
FIGURE 6.1, continued

Eurasia
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Europe
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Middle East
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Production
Consumption
continued

North America
140
120
100
Quadrillion Btu
80
60
40
20
0 Production
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Consumption
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data Tables, Total World Energy Production and
Consumption (19802004), International Energy Annual 2004.
Figure 6.2 provides a more comprehensive breakdown of energy

use. While fossil fuels comprise a large slice of the pie in all re-
gions, certain fossil fuels are more important in some regions
than others. For example, in Asia and Oceania, coal accounted
for 49 percent of the total energy consumption in 2004. In the
Middle East, petroleum takes the largest part of the pie, com-
prising 54 percent of energy consumption. And in Eurasia, natu-
ral gas is the dominant fossil fuel, making up 53 percent of the
total energy consumed. These regional differences can be useful
for understanding what resources are indigenous to particular
areas in the world. From this figure, one is able to gain a better
understanding of global energy use, but further questions re-
main. How much of each resource does each region produce and
consume? What countries consume and produce the most oil,
coal, or natural gas? And what are the particular pathways that
an energy resource must travel in order to benefit society?
The next section examines the facts associated with particu-
lar energy sources and how each resource is exploited by society.
Energy cycle charts that highlight important flows of energy,
where the resource comes from, and the various steps involved in
the delivery of energy services and products from each resource
complement the statistics.
FIGURE 6.2
Regional Primary Energy Consumption by Fuel Type (2004)
Hydro Renewable,
power, 6% 1%
Nuclear
power, 6%
Petrol, 38%
Natural Gas,
23%
Coal, 26%
World
Hydro
power, 5% Renewable,
Nuclear 1%
power, 4%
Natural Gas,
10% Petrol, 35%
Coal, 45%
Asia and Oceania
continued

Hydro
power, 6%
Nuclear Renewable,
power, 1% 0%
Natural Gas,
21% Petrol, 42%
Coal, 30%
Africa
Renewable,
Hydro 1%
power, 26%
Petrol, 49%
Nuclear
power, 1%
Natural Gas,
19%
Coal, 4%
continued

Hydro Renewable,
power, 5% 0%
Nuclear Petrol, 19%
power, 6%
Coal, 17%
Natural Gas,
53%
Eurasia
Hydro power, 1%
Nuclear Renewable,
power, 0% 0%
Natural Gas,
43%
Petrol, 54%
Coal, 2%
Middle East
continued

Hydro Renewable,
power, 6% 2%
Nuclear
power, 12%
Petrol, 39%
Natural Gas,
24%
Coal, 17%
Europe
Hydro Renewable,
power, 5% 1%
Nuclear
power, 8%
Petrol, 42%
Natural Gas,
24%
Coal, 20%
North America
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data, International Energy Annual 2004,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed September 25, 2006.
Fossil Fuels
Petroleum, natural gas, and coal make up 87 percent of the energy
consumed worldwide. The flow path of each of the three primary
fossil fuels, from extraction and production to consumption, is il-
lustrated in figures 6.36.5. These energy flow diagrams illustrate
the larger picture that is involved in the production and con-
sumption of fossil fuels. From these diagrams, a few important
but often overlooked aspects in each process can be identified.
For example, market reports state the amount of crude oil pro-
duced, or the price for a barrel of crude oil. The emphasis on this
aspect of the petroleum cycle overlooks the process of refining.
Figure 6.3 shows that refining is the crucial step required for the
delivery of marketable petroleum products for consumers, most
notably gasoline and jet fuel.
Figure 6.4 demonstrates that although natural gas resources
are often found with petroleum resources, the gas is not always
used. Instead, natural gas extracted with oil is sometimes rein-
jected into the reservoir, vented, or flared. Natural gas flaring,
often disregarded by market reports, can be very polluting and
dangerous. For this reason, it is considered illegal in many pro-
ducing countries.
Finally, figure 6.5 demonstrates the path of coal from extrac-
tion to consumption. An important consideration of coal mining
is the amount of refuse waste that is produced. This waste is often
separated after the resource is mined and stored in large coal
waste impoundments. Since the refuse can be up to 50 percent of
the coal mined, it can pose a problem if it is not stored properly.
Another important point to make regarding the production of
coal is its importance in the steel industry. Coking coal remains
one of the most widely utilized fuels in steel production, making
it a vital resource in the process of industrialization.
Tables 6.2 and 6.3 provide statistics for fossil fuel production
and consumption for each world region in 2004. These data are
presented in physical units for each resource. These tables pro-
vide a snapshot of global energy use, but they do not consider
how each resource has been used over time. Figure 6.6 fills this
gap by graphing the consumption of each fossil fuel over the pe-
riod of twenty-four years (19802004). From this figure, one is
able to identify resource trends that may have an impact on re-
gional energy dynamics. For example, in five out of the seven re-
gions, petroleum is the dominant resource consumed. This trend
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
FIGURE 6.3
Petroleums Cycle
6/1/07
Petroleum
Recoverable Resources
Estimated Global Recoverable Reserves
(2004)1: 1,293 billion barrels
3:46 PM
CO2 Emissions from Petroleum

Consumption3: 10.47 billion metric tons
Exploration CO2 in 2003
Seismic Testing Global Consumption (2003)3:

80 million barrels per day
Drilling
Page 185
World Crude Oil Refining Consumption

Production (2003)2: 69.2 Global Output
million barrels (2003)2: 78.1
per day million barrels
per day Refinery Products Global
Totals 2003 (million barrels per day)2:
Gasoline: 20.81
Jet Fuel: 4.65
Global Exports (2003)2: Kerosene: 1.94

40 million barrels per day Distillate Fuel Oil: 22.10
Residual Fuel Oil: 11.26
Liquefied Petroleum Gases: 3.81
Transport Other Products: 13.51
Sources: 1. PenWell Corporation, 2006, Oil & Gas Journal, September 227 (9), obtained from the Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Petroleum Reserves Data.
2. EIA. International Energy Annual, table posted online June 19, 2006, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilproduction.html. 3. EIA, International Energy Annual 2004,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed November 2, 2006.
FIGURE 6.4
Natural Gas Cycle
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
Natural Gas
Natural Gas Resources and
6/1/07
CO2 Emissions from Natural Gas

Reserves Consumption Global total (2004):
1 5.45 billion metric tons
Global Reserves estimate (2004) : 6,044
trillion cubic feet
3:46 PM
Exploration Often
found with petroleum

Reinjected 12.5 resources
trillion cubic ft (2003)
Transport
Resource Extraction Global Residential heating, cooking Electricity Generation
Page 186
gross production (2003)2: 116

trillion cubic feet
Global Consumption: Dry
natural gas (2004): 99.7 trillion
cubic feet
Flaring and Natural Gas Production Total

Venting 2.95 Marketable Production (2003): 100.1 trillion Pipeline
trillion cubic feet cubic feet
(2003) Transport
Water Removal Dry natural gas production (2003):
LNG
95.4 trillion cubic feet
Sources: 1. PennWell Corporation, 2004, Oil & Gas Journal December 102 (47). Obtained from Energy Information Administration (EIA). http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea 2. EIA. World
Natural Gas Production, 2003. In International Energy Annual 2004. http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea. Accessed November 2, 2006.
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
FIGURE 6.5
Coals Cycle
6/1/07
Coal
Resources and Reserves Surface Mining Coal Refuse
(Bituminous, Anthracite, Lignite) Recoverable Approximately 20
coal: 997.5 billion short tons (2003 Estimated Extraction to 50 percent of
global total)1
3:46 PM
Deep Shaft Mining mined coal is

rejected during
preparation3
CO2 Emissions from Coal Primary Coal

Consumption Global Steam Coal Global Coal Preparation
total (2003)1: 9.78 billion Production (2003)1: 5.65 Removes noncombustible
metric tons billion short tons material
Page 187
Secondary
Coal
Metallurgical Coal Global Coal Briquettes Global

Production (2003)1: 437 million Production (2003)1: 25.2 million
Electric Utility Grid short tons short tons
Electricity
Generation Steel
Total Global Coal Manufacture Heating Fuel for Residential
and Industrial Sectors
Consumption (2003)1: 5.7
World Production
billion short tons (2003)2 : 969 million tons
Sources: 1. Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. 2. World Coal Institute, Coal and
Steel Facts 2006, http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=189. 3. National Academy of Sciences, 2002, Coal Waste Impoundments: Risks, Responses and
Alternatives (Washington, DC: National Academy Press), 23. Accessed November 2, 2006.
TABLE 6.2
Fossil Fuel Production by Region (2004)
Crude oil Natural

(million Percent gas Percent Coal (thousand Percent
barrels per global (trillion global short tons per global
Region day) total cubic feet) total week) Total
Africa 8.79 12.2 5.28 5.4 274 4.5
Asia and Oceania 7.43 10.3 12.10 12.3 3,232 53.2
Central and South America 6.12 8.6 4.54 4.6 75 1.2
Eurasia 10.53 14.6 28.16 28.6 493 8.1
Europe 5.72 7.9 11.89 12.1 806 13.3
Middle East 22.37 31.0 9.95 10.1 1.1 0.02
North America 11.20 15.5 26.70 27.1 1,197 19.7
Total 72.22 98.62 6,079
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Petroleum, Coal and Natural Gas Data Tables, International
Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed October 10, 2006.
TABLE 6.3
Fossil Fuel Consumption by Region (2004)
Crude oil Natural

(million Percent gas Percent Coal (thousand Percent
barrels per global (trillion global short tons per global
Region day) total cubic feet) total week) total
Africa 2.79 3.4 2.62 2.6 205.83 3.4
Asia and Oceania 23.34 28.3 13.47 13.5 3,190.25 52.3
Central and South America 5.38 6.5 4.08 4.1 38.21 0.6
Eurasia 4.11 5.0 23.39 23.5 429.40 7.0
Europe 16.31 19.7 19.90 20.0 1,036.30 17.0
Middle East 5.66 6.9 8.61 8.6 16.27 0.3
North America 25.00 30.3 27.60 27.7 1,182.53 19.4
Total 82.59 99.67 6,098.78
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Petroleum, Coal and Natural Gas Data Tables, International
Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed October 10, 2006.
FIGURE 6.6
Regional Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Coal Consumption (19802004)
Africa
7.000
6.000
5.000
Quadrillion Btu
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
Asia and Oceania 2004
70
60
50
Quadrillion Btu
40
30
20
10
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004

12
10
8
Quadrillion Btu
6
4
2
Petroleum
0 Natural Gas
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Coal
continued

Eurasia
30
25
Quadrillion Btu
20
15
10
5
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Europe
40
35
30
Quadrillion Btu
25
20
15
10
5
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Middle East
14
12
10
Quadrillion Btu
8
6
4
2
Petroleum
0 Natural Gas
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Coal
continued

North America
60
50
40
Quadrillion Btu
30
20
10
Petroleum
0 Natural Gas
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Coal
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data Tables, International Energy Annual 2004,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed October 10, 2006.
is important when considering future energy needs. As noted in

previous chapters, petroleum production is projected to decline
as resources become depleted. Resource depletion will make it
more difficult for regional economies that are structured on pe-
troleum consumption.
As meaningful as regional trends are, they do not provide
detail on how much energy individual countries utilize. This
distinction is important because often one or two countries in a
particular region are responsible for a large share of resource
production or consumption. For example, the United States
comprises a large share of the energy consumed in North Amer-
ica. South Africa is also notable as it consumes five times the en-
ergy of all other African nations combined. Tables 6.46.6 show
what resources countries produce and consume the largest
amounts of.
Electricity
Electricity is the most important secondary energy resource that is
used by society. Generally, values for electricity are divided into
three categories: electric capacity, electricity generation, and
TABLE 6.4
Top Ten Petroleum-Producing and -Consuming Countries
Total Petroleum* (thousand barrels per day)

Rank
Country Production Country Consumption
1 Saudi Arabia 10,492.6 United States 20,731.2
2 Russia 9,273.7 China 6,400.0
3 United States 8,700.2 Japan 5,353.2
4 Iran 4,101.7 Russia 2,770.0
5 Mexico 3,847.6 Germany 2,649.9
6 China 3,635.4 India 2,450.0
7 Norway 3,196.6 Canada 2,294.0
8 Canada 3,135.2 Korea, South 2,148.7
9 Venezuela 2,854.8 Brazil 2,140.0
10 United Arab Emirates 2,760.1 France 1,977.2
* Total petroleum = crude oil, natural gas plant liquids and other liquids, and refinery processing gain
TABLE 6.5
Top Ten Natural Gas-Producing and -Consuming Countries
Natural Gas (trillion cubic feet)

Rank
1 Russia 22.386 United States 22.430
2 United States 18.757 Russia 16.022
3 Canada 6.483 Germany 3.576
4 United Kingdom 3.389 United Kingdom 3.477
5 Netherlands 3.036 Canada 3.385
6 Iran 2.963 Ukraine 3.051
7 Norway 2.948 Iran 3.021
8 Algeria 2.830 Japan 2.950
9 Indonesia 2.663 Italy 2.847
10 Saudi Arabia 2.319 Saudi Arabia 2.319
TABLE 6.6
Top Ten Coal-Producing and -Consuming Countries
Coal (million short tons)

Rank
1 China 2,156.38 China 2,062.39
2 United States 1,112.10 United States 1,107.25
3 India 443.72 India 478.16
4 Australia 390.96 Germany 279.95
5 Russia 308.88 Russia 257.52
6 South Africa 267.67 Japan 203.72
7 Germany 232.67 South Africa 195.14
8 Poland 177.70 Poland 153.10
9 Indonesia 142.31 Australia 150.09
10 Kazakhstan 95.70 Korea, South 90.56
consumption. Capacity refers to the maximum amount of power

that can be supplied to the electricity grid from a generating unit.
This value is generally expressed in the units of megawatts. Recall
from chapter 1 that a watt is an energy unit that describes the rate
at which electricity can be generated; one watt is equivalent to a
generation rate of one joule per second. A megawatt equals a rate
of a million joules per second. Hence an electric capacity of 500
megawatts means that a particular generating unit has the ability
to produce 500 million joules of energy per second in the form of
electricity. A 500-megawatt plant can produce enough energy to
serve about 250,000 households. A watt already has time factored
into it, so 250,000 homes would be served continuously (or at least
as long as the operational life of the power plant). It is important
to note that generators do not always produce at capacity.
Electricity generation is often divided into values of gross
and net generation. Gross generation calculates the actual
amount of electricity that was produced from a generating unit.
Net electricity generation subtracts the amount of electricity that
is used in the operation of the generating facility from the gross
value. Both values are generally reported in units of kilowatt-
hours. Electricity consumption is the amount of electricity that
reaches the end user. It is typically slightly less than the value of
generation to account for transmission losses. Table 6.7 provides
an overview of these three electricity statistics by world region.
TABLE 6.7
Electricity Capacity, Generation, and Consumption by Region (2004)
Installed Capacity Net Electricity Generation Net Electricity Generation

Region (thousand megawatts) (billion kilowatt-hours) (billion kilowatt-hours)
Africa 103.7 505.4 469.6
Asia and Oceania 1,074.6 5,103.0 4,748.4
Central and South America 212.2 881.4 819.6
Eurasia 342.4 1,307.3 1,194.8
Europe 781.4 3,440.0 3,217.5
Middle East 112.0 566.6 526.8
North America 1,110.1 4,795.4 4,464.6
Total 3,736.3 16,599.1 15,441.3
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data, Total Electric Generation, 19802004,
International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/electricitygeneration.html.
Accessed October 25, 2006.
FIGURE 6.7
World Electric Capacity by Fuel Type (2004)
Renewable, 2%
Nuclear, 10%
Hydroelectric,
20%
Total World Electric

Capacity (2004): Conventional
3,736.3 million Thermal, 68%
kilowatts
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data, International Electricity Generation Tables,
International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/electricitygeneration.html.
Accessed October 25, 2006.
Electricity is generated from a variety of sources. Figure 6.7

presents a pie chart that breaks down world electric capacity by
fuel type. Conventional thermal resources refer to generating
units that utilize fossil fuels. They account for the largest amount
of installed electric capacity, followed by hydropower, nuclear,
and renewable resources.
Nuclear
Nuclear power is an interesting facet of energy dynamics in terms
of both global relations and its growth potential as a vital energy
resource in the future. The nuclear fuel cycle is illustrated in fig-
ure 6.8. It is important to point out that the process of nuclear fuel
production and the construction of reactors can be cost prohibi-
tive. The main limiting step in this process for many countries is
the ability to enrich uranium. Producing nuclear fuel is often
tainted with the concern that countries will also attempt the pro-
duction of nuclear weapons. Once a country has established a vi-
able nuclear fuel cycle, the operation of a generating facility pays
off. It is cheap to produce electricity because nuclear fuel contains
more potential energy per unit mass than any of the fossil fuels.
Another positive aspect is that nuclear power plants do not re-
lease greenhouse gases. However, the nuclear cycle incorporates
other waste issues, most notably the large mill tailing piles re-
sulting from uranium fuel processing and the radioactive waste
produced from spent fuel rods.
In 2004, nuclear energy accounted for 6 percent of the total
energy used worldwide (see figure 6.2). According to the Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), there are thirty-one
countries that produce nuclear power, operating a total of 442
commercial reactors. These countries are listed in table 6.8, which
details the number of reactors currently operating in each coun-
try, the electric capacity of the generating units of these reactors,
and the net electric power generated in 2005.
Figure 6.9 breaks down nuclear electricity generation by re-
gion. This pie chart shows that of the seven world regions, only
four of them produce a sizeable amount of nuclear energy. South
Africa is the only country in the region of Africa that produces
electricity, and only two countries, Brazil and Argentina, have nu-
clear capabilities in Central and South America.
FIGURE 6.8
Nuclear Fuels Cycle
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
Nuclear
6/1/07
Uranium Ore
Global Total Recoverable Reserves:1 Milling
Mining Crushes and removes
4.59 million tons Uranium (based
on a recovery cost of less than Open Pit impurities from U ore, Mill Tailings: Over 99
Underground In- produces Yellowcake percent of mined material2
$130 U.S. per kg U)
Situ Leach
3:46 PM
Conversion to
Uranium
Fuel Fabrication
Pellets of enriched UF6 are Hexafluoride
Uranium Enrichment Yellowcake UF6
packed into fuel rod Increases the amount of U-235
assemblies relative to U-238 isotopes
Page 196
Depleted Uranium used

for armor plates and warheads
Uranium Reprocessing
Spent fuel rods can be sent to recycle unused fissionable
material to create new reactor fuel
Electricity Generation
World nuclear power generation
(2004)3: 2.62 trillion kWh
Spent Fuel to Radioactive Waste Storage
Sources: 1. H. Holger Rogner, 2004, Uranium, in 2004 Survey of Energy Resources (Oxford, England: Elsevier), 157. 2. E. Willard Miller and Ruby M. Miller, 1993, Energy and American Society (Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO), 43. 3. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2006, Operational and Long-Term Shutdown Reactors by Country, Power Reactor Information System (PRIS),
http://www.iaea.org/programmes/a2/. Accessed November 2, 2006.
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
TABLE 6.8
Nuclear Reactors, Generation, and Capacity by Country (2005)
6/1/07
Net Nuclear Net Nuclear Power

Number of Nuclear Electric Power Generation Number of Nuclear Electric Generation (billion kWh)
Country Nuclear Reactors1 Capacity (MW(e))1 (billion kWh) (2004)2 Country Nuclear Reactors1 Capacity (MW(e))1 (2004)2
3:46 PM
United States 103 98,145 788.53 Switzerland 5 3,220 25.61

France 59 63,363 425.83 Bulgaria 4 2,722 15.60
Japan 55 47,593 271.58 Finland 4 2,676 21.55
Russia 31 21,743 137.47 Slovakia 6 2,442 16.18
Germany 17 20,339 158.97 Brazil 2 1,901 11.60
Page 197
Korea, South 20 16,810 124.18 South Africa 2 1,800 14.28

Ukraine 15 13,107 82.69 Hungary 4 1,755 11.32
Canada 18 12,584 85.87 Mexico 2 1,360 8.73
United Kingdom 23 11,852 73.68 Lithuania 1 1,185 14.35
Sweden 10 8,916 73.43 Argentina 2 935 7.31
China 10 7,587 47.95 Slovenia 1 656 5.21
Spain 8 7,450 60.43 Romania 1 655 5.27
Belgium 7 5,801 45.80 Netherlands 1 450 3.63
Taiwan 6 4,884 37.94 Pakistan 2 425 1.93
India 16 3,483 15.04 Armenia 1 376 2.21
Czech Republic 6 3,373 25.01
Total 442 369,588 2,619.18
Sources: 1. International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006, Operational and Long-Term Shutdown Reactors by Country, Power Reactor Information System (PRIS), http://www.iaea.org/programmes/a2/.
2. Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Electricity Data, Net Nuclear Power Generation, International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/
electricitygeneration.html. Accessed November 2, 2006.

FIGURE 6.9
Nuclear-Electricity Generation by Region (2004)
Middle East
Asia and 0%
Oceania
19%
North
America
Africa 34%
1%
Eurasia
9%
Central and
Total World South
Generation: America
2,619.2 billion 1%
kilowatt-hours Europe
36%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2004, International Electricity Data, Net Nuclear Power
Generation, International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/
Renewable Energy
Hydroelectric, solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal resources
are the five categories of renewable energy resources depicted in
figure 6.10. With the exception of geothermal energy, solar radia-
tion provides most of the energy that drives the renewable cycles.
The facts in this section focus largely on the potential of renew-
able sources to generate electricity from hydroelectric, solar,
wind, and geothermal resources. Statistics for biomass are diffi-
cult to determine because often these resources are not commer-
cially traded. It is important to point out that renewable sources
can also provide a variety of direct energy uses (i.e., not electric-
ity generation).
FIGURE 6.10
Renewable Energys Cycle
Renewable Energy
Active and Passive
Reflection Solar Energy
52,000 TW directly
reflected into space 1 PV Cells, Solar thermal
power plants, space and water
heating
Solar Radiation Direct conversion to heat (air, land, oceans)
1
173,000 TW radiation 81,000 TW solar radiation
reaches Earth1
Hydrologic Cycle Hydropower World Net Generation

EARTH (2004)2: 2.75 trillion
40,000 TW solar radiation 1 kWh
Wind, Waves, Currents, Convection

Geothermal Energy World wind
Estimated 100 million GWh per year of 370 TW solar radiation 1 power
heat energy conducted from interior of generation
Earth4 (2002)3:
57,933 GWh
Hydrothermal,
geopressured, hot dry Photosynthesis Biomass Domestic heating,
rock, magma cooking, and lighting,
40 TW solar radiation 1 biofuels, electricity
generation
Sources: 1. Gary Alexander, Overview: The Context of Renewable Energy Technologies, in

Godfrey Boyle, ed. Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future (Oxford: Oxford University
Press), p. 28.
2. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2004, International Electricity
Generation Tables. Table posted July 7, 2006. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/
3. Sren Varming, Wind Energy, in 2004 Survey of Energy Resources: 20th Edition. World Energy
Council (Amersterdam: Elsevier), p. 69.
4. Lucien Bronicki and Michael Lax. Geothermal Energy, in 2004 Survey of Energy Resources
20th Edition. World Energy Council (Amersterdam: Elsevier), p. 346348.
Hydropower accounts for 6 percent of the energy consumed

worldwide (figure 6.2). It is of greatest importance in developing
regions of the world. For example, in 2004, hydropower ac-
counted for 26 percent of the energy consumed in Central and
South America. Table 6.9 details the hydroelectricity generated
worldwide in 2004 by region. Despite opposition to large dams
and diversion projects, the development of hydropower re-
sources is likely to grow in the future.
There are three primary end uses for solar energy: photo-
voltaic (PV) cells for the generation of electricity, solar thermal sys-
tems used for hot water and space heating, and large-scale solar
thermal power plants. Because there are a variety of end uses, and
because solar energy is often not commercially traded, it is diffi-
cult to monitor how much total energy is being harnessed from
solar radiation on a global scale. Additionally, many solar tech-
nologies are still being developed. Consequently, they are not as
readily available as fossil fueled technologies. Because of these fac-
tors, statistics on solar energy use are limited. The technology is
growing, however, and many companies are exploring the market
potential of PV cells. Table 6.10 details the top ten PV manufactur-
ers in the world. The World Energy Council estimated that in 2002
there was approximately 1,500 MW of PV capacity installed
globally (Silvi 2004, 298). Since PV cells are used in both grid-
connected and nongrid-connected systems, it is impossible to de-
termine the total amount of power generated from this technology.
TABLE 6.9
World Hydroelectricity Capacity, Generation, and Consumption by Region (2004)
Region Hydroelectric Capacity Hydroelectric generation Hydroelectric consumption

(GW) (billion kWh) (billion kWh)
Africa 21.068 87.43 87.43
Asia and Oceania 198.181 664.00 664.00
Central and South America 122.224 577.08 577.08
Eurasia 66.920 233.09 233.09
Europe 167.205 543.56 543.56
Middle East 6.499 14.11 14.11
North America 157.488 627.61 627.61
World Total 739.585 2,746.88 2,746.88
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, International Electricity Generation Tables, International
Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/electricitygeneration.html. Accessed November
6, 2006.
TABLE 6.10
Top Ten Manufacturers of Photovoltaic Solar Cells
Rank PV Manufacturer Country Capacity (MW) (2002)

1 Sharp Japan 123.1
2 BP Solar United Kingdom 73.8
3 Kyocera Japan 60.0
4 Shell United Kingdom 57.5
5 Sanyo Electric Japan 35.0
6 AstroPower United States 29.7
7 RWE Solar Germany 29.5
8 Isofoton Spain 27.4
9 Mitsubishi Electric Japan 24.0
10 Photowatt France 17.0
Source: Cesare Silvi, 2004, Solar Energy. In 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World Energy Council 298.
Amsterdam: Elsevier. 20th ed.
TABLE 6.11
Wind-Electric Capacity and Generation by Region (2002)
Region Installed Capacity (MWe) Electricity Generation (GWh)

Africa 144 430
Asia 2,627 5,379
Central and South America 132 441
Oceania 144 496
Middle East 20 51
North America 4927 12460
Europe (including Eurasia) 23,404 38,676
World Total 31,398 57,933
Source: Sren Varming, Wind Energy. In 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World Energy Council 369.
Wind energy is also becoming an important renewable re-

source for regions looking to harness renewable sources of en-
ergy. In 2002, there was a total of 31,400 MW of installed electric
capacity from wind energy (Varming 2004, 364). Table 6.11 pro-
vides data on the regional capacity and generation of wind en-
ergy worldwide in 2002. Table 6.12 examines the top ten wind
energy producing countries for that same year.
TABLE 6.12
Top Ten Wind-Power-Generating Countries (2002) Ranked by Capacity
Rank Country Installed Capacity (MWe) Annual Output (GWh)

1 Germany 12,001 16,800
2 Spain 4,825 9,792
3 United States 4,685 12,000
4 Denmark 2,889 4,877
5 India 1,702 3,700
6 Italy 788 1,600
7 Netherlands 693 1,200
8 United Kingdom 552 1,450
9 China 468 1,000
10 Japan 415 598
Source: Sren Varming, Wind Energy. In 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World Energy Council 369.
TABLE 6.13
Geothermal Electric and Direct-Use Capacity by Region (2002)
Region Installed Electrical Capacity (MWe) Installed Direct Use Capacity (MWt)
Africa 57 121
Asia 3,332 4,284
Central and South America 374 46
Oceania 448 318
Middle East 0 216
North America 2,855 5,908
Europe (including Eurasia) 1,154 6,107
World Total 8,220 17,000
Source: Lucien Bronicki and Michael Lax, Geothermal Energy, in 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World Energy
Council 346348. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 20th ed.
Geothermal energy is the final category of resources dis-

cussed in this chapter. There are a total of twenty-one countries
that utilize geothermal resources for both electricity generation
and direct uses, such as heating. Figure 6.10 depicts four types of
geothermal resources: hydrothermal, geopressurized, hot dry
rock (also known as enhanced geothermal systems), and magma.
Of these, hydrothermal resources are the most utilized. Table 6.13
provides an overview of both the installed electric and direct use
capacities by region in 2002.
Energy Trade 203
Energy Trade
The data described in the previous sections provides the types
and amounts of energy produced and consumed. Yet a large part
of energy use in society is dependent upon the global trade of
these resources, the companies that exist in global energy mar-
kets, and the consequences of how these resources are distrib-
uted. This section briefly examines these topics.
Fossil fuels are the most traded commodity worldwide, with
petroleum at the top of the list. There is not one country in the
world that can survive without importing or exporting a portion
of its resources. Tables 6.14 and 6.15 describe the top ten im-
porters and exporters of oil, coal, and natural gas in 2004. It is
interesting to note that the United States is the number one im-
porter of petroleum and natural gas. More detailed information
on the U.S. petroleum supply is presented later in the chapter.
Energy commodities are traded and delivered by hundreds
of thousands of companies worldwide. Most of these companies
operate on a global scale; that is, they extract and produce energy
in several countries rather than just their country of origin. Table
6.16 lists the top twenty-five global energy companies of 2005
TABLE 6.14
Top Ten Importers and Exporters of Crude Oil (2004)
Top Importers Top Exporters

Net Imports Net Exports
Country (million barrels/day) Country (million barrels/day)
United States 12.1 Saudi Arabia 8.73
Japan 5.3 Russia 6.67
China 2.9 Norway 2.91
Germany 2.4 Iran 2.55
Korea, South 2.2 Venezuela 2.36
France 1.9 United Arab Emirates 2.33
Italy 1.7 Kuwait 2.20
Spain 1.6 Nigeria 2.19
India 1.5 Mexico 1.80
Taiwan 1.0 Algeria 1.68
Sources: Importers: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Non-OPEC Fact Sheet,

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables3_4.html; exporters: EIA, Non-OPEC Fact Sheet,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.html. Accessed October 10, 2006.
TABLE 6.15
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
Top Ten Importers and Exporters of Coal and Natural Gas (2004)
Natural Gas (billion cubic ft) Coal (trillion Btu)

6/1/07
Rank
Country Imports Country Exports Country Imports Country Exports
1 United States 4,259 Russia 7,656 Japan 4,415.7 Australia 5,324.2
2 Germany 3,182 Canada 3,673 Korea, South 1,867.6 China 2,939.0
3:46 PM
3 Japan 2,868 Norway 2,663 Taiwan 1,499.0 Indonesia 2,169.8

4 Italy 2,398 Algeria 2,150 Germany 1,035.7 South Africa 1,988.4

5 Ukraine 2,373 Netherlands 1,891 United Kingdom 831.0 Russia 1,358.3
6 France 1,581 Turkmenistan 1,483 United States 694.5 Colombia 1,234.4
7 Russia 1,293 Indonesia 1,353 Canada 629.3 United States 1,135.1
Page 204
8 Korea, South 1,022 Malaysia 1,040 India 606.9 Canada 811.5

9 Spain 952 United States 854 Italy 589.5 Poland 678.4
10 Turkey 767 Qatar 850 Russia 575.0 Kazakhstan 456.7
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, International Data Tables, International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html. Accessed October 10,
2006.
Energy Trade 205
ranked by their profits. This list was compiled by Platts, an en-

ergy information company that provides yearly rankings of the
top 250 energy companies. Although Platts considers companies
in nine industrial categories, most of those represented in table
6.16 are from the integrated oil and gas (IOG) sector. In fact, of the
thirty-two IOG companies found in the top 250, seventeen of
them are in the top twenty-five. This point highlights the impor-
tance of oil and natural gas commodities in the global market.
Other classifications not on the table are the coal and consumable
fuels, gas utility, independent power producers, and storage and
transfer industrial sectors.
TABLE 6.16
Top Twenty-five Global Energy Companies (2005)
Date Profits
Rank Company Country Industry Established (million)
1 Exxon-Mobil Corp. United States Oil and Gas 1870 $36,130
2 Royal Dutch Shell Netherlands Oil and Gas $25,618
3 BP plc United Kingdom Oil and Gas 1889 $22,157
4 Total France Oil and Gas 1924 $14,940
5 ConocoPhillips United States Oil and Gas 1917 $13,640
6 PetroChina Co. Ltd. China Oil and Gas 1988 $16,521
7 Chevron Corp. United States Oil and Gas 1879 $14,099
8 Petroleo Brasileiro SA Brazil Oil and Gas 1953 $10,582
9 ENI SpA Italy Oil and Gas 1953 $10,698
10 Statoil ASA Norway Oil and Gas 1972 $4,736
11 Valero Energy Corp. United States Refining and Marketing 1955 $3,590
12 Marathon Oil Corp. United States Oil and Gas 1887 $3,051
13 Occidental Petroleum Corp. United States Oil and Gas 1920 $5,272
14 China Petroleum China Oil and Gas 2000 $4,248
15 LUKoil Co. Russia Oil and Gas 1993 $4,248
16 Repsol YPF SA Spain Oil and Gas 1986 $3,798
17 Electricite de France Spain Electric Utility 1987 $3,947
18 Centrica plc United Kingdom Diversified Utility $1,720
19 Gazprom OAO Russia Oil and Gas 1993 $7,298
20 Oil and Natural Gas Corp. Ltd. India Exploration and Production 1956 $3,209
21 Norsk Hydro AS Norway Exploration and Production 1905 $2,422
22 E.On AG Germany Electric Utility 1929 $5,331
23 ENEL SpA Italy Electric Utility 1962 $3,193
24 Imperial Oil Ltd. Canada Oil and Gas 1880 $2,237
25 Electrabel SA Belgium Electric Utility 1905 $2,323
Source: Platts, 2005, Top 250 Global Energy Company Rankings, http://www.platts.com/top250/index.xml. Data
used with permission from Platts.
A final, important thing to point out about energy trade is

distribution inequality: a large gap exists between rich and poor
nations. Recall the discrepancy in energy use shown in figure 6.1,
which demonstrates that Africa and Central and South America
use far less energy than North America and Europe. This point
can also be made in relation to world economics.
Table 6.17 shows energy consumption per capita and gross
domestic product (GDP) of the worlds regions and some selected
countries. Energy consumption per capita is a widely used indi-
cator of energy dynamics. It describes how much energy is used
by each person per year in a given country or region. The indica-
tor accounts for an individuals share of energy resources ex-
TABLE 6.17
Energy and Economic Indicators by Region and Selected Country
Region and Selected Energy Consumption per GDP (billion U.S. dollars,
Countries capita (million Btu) (2004) purchasing power parity) 2005
Africa 15.7 2,365
Nigeria 8.1 174.1
South Africa 115.2 533.2
Asia and Oceania 38.5 22,644
China 45.9 8,859
India 14.5 3,611
Japan 177.7 4,018
Central and South America 50.8 3,515
Brazil 49.3 1,556
Venezuela 115.3 153.7
Eurasia 157.2 2,408
Russia 208.8 1,589
Europe 146.5 13,668
France 186.1 1,816
Germany 178.3 2,504
United Kingdom 166.5 1,830
Middle East 116.0 1,546.9
Saudi Arabia 236.5 338
North America 280.2 14,546.9
Canada 418.4 1,114
United States 342.7 12,360
World Total 70.1 60,710
Sources: Energy consumption per capita: Energy Information Administration (EIA), International Data,
International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html; GDP data: CIA
World Factbook, 2006, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html. Accessed October 13, 2006.
Environment 207
FIGURE 6.11
Global CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels (18002003)
8000
7000
6000
5000
Million metric tons C
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1800
1813
1826
1839
1852
1865
1878
1891
1904
1917
1930
1943
1956
1969
1982
1995
Source: G. Marland, T. A. Boden, and R. J. Andres, 2006, Global, Regional, and National CO2 Emissions, in Trends:
A Compendium of Data on Global Change, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy), http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm. Accessed
October 1, 2006.
pended. The main point of this table is to demonstrate that richer

countries and regions (those with a higher GDP) typically con-
sume more energy per capita than those in poorer regions.
Environment
Earlier chapters discuss problems associated with energy use.
They note that the most pressing of these issues is global warming
caused from carbon dioxide emissions that are released during the
combustion of fossil fuels. This section provides information and
data about these emissions.
It has been estimated that approximately 305 billion tons of
carbon has been released into the atmosphere from fossil fuel con-
sumption and cement production since 1791 (Marland et al. 2006).
Figure 6.11 illustrates this increase since 1800. As this figure
TABLE 6.18
CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels by Region (2004)
CO2 Emissions CO2 Emissions CO2 Emissions from

Region from Fossil Fuels per capita Fossil Fuels (million metric
(million metric tons) (metric tons) tons, carbon equivalent)
Africa 986.55 1.13 269.06
Asia and Oceania 9,604.81 2.69 2,619.49
Central and South America 1,041.45 2.35 284.03
Eurasia 2,550.75 8.88 695.66
Europe 4,653.43 7.96 1,269.12
Middle East 1,319.70 7.24 359.92
North America 6,886.88 15.99 1,878.24
World Total 27,043.57 4.24 7,375.20
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, International Data, International Energy Annual 2004,
TABLE 6.19
Top Ten CO2 Emitters (2004)
Rank Country CO2 emissions (million metric tons) Percent of World Total
1 United States 5,912.21 21.9
2 China 4,707.28 17.4
3 Russia 1,684.84 6.2
4 Japan 1,262.10 4.7
5 India 1,112.84 4.1
6 Germany 862.23 3.2
7 Canada 587.98 2.2
8 United Kingdom 579.68 2.1
9 Korea, South 496.76 1.8
10 Italy 484.98 1.8
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, International Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon
Intensity, Table International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/
carbondioxide.html. Accessed October 20, 2006.
Environment 209
FIGURE 6.12
Global CO2 Emissions by Fuel Type (2004)
Natural Gas
21%
Petrol
40%
World Total:
27.04 trillion Coal
metric tons 39%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, International Carbon Emissions and Intensity tables,
International Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/carbondioxide.html. Accessed
October 20, 2006.
shows, a dramatic increase in CO2 emissions has occurred in the

latter half of the twentieth century. It is this trend that concerns
scientists and policymakers studying the issue of global climate
change.
Carbon dioxide emission data may be reported in various
ways. The two most common approaches estimate total CO2
emissions and the calculated carbon equivalent that is released
from other CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Values for total CO2
emissions are relatively straightforward; they provide a value for
the total amount of CO2 released when a fossil fuel is burned.
Carbon equivalents are a little more complicated. These measures
are a standardized way of calculating the amount of total carbon
that is released from any greenhouse gas relative to its warming
potential, or its ability to trap solar radiation. Table 6.18 provides
an overview of the amount of carbon dioxide that was released
from the combustion of fossil fuels in 2004 by region. Table 6.19
ranks the top ten CO2 emitters. Finally, figure 6.12 depicts the per-
cent of CO2 emissions by fuel type.
U.S. Data
The remaining tables and graphs in this chapter provide an
overview of energy use in the United States. This section is in-
cluded for two main reasons. First, the data in this section com-
plement the information presented in chapter 3. Second, the
United States is the worlds largest consumer of energy, making it
the most important player in global energy dynamics.
This brief summary of U.S energy statistics first provides
total energy consumption for each state (table 6.20), and then
presents data for the production of individual resources. Because
different energy industries are distributed into different geo-
graphic regions, summaries of regional energy facts are difficult
to compile. State divisions are included for different resources.
Where possible, energy data are described using U.S. Census
Bureau divisions (table 6.21). Such is the case for the overall en-
ergy overview (figure 6.13). Information for natural gas produc-
tion is also presented according to Census Bureau divisions, but
the Gulf of Mexico offshore region is distinguished as its own cat-
egory because it makes up 21 percent of U.S. natural gas produc-
tion (figure 6.17).
Crude oil production is generally organized into PAD
districts, so named for the districts drawn by the Petroleum Ad-
ministration for Defense (PAD) in 1950 for purposes of supply
management after World War II (table 6.22). Overall petroleum
production from 1900 to 2005 is summarized in figure 6.14. An
important note to make here is that U.S. petroleum production
peaked in the late 1960s. Figure 6.15 depicts the most recent pro-
duction numbers for the United States divided by PAD district.
There are two additional figures in this section that summarize
important petroleum data. Figure 6.20 shows U.S. petroleum im-
port and export trends since 1960, it illustrates the dramatic in-
crease in imports while exports remained relatively unchanged.
Figure 6.21 complements the previous figure by illustrating the
top ten foreign sources of petroleum for the United States.
Coal production is also categorized according to its own ge-
ographic regions (table 6.23). Figure 6.16 shows the amount of
coal produced in the United States broken down by coal produc-
ing region. Here it is important to point out the prevalence of sur-
face mining techniques utilized in the western region. In these
U.S. Data 211
TABLE 6.20
U.S. Energy Overview by State and Region (2003)
Consumption Consumption
State Population (trillion Btu) State Population (trillion Btu)
Northeast
Connecticut 3,485,881 888.7 New York 19,228,031 4,220.6
Maine 1,308,245 478.5 Pennsylvania 12,364,930 3,972.7
Massachusetts 6,417,565 1,588.8 Rhode Island 1,075,729 227.7
New Hampshire 1,287,594 327.5 Vermont 619,092 155.8
New Jersey 8,640,028 2,578.3
Total 54,427,095 14,438.6
Midwest
Illinois 12,649,940 3,918.3 Missouri 5,718,717 1,841.8
Indiana 6,196,269 2,912.8 Nebraska 1,738,013 646.1
Iowa 2,941,362 1,175.8 North Dakota 633,051 395.0
Kansas 2,724,224 1,117.9 Ohio 11,431,748 3,986.2
Michigan 10,078,146 3,158.2 South Dakota 764,599 263.9
Minnesota 5,061,662 1,795.8 Wisconsin 5,471,792 1,832.5
Total 65,409,523 23,044.3
South
Alabama 4,501,862 2,013.5 Mississippi 2,880,793 1,183.8
Arkansas 2,726,166 1,132.8 North Carolina 8,422,375 2,643.7
Delaware 817,827 312.9 Oklahoma 3,504,917 1,490.9
District of Colombia 557,846 183.5 South Carolina 4,146,753 1,613.6
Florida 16,993,369 4,287.8 Tennessee 5,841,585 2,268.9
Georgia 8,746,849 3,003.7 Texas 22,099,136 12,369.8
Kentucky 4,116,780 1,877.2 Virginia 7,383,387 2,428.6
Louisiana 4,490,380 3,693.0 West Virginia 1,810,347 784.1
Maryland 5,512,477 1,550.5
Total 48,463,556 18,054.9
West
Alaska 648,510 761.9 Nevada 2,241,700 654.2
Arizona 5,577,784 1,370.7 New Mexico 1,879,252 663.1
California 35,456,602 8,130.3 Oregon 3,562,681 1,049.2
Colorado 4,548,071 1,351.5 Utah 2,378,696 704.9
Hawaii 1,248,200 309.6 Washington 6,131,131 1,934.6
Idaho 1,368,111 466.6 Wyoming 501,915 461.2
Montana 917,885 375.9
Total 66,460,538 18,233.7
U.S. Total 290,850,005 98,554.9
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, State Energy Data System tables,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/states/_states.html. Accessed October 23, 2006.
TABLE 6.21
U.S. Census Bureaus Regional Divisions of the United States
Northeast
New England Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
Middle Atlantic New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania
South
South Atlantic Delaware, District of Colombia, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia
East South Central Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee
West South Central Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas
Midwest
East North Central Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin
West North Central Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota
West
Mountain Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming
Pacific Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006, U.S. Regions, http://www.census.gov/geo/www/us_regdiv.pdf. Accessed

October 23, 2006.
states, coal is often found closer to the surface and more easily ex-
tracted using such methods.
Electricity generation is another important component to en-
ergy use in the United States. Figure 6.18 demonstrates that coal
accounted for 50 percent of the electricity produced in the United
States in 2005. Natural gas and nuclear resources are the two
other main sources used by the electric utility industry.
With the exception of hydroelectricity, renewable energy
sources comprise a relatively small amount of the energy pie in
the United States. However, since renewable energy technologies
will become more important for future energy needs, two graph-
ics depicting renewable energy consumption by type and by sec-
tor of end use are in figure 6.19.
Previous chapters discussed the importance of energy legis-
lation and regulation to resource allocation for society. Tables
6.246.30 provide an overview of important U.S. energy legisla-
tion. Included in these selections are environmental and land use
laws that have impacted energy industries in the United States.
U.S. Data 213
FIGURE 6.13
U.S. Energy Consumption by Regional Division (2003)
Middle Atlantic,
11%
Pacific, 12%
New England,
4%
Mountain, 6%
East South
Central, 7%
West North
Central, 7%
Total U.S.
Energy
Consumption:
West South
98,605.2
East North Central, 20%
trillion Btu
Central, 16%
South Atlantic,
17%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Total Energy Consumption Table, State Energy Data
System, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/states/_states.html. Accessed October 24, 2006.
TABLE 6.22
State Division by PAD District
PAD District States

I Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Georgia, Florida
II Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma
III Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico
IV Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Idaho
V Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Hawaii
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Crude Oil Production, Petroleum Supply Annual 2005, Petroleum
Navigator, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_crpdn_adc_mbbl_a.htm. Accessed October 24, 2006.
FIGURE 6.14
U.S. Crude Oil Production (19002005)
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
Million Barrels
1,500
1,000
500
0
00 07 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 05
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Crude Oil Production, Petroleum Supply Annual 2005, Petroleum
Navigator, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_crpdn_adc_mbbl_a.htm. Accessed October 24, 2006.
U.S. Data 215
FIGURE 6.15
U.S. Crude Oil Production by PAD District (2005) (thousand barrels)
PADD 1
8,299 PADD 2
161,587
PADD 5
572,765
U.S. Total:
1,890,106
thousand
barrels
PADD 4
123,956 PADD 3
1,023,499
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2005, Crude Oil Production, Petroleum Supply Annual 2005,
Petroleum Navigator, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_crpdn_adc_mbbl_a.htm.
TABLE 6.23
U.S. Coal-Producing Regions
Surface Mines Underground

Region States (2005) Mines (2005)
Alabama, Georgia, eastern Kentucky, Maryland,
Appalachian North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, 548 682
Virginia, and West Virginia
Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,

Interior Region
Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, 34 72
(including Gulf Coast)
Oklahoma, Texas, and western Kentucky
Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico,

Western Region 24 38
North Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Glossary of Terms,

http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/index.html
FIGURE 6.16
U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region (2005)
600
Underground 524
500 Surface
400
Million short tons
300
248
200
149
100 90
60 61
0
Appalachian Interior Western
U.S. total coal production: 1,130 million short tons
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2005, Annual Coal Report 2005,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/acr_sum.html. Accessed October 26, 2006.
U.S. Data 217
FIGURE 6.17
U.S. Natural Gas Production (2004) (million cubic ft)
Northeast
1%
Offshore Gulf
of Mexico
21%
South
46%
West
28%
U.S. Total
Production (2004):
18,243,554 million
Midwest
cubic feet 4%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Natural Gas Gross Withdrawals and Production, Natural
Gas Navigator, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/ng_prod_sum_a_EPG0_FPD_mmcf_a.htm. Accessed October
27, 2006.
FIGURE 6.18
U.S. Net Electric Generation by Energy Source (2005)
Renewable, 2% Other, 1%
Hydro, 6%
Nuclear, 19%
U.S. Total:
4,054,688 Coal, 50%
thousand
megawatt hours
Natural Gas,
19%
Petroleum, 3%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Net Generation by Energy Source by Type of Producer,
Electric Power Annual Report, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epat1p1.html. Accessed October 27,
2006.
06-ENUSWW_Ch6.qxd
FIGURE 6.19
U.S. Renewable Energy Consumption (2004) (quadrillion Btu)
6/1/07
Renewable Energy Consumption U.S. Renewable Energy Consumption by Sector

by Type (Quadrillion Btu)
Alcohol
3:46 PM
Fuels, 5% Transportation, 5% Commercial, 2%

Geothermal, 6%
Residential, 7%
Solar, 1%
Wind, 2%
Page 219
Biomass, 42%
Industrial,
27% Electric
Power,
Total U.S. 59%
Renewable Energy
Consumption: 6.116
quadrillion Btu Hydroelectric, 44%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Tables, Renewable Energy Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/rea_data/rea_sum.html. Accessed October 27,
U.S. Data 219
2006.
FIGURE 6.20
U.S. Petroleum Trade (19602005)
14,000
12,000
10,000
Thousand Barrels/Day
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1960
1963
1966
1969
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Imports Exports
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2006, Petroleum Overview, Selected Years, 1949-2005, Annual
Energy Review, 2005 (Washington DC: Department of Energy), 127. Accessed October 15, 2006. Accessed October
15, 2006.
U.S. Data 221
FIGURE 6.21
Top Ten U.S. Petroleum Suppliers (2004)
2,500
2,138 U.S Total: 13,145
2,000
1,665
1,558 1,554
Thousand Barrels Per Day
1,500
1,140
1,000
656
452
500 380 330 316
0
da
ico
ia
la
ria
ria
om
la
.S.
Ira
rab
ue
go
na
ge
ge
ex
gd
(U
ez
An
Ca
Ni
Al
M
iA
in
ds
n
Ve
dK
ud
an
Sa
Isl
ite
Un
in
rg
Vi
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Top Suppliers of U.S. Crude Oil and Petroleum, 2004, Petroleum
Supply Annual 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html. Accessed October
1, 2006.
TABLE 6.24
National-Energy-Policy Legislation
Year Legislation Major points

1917 Food and Food Control (Lever) Act Creates the U.S. Fuel Administration (USFA) to oversee
operations of the coal industry; grants the administrative
branch the power to fix coal prices. The USFA was
dismantled in 1919.
1944 The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act Establishes a research program for the development of
synthetic fuels as part of a strategic reserve initiative. The
program was ended in 1954.
1950 Defense Production Act Grants the secretary of the interior the authority to oversee
power production and distribution for the Korean War
effort.
1973 Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act Establishes price controls for petroleum in response to the
Arab Oil Embargo.
1974 Energy Supply and Environmental Mandates that steps be taken to assess and coordinate the
Coordination Act nations energy resources with its energy needs; directs that
coal resources be more effectively utilized; seeks to adjust
environmental regulations to meet energy needs.
1975 Energy Policy and Conservation Act Addresses supply issues and develops conservation programs
for managing energy demand; mandates the development
of a strategic petroleum reserve; seeks to improve energy
efficiency of the nations energy industries.
1977 Energy Reorganization Act Consolidates U.S. energy agencies with the creation of the
Department of Energy (DOE).
1978 National Energy Conservation Policy Act Mandates the federal government to explore energy-
efficient technologies in buildings; promotes the use of
renewable energy technologies in public buildings.
1978 Energy Tax Act Provides tax incentives for households to implement energy
conservation measures.
1980 Windfall Profits Tax Act Issues an excise tax on domestic oil companies. The tax was
levied on the revenue difference between the market price
and a government determined base price of oil.
1982 Energy Emergency Preparedness Act Updates the Energy Policy and Conservation Act with a focus
on further development of strategic petroleum reserves;
includes measures on how the federal government will
respond to energy-emergencies and fuel shortages.
1992 Comprehensive National Energy Policy Act Mandates energy efficiency standards for federal buildings
and provides incentives to states, businesses, and
households to adopt energy-efficient technology.
2005 Energy Policy Act Provides incentives for the development of renewable
energy sources, most notably to the biofuels industry to
stimulate the use of ethanol-burning vehicles; provides tax
and other incentives for the development of nuclear energy
resources; continues to grant subsidies for oil and gas
drilling and exploration activities.
U.S. Data 223
TABLE 6.25
Nuclear-Energy Legislation

1946 Atomic Energy Act Establishes the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the
Joint Commission on Atomic Energy (JACE) as oversight
agencies for nuclear development; mandates that all nuclear
resources be owned by the federal government.
1954 Atomic Energy Act Allows for private ownership of nuclear power as a stimulus
for industry to develop nuclear power resources.
1957 Price-Anderson Act Further promotes nuclear development in the United States
by limiting liability for potential nuclear accidents.
1974 Energy Reorganization Act Creates the Energy Research and Development
Administration (ERDA) to take over duties of the AEC.
1980 Nuclear Safety Research, Development, Mandates the development of safety standards for the
and Demonstration Act construction and operation of nuclear power plants.
1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act Mandates that two sites, one in the East and one in the
West, be established as nuclear waste repositories for waste
generated in the United States.
1987 Nuclear Waste Policy Act Revises the 1982 act to mandate that one central storage
facility be developed and recommended Yucca Mountain as
the site for the repository.
1988 Price-Anderson Amendments Raises the liability limits that the federal government would
pay plant owners/operators in the event of an accident.
TABLE 6.26
Renewable-Energy Legislation

1970 Geothermal Steam Act Authorizes federal development of geothermal resources
and allows the Department of the Interior to lease land for
geothermal development.
1974 Solar Energy Research, Development, Authorizes federal support of research and development of
and Demonstration Act solar energy.
1974 Solar Heating and Cooling Mandates the demonstration of solar technology for heating
Demonstration Act and cooling of residential dwellings and commercial
structures.
1978 Solar Photovoltaic Energy Research, Mandates that the secretary of energy spearhead
Development, and Demonstration Act efforts to implement vigorous research and development
programs for improving the efficiency and reducing the cost
of solar photovoltaic technology.
1980 Energy Security Act Designed to develop solutions for energy security issues;
mandates research and development funding for solar,
geothermal, ocean thermal, biomass, and other renewable
technologies.
U.S. Data 225
TABLE 6.27
Regulation of Electricity and Utilities

1920 Water Power Act Allows for federal oversight of hydroelectric power
generation on navigable streams; establishes the Federal
Power Commission (later became the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission [FERC]).
1933 Tennessee Valley Authority Act Provides federal funding for a multipurpose river project;
establishes publicly owned hydroelectricity resources and
flood control network in the Tennessee Valley.
1935 Federal Power Act Allows the government to regulate and oversee utility rates.
1935 Public Utility Holding Company Abolishes utility holding companies and regulates utility
Act (PUHCA) transactions.
1936 Rural Electrification Act Seeks to increase electricity distribution to rural areas by
providing financial support and incentives to nonprofit
cooperatives for establishing electric utilities in rural areas.
1938 Natural Gas Act Gives the Federal Power Commission authority to regulate
interstate sales of natural gas.
1968 Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act Mandates that safety standards be developed for the
transport of natural gas and other fuels by pipeline.
1978 Natural Gas Policy Act Removes the distinction between inter- and intrastate
natural gas markets by establishing wellhead pricing and
gives the federal government a larger role in natural gas
pricing.
1978 Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Requires utility companies to purchase electricity produced
Act (PURPA) by cogeneration.
2005 Energy Policy Act Removed PURPA regulations and nullified PUHCA in an
effort to promote industry deregulation.
TABLE 6.28
Pollution-Control Acts

1924 Oil Pollution Act Mandates pollution control measures for the practices of
drilling, pumping, refining, and transporting petroleum.
The act marks the first time that safety and environmental
standards for oil production are required by the federal
government. Although largely developed by oil-friendly
interests, the law recognizes environmental damage that
occurs from oil production.
1972 Clean Water Act Establishes a permitting system for the discharge of waste
into the nations navigable waterways and requires that
pollution control mechanisms be installed to remove
pollutants from water prior to discharge.
1980 Resource Conservation and Mandates standards and procedures for the disposal of
Recovery Act (RCRA) hazardous waste. This law affected energy industries and
their practices of handling and disposal of wastes accrued
during extraction and refining processes.
1980 Comprehensive Environmental Develops a regulatory structure for cleaning up abandoned

Response, Compensation, and hazardous waste sites. Many of the contaminated, or
Liability Act Superfund, sites were owned and operated by the DOE as
facilities used in energy resources testing and development.
1990 Oil Pollution Act of 1990 Eliminates federal liability caps for accidents resulting from
negligence; requires that all tankers operating in U.S.
waters demonstrate financial responsibility; mandates that
single-hull tankers be phased out.
U.S. Data 227
TABLE 6.29
Clean Air Acts

1955 Clean Air Act Recognizes air pollution as a local problem and restricts
federal involvement to technical assistance with pollution-
abatement programs.
1963 Clean Air Act Grants the federal government authority to intervene in
interstate air-pollution matters at the request of state
governments.
1967 Clean Air Act Mandates the establishment of Air Quality Control Regions
that require states to develop air quality standards.
1970 Clean Air Act Develops National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
and requires states to develop implementation plans to meet
NAAQS.
1977 Clean Air Act Amendments Develops specific classes of air quality control regions based
on pollution severity and proximity to conservation areas;
permits the enforcement of federal air quality control
measures if state implementation plans are not effective.
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments Requires more stringent standards for six types of air
pollutants (see chapter 3); establishes a permitting program
for emission sources; establishes cap-and-trade mechanisms
for pollution reduction.
2004 Clear Skies Act Revises deadlines for pollution caps on NOx and SO2
emissions.
TABLE 6.30
Federal Lands Acts

1920 Mineral Leasing Act Allows the lease of federal land to energy companies for oil
and gas development.
1953 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Establishes the Department of the Interior (DOI) as the main
leasing agent of offshore areas for oil and gas drilling.
1976 Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act Establishes provisions for the leasing of federal lands for
coal mining.
1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act Mandates the DOI to coordinate land use and the
development of environmental impact statements (EIS)
among the different land-management agencies. The acts
environmental stipulations also have implications for the
energy industry.
1977 Surface Mining Control and Mandates that coal companies reclaim and restore land
Reclamation Act after surface-mining operations cease; creates the Office of
Surface Mining to enforce the legislation.
References
Marland, G., T. A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. 2006. Global, Regional, and
National CO2 Emissions. In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global
Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, TN. U.S. Department of Energy. http://cdiac.ornl
.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm (accessed October 1, 2006).
Silvi, C. 2004. Solar Energy. In 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World
Energy Council, 298. 20th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Varming, S. Wind Energy. In 2004 Survey of Energy Resources, World
Energy Council, 369. 20th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
7
Directory of Organizations
Introduction
T
his chapter provides a directory of organizations, agencies,
and associations that operate in the broad area of energy use in
society. Because energy is so closely tied with the environment
and human development, the organizations represented in this
chapter provide a glimpse into the complex aspects of energy use
worldwide. They include professional organizations, nonprofit
and nongovernmental associations, and government agencies.
They specialize in areas of individual fossil fuels, sustainable
development, climate change, overall energy dynamics, and en-
vironmental issues. The goal of this chapter is to provide an
annotated quick-reference guide to the large number of organiza-
tions operating in all areas of energy dynamics.
African Energy Policy Research Network/Foundation for

Woodstove Dissemination (AFREPREN/FWD)
http://www.afrepren.org/
The AFREPREN/FWD is a nongovernmental organization that
initiates energy policy research initiatives primarily in Eastern
and Southern Africa. They promote collaborations between
energy researchers and policymakers in the areas of energy re-
form, energy service provision for the urban poor, renewable
energy in rural development, and overall energy trends and in-
vestments in the African energy sector. Their Web site provides
229
230 Directory of Organizations
an overview of research objectives, a list of publications from

the AFREPREN/FWD, and updated news and events.
African Wind Energy Association (AfriWEA)

http://www.afriwea.org/
Formed in 2002, the African Wind Energy Association is a non-
profit organization that promotes wind energy development on
the African continent. It supports the growth of the wind energy
industry by providing a network of political and technical sup-
port, promoting cooperation and collaboration within the indus-
try, and facilitating communication among African wind energy
member committees. The AfriWEA Web site offers information
on wind projects in member countries, financing opportunities,
the development of mini-grids, and links to companies that
provide secondhand wind turbines.
Alliance to Save Energy (ASE)

http://www.ase.org/
The Alliance to Save Energy is a nonprofit advocacy organization
that promotes the implementation of energy efficiency measures
within the existing market structure. It is involved in research, ed-
ucational programs, energy efficiency projects, and technology
development. The ASE Web site contains information about effi-
ciency measures taken in a variety of energy products and sectors
as well as provides overviews of its activities in over twenty-six
countries.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG)

http://www.aapg.org/
Founded in 1917, this professional organization for geoscientists
lists members in over 116 countries. Its main goals are to foster ge-
ological research, promote the advancement of technology, and
serve as an information organization for geoscientists specializ-
ing in petroleum resources. The AAPG Web site offers energy
facts, links to meetings and events, information about publica-
tions, and overviews of AAPG grants and programs.
American Coal Ash Association (ACAA)

http://www.acaa-usa.org/
Directory of Organizations 231
The American Coal Ash Association is a not-for-profit organiza-

tion that seeks to advance the use of coal combustion products
(CCP), such as fly ash, for commercial purposes. It provides
educational workshops, technical materials, and information to
advance the use of CCP materials. The ACAA Web site offers
background information on CCPs, a library of resources, an
overview of regulatory issues, and links to energy companies and
coal ash industries.
American Coal Council (ACC)

http://www.americancoalcouncil.org/
The American Coal Council seeks to promote the development
and use of coal as an energy resource. It serves as an educational
resource, networking forum, and information source for the U.S.
coal industry. The ACC Web site features links to industry sup-
pliers and industry statistics that are updated daily.
American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE)

http://www.aceee.org/
The American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy is a non-
profit organization that promotes the inclusion of energy effi-
ciency measures in business and policy. It collaborates with
industry, government, and academic institutions to educate con-
sumers about energy efficient choices, provide policy assess-
ments, and organize workshops. The ACEEE Web site offers an
overview of program areas and provides information for energy
consumers.
American Hydrogen Association (AHA)

http://www.clean-air.org/
The American Hydrogen Association is a nonprofit organization
dedicated to advancing the use of hydrogen energy systems. It
provides promotional and educational materials and products
and reports on current technical, economic, political, and social
issues associated with hydrogen technology through the publica-
tion of a quarterly newsletter. The AHA Web site features current
news associated with the use of hydrogen technology in business
and provides information on how to construct personal hydrogen
energy systems.
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum

Engineers (AIME)
http://www.aimeny.org/
The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers is a nonprofit organization that represents profession-
als in the engineering sciences associated with the production of
minerals, metals, energy sources, and materials. Established in
1871, it is considered one of the founding engineering societies in
the United States. The AIME Web site provides an overview of the
organization and its units, information about meetings and
events, a library of resources, and announcements for awards and
scholarships.
American Oil and Gas Historical Society (AOGHS)

http://www.aoghs.org/
The American Oil and Gas Historical Society is a nonprofit or-
ganization that seeks to preserve the history of the U.S. oil and
natural gas industry through education, advocacy, and historical
material preservation. It promotes energy education, networks
with museums and historical societies, and provides a communi-
cation network for oil and natural gas museums. The AOGHS
Web site provides museum links, access to the societys quarterly
newsletter, articles and historic photos, and oil field images.
American Petroleum Institute (API)

http://www.api.org/
The American Petroleum Institute is a trade association repre-
senting all segments of the oil and natural gas industry, including
producers, refiners, suppliers, pipeline operators, marine trans-
porters, and service and supply companies. It acts as a lobbying
organization for the petroleum industry as well as an information
organization, providing data and statistics, standards for opera-
tion, and certification. The API Web site provides information
about oil and natural gas, data and statistics for the petroleum
industry, an overview of policy issues affecting the industry, and
information about trainings, API standards, and certification
programs.
American Public Power Association (APPA)

http://www.appanet.org/
The American Public Power Association is an organization repre-

senting community-owned electric utility operators in the United
States. Established in 1940, it seeks to promote the provision of re-
liable electricity services by supporting the public policy interests
of its members. The APPA Web site offers information about reg-
ulatory issues, industry standards, and announcements for pro-
fessional development events that are pertinent to the electric
utility industry.
American Solar Energy Society (ASES)

http://www.ases.org/
The American Solar Energy Society is a nonprofit organization
that promotes the development of sustainable energy for the
United States. It seeks to advance the development of solar and
other renewable technologies through outreach, education, and
collaboration initiatives. The ASES Web site contains information
about programs, projects, and important events and provides
general information about renewable energy.
American Wind Energy Association (AWEA)

http://www.awea.org/
The American Wind Energy Association is the national trade as-
sociation for the wind energy industry in the United States. It
represents the interests of wind energy professionals to policy-
makers, provides information about wind projects and companies
worldwide, and promotes the development of wind technology.
The AWEA Web site offers up-to-date news, educational materi-
als, legislative updates, research information, and technical assis-
tance for the wind energy industry.
Appliance Standards Awareness Project (ASAP)

http://www.standardsasap.org/
Founded in 1999, Appliance Standards Awareness Project is a
committee of environmental and energy professionals that seeks
to gain support for the adoption of appliance and equipment ef-
ficiency standards. It provides technical support for governments
and industries that are interested in advancing state standards for
appliance and instrument efficiency. The ASAP Web site features
updates about ongoing initiatives at the federal and state levels to
advance energy efficiency standards.
Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment

and Climate (ARRPEEC)
http://www.arrpeec.ait.ac.th/
The Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment
and Climate is a network of Asian research institutes that exam-
ine regional issues in the areas of energy, environment, and
climate. The institutes seek to link research initiatives in partici-
pating countries for the purpose of streamlining efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. The ARRPEEC Web site provides an
overview of the networks three-phase research project, news and
events related to climate issues in the Asian region, and links to
publications.
Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas (ASPO)

http://www.peakoil.net/
The Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas is made up of
scientists concerned about the impact of oil and natural gas de-
pletion. Members conduct research in the area of oil and gas re-
serves, depletion modeling, and raising awareness of the issue of
resource depletion. Formed in Germany in 2000, the ASPO cur-
rently represents members in fourteen countries. The ASPO Web
site offers up-to-date commentary and information about the
issue of peak oil.
Association of Energy and Environmental Real Estate

Professionals (AEEREP)
http://www.aeerep.org/
The Association of Energy and Environmental Real Estate Profes-
sionals is a nonprofit organization that seeks to educate real estate
professionals and consumers about choices in energy savings and
environmental stewardship in the purchase of property or real es-
tate. Its goal is to advance the green market industry in home de-
sign and products through advocacy and education. The AEEREP
Web site provides information about association programs and
links to similar organizations.
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)

http://www.aeecenter.org/
The Association of Energy Engineers is a professional organiza-
tion for engineers involved in the areas of utility regulation and
deregulation, plant engineering, energy efficiency, facility man-

agement, and environmental compliance. It provides technical
support, certification programs, conferences, and information re-
sources to members. The AEE Web site provides information for
engineering professionals, industry newsletters, and access to
professional journals for members.
Association of Energy Service Companies (AESC)

http://www.aesc.net/
Established in 1956, the Association of Energy Service Companies
operates as a trade organization to represent the interests of en-
ergy service companies. Its programs provide information and
assistance to members in the areas of safety, technology develop-
ment, government regulations, and industry training. The AESC
Web site provides access to safety procedures and guidelines, a
directory of companies that provide products and equipment for
the oil and gas industry, and access to AESCs quarterly newslet-
ter, Field Reports.
Association of Energy Services Professionals (AESP)

http://www.aesp.org/
The Association of Energy Services Professionals is a nonprofit
professional organization representing the interests of energy
service providers, energy marketers, utility companies, and end
users of energy services. It promotes education, sponsors confer-
ences and training, and provides networking opportunities for
industry participants. The AESP Web site offers information on
upcoming events, a career center, and an association newsletter.
Austrian Energy Agency

http://www.eva.ac.at
The Austrian Energy Agency is a nonprofit organization that fo-
cuses on energy and policy research. Formed in 1977, it works
with the Austrian government to analyze technical issues, develop
long-term energy strategies, review energy policy, and provide in-
formation and scientific support for energy activities on the na-
tional and international levels. The agencys Web site provides an
overview of energy projects, energy data, and publications.
California Energy Commission

http://www.energy.ca.gov/
The California Energy Commission is the primary energy agency
in the state of California. It is responsible for the planning and im-
plementation of Californias energy polices, licensing the states
thermal power plants, and developing energy technologies that
support renewable energy and ensure affordable and reliable en-
ergy for California. The commissions Web site provides an
overview of various state programs and regulations and has links
to divisions within the agency.
Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)

http://www.capp.ca/
The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers is a trade and
advocacy organization for the Canadian oil and natural gas indus-
try. It promotes public policy in support of the industry, facilitates
information sharing, develops codes of practice, and serves as a
networking forum for industry leaders. The CAPP Web site offers
information about the Canadian oil and natural gas industry, an
overview of relevant issues concerning each province, and an
overview of the industrys environmental stewardship initiatives.
Center for Applied Energy Research

http://www.caer.uky.edu/
An affiliate of the University of Kentucky, the Center for Applied
Energy Research is a research and development organization that
provides applied research opportunities for energy industries,
with a particular emphasis on the coal industry in the United
States. The centers Web site provides an overview of current and
past research and includes links for teachers, students, and pro-
fessionals to sites focusing on coal resources in Kentucky and the
United States.
Center for Energy and Economic Development (CEED)

http://www.ceednet.org/ceed/
The Center for Energy and Economic Development is a nonprofit
organization that promotes the advancement of coal-based elec-
tricity. It seeks to educate the public and the government about
the benefits of coal technologies and promotes the enhancement
of clean coal technologies. The CEED Web site provides informa-
tion about key issues that impact the coal utilities (e.g., mercury,
climate change, etc.) as well as about environmental progress
and clean coal technology, and offers state profiles on electricity
generation.
Center for Resource Solutions (CRS)

http://www.resource-solutions.org
The Center for Resource Solutions is a nonprofit organization
that seeks to increase the supply and demand for renewable
sources of energy. It promotes the development of a renewable
energy market by implementing programs that examine renew-
able energy policy and regulation. It provides a networking
arena for businesses and government agencies to facilitate
growth in the renewable energy industry. The CRS Web site in-
cludes information about measurement and verification strate-
gies and clean energy policy and offers technical assistance to
utility companies, energy developers, state energy offices, and
private energy companies.
China Energy Group

http://china.lbl.gov/china.html
An affiliate of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, the China En-
ergy Group is a research collaborative that seeks to understand
Chinese energy dynamics, promote energy efficiency in Chinese
institutions, and examine the role that energy plays in current and
future Chinese society. The groups Web site offers information
about energy use in Chinese buildings, an overview of renewable
resources, and an analysis of Chinese energy policy.
Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association (CREIA)

http://www.creia.net/cms_eng/_code/english/
The Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association is an or-
ganization that seeks to address environmental issues associated
with polluting energy industries in China by promoting the de-
velopment and use of renewable energy technologies. It provides
a collaborative bridge between regulatory agencies and industry
and promotes renewable research and development activities.
The CREIA Web site provides an overview of the renewable en-
ergy industry in China, Chinese energy policies and regulations,
and association programs and projects.
Climate Action Network (CAN)

http://www.climatenetwork.org/
The Climate Action Network is a group of nongovernmental or-
ganizations that seeks to mitigate human-induced climate change
through government and individual action. It provides an arena
for information exchange and strategic coordination among
members. It promotes a three-tiered approach to addressing cli-
mate change, involving the Kyoto Agreement, a decarbonization
approach, and adaptation. The CAN Web site provides resources
for members, overviews of climate policies, and general informa-
tion and news regarding the issue of global climate change.
Climate Institute
http://www.climate.org
The Climate Institute is a nonprofit organization that provides in-
formation on climate science and policy to decision makers, spon-
sors conferences and symposia on climate research, and promotes
practical approaches for achieving a global climate balance. The
Institutes Web site provides information about research that is
being done in the area of climate science, offers updated informa-
tion about the effects of global climate change, and describes
what individuals can do to address the issue of climate change.
Coal Utilization Research Council (CURC)

http://www.coal.org/
Formed in 1997, the Coal Utilization Research Council works to
build collaborations between the coal industry and government
to promote the research and development of clean coal and other
coal-related technologies. The CURC Web site provides basic in-
formation on coal and clean coal technologies, a summary of
CURC goals, activities, and successes, and a list of upcoming U.S.
legislation that impacts the use of coal resources.
Coalition for Affordable and Reliable Energy (CARE)

http://www.careenergy.com
Formed in 2000, the Coalition for Affordable and Reliable Energy
seeks to ensure the availability of affordable and reliable sources
of energy for U.S. society, with a particular focus on clean coal
technologies. It promotes the increased use of domestic resources,
policies that diversify fuel resources, and the development of
advanced energy technologies. The CARE Web site provides tech-

nology updates for the coal and utility industries, information
about electricity supply in the United States, and an overview of
environmental initiatives that have allowed for the cleaner use of
coal resources.
Convergence Research
http://www.converger.com/
Convergence Research is a technical and policy consulting group
for energy, water, and transportation industries. It provides pol-
icy analysis, information, and technology tools for public, private,
and nonprofit groups. The groups Web site offers energy policy
analyses, reference databases, and research publications.
Cooperative Research Center for Coal in Sustainable

Development (CCSD)
http://www.ccsd.biz/
The Cooperative Research Center for Coal in Sustainable Devel-
opment is a research organization that brings together experts in
coal research and sustainability issues for the purpose of promot-
ing the sustainable use of coal as an energy source for future gen-
erations. The CCSD Web site provides overviews of the various
programs the organization supports as well as information and
reference materials.
Domestic Petroleum Council (DPC)

http://www.dpcusa.org/
The Domestic Petroleum Council is a trade organization for inde-
pendent oil and natural gas exploration and production (E&P)
companies. It promotes the development of public policies that
encourage the responsible development of oil and natural gas.
The DPC Web site offers overviews of recent E&P technologies,
information on environmental stewardship, an overview of is-
sues affecting the natural gas industry, and policy assessments
provided in the format of downloadable reports.
Edison Electric Institute (EEI)

http://www.eei.org/
The Edison Electric Institute represents shareholder-owned elec-
tric companies. Established in 1933, the EEI advocates regulatory
and legislative policy on behalf of its members and provides in-

formation and business resources. The EEI Web site provides an
overview of energy infrastructure, environmental issues, electric-
ity policy, and similar topics, as well as links to publications for
members.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

http://my.epri.com
Established in 1973, the Electric Power Research Institute is a non-
profit research organization of scientists and engineers working
to develop solutions to issues involving the electric power indus-
try. The EPRI Web site provides information and research on a
number of issues, including the environment, electricity genera-
tion, power delivery, and nuclear issues.
Energistics
http://www.energistics.org
Energistics is a not-for-profit organization devoted to uniting and
serving professionals in the petroleum industry. It facilitates ex-
ploration and production information-sharing, promotes busi-
ness process integration, and uses collaboration as a tool for
developing business solutions to industry problems. The Energis-
tics Web site has a standards resource center where users can
search or browse standards pertinent to their business; a discus-
sion forum where professionals can post concerns, questions, and
other comments; and news and information about upcoming
events relevant to the petroleum industry.
Energy Action Coalition

http://www.energyaction.net/main/
The Energy Action Coalition is a network of more than thirty or-
ganizations working to strengthen the involvement of youth in
clean energy advocacy. Focusing in the strategic areas of cam-
puses, communities, corporate practices, and politics, Energy Ac-
tion provides a platform for communicating about various
campaigns that seek to promote the use of sustainable energy
technologies. The coalitions Web site provides links to a variety
of student and professional organizations and information about
current and past campaigns.
Energy Advocates
http://www.energyadvocates.org/
Established in 1974, Energy Advocates seeks to raise public
awareness about important energy issues. The organization pro-
motes the image of the energy industry while enhancing public
understanding of the importance of energy to society. The Web
site provides information sources on energy, news updates, and
energy factoids.
Energy and Environmental Building Association (EEBA)

http://www.eeba.org
The Energy and Environmental Building Association was formed
in 1982 for the purpose of developing standards for energy
efficient building construction. It provides educational materials
and workshops aimed at enhancing energy efficient building con-
struction in communities. The EEBA Web site offers an overview
of building technology, educational materials, and a link to the
EEBA Institute, which offers courses in energy efficient building
design and construction.
Energy and Mineral Law Foundation (EMLF)

http://www.emlf.org/
The Energy and Mineral Law Foundation is a nonprofit organi-
zation that provides information on legal issues associated with
energy and mineral industries. It provides information resources
and an educational forum for industry, government, legal schol-
ars, and attorneys in the area of natural resources law. The EMLF
Web site offers access to peer-reviewed papers published in the
Annual Institutes of the Energy and Mineral Law Foundation.
Energy and Resources Institute, The (TERI)

http://www.teriin.org/
Established in 1974, the Energy and Resources Institute works to
promote sustainable development for Indian society. It focuses on
the utilization of natural and human resources in a way that is
both equitable and environmentally sound. The TERI Web site of-
fers information on energy and sustainable development projects
within Indian society.
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA)

http://www.eeca.govt.nz
The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority is a New
Zealand government organization established to implement the
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act. It seeks to raise aware-
ness about energy efficiency and help businesses and communi-
ties implement energy conservation programs. The authoritys
Web site contains information about how energy efficiency can be
achieved in various energy sectors.
Energy FoundationChina (EFChina)

http://www.ef.org
Energy FoundationChina implements the China Sustainable En-
ergy Program, which furthers the use of renewable energy and
energy efficiency in Chinese energy sectors. The program pro-
motes capacity building to enhance energy savings in the Chinese
economy. It accomplishes this task by working collaboratively
with agencies, energy experts, and nongovernmental organiza-
tions. The EFChina Web site features grant opportunities, guide-
lines for grant applications, and an overview of programs that
have been funded by the Energy Foundation.
Energy Information Administration (EIA)

http://www.eia.doe.gov/
The Energy Information Administration is an agency of the U.S.
Department of Energy. It provides up-to-date national and inter-
national energy statistics, reports, and energy analyses. The EIA
Web site offers up-to-date statistics for all U.S. states and territo-
ries as well as for all countries and regions worldwide. The site
also provides monthly and annual energy reports for each energy
resource, chronologies of energy events, links to general informa-
tion concerning energy topics, and an interactive page for chil-
dren on energy basics.
Energy Justice Network

http://www.energyjustice.org/
The Energy Justice Network is a grassroots organization provid-
ing support to communities that have experienced adverse effects
from energy and waste industries. It focuses on issues of envi-
ronmental justice in low-income and minority populations and
promotes completely replacing nuclear and fossil fuels with re-

newable energy technologies within the next twenty years. The
networks Web site has information about energy systems, sum-
maries of alternative fuels and biomass incineration technologies,
solutions that promote conservation and efficiency, and links to
energy youth groups and action coalitions.
Environmental Energy Technologies Division (EETD)

http://eetd.lbl.gov
The Environmental Energy Technologies Division of the Ernst Or-
lando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory performs research
and development on sustainable and environmentally friendly
energy technologies. Its goals are to improve energy technologies,
conduct energy analyses in both industrialized and developing
countries, and examine the relation between environment and en-
ergy use. The EETD Web site provides extensive information
about energy efficiency and environmental research.
European Energy Network (ENR)

http://www.enr-network.org/
The European Energy Network is an association of European or-
ganizations involved in the development, management, and pro-
vision of energy programs in the areas of renewable energy and
energy efficiency. It facilitates communication and collaboration
between member organizations and provides technical support to
the European energy community. The ENR Web site serves as an
information exchange for member organizations and includes
summaries of ongoing and completed projects.
European Oil and Gas Innovation Forum (EUROGIF)

http://www.eurogif.org/
The European Oil and Gas Innovation Forum is a trade organiza-
tion representing the interests of its membership. It was formed
in 1996 by major European companies and national industry as-
sociations involved in oil and gas manufacturing and service and
supply industries. The EUROGIF Web site provides technical and
industry resources.
European Pipeline Research Group (EPRG)

http://www.eprg.net/
Made up of pipe manufacturers and gas transmission companies,

the European Pipeline Research Group conducts research in gas-
pipeline safety. It was formed in 1972 to study the issue of frac-
tures found in gas transmission pipelines. The EPRG Web site
provides results of pipeline research efforts organized into the
three technical areas of corrosion, design, and materials.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)

http://www.ferc.gov/
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is the federal
agency responsible for oversight of U.S. energy industries. FERC
examines economic, environmental, and safety issues involved
in the interstate transmission of oil, natural gas, and electricity. It
is also responsible for the regulation of natural gas and hy-
dropower projects. The FERC Web site contains information on
energy regulation within the United States, an overview of en-
ergy industries, legal resources, and congressional and regula-
tory updates.
Gas Technology Institute (GTI)

http://www.gastechnology.org
A research, development, and training organization for the natu-
ral gas industry, the Gas Technology Institute develops and pro-
motes technology-based solutions for energy challenges. The GTI
Web site provides career and professional development informa-
tion with links to trainings, conferences, and commercial oppor-
tunities for companies to employ recently patented material. It
also contains information on software products and services for
the industry.
Geothermal Resources Council (GRC)

http://www.geothermal.org/
Formed in 1970, the Geothermal Resources Council is a nonprofit
educational organization for professionals in the geothermal in-
dustry. It encourages the development of geothermal resources
and facilitates the transfer of geothermal technology and infor-
mation. The GRC Web site provides news and articles about ge-
othermal energy, contact information for corporate and inde-
pendent members of the international geothermal community,
and general information about geothermal energy.
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)

http://www.gwec.net/
Established in 2005, the Global Wind Energy Council is an inter-
national forum for the wind energy industry. Its mission is to pro-
mote the development and use of wind power as a leading
energy resource. To accomplish this mission, the GWEC works in
areas of policy development, business leadership, global out-
reach, and education. The GWEC Web site provides information
about wind energy industries worldwide, offers information
about upcoming events, and provides links to publications about
economics and recent technology in the wind industry.
Independent Petroleum Association of America (IPAA)

http://www.ipaa.org/
The Independent Petroleum Association of America is a trade or-
ganization for independent exploration and production compa-
nies operating in the U.S. It provides technical and statistical in-
formation about the industry for its members. The IPAA Web site
features a business center that provides information on financing
institutions for the industry and insurance providers, as well as
an industry calendar that highlights important meetings and
events. It also provides an overview of issues impacting inde-
pendent producers of oil and natural gas.
Innovation Center for Energy and Transportation (ICET)

http://www.icet.org.cn/
Formed in 2006, the Innovation Center for Energy and Trans-
portation is a Chinese-based nongovernmental organization that
seeks to promote fuel efficiency in automobiles, reduce green-
house gases from the transportation sector, and raise awareness
about the importance of clean vehicle technologies. The ICET
Web site provides access to information about biofuels, green ve-
hicles, support for associated businesses, and fuel efficiency stan-
dards and current renewable energy law in China.
Institute for Energy and Sustainable Development (IESD)

http://www.iesd.dmu.ac.uk/
The Institute for Energy and Sustainable Development is a re-
search and consulting school that offers instruction in the area of
sustainable development. It offers programs in the area of energy,
sustainable building, climate change, and sustainable develop-

ment. The IESD Web site provides an overview of degree pro-
grams and consulting activities.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

http://www.ipcc.ch/
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was established
to collate scientific, technical, and socioeconomic research in the
area of global climate change. The goals of the IPCC are to un-
derstand the potential impacts of human-induced climate change
through the assessment of peer-reviewed, published research.
The IPCC Web site provides downloadable versions of assess-
ment reports and other publications, information about commit-
tees and projects, graphics from reports, and recent press releases
and event information.
International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE)

http://www.iahe.org
The International Association for Hydrogen Energy is a collabo-
rative professional organization that strives to promote the use
and dissemination of hydrogen technology as a primary energy
resource for mankind. It sponsors international workshops, pub-
lishes the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, and provides
general information to the public about hydrogen resources. The
IAHE Web site offers conference and publication information as
well as links to organizations associated with the hydrogen in-
dustry.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

http://www.iaea.org/
The International Atomic Energy Agency was established in 1957
as an international nuclear watchdog organization. It provides
technical support for the development of peaceful nuclear pro-
grams, ensures the safety and security of nuclear facilities, and
verifies that nuclear programs worldwide are not used for mili-
tary purposes. The IAEA Web site provides access to information
about its programs and activities, a database of nuclear energy in-
formation, and nuclear standards, development reports, and
technical publications.
International Committee for Coal and Organic Petrology

(ICCOP)
http://www.iccop.org/
Formed in 1951, the International Committee for Coal and Or-
ganic Petrology is a professional organization for scientists
specializing in the area of coal chemistry and composition. It pro-
vides standards, training, and accreditation to laboratories study-
ing coal science. The ICCOP Web site provides information about
professional meetings and summaries of working committees.
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives

(ICLEI)
http://www.iclei.org/
Formed in 1990, the International Council for Local Environmen-
tal Initiatives is an international organization representing local
governments that are interested in implementing sustainable de-
velopment measures within their communities. It offers technical
consulting, training, and information for member governments
and organizations. The ICLEI Web site provides information
about council programs and offices located around the world.
International Energy Agency (IEA)

http://www.iea.org/
The International Energy Agency is an international energy or-
ganization that serves as an advising body for twenty-six member
countries. Its efforts are focused in three main areas: energy secu-
rity, economic development, and environmental sustainability.
The IEA Web site provides policy analyses, publications, and sta-
tistical data on energy use worldwide.
International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC)

http://www.iiec.org/
Founded in 1984, the International Institute for Energy Conserva-
tion is a nonprofit, nongovernmental organization that works to
promote the sustainable use of energy, water, and land resources.
It provides technical and institutional support, constructs poli-
cies, and implements programs that incorporate efficiency mea-
sures in the design of energy systems. The IIEC Web site contains
information on services provided by the IIEC, an e-newsletter,
news, and other information in the area of energy efficiency.
International Rivers Network (IRN)

http://www.irn.org/
The International Rivers Network is an activist network that
works to discourage the development of large dams for the
purposes of power generation, irrigation, and flood control. In
collaboration with communities, social movements, and non-
governmental organizations, it advocates the development of al-
ternative energy resources and water projects, conducts research
in the area of sustainable water and energy solutions, and works
to educate communities and development organizations about
the adverse impact of large dams. The IRN Web site offers exten-
sive information about current and past dam projects, an
overview of water and energy alternatives, and provides a venue
for citizen action.
International Solar Energy Society (ISES)

http://www.ises.org
Founded in 1954, the International Solar Energy Society is a non-
profit nongovernmental organization that promotes the growth
of renewable energy technology. It works to promote research
and development initiatives in renewable energy, facilitates the
transfer of technology, provides a forum for the global renewable
energy community, and promotes the dissemination of renewable
energy information. The ISES Web site provides information
about upcoming conferences and events as well as links to re-
newable energy publications.
Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission (IOGCC)

http://www.iogcc.state.ok.us/
The Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission is a multistate
government agency that seeks to advance the development of do-
mestic energy resources. It acts as a voice for participating state
governments in Congress. The IOGCC Web site provides updated
information on federal and state energy regulations and links to
information and events about energy regulatory concerns.
Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO)

http://www.kedo.org/
The Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization is a

multinational organization established in 1994 from a nuclear
disarmament agreement between the United States and the
Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea. It works to implement
energy-related projects in North Korea and provides support for
international nuclear nonproliferation. The KEDO Web site pro-
vides updates on recent nuclear events associated with the
Korean Peninsula, links to agreements and protocols, and infor-
mation on nuclear safety.
Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE)

http://www.olade.org.ec
Formed in 1973, the Latin American Energy Organization is a
multinational organization that offers political and technical sup-
port on energy issues to twenty-six countries in Latin America
and the Caribbean. It seeks to promote energy security within the
region while developing strategies for energy diversity and sus-
tainability. The OLADE Web site has information on events and
training for professionals in the energy industry, a National En-
ergy Information System, which provides members access to
energy statistics, and a list of publications produced by the
organization.
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)

http://www.msha.gov/
The Mine Safety and Health Administration is a branch of the
U.S. Department of Labor that is charged with developing and
enforcing safety regulations and standards for the mining indus-
try in the United States. Established in 1977 by the Federal Mine
Safety and Health Act, MSHA seeks to reduce mining accidents,
eliminate fatalities, minimize the health risks, and improve the
working conditions for miners. The MSHA Web site provides up-
to-date information on mine regulations, information on rights
for professional miners, a reporting system for safety violations,
and updates on important news stories. It also offers general ed-
ucation and training opportunities and a mine library.
National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO)

http://www.naseo.org/
The National Association of State Energy Officials is a nonprofit

organization that represents the interests of governor-appointed
energy officials from each state and territory in the United States.
The organization serves as an information source and collabora-
tive forum for energy policies, programs, and issues in each state.
The NASEO Web site contains information about state energy
programs as well as contact information for energy offices in U.S.
states and territories.
National Coal Council (NCC)

http://www.nationalcoalcouncil.org/
The National Coal Council serves as a policy advising body rep-
resenting the coal industry to the U.S. Department of Energy. It
provides advice on a number of issues, including policy reviews,
scientific and engineering aspects, and opinions regarding re-
search and development of coal technologies. The NCC Web site
provides general and technical reports on the coal industry in the
United States.
National Mining Association (NMA)

http://www.nma.org/
The National Mining Association is a trade organization for the
U.S. mining industry. Formed in 1995, it provides a forum for the
coal and mineral mining industries to promote their interests in
the public policy process. The NMA Web site provides informa-
tion on regulatory and legal issues, a compilation of statistics on
the mining industry, and technology updates.
National Petroleum Council (NPC)

http://www.npc.org/
An advisory committee established in 1946 by a mandate from
the U.S. government, the National Petroleum Council serves as
an advisory council to the Secretary of Energy to represent the
views of the oil and natural gas industry in energy matters. The
NPC Web site provides links to yearly and special reports, down-
loadable presentations about global oil and gas resources, and in-
formation on NPC members.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

http://www.nrel.gov/
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a U.S. Department

of Energy research facility that examines renewable energy tech-
nologies and their potential for meeting U.S. energy needs. The
NREL serves as the primary research and development facility for
renewable energy in the United States. The NREL Web site pro-
vides an overview of renewable energy and offers information on
U.S. initiatives for renewable research and development and tech-
nology dissemination.
Natural Gas Supply Association (NGSA)

http://www.ngsa.org/
The Natural Gas Supply Association is a trade organization for the
producers and marketers of natural gas in the United States. It
promotes the natural gas industry in the areas of policy and busi-
ness to enhance competitive markets for the production and trans-
mission of domestic natural gas resources. The NGSA Web site
provides information on social, policy, and regulatory issues im-
portant to the natural gas industry, offers facts and statistics, and
contains updates on NGSA lobbying and professional activities.
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)

http://www.nrdc.org/
The National Resources Defense Council is a nonprofit organiza-
tion devoted to environmental protection. It works through sci-
entific and legal channels to influence policy, promote an ethic of
sustainability, and foster environmental justice. The NRDC Web
site provides information on environmental issues, contains links
to current environmental news stories, and provides suggestions
for action at the individual and community levels.
New Buildings Institute (NBI)

http://www.newbuildings.org/
The New Buildings Institute is a nonprofit organization that
works to promote the use of energy efficient measures in the con-
struction of commercial buildings. It works collaboratively with
utility groups to incorporate energy conservation guidelines in
the design and construction of new buildings. The NBI Web site
contains guidelines for lighting, heating, and cooling systems as
well as building design codes.
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority

(NYSERDA)
http://www.nyserda.org/
The New York State Energy Research and Development Author-
ity is a public benefit corporation created to administer the
Energy Smart Program in the State of New York. It provides en-
ergy-efficient services and implements research and development
projects in the area of energy efficiency and environmental
protection. The NYSERDA Web site provides information on
incentives for creating energy efficient businesses and homes, de-
scriptions of authority programs, and links to funding opportu-
nities, state energy regulations, and news and data on energy
prices and weather.
Northeast Energy Efficiency Partnerships (NEEP)

http://www.neep.org/
The Northeast Energy Efficiency Partnerships is a nonprofit or-
ganization that works to promote the use of energy-efficient
products and services in the Northeast region of the United
States. Formed in 1996, the NEEP has worked as an advocacy or-
ganization to increase the commercial availability of Energy Star
products, promote information and technology exchange, and
improve the efficiency of lighting, HVAC systems, and motors in
industrial, commercial, and residential settings. The NEEP Web
site provides information on efficiency standards for schools and
businesses, offers materials for Building Operator Certification
(BOC), and explains regional initiatives in energy efficiency.
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)

http://www.nei.org/
The Nuclear Energy Institute is a policy organization that pro-
motes the beneficial use of nuclear energy throughout the world.
Representing members in all aspects of the nuclear energy sector,
from medicine to electricity generation, it provides a voice for the
nuclear technologies industry, offers technical and business infor-
mation, and provides up-to-date information about technology
and policy. The NEI Web site contains nuclear statistics, an
overview of nuclear technologies, and offers a science club that
serves as an educational forum for children to learn about nuclear
energy.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

http://www.nrc.gov/
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an independent agency
in the federal government that oversees the civilian use of nuclear
materials. It is charged with developing and enforcing regula-
tions, licensing nuclear reactors, and ensuring radiation protec-
tion in the U.S. nuclear industry. It conducts inspections of
nuclear facilities, performs research in the area of nuclear materi-
als management, and oversees decommissioning operations. The
NRC Web site provides information on nuclear reactors, nuclear
materials, radioactive waste, and a searchable database of infor-
mation on all nuclear facilities in the United States.
Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM)

http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/
The Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management is a U.S.
Department of Energy program charged with the task of manag-
ing a system for the long-term storage of spent fuel rods from nu-
clear reactors and high-level radioactive waste. Its main functions
include developing a waste acceptance, storage, and transporta-
tion system and overseeing the construction and development of
the Yucca Mountain Project, the site being considered as a per-
manent waste repository for high-level radioactive materials. The
OCRWM Web site provides an information library, an overview
of the issues involved in transporting and receiving radioactive
wastes, and detailed information about the Yucca Mountain
Project.
Office of Surface Mining (OSM)

http://www.osmre.gov/
The Office of Surface Mining (the full name of the agency is the
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, but they
often shorten it to OSM) is a federal agency within the U.S. De-
partment of the Interior responsible for overseeing the reclama-
tion of land from mining activities. It is charged with developing
standards of reclamation operation, providing financial aid to
states and territories, and ensuring that land is restored for bene-
ficial use subsequent to mining. The office seeks to harmonize
domestic coal production with the values of environmental pro-
tection. The OSM Web site offers information about the regulation
of active and abandoned mines, presents overviews of environ-

mental research and technology associated with coal resources,
and provides a reference center that includes statistics, laws and
regulations, and publications.
Oil Depletion Analysis Center (ODAC)

http://www.odac-info.org/
The Oil Depletion Analysis Center is a UK-based organization
that seeks to raise awareness about the issue of oil depletion.
Formed in 2001, it provides information and educational materi-
als to policymakers and the public about the geopolitical and eco-
nomic consequences of a depleting oil supply. The ODAC Web
site provides access to downloadable articles discussing the issue
of peak oil and proposed solutions. The site also provides links to
relevant Web sites with current news and information.
Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

http://www.opec.org/
The Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries is an inter-
governmental organization that represents the interests of the
worlds primary petroleum-producing countries. It works to co-
ordinate production quotas and policies in member countries in
an effort to stabilize global oil prices for producers and ensure a
regular supply of petroleum to consuming countries. The OPEC
Web site provides information on each of the eleven member
countries, provides market updates for the petroleum industry,
and contains links to news, publications, and OPEC seminars.
Petroleum and Natural Gas International Standardization

(PNGIS)
http://www.pngis.net
Petroleum and Natural Gas International Standardization is an
international committee created to develop international stan-
dards used in the petroleum and natural gas industries. It
provides a database of regulations and standards used in these
industries. The PNGIS Web site offers links to standards and reg-
ulations and lists of equipment manufacturers and service com-
panies in the industries.
Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ)

http://www.paj.gr.jp/index_e.html
The Petroleum Association of Japan is the trade association rep-
resenting the refining and oil marketing industry in Japan. It
works to promote industry interests to the government and pro-
vides information about oil supply, prices, forecasts, tax struc-
tures, standards of operation, and environmental protection. The
PAJ Web site provides information about Japans oil refining and
marketing industry and recent oil statistics.
Petroleum Foundation of America (PFA)

http://www.ciglobal.com/pfa
The Petroleum Foundation of America is a charitable organiza-
tion that seeks to offer incentives to the energy industry for pro-
viding services to economically disadvantaged groups of people.
The PFA Web site provides information about the various service
programs the group has initiated, including the Orphan Well
Project and Gas for the Poor.
Petroleum Research Atlantic Canada (PRAC)

http://www.pr-ac.ca/
Formed in 2002, Petroleum Research Atlantic Canada is a not-for-
profit organization dedicated to building and promoting petro-
leum research and development capacity for the Atlantic region
of Canada. The PRAC Web site provides information on grant op-
portunities and downloadable reports, press releases, and pre-
sentations.
Petroleum Technology Alliance of Canada (PTAC)

http://www.ptac.org/
The Petroleum Technology Alliance of Canada is a not-for-profit
organization that promotes research and development of
Canadas oil and gas industry. It seeks to facilitate collaboration
within the industry in research and development initiatives. The
PTAC Web site provides resources and information in technical
areas, announcements of workshops and other events, and
links to industry, government, and research and development re-
sources.
Petroleum Technology Transfer Council (PTTC)

http://www.pttc.org
Established in 1994, the Petroleum Technology Transfer Council is
a not-for-profit organization that seeks to benefit independent
producers of oil and natural gas. Its programs benefit the entire
industry through the provision of technical reports and work-
shops to promote technology transfer within the industry. The
PTTC Web site provides up-to-date technology summaries,
downloadable reports for each region of the United States, and
articles from newsletters and technology bulletins.
Petrotechnical Open Standards Consortium (POSC)

http://www.posc.org/
The Petrotechnical Open Standards Consortium, also known as
the Petrotechnical Open Software Corporation, is a not-for-profit
organization that promotes the sharing of exploration and
production (E&P) information within the oil and natural gas
industry. It offers information modeling and management speci-
fications and has developed a data model, Epicentre, for the
management of industry information. The POSC Web site pro-
vides overviews and updates for industry software products.
Pew Center on Global Climate Change

http://www.pewclimate.org/
The Pew Center on Global Climate Change seeks to provide a
clear approach to the complex issue of climate change by engag-
ing members in the business, scientific, and policymaking com-
munities. It promotes collaboration and the use of sound science
to analyze problems, inform policymakers, create business strate-
gies, and educate all audiences about the issue of global climate
change. The centers Web site offers in-depth background infor-
mation about global warming, describes current business and
policy initiatives, and provides an overview of key issues associ-
ated with climate change.
Production Engineering Association

http://www.peajip.org/
Members of the Production Engineering Association are up-
stream industry operators (that is, operators who deal with ex-
ploration, production, and processing and are upstream of the

consumer) concerned with the promotion of hydrocarbons-pro-
duction technology. It seeks to improve access and use of pro-
duction technology on a global scale. The associations Web site is
largely a resource for its members, which consist of suppliers to
the industries as well as producers of petroleum and natural gas.
It provides a list of members and links to those companies as well
as information on forums and programs.
Radiation Effects Research Association (RERF)

http://www.rerf.or.jp/
The Radiation Effects Research Association is a research organi-
zation collaboratively managed by Japan and the United States. It
was established to examine the effects of nuclear radiation on the
survivors from the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The
RERF Web site provides overviews of association research pro-
grams, research results publications, data and archives, and links
to Web sites that examine the effects of the bombings.
Regulatory Assistance Project (RAP)

http://www.raponline.org/
Formed in 1992, the Regulatory Assistance Project is a nonprofit
organization that provides educational materials and research to
public officials in the area of electric utility regulation. RAP offers
workshops, newsletters, and information on issues such as re-
newable resources, electric utility restructuring, market develop-
ment, green pricing, and demand-side management. It operates
in forty-five states and a number of countries worldwide. The
RAP Web site provides an overview of programs and offers nu-
merous downloadable publications.
Resources for the Future (RFF)

http://www.rff.org/
Founded in 1952, Resources for the Future is a nonprofit research
organization that provides economic and social analyses of envi-
ronmental, economic, and energy issues. It applies the principles
of economics in these research areas for the purpose of develop-
ing policies for the use and conservation of natural resources. It is
a nonpartisan organization that shares its work with a number of
government agencies, businesses, and organizations. The RFF

Web site provides downloadable versions of the organizations
reports on a variety of energy and other issues.
Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)

http://www.rmi.org/
Established in 1982, the Rocky Mountain Institute is a nonprofit
organization that provides information analysis on energy natu-
ral resource policy. It provides research and consulting services to
businesses and communities operating on the local, national, and
international levels. The RMI Web site offers information in a
number of issue areas, including buildings and land, climate,
transportation, water, and energy. It also offers an online discus-
sion forum and a childrens page.
Society of Petroleum Engineers

http://www.spe.org/
The Society of Petroleum Engineers is a professional organization
for people with careers in exploration, development, and produc-
tion of oil and natural gas resources. It provides information re-
sources on a number of petroleum industry topics and serves as a
forum for career development. The Web site offers information re-
sources, handbooks, technical materials, and announcements for
career advancement opportunities.
Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA)

http://www.spwla.org/
The Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts is a non-
profit corporation dedicated to advancing well logging and eval-
uation techniques used for oil, gas, and mineral exploitation.
Formed in 1959, it promotes information dissemination and edu-
cation for the petrophysical scientific community. The societys
Web site provides chapter news, offers downloadable information
and publications, and presents updates on conferences and events.
Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)

http://www.seia.org/
The Solar Energy Industries Association is a trade organization
for the solar energy industry in the United States. It seeks to pro-
mote the expansion of solar technologies in global energy mar-
kets. The SEIA Web site provides up-to-date news about the solar
energy industry, information about federal tax incentives for re-
newable energies, and publications about solar energy.
Solar Energy International (SEI)

http://www.solarenergy.org/
Solar Energy International provides technical and educational as-
sistance to grassroots and development organizations that are in-
terested in implementing sustainable energy programs. It offers
workshops and training for the installation and use of solar and
other renewable technologies. The SEI Web site contains informa-
tion on the training programs offered and general information
about renewable energy.
Southern Alliance for Clean Energy (SACE)

http://www.cleanenergy.org/
The Southern Alliance for Clean Energy is a nonprofit organiza-
tion that seeks to advance the use of clean energy technologies in
the southeastern United States. It works with state and local gov-
ernments, community groups, utilities, and businesses to pro-
mote clean air policies and programs, expand the use of green
power, enhance energy efficiency, and promote clean energy tech-
nologies. The SACE Web site provides extensive information on
state programs for clean air, global warming, green power, and
energy efficiency and offers suggestions for citizen involvement.
Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)

http://www.sei.se/
The Stockholm Environment Institute is an independent research
institute that examines issues of sustainable development. By
working at the local, national, and international levels, the SEI
seeks to build bridges between science and policy to develop
strategies for sustainable initiatives. The SEI Web site offers an
overview of institute programs, specific information on projects
worldwide, and access to publications from SEI members.
Tellus Institute
http://www.tellus.org/
The Tellus Institute was formed in 1976 as a research organization
specializing in the assessment of environment and development
issues. Working at local, national, regional, and global levels, the

institute provides program and policy analysis that links envi-
ronmental, economic, and social aspects of development. Its
analyses focus on energy, water, climate change, globalization,
and sustainable development. The institutes Web site provides
an overview of organizational strategies and initiatives and a
searchable publications database.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

http://www.unep.org/
The United Nations Environment Programme is the environmen-
tal department of the United Nations. Established in 1972, it
enables nations to develop sustainable communities without
compromising future generations. It provides leadership to the
global environmental movement by assessing environmental
conditions at the global, regional, and national levels, providing
support to environmental institutions, and promoting the trans-
fer of information and technology. The UNEP Web site provides
information resources for governments, scientists, journalists,
businesses, and children. It also contains links to regional offices,
recent news and events, and publications.

(UNFCCC)
http://unfccc.int
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
is an international treaty that was ratified by 189 countries to ad-
dress the issue of human-induced global climate change. The con-
vention provides an overall framework for intergovernmental
efforts to collect information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and polices, adopt national strategies for GHG emission mitiga-
tion, and cooperate in international efforts to address the problem
of global climate change. The UNFCCC Web site provides exten-
sive background on the convention, GHG emissions data, na-
tional reports, the Kyoto Protocol, and the methods and science
used in studying the issue of climate change.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)

http://www.energy.gov/
The Department of Energy is the primary federal energy agency
in the United States. It is responsible for implementing U.S. en-
ergy policies, enhancing U.S. energy and nuclear security, pro-

moting energy technologies, and managing the waste created
from the nations weapons programs. The DOE Web site provides
a wide range of information on U.S. energy programs, goals, and
activities.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

http://www.epa.gov/
The primary mission of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency is to protect the environment and human health in all
areas of the environment (e.g., air, water, waste, etc.). The EPAs
duties include developing and enforcing regulations, conducting
environmental research, promoting environmental education,
engaging in voluntary partnerships and programs, offering fi-
nancial and technical assistance to states and territories, and pub-
lishing reports on its research and activities. The EPA Web site
provides access to information about environmental protection in
the United States, links to partnership and business opportuni-
ties, educational resources, links to environmental laws and reg-
ulations, and a childrens information page.
World Coal Institute (WCI)

http://www.worldcoal.org/
The World Coal Institute is a nonprofit nongovernmental organi-
zation that seeks to advance the interests of the global coal in-
dustry. It provides a lobbying and information service for coal
associations, organizations, and industries in the area of interna-
tional energy and environmental policy. The WCI Web site
provides general information about coal, statistics on coal use
worldwide, and data on coal markets and pricing.
World Council for Renewable Energy (WCRE)

http://www.wcre.de/en
Founded in 2001, the World Council for Renewable Energy is an
independent nongovernmental organization that seeks to en-
hance global discourse on renewable energy and promote
renewable energy policies from the multinational to the commu-
nity and individual levels. The WCRE Web site provides pub-
lications and press releases on efforts to expand the reach of
renewable technology.
World Energy Council (WEC)

http://www.worldenergy.org
Established in 1924, the World Energy Council is a multinational,
nongovernmental organization that provides information about
energy resources and use. It collects and summarizes a vast
amount of energy data from numerous countries, sponsors work-
shops and seminars on energy topics, and collaborates with en-
ergy organizations worldwide for the purpose of promoting
sustainable supplies and uses of energy. The WEC Web site
provides energy statistics and several downloadable energy pub-
lications that discuss up-to-date issues in both developing and in-
dustrialized countries.
World Energy Efficiency Association (WEEA)

http://www.weea.org/
Established in 1993, the World Energy Efficiency Association pro-
vides assistance to developing countries in the areas of energy
technology, efficiency measures, and energy information services.
It seeks to promote the diffusion of energy-efficiency efforts and
coordinate the cooperation of international energy efforts. The
WEA Web site contains a directory of energy service companies
and organizations.
World Nuclear Association (WNA)

http://www.world-nuclear.org/
The World Nuclear Association works on a global scale to promote
the development of nuclear power as a sustainable energy source
for the future. It provides a forum for the distribution of technical
and policy information. The WNA Web site provides data and in-
formation on all areas of the nuclear fuel cycle, access to interna-
tional policy documents, an A-Z list of nuclear organizations
around the world, and current information on nuclear issues.
World Resources Institute (WRI)

http://www.wri.org/
The World Resources Institute is a think tank that focuses on prac-
tical ways to protect the Earths environment. It seeks to reverse
ecosystem damage, increase democratic participation in environ-
mental decisions, improve environmental stewardship in the pri-
vate sector, and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change.
The WRI Web site contains information on a variety of environ-

mental issues, offers reports aimed at individuals in the govern-
ment and business communities, and provides a forum for ideas
on how to mitigate environmental damage in all aspects of
human life, from capital markets to natural ecosystems.
08-ENUSWW_Ch08.qxd 6/4/07 9:32 AM Page 265
8
Resources
Introduction
T
his chapter provides an overview of the numerous print and
nonprint resources on the topic of energy. It is important to
note that this is a selective list of resources. The topic of energy
use worldwide is expansive; hence, it would be impossible to cre-
ate an exhaustive list of information resources. This chapter is di-
vided into three subject areas. The first, general energy, offers a
bibliography of references about energy concepts, energy history,
and energy dynamics in different world regions. Next are refer-
ences for specific energy resource categories, such as oil and gas,
nuclear energy, and renewable energy. The third category pro-
vides references in the area of social and environmental problems
from energy use.
General Energy
Books
Bailer, U. 1999. Oil and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 194863. New
York: St. Martins Press. 282 pp.
This book discusses the development of Israels energy resources
during the first fifteen years of statehood. It provides an overview
of the political and economic struggle for Israel to develop oil
265
266 Resources
resources and infrastructure in the context of the Arab-Israeli con-

flict. It offers background on the politics of the Middle East and is
a good reference for students who need to understand the impor-
tance of oil resources to politics and development in the region.
Bent, R., L. Orr, and R. Baker, eds. Energy: Science, Policy, and
the Pursuit of Sustainability. Washington, DC: Island Press. 257
pp.
This volume provides an overview of general aspects of energy,
describes the environmental and economic problems associated
with current levels of energy use, discusses energy policy and
economics, and puts sustainable growth in a context of energy
use. This is a useful reference for students who wish to gain a
broad concept of energy and society.
Davis, H. D. 2001. Energy on Federal Lands. In Western Pub-

lic Lands and Environmental Politics, 2nd ed., edited by C.
Davis, 141168. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
This chapter provides a history of energy policy on federal lands
since 1975. It provides overviews of resource extraction, energy
production, and environmental and land management policies
enacted under the Nixon, Ford, Carter, Reagan, H. W. Bush, and
Clinton administrations. This is a good reference for anyone in-
terested in understanding the impact of federal policies on west-
ern U.S. public lands.
Dienes, L., and T. Shabad. 1979. The Soviet Energy System: Re-
source Use and Policies. Washington, DC: V. H. Winston & Sons.
298 pp.
This book provides an overview of energy use and development
in the Soviet Union during the first three-quarters of the twenti-
eth century. It includes information about fossil fuel, hydropower,
and nuclear energy resources in the Soviet Union. It is particu-
larly useful for understanding how the Soviet Union developed
its energy resources and rose to be a powerful nation in the world.
Fanchi, J. R. 2005. Energy in the 21st Century. Hackensack, NJ:

World Scientific. 243 pp.
This book, written in nontechnical terms, provides an overview of
fossil and nonfossil energy technologies and their projected roles.
General Energy 267
It examines the energy options of fossil fuels, nuclear power, solar

energy, wind, water, biomass, and hydrogen. It also discusses
electricity generation, economics, the environment, and energy
forecasts. This book is a useful reference for those who would like
to understand the future direction of various energy resources.
Hodgson, P. E. 1999. Nuclear Power, Energy and the Environ-

ment. London, England: Imperial College Press. 205 pp.
This book discusses energy use within the context of energy crises
and future energy resources. It provides an overview of both re-
newable and nonrenewable resources, nuclear power and the
operation of nuclear reactors, the decision-making elements in-
volved in choosing the best energy source, environmental effects
of energy use, and the political and moral aspects of energy poli-
cies. This book is a good reference for students who want a broad
overview of energy and its impacts to society.
Hoffman, G. W. 1985. The European Energy Challenge: East and

West. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 207 pp.
This book provides an overview of energy policies that have been
implemented across Eastern and Western Europe since the energy
crises of the 1960s and 1970s. It analyzes the energy dilemma
throughout Europe, examines trends of energy diversification
and efficiency, and discusses the role of the former Soviet Union
as an increasingly important supplier of energy resources. This
book is a good resource for students and scholars who wish to un-
derstand the political and economic dynamics of late twentieth-
century European energy policy.
Howes, R., and A. Fainberg, eds. 1991. The Energy Sourcebook: A

Guide to Technology, Resources, and Policy. New York: Ameri-
can Institute of Physics. 536 pp.
This book provides an overview of the state of energy resources
within the context of energy crises. It explains the technological
development and exploitation of fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, hydro-
electric, geothermal, ocean, biomass, and wind energy resources.
It also describes how these resources are converted into electricity
as well as used in the sectors of agriculture, transportation, and
commercial and residential buildings. This book is useful for stu-
dents who require a general technical overview of how resources
are converted into useful energy services in society.
268 Resources
Kapstein, E. B. 1990. The Insecure Alliance: Energy Crises and

Western Politics since 1944. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press. 257 pp.
This book provides a historical overview of energy dynamics
since World War II. It outlines geopolitical alliances and describes
the dynamics of several important energy events including Eu-
ropes postwar reconstruction, the impact of the Marshall Plan,
the Suez Crisis, the establishment of the Organization of Oil Pro-
ducing Countries (OPEC), the Organization for Economic Coop-
eration and Development (OECD) and the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the oil embargo of 19731974, and the Iran-Iraq
War. This is a good book for students who wish to understand
how postWorld War II events have shaped global energy dy-
namics and relations.
Laitos, J. G., and J. P. Tomain. 1992. Energy and Natural Re-

sources Law in a Nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
554 pp.
This book provides a quick, ready reference for natural resource
and environmental law. It discusses economics, natural resource
extraction, and water, timber, and environmental laws, and links
these discussions to energy resource extraction, production, and
transmission regulations. This is a useful reference for students
and scholars who need to understand legislative, regulatory, and
case law precedent for energy dynamics in U.S. society.
MacKerron, G., and P. Pearson, eds. 2000. The International En-

ergy Experience: Markets, Regulations, and the Environment.
London, England: Imperial College Press. 375 pp.
This book examines the dynamics of energy markets in the con-
text of market liberalization and environmental concerns. It pro-
vides an overview of world energy and oil markets and examines
national energy structures, regulatory aspects of oil and natural
gas utilities, how the goals of economic efficiency and environ-
mental stewardship can be achieved simultaneously, and the role
of renewable energy. This book is a good reference for students
who want to understand the dynamics and future challenges of
global energy markets.
General Energy 269
Manning, R. A. 2000. The Asian Energy Factor: Myths and

Dilemmas of Energy, Security and the Pacific Future. New York:
Palgrave. 246 pp.
This book provides an overview of energy dynamics in Asia, with
chapters devoted to China, India, the Korean Peninsula, Japan,
and the countries in Southeast Asia. It offers both economic and
political perspectives on the highest-populated and fastest-grow-
ing region in the world. This book is useful for students who wish
to understand current and projected energy use in Asia and its
potential global consequences.
Melosi, M. V. 1985. Coping with Abundance: Energy and Envi-

ronment in Industrial America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple Uni-
versity Press. 355 pp.
This book is an overview of U.S. energy history from the indus-
trial revolution to the 1980s. It provides a detailed account of
energy transitions from wood to coal to oil and discusses the evo-
lution of electric utilities, the impacts of American consumerism
and the automobile, the role of U.S energy sources in World Wars
I and II, and the impact of the energy crisis in the 1970s. This is an
excellent reference for students who want to understand energy
dynamics in the United States since 1820.
Milln, J., and N.-H. M. von der Fehr, eds. 2003. Keeping the
Lights On: Power Sector Reform in Latin America. Washington,
DC: Inter-Development Bank. 383 pp.
This book is an analysis of electricity market reforms that oc-
curred throughout Latin America in the 1990s. It provides case
studies of utility reforms in Colombia, Honduras, and Guatemala
and examines the political, social, and economic aspects of elec-
tricity markets throughout Latin America. This is a good refer-
ence for upper level students who want to understand the issues
of market reform and electricity provision in developing Latin
American countries.
Miller, E. W., and R. M. Miller. 1993. Energy and American

Society: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
418 pp.
270 Resources
This book serves as a general reference guide to energy use in the

United States. It provides an overview of fossil and nonfossil en-
ergy resources, a history of U.S. energy use, a chronology of im-
portant energy events, facts and figures, a list of organizations,
and energy resources available. It is a useful reference for stu-
dents wanting to understand general aspects of U.S. energy use.
Mitchell, J. V., P. Beck, and M. Grubb. 1996. The New Geopoli-

tics of Energy. London, England: The Royal Institute of Interna-
tional Affairs, Energy and Environmental Programme. 196 pp.
This book provides an overview of global energy dynamics in the
late 1980s and early 1990s. It links politics and economics to en-
ergy demand on a regional and global scale and includes
overviews of the nuclear issue and climate change. It serves as a
useful guide for understanding energy dynamics in the Middle
East, Russia, East Asia, and the non-OPEC world. It is a useful ref-
erence for students wishing to gain a multidisciplinary perspec-
tive on global energy use.
Paik, K. W. 1995. Gas and Oil in Northeast Asia: Policies,

Projects, and Prospects. London, England: Royal Institute of
International Affairs, Energy and Environmental Programme.
274 pp.
This book provides an overview of the oil and gas industry in
Northeast Asia. It examines the political and economic aspects of
energy development in Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, and
the gas and oil fields of Sakhalin, Sakha, and Tarim. This book is
a good reference for students who want to understand the energy
dynamics in Northeast Asia and their importance to the regions
development.
Ramage, J. 1997. Energy: A Guidebook. Rev. ed. Oxford, England:

Oxford University Press. 394 pp.
This book covers fundamental aspects of energy production, con-
version, distribution, and consumption in society. It provides
overviews of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources, de-
tails the basic concepts behind how these resources are extracted
and converted to useful energy by society, and discusses and
summarizes the environmental impacts of energy use. This is a
useful resource for anyone interested in understanding general
energy concepts.
General Energy 271
Rose, D. J. 1986. Learning about Energy. New York: Plenum

Press. 506 pp.
This book offers a fundamental overview of energy use in society.
It discusses economic and environmental considerations of en-
ergy use, the importance of conservation, fossil and nonfossil re-
sources used for energy provision in society, and the electricity
and energy storage systems that have been developed. This book
is a useful reference for students who want an easily understand-
able reference about the technical aspects of energy in society.
Rosenbaum, W. A. 1993. Energy Policy in the West. In Envi-

ronmental Politics and Policy in the West, edited by Z. A. Smith,
177199. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
This chapter discusses energy issues impacting the western
United States. It provides an introduction to oil and gas drilling,
renewable energy potentials, relations between state and federal
governments in the context of energy resources, an overview of
the nuclear waste storage controversy, and environmental issues.
This chapter is useful for students who need a succinct overview
of energy issues in the United States.
Siddayao, C. M. 1986. Energy Demand and Economic Growth:

Measurement and Conceptual Issues in Policy Analysis. Boulder,
CO: Westview Press. 127 pp.
This book describes the link between energy, economics, and de-
velopment. It explains energy measurement and analysis, de-
scribes how energy demand is calculated, details the factors that
contribute to energy use in processes of development, and ex-
plains the utility of different energy indicators, such as energy in-
tensity. It is a good summary reference for policymakers, scholars,
and students who wish to understand the fundamental, macro-
economic concepts in energy demand.
Smil, V. 1988. Energy in Chinas Modernization: Advances and

Limitations. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. 250 pp.
This book discusses Chinas potential energy resources, extrac-
tion and utilization of energy in rural and urban areas, goals and
strategies outlined for energy distribution and use in industrial-
ization efforts, and potential environmental considerations that
need to be made during this transition. It provides a useful re-
272 Resources
source for students and scholars who wish to understand energy

resource distribution (both renewable and nonrenewable), the
economic dynamics of rural and urban growth, and overall en-
ergy dynamics in China.
Smil, V. 1994. Energy in World History. Boulder, CO: Westview

Press. 299 pp.
This book offers a historical account of energy use throughout
human history. It discusses the development of energy technolo-
gies in all aspects of society, most notably in the areas of agricul-
ture, transportation, and grain milling. The majority of the book
is devoted to preindustrial energy resources and technology, with
only a chapter discussing fossil energies, making this an excellent
guide for understanding energy dynamics prior to the Industrial
Revolution.
Smil, V. 1999. Energies: An Illustrated Guide to the Biosphere and

Civilization: Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 210 pp.
This book demonstrates the importance of energy in all aspects of
life. It discusses energy flows found in the Sun and the Earth,
plants and animals, food and metabolism, and in pre- and postin-
dustrial societies. This book is a useful reference for students and
scholars who want a broad picture of how energy flows through-
out all life systems.

Uncertainties. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 427 pp.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of energy issues
and examines their implications for future energy dynamics. It
examines societys energy use in all sectors; describes links
between energy and economics, the environment, and war; ex-
amines the potential future of fossil and nonfossil fuels; and
focuses on the importance of energy efficiency in the future. This
book is a thorough investigation into the complexity of energy
dynamics and offers a critical view of the potential solutions to
energy problems.
Stares, P. B., ed. 2000. Rethinking Energy Security in East Asia.

Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange. 207 pp.
General Energy 273
This book examines energy security scenarios in East Asia in light

of the regions growing energy demands. Energy experts from
seven Asian countries analyze energy issues, such as an expan-
sion of nuclear energy and a reliance on oil and gas imports, in
China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations, and Russia. The role of the United States in Asian
energy policy is also discussed. This book is a good reference for
students who wish to understand the increasingly important role
of Asia in global energy dynamics.
Stoker, H. S., S. L. Seager, and R. L. Capener. 1975. Energy: From

Source to Use. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Company. 337
pp.
This book provides an overview of energy within the context of
energy crises. It discusses the dynamics of fossil, nuclear, and re-
newable energy resources, examines the 1973 energy crisis within
the context of these resources, and explains how energy conser-
vation can provide a viable solution to the problems associated
with energy provision and use. This book serves as a general re-
source for those who want to understand basic energy technol-
ogy, the nature of energy crises, and the option of energy conser-
vation.
Teixeira, M. G. 1996. Energy Policy in Latin America: Social and

Environmental Dimensions of Hydropower in Amazonia. Alder-
shot, Hants, England: Avebury. 348 pp.
This book provides an overview of hydropower development in
the Amazon region of South America. It describes the environ-
mental and social impacts of large dams and the long-term costs
to the Amazon River ecosystems and its people. This is a good
reference for students who need to understand the impact of hy-
droelectricity in a region where water resources supply a signifi-
cant amount of energy.
Periodicals, Journals, and Newsletters

Africa Energy Intelligence
CMS Business Information
274 Resources
2a Altons House Office Park, Gatehouse Way,

Aylesbury, HP103XU, England
ISSN: 1635-2742
http://www.biz-lib.com/index.html
This biweekly newsletter provides business news to the African
mining, oil, gas, and utility industries. It offers up-to-date infor-
mation on company mergers, privatization, and energy projects
across Africa.
Applied Energy
Elsevier Inc. (Branch office)
30 Corporate Drive, 4th floor
Burlington, MA 01803
ISSN: 0306-2619
http://www.elsevier.com/
This scholarly journal contains papers and reviews that report on
research and development of energy conversion, conservation,
and management. It is intended for energy engineers and re-
searchers in the areas of conservation and alternatives energies.
Energy: The International Journal

ISSN: 0360-5442
This scholarly journal offers an interdisciplinary focus on energy
policy and program assessment and management. It is intended
to be a resource for energy planners, researchers, and industrial
producers and consumers.
Energy and Buildings

ISSN: 0378-7788
This scholarly journal provides a forum for the presentation of re-
search and practice in the area of energy-efficient building design,
heating and cooling systems, and energy conservation. It is in-
General Energy 275
tended for energy planners, policymakers, architects, energy en-

gineers, and the building community.
Energy Compass
Energy Intelligence
5 East 37th Street, 5th Floor
New York, NY 10016
ISSN: 0962-9270
http://www.energyintel.com/
This weekly publication offers news and analysis of geopolitical
events important in the energy industry. It is intended for
business professionals, government officials, and energy market
analysts.
Energy and Electricity Forecast World

Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)
111 West 57th Street
New York, NY 10019
http://www.eiu.com/
This periodical provides information on energy and electricity in-
dustries, including descriptions of key players, supply and de-
mand overviews, energy indicators, and five-year forecasts. It is a
publication relevant to businesses and governments in assessing
current trends in energy use and markets.
Energy Economics
ISSN: 0306-2619
This scholarly journal publishes research in the areas of energy
finance, economic theory, regulatory and computational econom-
ics, statistics, and modeling. It is directed toward energy econo-
mists, financial analysts, and academic researchers.
Energy Law Journal

Energy Bar Association
1020 19th St., N.W., Suite 525
276 Resources
Washington, D.C. 20036

ISSN: 0270-9163
http://www.eba-net.org
This biannual scholarly law journal provides articles in the field
of energy law written by and for practitioners, academics, judges,
and federal agency officials.
Energy Magazine
Business Communications Company
40 Washington St., Suite 110
Wellesley, MA 02481
http://www.bccresearch.com/
This quarterly newsletter contains articles written by industry
experts on a variety of energy topics, including energy explo-
ration, economics, utilities, technology, renewable energy, and
conservation.
Europe Energy
Europe Information Service
Avenue Adolphe Lacombl, 66-68
B-1030 Brussels, Belgium
ISSN: 0772-1528
http://eisnet.eis.be/
This newsletter provides information and news about the energy
sector in Europe, including policy, statistics, research, and tech-
nology.
Journal of the Institute of Energy

Institute of Energy
61 New Cavendish Street
London W1G 7AR, United Kingdom
ISSN: 0144-2600
http://www.energyinst.org.uk/
This quarterly scholarly journal is directed toward energy scien-
tists and engineers. It provides up-to-date articles on advances in
energy and fuel technologies.
General Energy 277
Films and Videorecordings

Conservation of Energy: Potential Energy
The California Institute of Technology and the Corporation for
Community College Television. Published by Intellimation, 1987.
Annenberg/CPB Project produced by P. F. Buffa and directed by
M. Rothschild.
VHS, 58 minutes
This film provides an overview of the physical laws of energy
conservation and potential energy. It describes the concepts and
mathematics that underlie the fundamental laws of energy in na-
ture. This film is a good supplement to introductory physics.
Energy: Natures Power Source

Advanced Video Productions, Inc.
Meridian Education Corporation, 1998.
VHS, 18 minutes
This film provides a brief overview of different energy sources,
how each source is utilized and its positive and negative aspects,
the projected reserves and supplies, and provides a succinct sum-
mary of energy use.
Energy and Society

Hawkhill Associates, 1990.
Written and directed by B. Stonebarger.
VHS, 35 minutes
This film provides an overview of the scientific and technological
feats that have been accomplished in order for society to harness
energy resources. Major themes in the film include the difference
between high- and low-energy societies, the benefits of high-en-
ergy societies, scientific and technological aspects of energy, the
negative impacts of burning fossil fuels, and the importance of in-
creasing energy efficiency.
278 Resources
The Politics of Power

Frontline and the Center for Investigative Reporting. Published
by PBS Video, 1992.
Produced by J. Legnitto and correspondent N. Kotz.
VHS, 58 minutes
This film is an investigative report of the National Energy Policy
(NEP) passed in 1992 under George H. W. Bush. It examines the
role of special interests in the policy, the issue of energy security,
and offers a critical overview of the intention of the NEP.
Search for Common Ground on Energy

Common GroundWNYC Production. Published by Common
Grounds Production, 1989.
Produced by W. B. Shanley and directed by J. Chiappardi.
This film examines the issue of energy crisis from a number of
different perspectives. It provides insight from energy producers
and consumers, environmental groups, economists, and lobbyists.
Voltage, Energy and Force, the Electric Battery

The California Institute of Technology and the Corporation for
Community College Television. Published by Intellimation, 1987.
Annenberg/CPB Project, produced by P. F. Buffa.
VHS, 58 minutes
This film provides an overview of the physical and mathematical
concepts of energy and force, the physics behind how an electric
battery operates, and how chemical energy is converted to elec-
trical energy. It is a good supplement to introductory physics.
Databases and Internet Resources

Enerdata: Global Energy Intelligence
http://www.enerdata.fr/enerdatauk/index.html
Enerdata is an independent consulting and information services
company that offers a variety of standard and customized data-
bases for different energy resources (fossil and nonfossil energy,
General Energy 279
renewables, etc.), global and regional energy markets, energy ef-

ficiency measures, and key energy statistics.
Energy Citations Database

U.S. Department of Energy
http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/
Energy Citations database provides access to scientific and techni-
cal energy publications. It offers bibliographic records for energy-
related abstracts in chemistry, physics, engineering, climatology,
geology, and related fields.
EnergyFiles! Database
Energy Science and Technology Virtual Library
U.S. Department of Energy
http://www.osti.gov/energyfiles/
This Web site provides access to over 500 energy databases and
Web sites that examine technical and scientific aspects of energy
use. It offers access to energy-related science and technology in-
formation, accessible and efficient data retrieval mechanisms, and
links that facilitate energy-related electronic research.
Energy Information Administration (EIA): Official Statistics

from the U.S. Government
http://www.eia.doe.gov/
This Web site provides an abundant amount of energy and envi-
ronmental information. It offers international and U.S. statistics
on energy resource production, use, and consumption. It pro-
vides market data for major energy commodities; analysis of en-
ergy use in each sector; weekly, monthly, and annual reports
about energy use; basic energy information; and historical energy
data.
International Energy Agency (IEA)

Energy Information Centre
http://www.iea.org/Textbase/subjectqueries/index.asp
This Web site offers a searchable database of information on all as-
pects of energy use worldwide. The site provides access to infor-
mation for all countries and eleven regional divisions. Topics in-
clude clean fossil fuels technologies, climate change, greenhouse
280 Resources
gas (GHG) emissions and trading mechanisms, energy efficiency,

market reports, sustainable development, energy policy, and re-
newable technology.
Platts
McGraw-Hill Company
http://www.platts.com/
Platts Web site provides access to in-depth, up-to-date analyses
of global and regional markets for all energy resources and com-
modities, news on important energy events, energy statistics and
reports, and updates regarding energy futures and financing.
World Energy Database

Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDE)
http://www.etde.org/
World Energy Database provides information on energy technolo-
gies and research worldwide. It contains over 3.7 million ab-
stracts and 175,000 full-text links to research and development
publications on basic energy sciences, environmental issues of en-
ergy production and consumption, climate change, and renew-
able energy, nuclear, coal, and fossil fuel resources.
Energy Resources
Books
Berinstein, P. 2001. Alternative Energy: Facts, Statistics, and Is-
sues. Westport, CT: Oryx Press. 208 pp.
This book provides an overview of alternative energy resources:
solar, biomass, wind, ocean, fusion, geothermal, and hydrogen. It
discusses overall energy issues and the economics of alternative
energy sources. It examines issues of energy conservation and
efficiency, energy storage systems, fuel cells, and the role of re-
newables in the transportation sector. This book is a useful
resource for students who wish to understand renewable energy
technology.
Borowitz, S. 1999. Farewell Fossil Fuels: Reviewing Americas

Energy Policy. New York: Plenum. 220 pp.
This book examines the technological aspects of resource extrac-
tion and exploitation of fossil and nonfossil energy resources. It
covers oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy, solar, wind, biomass,
geothermal, hydrogen fuel cells, and other types of renewable re-
sources. This book is intended for those who wish to understand
and influence the use of renewable energy technologies.
Boyle, G., ed. 1996. Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable

Future. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 479 pp.
This book discusses renewable energy sources that are exploited
by society. Each chapter is devoted to a resource, providing de-
tailed information about its energy potentials, historical and cur-
rent use, technological developments, economic feasibility, and
case studies that illustrate particular areas where the resource is
used. This is an excellent reference for students interested in ex-
panding their knowledge about all types of renewable energy.
Brennan, T. J. 2002. Alternating Currents: Electricity Markets

and Public Policy. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.
210 pp.
This book provides an overview of the electricity industry in the
United States and the impacts of electricity market restructuring.
It examines the current market structure, reviews international
experiences in restructuring, offers a detailed explanation of Cal-
ifornias electricity market reforms, and examines a number of
policy issues such as rate regulation, enhancing competition, the
roles of state and federal governments, and how electricity can be
reliable amid restructuring efforts. This book is an excellent refer-
ence for students who need to understand the dynamics of utility
regulation and electricity market restructuring.
Cohen, B. L. 1990. The Nuclear Energy Option: An Alternative for

the 90s. New York: Plenum Press. 338 pp.
This book presents an argument in support of nuclear power. It ex-
plains the various risks associated with nuclear power plants, ra-
diation exposure, and radioactive waste; details what went wrong
at Chernobyl; and addresses the issue of nuclear proliferation. The
282 Resources
book aims to put the risks of nuclear power in perspective. This is

a good reference for those who seek a pronuclear opinion.
Edinger, R., and Sanjay Kaul. 2000. Renewable Resources for

Electric Power: Prospects and Challenges. Westport, CT: Quo-
rum. 154 pp.
This book examines the feasibility of using renewable resources
for the production of electric power. It describes the restructuring
of the electricity industry, discusses the challenges for renewable
energy in the context of market liberalization, and examines how
solar, wind, and microhydroelectric technologies can support
small-scale electricity generation. This book is a useful resource
for understanding the benefits, risks, and feasibility of integrating
renewable technologies into existing electricity infrastructure.
Freese, B. 2003. Coal: A Human History. Cambridge, MA:

Perseus Publishing. 308 pp.
This book offers a historical overview of the extraction, produc-
tion, and use of coal. It examines the development of coal in Great
Britain, the rise of King Coal, the pollution created from coal
use, the social problems existing in the past and present in coal
mines, and the importance of coal in todays society. This book is
a useful reference for students who want to understand the his-
torical evolution of coal and its impacts to society.
Gillespie, K., and Clement Moore Henry, eds. 1995. Oil in the
New World Order. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
339 pp.
This book discusses political and economic concerns associated
with the supply and demand of oil. It examines global oil mar-
kets, energy dynamics in the Middle East and Russia, and offers
case studies of important petroleum producing countries. This
book is a good reference for students and scholars who wish to
understand the contentious, political dynamics of global oil pro-
vision.
Gorman, H. S. 2001. Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns,

Regulatory Mechanisms, and Technological Change in the U.S.
Petroleum Industry. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press.
451 pp.
This book provides an overview of the evolution of pollution con-

trol regulations in the petroleum industry. It discusses the histor-
ical record of pollution concerns in the extraction, production,
and refining of petroleum; how industry leaders responded to
these concerns; and the technical changes that have occurred in
the industry throughout history. This book is a useful reference
for those who wish to understand the history and dynamics of
pollution regulation in the petroleum industry in the twentieth
century.
Hatch, M. T. 1986. Politics and Nuclear Power: Energy Policy in

Western Europe. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
219 pp.
This book examines energy policies and issues in Western Eu-
rope since World War II. In particular, it examines the develop-
ment of nuclear energy resources in Germany, France, and the
Netherlands and why this development has resulted in different
energy outcomes in each country. This book is useful for students
and scholars who wish to understand the dynamics of energy
development in Western Europe in the latter half of the twenti-
eth century.
Josephson, P. R. 2000. Red Atom: Russias Nuclear Program from

Stalin to Today. New York: W. H. Freeman. 352 pp.
This book provides a historical overview of nuclear development
in postWorld War II Russia and throughout the Cold War. It pro-
files the scientists and politicians involved in the Russian nuclear
age, analyzes the Chernobyl disaster, and reviews issues of waste
storage and abandoned nuclear stockpiles. This book is a good
reference for students who want to understand the development
of nuclear technology and issues that impact the utilization of
atomic power in Russia.
Karekezi, S., and T. Ranja. 1997. Renewable Energy Technologies

in Africa. London, England: Zed Books. 269 pp.
This book, published in association with the African Energy Pol-
icy Research Network and the Stockholm Environment Insti-
tute, is an overview of renewable energy initiatives in eastern
and southern Africa. It examines the development of biomass,
solar, wind, and hydropower resources and the sustainable use
284 Resources
of energy supplies. It also considers the political and socioeco-

nomic conditions, financing and energy management schemes,
and equity, access, and environmental sustainability of Africas
energy sector. This book is a good reference for students who
want to understand energy development and sustainability in
Africa.
Kellow, A. J. 1996. Transforming Power: The Politics of Electric-

ity Planning. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press. 229 pp.
This book analyzes how the electricity industry has responded to
energy crises and environmental concerns in Canada, Australia,
and New Zealand. It provides a comparative overview of how
each country has planned and developed their energy resources,
utility markets, and transmission systems for the electricity in-
dustry. This book is a good reference for students who wish to un-
derstand the development of electricity infrastructure and policy
in industrialized countries.
Kruschke, E. R., and B. M. Jackson. 1990. Nuclear Energy Policy:

A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 245 pp.
This book serves as a general reference guide for understanding
nuclear energy. It examines the arguments in support of and
against developing nuclear power, provides detailed information
about the history and current state of the nuclear power industry,
and serves as a guide to documents, organizations, and resources
associated with the nuclear issue. It is a useful reference for
people who want to learn more about nuclear energy.
League of Women Voters Education Fund. 1993. The Nuclear

Waste Primer. New York: N. Lyons Books. 170 pp.
This book provides an overview of the issues associated with nu-
clear waste. It includes general information about nuclear waste,
the impacts of radiation, responsibilities of state and federal play-
ers, the distinction between high-level and low-level radioactive
waste, transportation and liability issues, and waste that is pro-
duced from defense programs. This is a good reference for stu-
dents who wish to know more about how radioactive waste is
generated and managed in the United States.
Morris, R. C. 2000. The Environmental Case for Nuclear Power:

Economic, Medical, and Political Considerations. St. Paul, MN:
Paragon House. 192 pp.
This book examines the benefits of nuclear power. It reviews the
problems associated with a reliance on fossil fuels, discusses the
many benefits of nuclear technology, examines the problem of nu-
clear waste, and argues the need to enhance nuclear capabilities.
It is a useful reference for students who wish to understand ar-
guments in support of nuclear energy.
Sabin, P. 2005. Crude Politics: The California Oil Market,

19001940. Berkeley: University of California Press. 307 pp.
This book describes the development of the oil industry in Cali-
fornia in the first half of the twentieth century. It highlights the
role of politics and law in shaping oil markets, examines the rela-
tionship between business and government in promoting the
growth of the industry, and presents a history of the development
of the oil industry in the western United States. This book is a use-
ful resource for students who wish to understand the historical
development of the oil industry and the role that politics played
in its market dominance.
Sampson, A. 1975. The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies

and the World They Shaped. New York: Viking Press. 334 pp.
This book offers a detailed overview of the rise of the oil industry
around the world by focusing on the seven large oil companies
that established the global market. It provides a readable glimpse
into the complex world of energy markets, the closed door poli-
cies (e.g., the Red Line Agreement, the As-Is Agreement, etc.)
established by oil companies, and how a selective number of
companies came to dominate the global petroleum industry. This
book is a good reference for those who wish to understand the
evolution of oil markets since the late 1800s.
Scamehorn, H. L. 2002. High Altitude Energy: A History of Fossil

Fuels in Colorado. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
244 pp.
This book provides a historical overview of oil and natural gas
production and coal mining in the state of Colorado through an
286 Resources
examination of the social and economic history of energy extrac-

tion and production industries. This book is a good reference for
students who need to understand the development of fossil en-
ergy industries in the western United States. Although the events
in the book are specific to Colorado, the economic and social con-
ditions described are similar to those in other Western mountain
states.
Shojai, S., ed. 1995. The New Global Oil Market: Understanding
Energy Issues in the World Economy. Westport, CT: Praeger.
263 pp.
This book examines dynamics in global oil markets. It provides
an overview of oil reserves, patterns in production and con-
sumption, oil pricing, futures in oil markets, and marketing. It
describes the role of important players such as the Organization
of Oil Producing Countries (OPEC) and the International Energy
Agency (IEA), considers the socioeconomic impact of oil markets
in producing and consuming countries, and looks at the environ-
mental effects of current oil market structure. This book is a useful
resource for students who wish to understand the fundamentals
of global oil markets and current trends within the industry.
Wu, K. 1995. Energy in Latin America: Production, Consumption,

and Future Growth. Westport, CT: Praeger. 310 pp.
This book provides an overview of energy growth and supply in
Latin America. Chapters are divided by individual countries in
Latin America, and each gives a description of energy supply,
petroleum consumption, natural gas utilization, and policy issues
impacting the oil and natural gas industries. This book is a good
reference for those interested in oil and natural gas dynamics in
Latin America.

Coal Age
Mining Media Inc.
8751 East Hampden Ave, Ste B-1
Denver, CO 80231
ISSN: 1091-0646
This monthly journal is a resource for the coal mining industry. It

provides up-to-date information on mining equipment and tech-
nology, methods and techniques, and safety issues.
International Journal of Coal Geology

Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0166-5162
http://www.elsevier.com
This academic journal publishes information on the science of
coal geology. It provides up-to-date research in the field, surveys
of coal resources, and literature and book reviews for an audience
of geologists, analysts in the coal industry, and professionals
studying coal science.
Oil and Gas Journal

PenWell Petroleum Group
1700 West Loop South, Suite 1000
Houston, TX 77027
ISSN: 0030-1388
This journal on the oil and gas industry provides market news,
analysis of important events, updates on recent technology, and
statistics on national and international markets.
Progress in Nuclear Energy

Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0149-1970
This international academic review journal publishes articles on
nuclear science, engineering, and aspects of the power industry,
including safety, economics, and fuel management.
Renewable Energy
Elsevier, Inc.
288 Resources
ISSN: 0960-1481
This academic journal publishes original research papers, re-
views, and reports on new developments in the field of renew-
able energy. Topics include solar, wind, biomass, wave and tide,
and minihydropower technologies, energy conservation and effi-
ciency, and socioeconomic issues related to energy management.
Solar Energy
Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0038-092X
This is the official academic journal of the International Solar En-
ergy Society. It publishes articles concerning all aspects of solar
energy applications, research, development, measurement, and
policy. It appeals to a wide audience of scientists, engineers, ar-
chitects, and economists.
Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells

Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0927-0248
This academic journal publishes original research papers in the
area of materials science. It specifically focuses on solar cells, pho-
tothermal devices, photochemical devices, and energy systems
with innovative designs in light control and optical properties.
The audience for this journal is primarily physicists, electro-
chemists, and energy researchers.
Wind Energy
John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Corporate Headquarters
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774
ISSN: 1095-4244
This journal publishes academic and industrial research, reports,

and reviews concerning developments in wind power and tech-
nology. It also publishes research in environmental, economic,
and sociopolitical aspects of wind energy technology. The journal
is aimed toward professionals and academics in the field of wind
energy.

Alternative Power
Produced by ITV in conjunction with the U.S. Department of En-
ergys Offices of Advanced Automotive Technologies, Energy Effi-
ciency and Renewable Energy, and Fossil Energy and Enron Wind
Corp. Published by Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2000.
Produced and written by K. Brown.
VHS, 82 minutes
This educational film is about the transformation to renewable
energy resources. It examines the emerging markets of wind tur-
bines, solar cells, hybrids, and coal gasification technologies
within the context of increasing global energy demand and global
warming concerns. This is a good resource for those who want to
lean more about renewable technologies and their role in chang-
ing the energy infrastructure in society.
Closing the Circle on Splitting the Atom: The History of the

UMTRA Project.
Southwest Productions, 1995.

Directed by J. Cochran and B. Cox.
VHS, 29 minutes
This video describes the development of the U.S. Department of
Energys Uranium Mill Tailings Remediation Action (UMTRA)
cleanup projects. It describes the nuclear age and the problem of
radioactive mill tailings left over from uranium mining, the
health effects of radon and radioactive materials, the implemen-
tation of the U.S. governments UMTRA program, and ongoing
cleanup activities.
290 Resources
Coal, Blood, and Iron

BBC TV production in association with the Arts & Entertainment
Network, Coronet/MTI Films & Video, the Seven Network. Pub-
lished by Coronet Film & Video, 1991.
Produced by M. Hughes-Games.
VHS, 55 minutes
This film offers a historical overview of the discovery and devel-
opment of coal resources in Europe at the dawn of the industrial
revolution. It examines the social and economic implications of
coal and how the industrial revolution changed life in Europe
leading up to World War I.
Electric Nation
Great Projects Film Company, Inc., in association with South Car-
olina ETV and the National Academy of Engineering. Distributed
by PBS and published by Great Projects Film Company, Inc., 2002.
Produced and written by D. A. Miller.
VHS, 60 minutes
This film examines the historical roots of the electricity industry in
the United States. It tells the story of Thomas Edison, the invention
of the incandescent lightbulb, the rise of electric utility companies,
and the construction of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Hostages to Oil
Network, Coronet/MTI Films & Video, the Seven Network. Pub-
Produced by M. Andrews.
VHS, 55 minutes
This film provides an overview of the energy crisis in Europe.

It examines the policies of energy independence and diversifi-
cation, the development of North Sea oil, the relationship be-
tween Europe and the Middle East, and the problems with oil
dependency.
Power and Frontiers

Network, Coronet/MTI Film & Video, the Seven Network. Pub-
Produced by M. Andrews.
VHS, 55 minutes
This film examines the role of oil and coal in the political, social,
and economic developments that occurred in Europe during the
twentieth century. It describes the role of oil in World War II and
the importance of coal for sustaining daily life in the early twen-
tieth century.
The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power
InVision production for Majestic Films International in associa-
tion with BBC Television, MICO, and WGBH Boston. Published
by Public Media Video, 1993.
Produced and directed by W. Cran and S. Tepper.
VHS, 8 hours, 4 videocassettes
This film series tells the story of the rise and dominance of the oil
industry throughout the world. It provides a detailed historical
overview of oil companies, their political and economic influence,
and the impact of oil in the development of modern society.
Databases and Internet Sites

Bioenergy Feedstock Information Network (BFIN)
http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/
This Web site provides information on biomass energy resources
and supply systems. It offers an interactive database where users
can select the type of biomass resource (e.g., herbaceous crops,
forestry residue, etc.) and the process stage (e.g., harvesting) and
obtain links to reports, databases, fact sheets, and presentations
292 Resources
related to that resource. The Web site also provides an overview

of the various forms of biomass energy, the economic and envi-
ronmental considerations of biomass, and research and develop-
ment initiatives.
Centre for Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated

Energy Technologies (CADDET)
http://www.caddet.org/
This Web site provides a searchable database of information
about energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies. It
provides information about efficiency technologies used in in-
dustry, building transport, utilities, and agriculture; knowledge
about energy-saving measures in all sectors; and suppliers and
manufacturers of equipment and technology.
Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency

(DSIRE)
http://www.dsireusa.org/
This Web-based database lists state and local incentives offered
for the use of renewable technology and energy efficiency mea-
sures for each state. Information given includes financial incen-
tives for renewable and energy efficiency measures and rules,
regulations, and policies that apply to renewable programs in
each state. Information for federal programs is also available.
Global Energy Law Portal

Oil, Gas and Energy Law Intelligence (OGEL)
http://www.gasandoil.com/ogel/
This Web site provides up-to-date information about regulations,
legal instruments, and standards imposed and recommended by
various jurisdictions (e.g., countries, international organizations,
regional governments, etc.). It offers a database of legal and reg-
ulatory materials and current developments in the oil and gas in-
dustry.
Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information Systems

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
http://www.nfcis.iaea.org/Default.asp
This database contains current information and statistics on the
nuclear fuel cycle in countries that use nuclear energy. It provides
information about all steps in the nuclear fuel cycle, from ura-
nium reserves estimates to fuel processing to waste handling and
storage. It is intended for member states, the IAEA, and the citi-
zens who are interested in tracking the nuclear fuel cycle.
National Coal Resource Data System (NCRDS)

U.S. Geological Survey
http://energy.er.usgs.gov/products/databases/
USCoal/index.htm
This database contains coal resource data for coal regions in the
United States. It provides information about the location, bed
thickness, moisture, sulfur content, heat value, and general chem-
istry of coal deposits found in the United States. It also gives up-
dated information about coal resource and reserve estimates.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Publications

Database
http://www.nrel.gov/publications/
The NREL Publications Database contains publications and other
materials developed and written by NREL. It provides electronic
access to technical reports, journal articles, conference papers,
patents, presentations, and other print and nonprint resources on
research efforts in renewable energy.
Oil Voice
http://www.oilvoice.com/m/default.asp
The Oil Voice Web site offers a worldwide view of the oil and gas
industries. It provides company profiles, news releases, financial
news and statistics, updated production and reserves numbers,
and an overview of the important people and places in the oil
industry.
294 Resources
Energy Problems and Solutions:

Economics and the Environment
Books
Boyle, G., B. Everett, and J. Ramage, eds. 2003. Energy Systems
and Sustainability. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
619 pp.
This book provides an overview of energy systems and their so-
cial, political, economic, and environmental impact. It examines
the various energy resources used throughout most of the world,
provides a basic overview of how energy systems work, explains
the economics involved in energy provision and distribution, and
assesses the use of these resources within the context of sustain-
ability. This is a good reference for students who require a broad
overview of current energy dynamics.
Claussen, E., ed. 2001. Climate Change: Science, Strategies, and

Solutions. Pew Center on Global Change. Leiden, Netherlands:
Brill. 399 pp.
This book is a useful overview on the issue of global warming. It
provides a summary of the science, economics, global strategies,
and solutions associated with climate change. It compiles infor-
mation provided by top researchers around the world and is an
ideal reference for students and scholars who need to understand
all aspects of global climate change.
Convery, F. J. 1998. A Guide to Policies for Energy Conservation:

The European Experience. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar
Publishing. 169 pp.
This book analyzes energy conservation initiatives and policies in
Europe. It examines case studies of government investment and
subsidies in energy conservation measures, the European Unions
experience with combined heat and power, demand-side man-
agement, and the role of institutions in energy conservation. This
book is a useful reference for students who wish to understand
the impact of energy conservation policies.
Energy Problems and Solutions 295
Doyle, J. 2000. Taken for a Ride: Detroits Big Three and the Pol-
itics of Pollution. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows. 560 pp.
This book examines the influence of large automobile manufac-
turing companies on air quality policies, fuel efficiency, and emis-
sion standards imposed by the federal government. It describes
the lobbying tactics used by General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler
(the Big Three of the auto industry) to delay the implementa-
tion of pollution enforcement and the ratification of the Kyoto
Protocol. This book is a good resource for students who are inter-
ested in corporate influence on environmental regulations and
provides an interesting investigative case study into the links be-
tween business and government.
Elliot, D. 1997. Energy, Society and Environment: Technology for

a Sustainable Future. London, England: Routledge. 252 pp.
This book examines the environmental impacts of energy use in
society and potential solutions. It reviews major environmental
problems (e.g., air pollution, acid deposition, etc.), examines the
technological fixes that have been introduced to deal with these
problems, describes sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels and the
issues of implementing sustainable programs, and outlines the
necessary steps for addressing energy problems by building sus-
tainable societies. This book is a good reference for those who
wish to understand the link between energy technologies and
sustainable progress.
Ewing, R. A., and D. Pratt. 2005. Got Sun? Go Solar: Get Free Re-
newable Energy to Power Your Grid-Tied Home. Masonville, CO:
PixyJack Press. 159 pp.
This book is a practical how-to guide to the installation of renew-
able energy systems in typical residential dwellings. It covers
equipment requirements, legal issues, incentives and rebates, and
permit requirements. It serves as a useful guide for people want-
ing to use alternative energy sources in their grid or nongrid-
connected homes.
Gellar, H. S. 2003. Energy Revolution: Policies for a Sustainable

Future. Washington, DC: Island Press. 289 pp.
296 Resources
This book examines the technological, policy, and economic con-

siderations required for building sustainable energy systems. It
examines barriers that prevent the dissemination of energy-
efficient technologies, discusses policy incentives and market
reforms for promoting sustainable uses of energy, and analyzes
successful, sustainable energy measures in developing and in-
dustrialized countries using Brazil and the United States as
examples. This book is a useful resource for those who are inter-
ested in effective policy measures and market reforms for pro-
moting alternative technologies.
Grubb, M., C. Vrolijk, and D. Brack. 1999. The Kyoto Protocol:

A Guide and Assessment. London, England: Royal Institute of
International Affairs, Energy and Environmental Programme.
342 pp.
This book is an assessment of the Kyoto Protocol. It provides an
overview of the scientific, political, and legal foundations of the
document, profiles of the players involved in the Kyoto negotia-
tions, a description of the various commitments outlined for each
of the players, an overview of mechanisms such as joint imple-
mentation and the clean development mechanism, and a projec-
tion of the challenges faced in implementing the Protocol. This
book is a useful resource for anyone who wishes to understand
the Kyoto Protocol.
Kaya, Y., and K. Yokobori, eds. 1997. Environment, Energy, and

Economy: Strategies for Sustainability. Tokyo, Japan: United
Nations University Press. 381 pp.
This book examines issues associated with development in the
context of energy use, economics, and environmental problems.
The contributors focus largely on climate change and potential
impacts to energy markets in both developing and industrialized
countries. Other topics look at the energy-economic interface, the
social barriers that impede sustainable development, increasing
energy consumption in developing countries, and technical de-
velopments in the area of decarbonization policies, leapfrogging
strategies, and technology transfer. This book is an excellent ref-
erence for students who need an integrated and globalized ap-
proach to understanding energy in the context of economics and
the environment.
Khagram, S. 2004. Dams and Development: Transnational Strug-

gles for Water and Power. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
270 pp.
This book examines the issues associated with the construction of
large dams for the purposes of hydropower and development.
Using Indias Narmada Projects as a case study, the author ex-
trapolates his analysis of antidam movements to similar dam
projects in other developing countries. Since water projects pro-
vide a substantial amount of electricity in the developing world
and are likely to be pursued in the future, this book provides a
timely overview of the human rights and environmental concerns
associated with building large dams.
Kursunoglu, B. N., S. L. Mintz, and A. Perlmutter, eds. 2001.

Global Warming and Energy Policy. New York: Kluwer Acade-
mic/Plenum Publishers. 220 pp.
This book examines the issue of global warming within the con-
text of energy policy. Contributors focus mainly on the issue of
nuclear energy, its potential development in response to climate
change concerns, the problems associated with heavier reliance
on nuclear resources, and how trends of market restructuring in
the electric utilities industry could impact nuclear power plant
performance. This book is a good reference for those who want to
understand the role of nuclear energy in the face of global climate
change concerns.
Leggett, J. K. 2005. The Empty Tank: Oil, Gas, Hot Air, and the
Coming Global Financial Catastrophe. New York: Random
House. 236 pp.
This book examines the issue of a global energy crisis resulting
from depleting sources of oil and natural gas. It describes the po-
tential impact to financial markets and governments worldwide,
explains how energy companies have avoided the issue of an en-
ergy crisis, and supports the development and widespread use of
innovative energy technology to avoid a financial crash. This
book is a good reference for those who are interested in the peak
oil debate.
Lemco, J., ed. 1992. The CanadaUnited States Relationship: The

Politics of Energy and Environmental Coordination. New York:
Praeger. 222 pp.
298 Resources
This book examines the cross-border linkages between the United

States and Canada in the areas of energy and environmental pol-
icy. It provides a comparative analysis of the policy approaches in
each country, the transboundary conflict between the two
regimes, the roles of business and government in regulating en-
ergy industries, and how environmental groups have impacted
the energy sector in each country. This book is a useful resource
for understanding the link between energy and environmental
policy and how this link impacts relations between Canada and
the United States, two important players that have shaped the en-
ergy dynamics of North America.
Morgenstern, R. D., and P. R. Portney, eds. 2004. New Ap-

proaches on Energy and the Environment: Policy Advice for the
President. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. 154 pp.
This book offers a number of innovative energy policy ap-
proaches to environmental problems. It touches on measures that
impose carbon and gasoline taxes, support fuel efficiency initia-
tives, clean up emissions from power plants, refine air quality
standards, promote green energy, and decrease U.S. reliance on
oil. This book offers an excellent reference for students who want
to learn about effective and equitable policy initiatives for envi-
ronmental issues associated with energy use in society.
Pinderhughes, R. 2004. Alternative Urban Futures: Planning for

Sustainable Development in Cities throughout the World. Lan-
ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 272 pp.
This book discusses policy approaches and technologies that can
be used in the planning and development of urban areas. It fo-
cuses on water and waste management, energy production and
use, and transportation and food systems, providing an overview
of innovative technologies in each area. It examines ways in
which city design and management can provide a high quality of
life that is environmentally sustainable. This book is a good refer-
ence for those who need a practical approach to energy systems
management in urban societies.
Rao, P. K., ed. 2000. The Economics of Global Climate Change.

Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. 199 pp.
This book provides a foundation for understanding economic as-
pects associated with global climate change. It discusses potential
global economic consequences of climate change, proposed

economic measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
international institutional mechanisms such as joint implementa-
tion and clean development mechanisms, and then summarizes
the use of these measures in the Kyoto Protocol. This book is a
useful reference for students, scholars, and policymakers who
wish to understand the link between economics and global cli-
mate change.
Roberts, P. 2004. The End of Oil: On the Edge of a Perilous New

World. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 399 pp.
This book examines the issue of global peak oil production and
the social and economic consequences that could result from this
problem. It highlights important themes such as energy literacy,
or the need for heightened awareness of energy issues, and the
need for increased energy efficiency. It presents potential
scenarios that could result from higher oil prices and continued
depletion. This book is a good resource for students who need to
understand the issue of peak oil and the arguments for energy re-
form in society.
Rodgers, W. M., Jr. 2000. Third Millennium Capitalism: Conver-

gence of Economic, Energy and Environmental Forces. Westport,
CT: Quorum. 278 pp.
This book promotes the institution of democratic capitalism for
meeting global economic and energy needs in the twenty-first
century. It describes the structure of global corporations and mar-
kets, examines world energy demand, supply, and provision
within the current economic structure, and links environmental
issues to future forecasts of economic growth and development.
This book is a useful resource for students who wish to under-
stand global energy market dynamics and how they relate to eco-
nomic development and environmental stewardship.
Schneider, S. H., A. Rosencranz, and J. O. Niles, eds. 2002. Cli-

mate Change Policy: A Survey. Washington, DC: Island Press.
563 pp.
This book provides a useful overview of global climate change. It
examines the issue from a broad array of perspectives, including
climate science; regional impacts; international approaches for re-
ducing greenhouse gas emissions; business and economic as-
300 Resources
pects; how climate change may affect agriculture, human popula-

tions, and tropical forests; the role of renewable technologies and
carbon sequestration policies; and how the issue can be ad-
dressed in an equitable manner. This book is an excellent refer-
ence for those who want to understand the issue of climate
change by studying different perspectives.
Smith, E. R. A. N. 2002. Energy, the Environment, and Public

Opinion. Lanham: MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 264 pp.
This book examines how Americans have viewed energy issues
since World War II, through periods of energy abundance and
scarcity. It discusses energy supplies, the media portrayal of en-
ergy resources, the impact of environmental disasterssuch as
the oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara, Californiaon public
opinion, and how attitudes about energy and the environment re-
late to the various theories on public opinion and policy. This
book is a useful reference for students interested in studying the
interaction between public opinion and environmental policy.
Smith, Z. A. 2004. The Environmental Policy Paradox. 4th ed.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 295 pp.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of environmental
policy in the United States. It explains the institutional and legal
settings for policy formation, examines the environmental prob-
lems in all types of media (i.e., air, land, water), and devotes a
chapter to energy policy. This book is a useful resource for stu-
dents and policymakers who wish to understand how environ-
mental policy is made and implemented in the United States.
Swartz, M., and S. Watkins. 2003. Power Failure: The Inside

Story of the Collapse of Enron. New York: Doubleday. 386 pp.
This book provides a historical account of the rise and fall of the
Enron Corporation. It explains how Enron became one of the
most powerful providers of energy services in the United States,
how it manipulated energy markets to benefit shareholders, and
what caused its ultimate collapse. This book is a useful resource
for students studying the issue of electricity regulation in the
United States and the problems that arise when states deregulate
their electricity markets.
Sweet, W. 2006. Kicking the Carbon Habit: Global Warming and

the Case for Renewable and Nuclear Energy. New York: Colum-
bia University Press. 256 pp.
This book critically examines the United States role in global
climate change and its approach to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. It discusses the adverse effects of global warming,
summarizes recent research from leading scientists, and advo-
cates for the United States to reduce its reliance on coal resources
for electricity and instead promote the development of renewable
and nuclear technologies. This book is a useful, readable update
of global warming science and offers an argument for reducing
the use of coal-based technologies.

Annual Review of Environment and Resources
Annual Reviews Inc.
4139 El Camino Way
P.O. Box 10139
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0139
ISSN: 1543-5938
This academic journal publishes research, reviews, and reports on
the impact of resource use on the environment. Topics include cli-
mate change, human impact, environmental and energy manage-
ment, and sustainable development.
Home Energy Magazine

Energy Auditor and Retrofitter
2124 Kittredge Street #95
Berkeley, CA 94704
ISSN: 08969442
http://www.homeenergy.org/hewebsite/
This monthly magazine provides information for people inter-
ested in designing and building energy systems for residential
dwellings. It covers issues such as efficiency, performance, and
comfort.
302 Resources
International Journal of Sustainable Development and World

Ecology
Sapiens Publishing
Duncow
Kirkmahoe
Dumfriesshire DG1 1TA, United Kingdom
ISSN: 1350-4509
This scholarly interdisciplinary journal publishes research on sus-
tainable development in the disciplines of biology, environmental
sciences, sociology, political science, economics, and law. It seeks
to provide in-depth coverage of the meaning of sustainable de-
velopment in diverse fields.
International Journal of Sustainable Energy

Taylor and Francis Ltd.
4 Park Square
Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire
OX14 4RN, United Kingdom
ISSN: 1478-6451
This academic journal is targeted toward scientists and engi-
neers who are studying technological innovations in the area of
sustainable energy. It describes research conducted in both de-
veloping and industrialized nations in all areas of renewable
energy.
International Journal of Technology Management and

Sustainable Development
Intellect Ltd.
The Mill, Parnall Road
Fishponds, Bristol BS16 3JG
United Kingdom
ISSN: 1474-2748
This scholarly journal publishes up-to-date research on the inter-
action between technology and development. It focuses mainly
on technology in developing countries, environmental sustain-
ability, research and development strategies, knowledge and ca-
pacity building, and technology transfer.
Oil and Chemical Pollution

Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0143-7227
This journal publishes research and review papers in the areas of
pollution remediation and impact of oil and chemical spills. It
provides analysis of the environmental and ecological impacts of
oil spills, oil spill dispersion dynamics, effectiveness of new treat-
ments and technologies, and surveys of the effects of large oil
spills.
Oil Spill Intelligence Report

Aspen Publishers
76 Ninth Avenue, 7th Floor
New York, NY 10011
ISSN: 0195-3524
This weekly journal provides reports on oil spills across the
world; information about contingency planning, scientific re-
search, new technology in the areas of cleanup, control, and pre-
vention; and news of international efforts to address the issue of
oil spills. It targets a wide audience of industry, academic profes-
sionals, and public officials involved in oil spill remediation.
Resource and Energy Economics

Elsevier, Inc.
ISSN: 0928-7655
This academic journal publishes scholarly papers that analyze
economic aspects of natural resource use and management, en-
ergy consumption, and environmental and energy policies in de-
veloping and industrialized countries. It is an interdisciplinary
journal for people studying links between energy, the environ-
ment, and economics.
304 Resources

Building Sustainability with the Natural Step
Northcutt Production, 1999.
Produced and directed by P. Northcutt.
VHS, 22 minutes
This film examines the concept of sustainability and the impor-
tance of preserving resources for the needs of future generations.
It shows how the concept of sustainable living has been incorpo-
rated into facilities at the University of Texas in Houston.
Building with Awareness: The Construction of a Hybrid Home

A Syncronos Design Production, 2005.
Written, produced, and directed by T. Owens.
DVD, 162 minutes
This film is about green building technology for domestic
dwellings. It discusses straw bale, adobe, and cob building mate-
rials; describes construction techniques and tips; and goes over
things that need to be considered in the planning, design, and
construction of green homes, including passive heating and cool-
ing systems, the use of photovoltaic technology, and rainwater
cisterns.
Can Polar Bears Tread Water? The Changing Climate

A Central Television/TVE production, produced in association
with the Television Trust for the Environment and the Better
World Society, 1989. Published by MTI Film & Video.
Produced and directed by L. Moore.
VHS, 53 minutes
This film examines the issue of global warming. It describes the
greenhouse effect, discusses the causes and consequences of
global warming, including the impact to coastal areas and devel-
oping countries, and reviews international policy initiatives, such
as the Montreal Protocol, that have been initiated to deal with the
issue of global warming.
Crisis in the Atmosphere

WQED Pittsburgh in association with the National Academy of
Sciences, 1989. Published by Intellimation.
Written and produced by L. Friedberg.
VHS, 60 minutes
This film examines the scientific evidence for global warming. It
provides an overview of the issue and the potential consequences
to the quality of life in industrialized and developing countries.
Dennis Weavers Earthship

Robert Weaver Enterprises production in association with Gerry
Productions, 1990. Published by Survival Habitat.
Produced and written by R. W. and M. T. Scarpaci; directed by P.
Scarpaci.
VHS, 29 minutes
This film describes the construction of Earthship, a home made
out of recycled tires, sand, mud, and soda cans. It describes how
the house produces and distributes energy in an efficient way
from solar technologies and examines how passive solar elements
are used for heating and lighting.
The Energy Bank

Umbrella Films and Rampion Visual Productions. Published by
Bullfrog Films, 1991.
Produced and directed by A. C. Grossman and R. F. Cole.
VHS, 38 minutes
This film discusses the need for enhancing energy efficiency in
our society. It examines efficiency in electricity generation, con-
sumption, and transportation, explains the energy gains that can
be made through energy efficiency measures, and describes the
political and institutional barriers to implementing efficiency
measures.
306 Resources
Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room

Magnolia Pictures, HDNet Films Presentation and Jigsaw Pro-
ductions. Published by Magnolia Home Entertainment, 2005.
Produced by A. Gibney, J. Kliot, and S. Motamed; written and di-
rected by A. Gibney.
DVD, 110 minutes
This documentary film is about the collapse of one of Americas
largest energy trading companies. It examines Enrons rise to
power, its accumulation of energy utilities, and the corrupt finan-
cial activities and manipulations in the energy trading industry.
The Four Corners: A National Sacrifice Area?

Bullfrog Films, in association with the Graduate School of Jour-
nalism, University of California, Berkeley. Published by Bullfrog
Films, 1996.
Produced by C. McLeod, G. Switkes, and R. Hayes, written and
directed by C. McLeod.
VHS, 58 minutes
This documentary examines the impacts of coal and uranium
mining on the Navajo and Hopi tribes in the southwestern
United States. It describes the environmental degradation from
coal mining, the health problems associated with uranium min-
ing, and the environmental and cultural impacts of resource ex-
traction.
An Inconvenient Truth
Paramount Classics and Participant Productions, 2006
Directed by D. Guggenheim and produced by L. David, L. Ben-
der, and S. Z. Burns.
DVD, 100 minutes
This film features the campaign of former vice president Al Gore
to educate the public about global climate change and confront
issues of global warming. It describes the science of global warm-
ing in a tangible way and encourages viewers to participate
in actions that mitigate the environmental consequences of en-
ergy use.
Oil on Ice
Dale Djerassi/Bo Boudart Production in association with Lobitos
Creek Ranch. Published by Oil On Ice Partners, 2004. Distributed
by Bullfrog Films.
Produced and directed by D. Djerassi and B. Boudart; written by
S. Most.
DVD, 90 minutes
This documentary concerns issues associated with drilling for oil
in the U.S. Artic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). It examines
the livelihood of the Gwichin Indians, the potential impact that
drilling may have on migratory bird and caribou populations,
and the debate among environmentalists and oil companies.
This film is a good resource for people who want to understand
the ANWR drilling issues and see stunning visual footage of
the refuge.
Databases and Internet Resources

Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC)
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/
The AFDC provides up-to-date information on alternative fuels
and vehicles used in the transportation sector. It contains infor-
mation on biodiesel, electric, ethanol, hydrogen, and natural gas
fuel sources, offers an updated listing on available alternative fuel
stations, and lists more than 3,000 documents relating to alterna-
tive fuels.
Best Practices Database for Improving the Living Environment

http://www.bestpractices.org/
This searchable database contains solutions for public and private
entities working to improve governance, eliminate poverty, pro-
tect the environment, and enhance economic development. The
database includes policy tools, networking and technical cooper-
ation opportunities, and analysis of current trends in sustainable
development.
European DataBank Sustainable Development

http://www.sd-eudb.net/
308 Resources
This database is for institutions, organizations, and associations

involved in planning and implementing sustainable develop-
ment measures in their societies.
Eurostat, Sustainable Development Indicators

European Union
http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/
This database provides information and statistics on a number of
indicators of sustainable development for policymakers, the
general public, and academic communities. Themes include eco-
nomic development, production and consumption patterns, man-
agement of natural resources, and transport.
National Sustainable Agricultural Information Service

(ATTRA) and National Center for Appropriate Technology
(NCAT)
http://attra.ncat.org/
This Web site offers information on sustainable energy practices
and energy-efficient agricultural practices. Topics include sus-
tainable farming technologies, practices, and programs for farm-
ers, ranchers, researchers, and educators.
United Nations Common Database (UNCDB)

http://unstats.un.org
This database provides a large amount of statistical information
in the areas of global finance, national accounts, food and
agriculture production, industrial commodities, and world devel-
opment indicators for countries and regions worldwide. It is a
useful resource for people involved in global sustainable devel-
opment research.
09-ENUSWW_Gloss.qxd 5/31/07 6:11 PM Page 309
Glossary
Achnacarry Agreement (As-Is) An agreement among the major oil

companies to fix oil prices using the Gulf Plus System that priced oil
as if it had been shipped from the Gulf of Mexico.
Acid rain See Atmospheric deposition.
Air pollution Gaseous and solid particles released in the process of fos-
sil fuel combustion. Common air pollutants include nitrous oxide, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.
Anaerobic digestion A process that occurs during bacterial decompo-
sition in anoxic environments of a biomass energy resource producing
methane as a fuel.
Anthracite A type of coal characterized by high carbon content. This
coal is mainly used for domestic heating purposes.
Atmospheric deposition Deposition of liquid (e.g., acid rain) and solid
forms (lead, mercury, etc.) of air pollution onto land surfaces. The differ-
ence between deposition and precipitation is that deposition includes at-
mospheric fallout that is not in liquid form and can occur when it is not
precipitating.
Atomic bomb An extremely powerful explosive device that causes a
nuclear chain reaction when it is detonated.
Barrel of oil equivalent (boe) A unit of energy that specifies how much
potential energy is contained in a barrel of oil. It is estimated to be 43.8
GJ of energy.
Big Inch The first large oil pipeline built to deliver crude oil from the
southwestern United States to Pennsylvania.
Biofuels Fuels made from dried biomass (e.g., dung, wood, etc.) or
from thermochemical processes (e.g., fermentation, anaerobic digestion,
etc.) that transform biomass resources into fuels.
309
310 Glossary
Biomass The living and/or biological material found on the earths

surface. It is often combusted or burned as an energy source.
Bituminous coal A ranking of coal that is characterized by lower car-
bon content. It is the primary type of coal used in electricity generation.
British thermal unit (Btu) A unit of energy that describes the quantity
of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one de-
gree Fahrenheit.
Calorie A unit of energy that describes the amount of energy required
to heat one gram of water one degree Celsius.
Catalytic cracking A petroleum-refining process that uses high tem-
peratures and pressures to break large hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller constituents.
Charcoal Carbon substance produced when wood undergoes pyroly-
sis. Historically, it was important for the smelting of iron ore.
Coal A chemically complex fossil fuel ranked into three major groups
(bituminous, lignite, and anthracite) according to the amount of fixed
carbon and volatile matter contained in its chemical structure.
Cogeneration A process for generating electricity from waste heat that
is a by-product of electricity generation.
Coke Carbon fuel produced from the pyrolysis of coal. Historically, it
was important for the manufacture of steel.
Combustion A process of releasing the chemical energy stored in fossil
fuels and hydrocarbons by heating.
Commercial sector The energy sector that encompasses heating, cool-
ing, and lighting of businesses, schools, hospitals, and churches.
Consumerism The trend of rapidly increasing demand and expanded
distribution for a large number of goods and services resulting in an in-
creased demand for energy.
Cord of wood 128 cubic feet of wood equaling a wood stack that is 4
feet 4 feet 8 feet.
Crude oil The thick, viscous petroleum compounds that are pumped
from the ground and refined into gasoline and other fuels.
Deep shaft mining A method of extracting coal from the earth in areas
where coal seams are located 100 feet or greater below the surface.
Deregulation The process of repealing government regulations on in-
dustry for the purpose of promoting economic growth and competition
in markets.
Distillation A process that separates and collects hydrocarbon prod-
ucts in petroleum using their different boiling points.
Glossary 311
Energy The capacity to do work.

Energy crisis Significant shortages in energy resources resulting in loss
of energy services, spikes in energy prices, and overall decrease in en-
ergy use.
Energy conversion The process of converting energy from one form to
another (e.g., potential energy to mechanical energy, mechanical energy
to electrical energy, etc.).
Energy dynamics The interaction of societys energy systems with its
economic and social structures.
Energy efficiency The ratio of useful energy output to total energy
input.
Energy flows The path that energy follows as it is extracted, converted,
delivered, and used in society.
Energy infrastructure The physical structures that are built to deliver
energy services to a society.
Energy intensity A measure that describes energy use as a function of
gross domestic product (GDP). It is often used to describe energy trends
in a particular country.
Energy sector A categorization of end uses of energy that group into
four divisions: residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation.
Energy security Condition which is met when energy resources are
available, affordable, and reliable to energy consumers in a society.
Energy subsidies Payments or rewards granted by governments to en-
ergy companies for the purpose of minimizing the cost of energy pro-
duction for public provision.
Energy transition A shift of the primary energy resource used in large
societies (e.g., coal to petroleum).
Energy units A particular quantity of energy, power, or resources asso-
ciated with energy use that is accepted as a standard for measurement or
trade (e.g., joule is the standard unit of energy).
Engineering A field that utilizes physical laws to design systems for
harnessing and distributing energy to society.
Federal lands Land areas in the United States that are publicly owned
and managed by federal government agencies.
Fermentation A process that occurs during the breakdown of biomass
resources involving aerobic microorganisms to produce biofuels (e.g.,
ethanol).
Force The product of mass and acceleration (mass acceleration).
312 Glossary
Fossil fuels (energies) Formed from geologically compressed layers of

organic matter and composed of mostly light elements such as carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen, they are used as an energy resource through a
process called combustion. Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are the main
fossil energies used by society.
Fuel cycle The complete process of extraction, transportation, process-
ing, and consumption of a fuel type (e.g., coal, nuclear fuel rods, etc.).
Gas flaring A highly polluting practice that removes unwanted gas
from crude oil.
Gasification The process by which a gaseous fuel is produced from a
solid using steam.
Generator A machine that produces electrical energy from mechanical
energy by passing a coil of conductive wire past the positive and nega-
tive poles of a magnet.
Geothermal energy A primary energy source derived from hot sub-
surface environments and used to create steam for electricity generation.
Global energy market The means by which energy resources are
traded among countries and within entities that supply, produce, and
distribute energy.
Global warming Warming of the Earths surface temperature by sev-
eral degrees. Warming occurs as solar radiation is trapped by gases in the
Earths atmosphere. Warming is a natural phenomenon but can be en-
hanced by human activity.
Globalization The integration of regional markets across national
boundaries.
Greenhouse gases Gases emitted during fossil fuel combustion that
absorb infrared radiation from the Sun and hence do not allow solar ra-
diation to escape the Earths atmosphere.
Gross domestic product (GDP) A measure of the goods and services
produced annually in a particular country.
Hydrocarbons Molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen chains.
They form the chemical basis of all fossil energies.
Induction The process by which electrical current is generated in a
charged circuit from an adjacent charged circuit by proximity and
grounding.
Industrial revolution A period in history that marks the rise in manu-
facturing and industry.
Industrial sector The energy sector that describes energy use for pur-
poses of manufacturing, textiles, paper industries, metallurgy, chemical
industries, and oil refining.
Glossary 313
Isotopes Atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of

neutrons in their nuclei.
Joule The international standard unit (SI) for energy.
Hydroelectric dam A large structure built across a river for the purpose
of capturing the kinetic energy of falling water to generate electricity.
Hydroelectricity Electricity generated from the kinetic energy of
falling water.
Kerosene A product distilled from crude petroleum. Originally used as
an illuminant, it was the first attractive commodity to be separated from
petroleum.
Kilowatt-hour A common unit for electricity rates that expresses the
amount of electricity consumed in one hour.
Land reclamation The process of restoring lands decimated by coal
mining activities to their original ecological integrity.
Land subsidence An occurrence where land sinks down and some-
times collapses into abandoned mine shafts.
Law of Thermodynamics (1) Conservation of energy; energy cannot be
created or destroyed. (2) As energy is converted from one form to an-
other, it becomes less useful for doing work.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) Natural gas cooled to 259F for storage
and transportation. It is regasified at its destination before use.
Market liberalization Occurs in globalized markets when trade bor-
ders for goods and services are relaxed to promote the interests of
transnational corporations.
Market privatization Occurs when nationalized (state-owned) indus-
tries, such as oil industries, are sold to transnational corporations.
Marshall Plan A policy measure enacted by the United States with the
intention of providing economic and energy aid to Europe after World
War II.
Monopoly Condition described as a market failure that occurs in a
market system where only one or a few providers of a good or a service
exist, thereby limiting consumer choice.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Limits estab-
lished by the U.S. government for six primary air pollutants: SO2, NOx,
ozone, carbon monoxide, lead, and particulate matter.
Natural gas A fossil fuel primarily made up of methane, a compound
composed of molecules containing one carbon and four hydrogen atoms.
Nonrenewable energy sources Energy sources that are depleted
314 Glossary
through overuse and replenished over long periods of geologic time. Ex-
amples include coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium.
Nuclear energy An energy source that is derived from nuclear fission,
a process that utilizes neutrons to split uranium and plutonium atoms.
Offshore drilling Oil and natural gas drilling activities that occur
along oceanic continental shelf regions.
Oil See Petroleum.
Oil embargo The imposition of sanctions by an oil-producing country
that refuses to trade oil with the consuming country.
Petroleum (oil) Composed of hundreds of different hydrocarbons, this
liquid resource is refined to produce useful consumer products and fuels
(e.g., gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, petroleum jelly, etc.).
Physics Science that explains processes and phenomena describing en-
ergy dynamics observed in the world.
Photovoltaics A class of compounds that convert light directly to elec-
tricity using solid-state crystalline materials.
Pipeline A common method for transporting fossil fuels that uses high
pressures and mechanical pumps to push gas or liquid fuels through a
network of pipes to destinations where they are to be converted into use-
ful energy.
Power The rate at which energy is converted into electricity. It is mea-
sured in watts (joules/seconds).
Primary energy resource The fundamental energy source that provides
a community with energy.
Pyrolysis The process of heating an energy source in the absence of air.
It is used to make charcoal out of biomass resources and coke from coal
resources.
Radiation The physical form of all free energy (e.g., light energy, mi-
crowave energy, ionizing energy, etc.).
Radioactive waste Unwanted radioactive by-products that result from
nuclear reactions, such as those that take place in nuclear power plants.
Radioactivity A property of certain elements characterized by the
spontaneous emission of energy in the form of rays or particles.
Refinery A processing plant that uses distillation and catalytic conver-
sion to remove impurities and separate, collect, and purify useable prod-
ucts (e.g., gasoline, jet fuel, etc.) from petroleum.
Regulations Rules and guidelines imposed on industry by govern-
ments to ensure against the negative effects of market failures.
Renewable energy Natural energy flows, or sources, that are not sig-
Glossary 315
nificantly depleted with use and can be regenerated as they are depleted.
Wind, solar energy, and water are examples of renewable energy sources.
Residential sector The energy sector that describes energy used in
homes for heating, cooling, lighting, electrical appliances, and cooking.
Semiconducting elements Nonmetallic elements, such as silicon, that
are able to conduct electricity.
Seven Sisters The nickname given to the first seven global oil compa-
nies, so-named for their dominance in the global market and close align-
ment of interests.
Smelting Procedure in steel-making that uses high temperatures to pu-
rify and strengthen iron ore.
Smog A type of air pollution that forms when nitrogen oxide molecules
react with ozone and water vapor in the atmosphere.
Solar energy Energy that is contained in solar radiation.
Steel A product made from the smelting of iron using coke as the
smelting fuel. In this process, impurities are removed from the iron ore
resulting in a structural material that is stronger than pig iron. Pig iron is
the crude iron product that is retrieved from blast furnaces. It has a high
carbon content and is more brittle than steel.
Strip (surface) mining A method of coal extraction that involves strip-
ping land away from the surface to reach coal seams located within 100
feet of the surface.
Sustainable development An ideal way of life that embodies the con-
cept that all people living on the planet have the same opportunities and
resources available for enhancing their quality of life without compro-
mising the ability of others to do the same. Practically, this concept in-
volves increasing energy efficiencies, conserving energy, and developing
renewable resources.
Thermochemical processing A method of producing concentrated
fuels from an energy resource (e.g., pyrolysis, gasification, etc.).
Transformer Device that uses the principle of induction to transport
electricity long distances from its generation source.
Transportation sector The energy sector that encompasses energy used
to transport people and goods from one place to another (e.g., trucks,
railways, planes, etc.).
Uranium The main radioactive fuel used in nuclear reactions.
Utility companies Companies that generate and distribute energy
services, such as electricity and natural gas.
Waterpower Energetic power derived from the motion of falling water
turning turbines.
316 Glossary
Watt A unit of energy where the rate of 1 watt is equal to 1 joule per sec-
ond.
Wind energy The use of wind to power turbines for the creation of
electricity.
Work The product of force and distance (force distance).
Zircalloy A metal alloy consisting of zirconium, tin, chromium, and
nickel used as the casing in nuclear fuel rods because it is heat-resistant.
10-ENUSWW1C-Index.qxd 5/30/07 4:00 PM Page 317
Index
Achnacarry (As-Is) Air Quality Control Regions

Agreement, 2728 (AQCRs), 99
Acid mine drainage, 53 Alcohol fuels, 20, 88
Acid rain, 58, 100 Alfonzo, Juan Perez, 144
Affordability, 65 Algeria, 32
Africa, 168176, 191, 206 Alliance to Save Energy (ASE),
African Energy Policy Research 230
Network/Foundation for American Association of
Woodstove Petroleum Geologists
Dissemination (AAPG), 230
(AFREPREN/FWD), American Coal Ash Association
229230 (ACAA), 230231
African Wind Energy American Coal Council (ACC),
Association (AfriWEA), 231
230 American Council for an Energy
Aguadoura wave farm project, Efficient Economy
1819 (ACEEE), 231
Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, American Hydrogen Association
144145 (AHA), 231
Air pollution, 24 American Institute of Mining,
carbon dioxide emissions, Metallurgical, and
207209, 207 (figure), 208 Petroleum Engineers
(tables), 209 (figure) (AIME), 232
and fossil fuels, 24, 55, 5659, American Oil and Gas Historical
57 (table) Society (AOGHS), 232
legislation and, 98101, 227 American Petroleum Institute
(table) (API), 232
See also Environment; Global American Public Power
warming Association (APPA),
Air Quality Act (1967), 99 232233
317
318 Index
American Solar Energy Society Estate Professionals

(ASES), 233 (AEEREP), 234
American Wind Energy Association of Energy Engineers
Association (AWEA), 233 (AEE), 234235
Amoco Cadiz, 55 Association of Energy Service
Anaerobic digestion, 20 Companies (AESC), 235
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Association of Energy Services
(AIOC), 31 Professionals (AESP), 235
Ango-Persian Company, 26 Atomic Energy Act (1946), 34,
Anthracite, 24, 87 9596
uses of, 12, 23 Atomic Energy Commission
Antitrust lawsuits, 25 (AEC), 34, 95
Appalachian region, 53 Atoms, 14
Appliance Standards Awareness Australia, 32, 73
Project (ASAP), 233 Austrian Energy Agency, 235
Arab-Israeli conflict, 3233, 35 Automobiles
Arabian-American Oil and Bush, George H. W.,
Company (ARAMCO), energy policy, 93
28, 35 emission standards for, 100
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and gasoline demand, 26, 27
(ANWR), 93, 104107 and gasoline taxes, 91
Arctic oil supplies, 94. See also Availability, energy, 65
Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge (ANWR); Trans- Baltimore Canyon, 65
Alaska Pipeline System Barrels of oil equivalent (boe), 8
(TAPS) Beaufort Sea, 105
Argentina, 195 Belgium, 16
Asia Biodiversity, loss of, 60
and coal, 179 Biomass fuels, 1920
and energy demand, 4950 and Bush, George W.,
energy production and administration, 94
consumption in, 176 and developing countries, 50
preindustrial energy uses in, and resource depletion, 2223,
22 64
Asian Regional Research worldwide production and
Programme in Energy, consumption of, 198
Environment and Climate Bituminous coal, 1213, 24
(ARRPEEC), 234 Black lung disease, 52
Association for Southeast Asian Blowout accidents, 55
Nations (ASEAN), 36 Brazil, 195
Association for the Study of British Petroleum (BP), 26, 28, 44
Peak Oil & Gas (ASPO), British thermal unit (Btu),
234 defined, 7
Association of Energy and Browne, John (Lord Browne of
Environmental Real Madingley), 145146
Index 319
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 146 Charcoal, 20, 22

Bureau of Land Management Chvez, Hugo, 148149
(BLM), 103 Chemical energy, 2, 7
Bush, George H. W., 73, 9293 Cheney, Dick, 94
Bush, George W., administration Chernobyl, 6263
and the Arctic National Chevron, 47
Wildlife Refuge, 106107 China
energy policy, 9495 and coal, 13, 52
and nuclear energy, 97 and the history of oil, 25
and Yucca Mountain, 108 industrialization and
increasing energy use in,
California, 19, 25, 112113 4950, 176
California Arabian Standard Three Gorges Dam, 64
Oil Company (CASOC), China Energy Group, 237
28 Chinese National Petroleum
California Energy Commission, Company (CNPC),
236 4950
Calorie, defined, 7 Chinese Renewable Energy
Canada, 32 Industries Association
Canadian Association of (CREIA), 237
Petroleum Producers Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 60
(CAPP), 236 Churchill, Winston, 26
Cancer, 59, 61 Clean Air Acts, 98100, 227
Cap-and-trade programs, (table)
100101 Clean Water Act (CWA) (1972),
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 60, 101
207209, 207 (figure), 208 Clear Skies legislation (2005),
(tables), 209 (figure) 101
Carbon equivalents, 209 Climate Action Network (CAN),
Carbon monoxide (CO), 56, 57, 238
99, 100 Climate change. See Global
Carbon taxes, 75 warming
Crdenas, Lzaro, 147 Climate Institute, 238
Carnegie, Andrew, 147148 Clinton administration, energy
Carter, Jimmy, 7273, 9091 policy, 9394
Caspian Sea, 65 Cnooc, 50
Center for Applied Energy Coal, 1214, 13 (table)
Research, 236 and China, 49
Center for Energy and Economic and electricity generation in
Development (CEED), the United States, 212
236237 environmental concerns and,
Center for Resource Solutions 5253, 56
(CRS), 237 exporters and importers of,
Central America, 168176, 200, 204 (table)
206 flow cycle, 187 (figure)
320 Index
Coal, continued Comprehensive National

and the Industrial Revolution, Energy Policy Act
2324 (CNEPA) (1992), 9293
preindustrial use, 23 Comprehensive National
production in the United Energy Strategy, 93
States, 104, 210212, 215 Conflict, international, 6668.
(table), 216 (figure) See also Political tensions
role in the future of, 66 Conservation, energy
and the Soviet Union, 49 and Carter energy policy,
U.S. regulations on production 9091
of, 101102 effect of subsidies on, 46
and U.S. energy consumption, and personal responsibility,
87, 88 7879
and World War II, 30 and sustainable development,
worldwide production and 71
consumption of, 179, 184, Consumerism, 27
189191 (figure), 193 (table Consumption, energy
6.6) of coal worldwide, 193 (table
Coal Utilization Research 6.6)
Council (CURC), 238 and developing countries,
Coalition for Affordable and 5051
Reliable Energy (CARE), of fossil fuels worldwide, 188
238239 (table 6.3), 189191 (figure)
Cogeneration, 91, 111 GDP and measuring, 4244, 43
Coke, 13, 23, 24, 184 (figure), 45 (figure)
and coal pyrolysis, 20 of natural gas worldwide, 192
Colorado River, 63 (table 6.5)
Commercial sector of oil worldwide, 192 (table
and Bush, George H. W., 6.4)
energy policy, 92 overall worldwide, 168202,
energy consumption of the, 9, 169175 (table), 177179
86, 88 (figure)
Common pool resources, 76 per capita, 206207, 206 (table)
Communication sector, 27 and renewable energy sources
Community-based agriculture, worldwide, 200 (table)
79 and the Soviet Union, 48
Compagnie Francaise de in the United States, 8688,
Petroles (CFP), 28 210212, 211 (table), 219
Competition, 109 (figure)
Comprehensive Energy Plan worldwide, by fuel type,
(1992), 73 180183 (figure)
Comprehensive Environmental Continental shelf, 54
Response, Compensation Convergence Research, 239
and Liability Act Cooperative Research Center for
(CERCLA), 102 Coal in Sustainable
Index 321
Development (CCSD), and international energy

239 inequalities, 6870
Costs Disease outbreaks, 60
and the Arctic National Distillation, 11
Wildlife Refuge, 106 Distribution equality, 6870, 206
increasing, of fossil fuels, 75 Dnieper River, 33
subsidies and determining Domestic Petroleum Council
real, 4546 (DPC), 239
sustainable development and Drake, Edwin, 25
calculating, 71 Drilling
Council on Petroleum environmental effects of, 52,
(ASCOPE), 36 5354
Crop yields, 58 on federal lands, 103104
Crude Oil and Equalization Tax and natural gas, 11
(COET), 91 on the North Slope, 105
Currency, oil, 46 and oil, 11
Current, electrical, 45 and Reagan energy policy, 92
Dung, 19
DArcy, William Knox, 26, 149
Debt, and developing countries, Economics
47, 69 and energy consumption,
Decentralization, 7475 206207, 206 (table)
Deforestation, 2223 and energy prices, 44
Demand, energy and government policy, 7475
Carter policies to reduce, 91 link to energy systems of,
and industrialization, 4951 4144, 4851
See also Consumption, energy and sustainable development,
Denmark, 19 7072
Department of Energy (DOE), See also Industrialization
90, 96 Edison, Thomas, 149150
Department of Energy Edison Electric Institute (EEI),
Reorganization Act, 90 239240
Department of the Interior Efficiency, energy, 34
(DOI), 105 and Bush, George H. W.,
Deregulation, utility, 111113 energy policy, 92
Desert Shield/Desert Storm, 67 and Carter energy policy,
Developed countries, 10. See also 9091
United States, the and Clinton energy policy, 93
Developing countries and developing renewable
and biofuels, 20 technologies, 72
energy allocation in, 10 government policies and, 75
and globalization, 46, 47 and measuring consumption,
and hydropower, 64, 200 4244, 45 (figure)
and increasing energy and personal energy
demand, 4951 responsibility, 79
322 Index
Efficiency, energy, continued and worldwide nuclear

Soviet Union and lack of, 48 power, 197 (table), 198
and sustainable development, (figure)
71 Electrons, 4
Einstein, Albert, 150151 Emergency Petroleum
Eisenhower administration Allocation Act (EPAA), 90
and the Arctic National Energistics, 240
Wildlife Refuge, 105 Energy Action Coalition, 240
energy policy, 32, 34, 89, 90 Energy Advocates, 241
Electric capacity, 191193 Energy and Environmental
and nuclear power Building Association
worldwide, 195, 197 (table) (EEBA), 241
and renewable sources Energy and Mineral Law
worldwide, 200 (table), 201 Foundation (EMLF), 241
(table 6.11), 202 (tables) The Energy and Resources
worldwide, 194 (figure), 194 Institute (TERI), 241
(table) Energy audits, 91
Electric Power Research Energy companies, 205 (table).
Institute (EPRI), 240 See also Oil companies
Electricity, 2, 45 Energy concepts, 18
and coal, 87 Energy conversion, defined, 3
increasing demand and cheap, Energy crisis
27 diminishing resources and
and nuclear energy, 87 looming global, 66
regulation of, 9394, 109, and English preindustrial iron
111113 production, 2223
from renewable energy 19701980, 3436
sources worldwide, and the Six-Day War, 3233
198202, 200 (table), 201 and the Suez Crisis, 31
(table 6.11), 202 (tables) and World War II, 30
and U.S. energy consumption, and the world wars, 89
88 Energy Efficiency and
and U.S. infrastructure, 89 Conservation Authority
U.S. legislation on, 225 (table) (EECA), 242
worldwide consumption, Energy equivalents, 8 (table)
191195, 194 (table) Energy forms, 23
See also Electricity generation Energy FoundationChina
Electricity generation (EFChina), 242
and renewable energy sources Energy inequalities, 6870, 206
worldwide, 200 (table), 201 Energy Information
(table 6.11) Administration (EIA), 86,
in the United States, 212, 218 242
(figure) Energy intensity (EI)
worldwide, 191192, 194 and developing countries,
(table) 5051
Index 323
equation, 42 and sustainable development,

and the Soviet Union, 48 71
Energy Justice Network, Environmental Energy
242243 Technologies Division
Energy measurements and (EETD), 243
units, 68 Environmental Impact
Energy Policy Act (1992), 106 Statement (EIS), 98, 105
Energy Policy Act (2005), Environmental Protection
9495, 107, 113 Agency (EPA)
Energy Reorganization Act and clean air standards,
(1974), 96 99100
Energy Research and formation of, 98
Development and nuclear waste, 108
Administration (ERDA), Environmental standards,
96 99100
Energy Task Force, 94 global, 47, 7678
Energy transitions, 72 Environmentalist organizations,
Engineering, 12 104105, 106
England, 2223 Erosion, and drilling, 54
Enron Corporation, 112113 Ethanol, 20
Environment Eurasia, 176, 179
and air pollution, 5659, 57 Euratom, 34
(table) Europe
and Bush, George H. W., energy production and
energy policy, 93 consumption in, 176, 206
and carbon emissions, natural gas in, 33
207209, 207 (figure), 208 and nuclear power, 16, 34
(tables), 209 (figure) preindustrial energy uses, 22
and Clinton energy policy, and the Suez Crisis, 3132
93 transition to coal in, 23
effect of energy consumption European Coal and Steel
on the, 5152 Community (ECSC), 30
energy costs and damage to European Coal Organization
the, 4546 (ECO), 30
and fossil fuels, 12, 13, 14, European Energy Network
35, 5255 (ENR), 243
and global warming, 5961 European Oil and Gas
government regulations and Innovation Forum
protecting the, 7475, (EUROGIF), 243
97102 European Pipeline Research
nuclear energy and, 6163 Group (EPRG), 243244
and renewable technologies, European Union (EU), 73
6364 Exports
Soviet Union and damage to U.S. coal, 87
the, 4849 U.S. natural gas, 87
324 Index
Exports, continued Force equation, 2

U.S. oil, 86, 210, 220 (figure) Ford, Henry, 151152
and worldwide trade in fossil Ford administration, 90, 96
fuels, 203205, 203 (table), Fossil fuels
204 (table) Bush, George W.,
Exxon, 25, 27, 28 administration and, 94,
Exxon-Mobil, 44 106107
Exxon Valdez, 55, 93 and carbon emissions,
207209, 207 (figure), 208
Faraday, Michael, 151 (tables), 209 (figure)
Federal Coal Leasing and developing countries, 50
Amendments Act (1976), and environmental and health
104 concerns, 5261
Federal Energy Regulatory flow cycles, 185187 (figures)
Commission (FERC), global reliance on, 36, 47
110111, 244 government policy and, 75
Federal implementation plans and the Industrial Revolution,
(FIPs), 100 2326
Federal Land Policy and Reagan administration and,
Management Act 73, 92
(FLPMA) (1976), 101 trade in, 203207, 203204
Federal lands (tables)
energy production on, 92, types of, 1014
103109 U.S. production and
legislation regarding, 228 consumption of, 8687,
(table) 210212, 214215 (figures),
Federal Mine Safety and Health 215 (table), 216217
Act (1969), 102 (figures)
Federal Power Act (1935), 111 and worldwide electricity
Federal Power Commission generation, 195
(FPC), 110 worldwide production and
Fermentation, 20 consumption of, 176179,
Fishing industry 184191, 188 (tables),
and hydroelectric power, 64 189191 (figure), 192193
and oil pollution, 54, 55 (tables)
Fission, 14 France, 16, 18, 31
Flow cycles, 184 Francis, James B., 152153
and fossil fuels, 185187
(figures) Gas. See Natural gas
nuclear, 196 (figure) Gas flaring, 98, 184
and renewable energy sources, Gas Technology Institute (GTI),
199 (table) 244
Fly ash, 56 Gasification, defined, 20
Food, and personal energy Gasoline, 12, 184
responsibility, 7980 and Carter energy policy, 91
Index 325
demand and automobiles, 26, Gross domestic product (GDP)

27 and measuring energy
taxes and Clinton consumption, 4244, 43
administration, 93 (figure), 206, 206 (table)
General Accounting Office U.S., 85
(GAO), 94 Gulf of Mexico, 86, 87, 210
Generator, 5 Gulf Oil, 2526, 28
Genetic effects, and radiation, 61 Gulf Plus System, 2728
Geopressurized energy, 20, 202 Gwichin people, 105
Geothermal energy, 2021
and U.S. energy consumption, Hahn, Otto, 153154
88 Hardin, Garrett, 76
worldwide production and Hazardous waste sites, 102. See
consumption of, 198, 202, also Nuclear waste
202 (table 6.13) Health issues
Geothermal Resources Council and Clinton energy policy, 93
(GRC), 244 and developing countries, 69
Germany, 17 energy costs and, 4546
Gesner, Abraham, 25 and fossil fuel use, 24, 5261,
Global warming, 52, 5961 57 (table)
and Bush, George H. W., and nuclear energy, 6163
energy policy, 92 Heart disease, 57
and carbon emissions, 207209 Heat
and Clinton energy policy, 93 and energy efficiency, 4
as a common pool problem, 76 and fossil fuels, 10
and international regimes, losses in generating electricity,
7778 88
nuclear energy in addressing, and nuclear waste, 107
97 Hiroshima, 95
Global Wind Energy Council History of energy use
(GWEC), 245 industrial revolution, 2326
Globalization 19141945, 2629
of energy markets, 4648 19451970, 2934
and international energy 19701980 energy crisis, 3436
inequalities, 69 preindustrial consumption,
Gore, Albert Arnold, 153 2123
Governments Hot dry rock, 2021, 202
and energy policy, 7478 Housing, and personal energy
and energy pricing, 4446 responsibility, 79
See also Policy Hubbert, Marion King, 154155
Grants, 92 Human rights, and sustainable
Great Britain, 19, 31 development, 71
Green Power Program, 73 Hussein, Saddam, 68
Greenhouse gases, 60. See also Hydrocarbons, 10, 56
Global warming Hydrologic cycle, 18
326 Index
Hydropower, 18 and international energy

effect on environment of, inequalities, 68
6364 and transitioning to new
increasing use of, 33 technologies, 72
and U.S. energy consumption, U.S. electricity, 89
88 Innovation Center for Energy
and worldwide electricity and Transportation
generation, 195 (ICET), 245
worldwide production and Institute for Energy and
consumption of, 198, 200, Sustainable Development
200 (table) (IESD), 245246
Hydrothermal energy, 2021, Insulation credits, 9091
202 Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC),
Iceland, 21 77, 246
Imports International Association for
U.S. coal, 87 Hydrogen Energy
U.S. natural gas, 87 (IAHE), 246
U.S. oil, 86, 210, 220221 International Atomic Energy
(figures) Agency (IAEA), 34, 195,
U.S. uranium, 87 246
and worldwide trade in fossil International Committee for
fuels, 203205, 203204 Coal and Organic
(tables) Petrology (ICCOP), 247
Income gap, 69 International Convention for the
Independent Petroleum Prevention of Pollution
Association of America from Ships (MARPOL),
(IPAA), 245 77
India International Council for Local
increasing energy demands in, Environmental Initiatives
50, 176 (ICLEI), 247
Narmada Dam projects, 64 International Energy Agency
Indonesia, 50 (IEA), 36, 247
Induction, 5 International Institute for
Industrial revolution, 2326 Energy Conservation
Industrial sector, 9 (IIEC), 248
and Bush, George H. W., International Panel on Climate
energy policy, 92 Change (IPCC), 60
energy consumption in U.S., International Rivers Network
86, 88 (IRN), 247248
Industrialization International Solar Energy
and coking coal, 184 Society (ISES), 248
and energy use, 44, 45 (figure), Interstate Oil and Gas Compact
4951, 176 Commission (IOGCC),
Infrastructure 248
Index 327
Inupiaq people, 105 and clean air standards, 99,

Iran, 31, 36 100
Iran-Iraq War, 176 Leasing, on federal lands,
Iran Petroleum Company (IPC), 103104
27 Legislation
Iraq, 67, 68 U.S. energy-policy, 222224
Isotopes, 14, 15 (tables)
Israel, 31, 32 and U.S. federal lands, 228
(table)
Japan, 32, 50 and U.S. pollution control,
and developing renewable 226227 (tables)
technologies, 73 and U.S. utilities, 225 (table)
and nuclear power, 16 See also Regulation;
Jet fuel, 12, 184 Regulation, environmental
Johnson administration, Liability issues, 96
energy policy, 90 Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 11
Joint Committee on Atomic Louisiana, 87
Energy (JCAE), 34, 95 Luz International, 17
Joule, defined, 67
Magma, 20, 202
Kennedy administration, Magnetism, 5
energy policy, 90 Mandatory Oil Import Program
Kerosene, 25 (MOIP), 32, 89, 90
Kilowatt-hour (KWh), defined, Mandatory Renewable Energy
7 Target (MRET), 73
Kinetic energy, 2 Market liberalization, 4647
Korean Peninsula Energy Markets, energy, 4446
Development and globalization, 4648
Organization (KEDO), Marshall Plan, 30
248249 Meat consumption, 79
Kuwait, 67 Mechanical energy, 2
Kyoto Protocol, 7778, 97 Mercury, 5859
Mercury Rule (2004), 101
Land degradation Metallurgy, 2223
and developing countries, 69 Methane (CH4)
and mining, 53 from anaerobic digestion, 20
U.S. legislation on, 101 as a greenhouse gas, 60
Land subsidence, 5253 and natural gas, 10
Latin America, 2829 Methylation, mercury, 59
Latin American Energy Metric conversion factors, 6
Organization (OLADE), (table)
249 Mexico, 21, 2829
Laws of thermodynamics, 34 Middle East, the
Lay, Kenneth, 155156 energy production and
Lead, 5859 consumption in, 176, 179
328 Index
Middle East, the, continued National Coal Council (NCC),

energy security and 250
increasing tensions in, National Energy Plan (NEP),
2933, 3436 7273, 9091
oil companies in, 26, 2728, National Environmental Policy
4950 Act (NEPA) (1969), 98,
oil reserves in, 12 105
Military intervention National Iranian Oil Company
and developing renewable (NIOC), 31
technologies, 72 National Mining Association
and energy resources, 6768 (NMA), 250
See also Political tensions National Park Service (NPS),
Mine Safety and Health 103
Administration (MSHA), National Petroleum Council
249 (NPC), 250
Mineral Leasing Act (MLA) National Pollution Discharge
(1920), 103, 105 Elimination System
Mining (NPDES) permit
and coal, 13, 5253 program, 101
on federal lands, 104 National Renewable Energy
and land reclamation, 101 Laboratory (NREL), 251
and Reagan energy policy, 92 Nationalization, 29, 31
safety standards, 102 Natural gas, 1011
in the United States, 87 environmental concerns and,
and uranium, 15 5354
and waste, 184 exporters and importers of,
Mobil, 25, 27, 28 204 (table)
Monopoly, 109110 flow cycle, 186 (figure)
Mossadegh, Mohammad, 156 regulating distribution of,
Mountaintop mining and 109111
valley fill operations role in the future of, 33, 66
(MTM/VF), 53 U.S. production and
Municipal solid waste (MSW), consumption of, 8788, 210,
19, 20 217 (figure)
and U.S. electricity
Nagasaki, 95 generation, 212
Narmada Dam projects, 64 worldwide production and
Nassar, Gamal Abdel, 31 consumption of, 179, 184,
National Academy of Sciences 189191 (figure), 192 (table
(NAS), 109 6.5)
National ambient air quality Natural Gas Act (1938), 33
standards (NAAQS), 99 Natural Gas Act (1978), 91, 110
National Association of State Natural Gas Supply
Energy Officials Association (NGSA),
(NASEO), 249250 250251
Index 329
Natural Resources Defense and worldwide electricity

Council (NRDC), 251 generation, 195, 198 (figure)
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 156157 Nuclear proliferation, 6768
Netherlands, 22 Nuclear reactors, 15
Neutrons, 14 and accidents, 62
Nevada, 108 Nuclear Regulatory
New Buildings Institute (NBI), Commission (NRC), 253
251 Nuclear Safety Research,
New York State Energy Development, and
Research and Demonstration Act
Development Authority (1980), 97
(NYSERDA), 252 Nuclear waste, 1516, 63, 97,
New Zealand, 32 195
Niger Delta, 47 and Yucca Mountain
Nigeria, 47 controversy, 107109
Nitrous oxides (NOx), 56, 58 Nuclear Waste Policy Act
and clean air standards, 99, (NWPA) (1982), 97, 107,
100, 101 108
Nixon administration, 90 Nuclear weapons, 95, 195
Nonrenewable energy sources,
defined, 89 Ocean Power Delivery Ltd., 19
North America, 176, 191, 206 Oceania, 176, 179
North Sea, 33, 65 Office of Civilian Radioactive
North Slope of Alaska, 65, 105 Waste Management
Northeast Energy Efficiency (OCRWM), 253
Partnerships (NEEP), 252 Office of Surface Mining (OSM),
Nuclear Energy Institute Inc. v. 101, 253254
Environmental Protection Office on Environmental Policy
Agency, 108 (OEP), 93
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), Offshore drilling, 54, 86
252 in the Beaufort Sea, 105
Nuclear power, 1416 and energy production on
accidents, 6263 federal lands, 103104
and Bush, George W., Oil, 1112
administration, 95 and Bush, George H. W.,
development of, 34 energy policy, 92
environmental and health and China, 4950
concerns, 52, 6163 depletion of, 184191
flow cycle of, 196 (figure) environmental concerns and,
generation and capacity by 5355
country, 197 (table) flow cycle, 185 (figure)
U.S. policy/legislation on, and the industrial revolution,
9597, 223 (table) 2526
and U.S. energy consumption, international regulation and,
86, 87, 88, 212 7677
330 Index
Oil, continued Organization of Petroleum

producing and consuming Exporting Countries
countries, 192 (table 6.4) (OPEC), 32, 3536, 86, 254
production in the United Outer Continental Shelf Lands
States, 210, 214215 (figures) Act (OCSLA), 104
reserves in the Middle East, Ozone (O3), ground-level, 56, 58
176 and clean air standards, 99,
trade in, 46, 203 (table), 210, 100
220221 (figures)
and U.S. energy consumption, Pacific Ocean, 86
86 Particulate matter (PM), 56,
and the world wars, 2629 5758
worldwide consumption of, and clean air standards, 99, 100
179, 184, 189191 (figure) Passive solar designs, 17
Oil companies Patkar, Medha, 158
and Chinese competition, 50 Pennsylvania, 25
corruption and, 6667 Personal energy responsibility,
and global energy markets, 44, 7880
46 Petrodollar, 28, 46
history of, 2526, 2729, 32 Petroleum. See Oil
and international pollution Petroleum Administration for
standards, 77 Defense (PAD) districts,
and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline 210, 213 (table), 215
System, 104 (figure)
and U.S. federal policies, 89 Petroleum and Natural Gas
Oil Depletion Analysis Center International
(ODAC), 254 Standardization (PNGIS),
Oil embargo, 3536, 67, 90. See 254255
also Energy crisis Petroleum Association of Japan
Oil Pollution Control Act (1924), (PAJ), 254
98 Petroleum Foundation of
Oil spills, 5455, 98 America (PFA), 255
and international policy, 76 Petroleum Research Atlantic
Oil tankers, 5455 Canada (PRAC), 255
Oklahoma, 87 Petroleum Technology Alliance
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 157158 of Canada (PTAC), 255
Organization for Arab Petroleum Petroleum Technology Transfer
Exporting Countries Council (PTTC), 255256
(OAPEC), 33, 35 Petromex Petroleos Mexicanos
Organization for Economic (Pemex), 29
Cooperation and Petrotechnical Open Standards
Development (OECD), 32 Consortium (POSC), 256
Organization for European Pew Center on Global Climate
Economic Cooperation Change, 256
(OEEC), 3132 Pfeifle, Mark, 106
Index 331
Philippines, 21 Population, and renewable

Photosynthesis, 17, 19 technologies, 72
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, 17, 200, Potential, defined, 2
201 (table 6.10) Poverty
toxic chemicals in, 64 and international energy
Physical definitions, 23 inequalities, 69
Physics, 1 and Nigeria, 47
Pipelines and sustainable development,
gas, 33 71
and oil spills, 5455 Power crisis, and utility
Trans-Alaska Pipeline System deregulation, 112
(TAPS), 104105 Preindustrial energy
U.S. oil, 29 consumption, 2123
Pittsburgh, 24 Price-Anderson Act (1957), 34,
Platts, 205 96
Plutonium, 1415 Prices
half-life of, 107 developing countries and
Poland, 30 volatile, 69
Policy and formation of OPEC, 32
governments and energy, 7478 and governments, 4446
international, 7678 and the Gulf Plus System,
nuclear energy and U.S., 9597 2728
U.S. energy, 85, 8995, 222224 and the oil embargo, 3536
(tables) U.S. federal role in regulating
Political tensions energy, 8993
and energy crises, 6768 and utilities regulation,
and energy security issues, 110113
2933 Prince William Sound, 55
and Latin America, 29 Privatization, and globalization,
U.S.-China, 50 4647
Pollution Production, energy
common pool, 76 coal worldwide, 193 (table
and developing countries, 69 6.6)
marine, 5455 natural gas worldwide, 192
and mining, 53 (table 6.5)
and Nigeria, 47 oil worldwide, 192 (table 6.4)
and the Oil Pollution Control overall worldwide, 168202,
Act, 98 169175 (table), 177179
and public awareness, 56 (figure)
regulations on water, 101 in the United States, 210212,
and the Soviet Union, 49 215 (figure), 215 (table),
U.S. legislation to control, 216218 (figures)
226227 (tables) worldwide fossil fuel, 188
See also Air pollution; (table 6.2)
Environment See also Electricity generation
332 Index
Production Engineering See also Legislation

Association, 256257 Regulatory Assistance Project
Project Independence, 90 (RAP), 257
Protectionism, petroleum import Renewable Electricity Directive,
quotas, 89 73
Protons, 14 Renewable energy sources, 89,
Public opinion 1621
and nuclear energy, 87 and Bush, George H. W.,
and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline energy policy, 92
System, 104105 and Clinton energy policy, 93
Public Utilities Regulatory environmental and health
Policies Act (PURPA) concerns with, 6364
(1978), 91, 94, 111, 112 flow cycle, 199 (table)
repeal of, 113 and government policies,
Public utility commissions 7475
(PUCs), 110 legislation on, 224 (table)
Public Utility Holding Company in primary production figures,
Act (PUHCA), 111, 113 168
Pyrolysis, defined, 20 and sustainable development,
71
Quality of life, 43 transitioning to, 7274
and U.S. energy consumption,
Radiation, 6163, 107 86, 8788, 212, 219 (figure)
Radiation Effects Research worldwide, 195, 198202
Association (RERF), 257 Renewables Portfolio Standard
Radioactivity, 14, 16 (RPS) programs, 73
and nuclear energy, 6162 Reprocessing, nuclear waste, 108
See also Nuclear waste Reserves, 10
Railroads, 24 coal, 1314, 87
Rance estuary, 18 and diminishing resources,
Reagan administration, 73, 92 6566
Red Line Agreement, 27, 28 natural gas, 11, 8687
Refining, 184 oil, 12, 86, 176
Regulation Residential sector, 9, 92
and Bush, George W., and energy consumption in
administration, 9495 U.S., 86, 88
nuclear fuels and, 89, 95, 96 Resource Conservation and
of U.S. utilities, 9394, Recovery Act (RCRA),
109113, 225 (table) 102
See also Legislation Resource depletion
Regulation, environmental, and biomass, 2223, 64
97102 and oil, 184191
and developing countries, 69 Resources for the Future (RFF),
Reagan and limiting 257
enforcement of, 92 Respiratory problems, 58
Index 333
Restaurants, 79 Shell, 26, 27, 28, 44

Revelle, Roger, 159 Smelting, 22, 24
Rockefeller, John D., 25, 159160 Smog, 58
Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI), Smoke abatement coalitions, 98
257258 Socal, 25, 28
Rongji, Zhu, 160161 Social concerns
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 161 dams and displacing people,
Russia 64
and coal, 13 diminishing resources and,
and the Kyoto Protocol, 78 6566
natural gas in, 33 and energy security and
and nuclear power, 34 conflict, 6668
oil in, 27 and inequalities, 6870
RWE (German utility company), Society of Petroleum Engineers,
17 258
Society of Petrophysicists and
Safety standards Well Log Analysts
and coal mining, 102 (SPWLA), 258
and nuclear waste, 107109 Solar Energy Industries
See also Health issues Association (SEIA), 258
Samuel, Marcus, 26 Solar Energy International (SEI),
Santa Barbara oil spill, 55 258259
Saro-Wiwa, Kenule Beeson, 162 Solar power, 1617
Saud, King, 28 and Carter energy policy,
Saudi Arabia, 28, 35, 67 9091
Sea levels, 60 effect on environment of, 64
Secondary conversion processes, and U.S. energy consumption,
1112 88
Secondary energy resource, 168 worldwide production and
Securities and Exchange consumption of, 198, 200,
Commission (SEC), 111 201 (table 6.10)
Security issues, energy Solar radiation, 17, 198
and the Bush, George W., and water energy, 18
administration, 106 and wind energy, 19
and developing renewable Solar thermal engines, 17
technologies, 72 Solar thermal systems, 200
and diminishing resources, Solutions, energy, 7080
6668 Sources of energy, 810
and global economic growth, nonrenewable, 1014
49, 50 nuclear, 1416
and political tensions in the renewable, 1621
Middle East, 2933, 3436 South Africa, 191, 195
and U.S. energy policy, 85 South America, 168176, 200,
and World War II, 29 206
Seven Sisters, 26, 2729 South China Sea, 65
334 Index
South Korea, 50 Sustainable development, 7072

Southern Alliance for Clean Sweden, 16
Energy (SACE), 259 Syriana, 6667
Soviet Union, the
decrease in energy use and Tax
fall of, 176 credits, 95, 207
and hydropower projects, 33 gasoline, 91, 93
inefficient energy regime in, Technologies
4849 developing renewable, 7274
political tensions and, 30 solar, 200
and pollution, 56 Tellus Institute, 259
St. Louis, 24 Tennessee Valley Authority, 33
Stalin, Joseph, 162163 Terrorism
Standard Oil Company, 25, 27. and energy resources, 6768
See also Exxon; Mobil and nuclear waste concerns,
States 107
and developing renewable Tesla, Nikola, 164
technologies, 73 Texaco, 2526, 28
energy consumption by, 211 Texas, 2526, 87
(table) The Day After Tomorrow, 59
and global warming Thermal energy, defined, 2
measures, 78 Thermochemical processing,
and pollution enforcement, 99 1920
and regulating utilities, 9394, Thorium, 1415
111113 Three Gorges Dam, 64
Steam engines, 23, 24 Three Mile Island, 62, 87, 96
Steel industry, 24, 184 Tidal power, 18
Stockholm Environment Tonnes of coal equivalent
Institute (SEI), 259 (tce), 8
Strong, Maurice, 163164 Tonnes of oil equivalent (toe), 8
Subsidies, energy Torrey Canyon, 55
and early electricity Toxic metals, 56, 5859
infrastructure, 89 Trade, energy, 203207
government policies and, U.S., 210, 220221 (figures)
4446, 75, 9495 See also Exports; Imports
and nuclear energy, 96 Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
and the Soviet Union, 48 (TAPS), 54, 104105
Suez Crisis, 3132, 67 Transformers, 5
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 56, 58 Transnational corporations
and clean air standards, 99, (TNCs), 4647
100, 101 Transportation, 9
and coal in the U.S. West, 87 and Bush, George H. W.,
Surface Mining Control and energy policy, 93
Reclamation Act and energy consumption in
(SMCRA) (1977), 101 U.S., 86, 88
Index 335
and international energy and military interventions, 67,

inequalities, 68 68
and international policy, 76 and natural gas, 11, 33
and nuclear waste, 108 and nuclear power, 1516, 34,
of oil, 5455 9597
and the steam engine, 23, 24 and oil consumption, 12, 27
Truman administration, 90, 95 oil trade, 3031, 46, 220221
Turkish Petroleum Company (figures)
(TPC), 27 pollution control legislation,
226227 (tables)
U-235, 15 regional divisions, 212 (table)
U-238, 15 and regional energy sources,
Ukraine, 6263 7475
United Nations and renewable technologies,
Atomic Energy Commission 21, 2324, 33, 7273, 219
(UNAEC), 95 (figure)
and energy conflicts, 68 and the Suez Crisis, 32
Environment Programme and utility regulation,
(UNEP), 262 109113
Framework Convention on Unocal, 50
Climate Change Uranium, 1415, 87
(UNFCCC), 77, 262 enriching, 15, 195
and international policy, 76, Uranium hexafluoride (UF6), 15
77 Uranium oxide (UO2), 15
United States, the U.S. Department of Energy
and coal, 13, 24, 52 (DOE), 260
electricity generation in, 218 U.S. Environmental Protection
(figure) Agency (EPA), 260
energy policy/legislation in, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
8895, 222225 (tables) (USFWS), 103
energy production and U.S. Forest Service (USFS), 103
consumption in, 8588, 191, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
210212, 211 (table), 213 106
(figure), 214215 (figures), Utility companies, 88. See also
215 (table), 216217 (figures) Regulation
and environmental regulation,
97102 Venezuela, 29
and federal lands, 103109, Volatile organic compounds
228 (table) (VOCs), 56, 59
GDP in 2004, 42
industrial revolution and oil Waste
in, 2526 disposal legislation, 102
and international inequalities and U.S. energy consumption,
in energy distribution, 68 88
and the Kyoto Protocol, 78 See also Nuclear waste
336 Index
Water 201 (table 6.11), 202 (table

energy sources, 1819 6.12)
resources, 6364 Wood, 19, 2324, 88
See also Hydropower Work equation, 2
Waterwheels, 2122 World Bank, 64
Watt, 7, 193 World Coal Institute (WCI), 260
Watt, James, 23, 164165 World Council for Renewable
Wave energy converters, 1819 Energy (WCRE), 260261
Weapons of mass destruction, World Energy Council (WEC),
68, 95, 195 200, 261
Weatherization grants, 91 World Energy Efficiency
White Paper for a Community Association (WEEA), 261
Strategy, 73 World Nuclear Association
Whittle, Frank, 165166 (WNA), 261
Wildlife, and the Trans-Alaska World Resources Institute
Pipeline System, 104, 105, (WRI), 261262
106 World War I, 27, 89
Wilson, Pete, 112 World War II, 2829, 30, 89
Wind power, 19
effect on environment of, 64 Yellowcake, 15
preindustrial use, 22 Yom Kippur War, 35
and U.S. energy consumption, Yucca Mountain, 1516, 107109
88
worldwide production and Zircaloy, 15
consumption of, 198, 201,
11-ENUSWW_About.qxd 5/30/07 4:02 PM Page 337
About the Authors
Jaina Lorraine Moan received her B.S. in chemistry and biology

and her M.A. in political science from Northern Arizona Univer-
sity. She is currently a research specialist for the Colorado Plateau
Stable Isotope and Analytical Laboratories at Northern Arizona
University. She has contributed to numerous research projects in
the areas of chemistry, ecology, forestry, and environmental pol-
icy. She is avidly interested in interdisciplinary research that links
aspects of environmental science, economics, law, and policy. This
is her first book.
Zachary A. Smith received his B.A. from California State Univer-

sity, Fullerton, and his M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of
California, Santa Barbara. He has taught at Northern Arizona
University, the University of Hawaii, Ohio University, and the
University of California, Santa Barbara, and served as the Wayne
Aspinall visiting professor of political science, public affairs, and
history at Mesa State College. A consultant both nationally and
internationally on environmental matters, he is the author or ed-
itor of more than twenty books and many articles on natural
resources and environmental topics. He currently teaches envi-
ronmental and natural resources policy and administration in the
public policy Ph.D. program in the Political Science Department
at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff. He encourages stu-
dents interested in pursuing graduate studies in environmental
policy to contact him.
337

Moan - Energy Use Worldwide - A Reference Handbook (ABC-CLIO, 2007) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Moan - Energy Use Worldwide - A Reference Handbook (ABC-CLIO, 2007) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

00-ENUSWW_FM.

qxd 6/1/07 2:54 PM Page i

Selected Titles in ABC-CLIOs

Abortion in the United States, Dorothy E. McBride

For a complete list of titles in this series, please visit

Books in the Contemporary World Issues series address vital

Each book, carefully organized and easy to use, contains an

Readers of books in the Contemporary World Issues series will

Jaina L. Moan and

Santa Barbara, California

Copyright 2007 by ABC-CLIO, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Manufactured in the United States of America

This book is dedicated to Benjamin Moan.

List of Figures, xiii

1 Background and History, 1

Middle-Eastern Oil: 19451970, 29

2 Problems, Controversies, and Solutions, 41

3 Special U.S. Issues, 85

Electricity, Engines, Lights, and Energy

5 Biographical Sketches, 143

6 Data and Documents, 167

Energy Resources, 176

7 Directory of Organizations, 229

Figure 1.1 Different Ranks of Coal, 13

Figure 6.17 U.S. Natural Gas Production (2004) (million

Table 1.1 Metric Conversion Factors, 6

Table 6.14 Top Ten Importers and Exporters of Crude Oil

2 Background and History

and distributing energy to society. These concepts are important

Force = mass x acceleration (change in velocity over time)

Essentially, force is the phenomenon that causes an object to

Work = Force x Distance

In other words, in order to quantify mechanical work, one

Energy Conversion and Efficiency 3

Energy Conversion and Efficiency

4 Background and History

understanding how much energy can be harnessed from a partic-

creates a circuit and electrical energy can be used to light homes

6 Background and History

Energy Measurement and Units

Prefix Abbreviation Scientific notation Name Value

Energy Measurement and Units 7

object one meter. (A newton is the standard unit of force.) The

8 Background and History

Energy units are also expressed in terms of the type of fuel

Unit Equivalent amount

How Does Society Use Energy? 9

Nonrenewable energy sources are those that become depleted

How Does Society Use Energy?

10 Background and History

correspond to the United States. Similar patterns exist in other de-

12 Background and History

catalytic cracking, chemically transform less useful fractions of

C = fixed carbon, VM = volatile matter, M = moisture

Source: Miller and Miller, 1993, 28

production. (Coke is produced from the pyrolysis of coal. Because

14 Background and History

reactions, but this brief discussion focuses on the uranium fuel

16 Background and History