Professional Documents
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This article is about large scale, municipal water puri- poses in the 19th century must now be tested before
cation. For other uses, see Purication of water. determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed.
Water purication is the process of removing un- Chemical and microbiological analysis, while expensive,
are the only way to obtain the information necessary for
deciding on the appropriate method of purication.
According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO)
report, 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved
drinking water supply, 88 percent of the 4 billion annual
cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water
and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, while 1.8 million
people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO
estimates that 94 percent of these diarrheal cases are
preventable through modications to the environment,
including access to safe water.[1] Simple techniques for
treating water at home, such as chlorination, lters, and
solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could
Control room and schematics of the water purication plant to save a huge number of lives each year.[2] Reducing deaths
Lac de Bret, Switzerland from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in
developing countries.
desirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended
solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is
to produce water t for a specic purpose. Most water
is disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), 1 Sources of water
but water purication may also be designed for a variety
of other purposes, including fullling the requirements Further information: Water supply
of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial ap-
plications. The methods used include physical processes
such as ltration, sedimentation, and distillation; biolog- 1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep
ical processes such as slow sand lters or biologically ac- ground water may have fallen as rain many tens,
tive carbon; chemical processes such as occulation and hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and
chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such rock layers naturally lter the ground water to a
as ultraviolet light. high degree of clarity and often it does not require
Purifying water may reduce the concentration of par- additional treatment other than adding chlorine or
ticulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such wa-
bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, as well as reducing the ter may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may
amount of a range of dissolved and particulate material be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground
derived from the surfaces that come from runo due to water is generally of very high bacteriological qual-
rain. ity (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic pro-
tozoa are typically absent), but the water may be
The standards for drinking water quality are typically set rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and
by governments or by international standards. These stan- sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Depending on
dards usually include minimum and maximum concen- the strata through which the water has owed, other
trations of contaminants, depending on the intended pur- ions may also be present including chloride, and
pose of water use. bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to re-
Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appro- duce the iron or manganese content of this water to
priate quality. Simple procedures such as boiling or the make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laun-
use of a household activated carbon lter are not su- dry use. Primary disinfection may also be required.
cient for treating all the possible contaminants that may Where groundwater recharge is practised (a process
be present in water from an unknown source. Even nat- in which river water is injected into an aquifer to
ural spring water considered safe for all practical pur- store the water in times of plenty so that it is avail-
1
2 2 TREATMENT
7. Surface Water: Freshwater bodies that are open to Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor
the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwa- acidic). Sea water can have pH values that range from
ter are termed surface waters. 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have
widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of
the drainage basin or aquifer and the inuence of con-
taminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower
2 Treatment than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be
added to raise the pH during water purication processes.
Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration,
2.1 Aims thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic wa-
ters, forced draft degasiers can be an eective way
The aims of the treatment are to remove unwanted con- to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide
stituents in the water and to make it safe to drink or from the water.[4][5][6] Making the water alkaline helps
t for a specic purpose in industry or medical ap- coagulation and occulation processes work eectively
plications. Widely varied techniques are available to and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved
remove contaminants like ne solids, micro-organisms from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe ttings. Suf-
and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials, or cient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water
environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. The to iron pipes. Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or
choice of method will depend on the quality of the water sulfuric acid) may be added to alkaline waters in some
being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH
quality standards expected of the processed water. 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from
The processes below are the ones commonly used in wa- the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the wa-
ter purication plants. Some or most may not be used ter. The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbon-
depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw ate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood
(source) water. of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of
2.4 Sedimentation 3
See also: particle aggregation Waters exiting the occulation basin may enter the
sedimentation basin, also called a clarier or settling
basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allow-
One of the rst steps in a conventional water purication
ing oc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin
process is the addition of chemicals to assist in the re-
is best located close to the occulation basin so the transit
moval of particles suspended in water. Particles can be
between the two processes does not permit settlement or
inorganic such as clay and silt or organic such as algae,
oc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular,
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and natural organic matter. In-
where water ows from end to end, or circular where ow
organic and organic particles contribute to the turbidity
is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outow
and color of water.
is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water
The addition of inorganic coagulants such as aluminum that furthest from the sludgeexits.
sulfate (or alum) or iron (III) salts such as iron(III) chlo-
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the eciency of a
ride cause several simultaneous chemical and physical in-
sedimentation process was a function of the particle set-
teractions on and among the particles. Within seconds,
tling velocity, the ow through the tank and the sur-
negative charges on the particles are neutralized by in-
face area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically de-
organic coagulants. Also within seconds, metal hydrox-
signed within a range of overow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gal-
ide precipitates of the aluminum and iron (III) ions be-
lons per minute per square foot (or 1.25 to 2.5 meters
gin to form. These precipitates combine into larger parti-
per hour). In general, sedimentation basin eciency is
cles under natural processes such as Brownian motion and
not a function of detention time or depth of the basin.
through induced mixing which is sometimes referred to as
Although, basin depth must be sucient so that water
occulation. The term most often used for the amorphous
currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle
metal hydroxides is oc. Large, amorphous aluminum
interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations
and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in
in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on
suspension and facilitate the removal of particles by sub-
the bottom of the tank, settling velocities can increase
sequent processes of sedimentation and ltration.[8]:8.28.3
due to collisions and agglomeration of particles. Typi-
Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow cal detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4
pH range, typically: 5.5 to about 7.7. Iron (III) hydrox- hours and basin depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5
ides can form over a larger pH range including pH lev- meters).[8]:9.399.40[9]:7901[10]:1402, 171
els lower than are eective for alum, typically: 5.0 to
Inclined at plates or tubes can be added to traditional
8.5.[9]:679
sedimentation basins to improve particle removal perfor-
In the literature, there is much debate and confusion over mance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the
the usage of the terms coagulation and occulation surface area available for particles to be removed in con-
where does coagulation end and occulation begin? In cert with Hazens original theory. The amount of ground
water purication plants, there is usually a high energy, surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with in-
rapid mix unit process (detention time in seconds) where clined plates or tubes can be far smaller than a conven-
the coagulant chemicals are added followed by occula- tional sedimentation basin.
tion basins (detention times range from 15 to 45 minutes)
where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gen-
tle mixing devices to enhance the formation of oc. In
fact, coagulation and occulation processes are ongoing 2.4.1 Sludge storage and removal
once the metal salt coagulants are added.[10]:745
Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin,
coagulants and, in some cases, as replacements for the in- a layer of sludge is formed on the oor of the tank which
organic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge gen-
are high molecular weight compounds that carry nega- erated is signicant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total vol-
tive, positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers ume of water to be treated. The cost of treating and dis-
are added to water with particulates, the high molecu- posing of the sludge can impact the operating cost of a
lar weight compounds adsorb onto particle surfaces and water treatment plant. The sedimentation basin may be
through interparticle bridging coalesce with other parti- equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that contin-
cles to form oc. PolyDADMAC is a popular cationic ually clean its bottom, or the basin can be periodically
(positively charged) organic polymer used in water pu- taken out of service and cleaned manually.
4 2 TREATMENT
2.4.2 Floc blanket clariers layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand
particles. Eective ltration extends into the depth of the
A subcategory of sedimentation is the removal of particu- lter. This property of the lter is key to its operation: if
lates by entrapment in a layer of suspended oc as the wa- the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the
ter is forced upward. The major advantage of oc blanket lter would quickly clog.[11]
clariers is that they occupy a smaller footprint than con-
To clean the lter, water is passed quickly upward through
ventional sedimentation. Disadvantages are that particle
the lter, opposite the normal direction (called backush-
removal eciency can be highly variable depending on
ing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior
changes in inuent water quality and inuent water ow
to this step, compressed air may be blown up through the
rate.[9]:8356
bottom of the lter to break up the compacted lter me-
dia to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air
2.5 Dissolved air otation scouring. This contaminated water can be disposed of,
along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it
When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution can be recycled by mixing with the raw water entering the
easily, dissolved air otation (DAF) is often used. Wa- plant although this is often considered poor practice since
ter supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellu- it re-introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into
lar algae blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high the raw water.
colour often employ DAF. After coagulation and occu- Some water treatment plants employ pressure lters.
lation processes, water ows to DAF tanks where air dif- These work on the same principle as rapid gravity lters,
fusers on the tank bottom create ne bubbles that attach diering in that the lter medium is enclosed in a steel
to oc resulting in a oating mass of concentrated oc. vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.
The oating oc blanket is removed from the surface and
Advantages:
claried water is withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF
tank.[8]:9.46
Filters out much smaller particles than paper and
sand lters can.
2.6 Filtration
Filters out virtually all particles larger than their
specied pore sizes.
After separating most oc, the water is ltered as the nal
step to remove remaining suspended particles and unset- They are quite thin and so liquids ow through them
tled oc. fairly rapidly.
They are reasonably strong and so can withstand
2.6.1 Rapid sand lters pressure dierences across them of typically 25 at-
mospheres.
They can be cleaned (back ushed) and reused.
Some of the advantages of ozone include the production 2. Water conditioning: This is a method of reducing
of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of taste the eects of hard water. In water systems sub-
and odour problems (in comparison to chlorination) . An- ject to heating hardness salts can be deposited as
other advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual dis- the decomposition of bicarbonate ions creates car-
infectant in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking bonate ions that precipitate out of solution. Water
water plants since 1906 where the rst industrial ozona- with high concentrations of hardness salts can be
tion plant was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and treated with soda ash (sodium carbonate) which pre-
Drug Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; cipitates out the excess salts, through the common-
and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the ion eect, producing calcium carbonate of very high
treatment, storage, and processing of foods. However, purity. The precipitated calcium carbonate is tra-
although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it ditionally sold to the manufacturers of toothpaste.
has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions Several other methods of industrial and residential
in water to produce concentrations of the suspected car- water treatment are claimed (without general sci-
cinogen bromate. Bromide can be found in fresh wa- entic acceptance) to include the use of magnetic
ter supplies in sucient concentrations to produce (after and/or electrical elds reducing the eects of hard
ozonation) more than 10 parts per billion (ppb) of bro- water.
mate the maximum contaminant level established by
3. Plumbosolvency reduction: In areas with naturally
the USEPA.[13]
acidic waters of low conductivity (i.e. surface rain-
fall in upland mountains of igneous rocks), the wa-
2.9.5 Ultraviolet disinfection ter may be capable of dissolving lead from any
lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of
Ultraviolet light (UV) is very eective at inactivating small quantities of phosphate ion and increasing the
cysts, in low turbidity water. UV lights disinfection ef- pH slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-
fectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner
absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the sus- surfaces of the pipes.
pended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV 4. Radium Removal: Some groundwater sources con-
radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no resid- tain radium, a radioactive chemical element. Typi-
ual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes cal sources include many groundwater sources north
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary of the Illinois River in Illinois. Radium can be re-
disinfection process. This is often done through the addi- moved by ion exchange, or by water conditioning.
tion of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disin- The back ush or sludge that is produced is, how-
fectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide ever, a low-level radioactive waste.
an eective residual disinfectant with very few of the neg-
ative eects of chlorination. 5. Fluoride Removal: Although uoride is added to
water in many areas, some areas of the world have
excessive levels of natural uoride in the source wa-
2.10 Portable water purication ter. Excessive levels can be toxic or cause unde-
sirable cosmetic eects such as staining of teeth.
Main article: Portable water purication Methods of reducing uoride levels is through treat-
ment with activated alumina and bone char lter me-
dia.
Portable water purication devices and methods are avail-
able for disinfection and treatment in emergencies or in
remote locations. Disinfection is the primary goal, since 3 Other water purication tech-
aesthetic considerations such as taste, odor, appearance,
and trace chemical contamination do not aect the short- niques
term safety of drinking water.
Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for
local private supplies are listed below. In some coun-
2.11 Additional treatment options tries some of these methods are also used for large scale
municipal supplies. Particularly important are distillation
1. Water uoridation: in many areas uoride is added (de-salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.
to water with the goal of preventing tooth de-
cay.[14] Fluoride is usually added after the disin- 1. Boiling: Bringing it to its boiling point at 100 C
fection process. In the U.S., uoridation is usually (212 F), is the oldest and most eective way since
accomplished by the addition of hexauorosilicic it eliminates most microbes causing intestine re-
acid,[15] which decomposes in water, yielding uo- lated diseases,[17] but it cannot remove chemical tox-
[16]
ride ions. ins or impurities.[18] For human health, complete
8 4 SAFETY AND CONTROVERSIES
sterilization of water is not required, since the heat 6. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD). Ap-
resistant microbes are not intestine aecting.[17] The plicable to desalination. Heated seawater is passed
traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes along the surface of a hydrophobic polymer mem-
is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start brane. Evaporated water passes from the hot side
getting eliminated at temperatures greater than 60 through pores in the membrane into a stream of
C (140 F). Though the boiling point decreases cold pure water on the other side. The dierence in
with increasing altitude, it is not enough to aect the vapour pressure between the hot and cold side helps
disinfecting process.[17][19] In areas where the wa- to push water molecules through.
ter is hard (that is, containing signicant dissolved
calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate 7. Desalination is a process by which saline water
ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium car- (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water.
bonate. This is the fur that builds up on kettle el- The most common desalination processes are distil-
ements, etc., in hard water areas. With the excep- lation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently
tion of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of expensive compared to most alternative sources of
higher boiling point than water and in fact increases water, and only a very small fraction of total human
their concentration (due to some water being lost as use is satised by desalination. It is only economi-
vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfec- cally practical for high-valued uses (such as house-
tant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and hold and industrial uses) in arid areas.
then stored for any length of time may acquire new
pathogens. 8. Gas hydrate crystals centrifuge method. If carbon
dioxide or other low molecular weight gas is mixed
2. Granular Activated Carbon ltering: a form of with contaminated water at high pressure and low
activated carbon with a high surface area, adsorbs temperature, gas hydrate crystals will form exother-
many compounds including many toxic compounds. mically. Separation of the crystalline hydrate may
Water passing through activated carbon is com- be performed by centrifuge or sedimentation and
monly used in municipal regions with organic con- decanting. Water can be released from the hydrate
tamination, taste or odors. Many household wa- crystals by heating[21]
ter lters and sh tanks use activated carbon lters
to further purify the water. Household lters for 9. In Situ Chemical Oxidation, a form of advanced
drinking water sometimes contain silver as metal- oxidation processes and advanced oxidation tech-
lic silver nanoparticle. If water is held in the carbon nology, is an environmental remediation technique
block for longer period, microorganisms can grow used for soil and/or groundwater remediation to re-
inside which results in fouling and contamination. duce the concentrations of targeted environmental
Silver nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial ma- contaminants to acceptable levels. ISCO is accom-
terial and they can decompose toxic halo-organic plished by injecting or otherwise introducing strong
compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic organic chemical oxidizers directly into the contaminated
products.[20] medium (soil or groundwater) to destroy chemical
contaminants in place. It can be used to remediate a
3. Distillation involves boiling the water to produce variety of organic compounds, including some that
water vapour. The vapour contacts a cool surface are resistant to natural degradation
where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes
are not normally vaporised, they remain in the boil-
ing solution. Even distillation does not completely
purify water, because of contaminants with similar 4 Safety and controversies
boiling points and droplets of unvapourised liquid
carried with the steam. However, 99.9% pure water Further information: Distilled water Health concerns
can be obtained by distillation. In April, 2007, the water supply of Spencer,
Massachusetts became contaminated with excess
4. Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied to
sodium hydroxide (lye) when its treatment equipment
an impure solution to force pure water through a
malfunctioned.[22]
semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is the-
oretically the most thorough method of large scale Many municipalities have moved from free chlorine to
water purication available, although perfect semi- chloramine as a disinfection agent. However, chloramine
permeable membranes are dicult to create. Unless appears to be a corrosive agent in some water systems.
membranes are well-maintained, algae and other life Chloramine can dissolve the protective lm inside older
forms can colonize the membranes. service lines, leading to the leaching of lead into res-
idential spigots. This can result in harmful exposure,
5. The use of iron in removing arsenic from water. See including elevated blood lead levels. Lead is a known
Arsenic contamination of groundwater. neurotoxin.[23]
9
5 History
The rst documented use of sand lters to purify the wa- investigators conrmed Traubes ndings and published
ter supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery their papers in 1895.[34] Early attempts at implementing
in Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, installed an experimental water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made
lter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public.[29] This in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany and in 1897 the city of
method was rened in the following two decades by engi- Maidstone England was the rst to have its entire water
neers working for private water companies, and it culmi- supply treated with chlorine.[35]
nated in the rst treated public water supply in the world, Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a
installed by engineer James Simpson for the Chelsea Wa- faulty slow sand lter and a contaminated water supply
terworks Company in London in 1829.[30] This installa-
led to a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, Eng-
tion provided ltered water for every resident of the area, land.[36] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlo-
and the network design was widely copied throughout the
rination of the water to stem the epidemic. His installa-
United Kingdom in the ensuing decades. tion fed a concentrated solution of chloride of lime to the
The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream water being treated. The chlorination of the water supply
and common, and the virtues of the system were made helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlori-
starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician nation was continued until 1911 when a new water supply
John Snow during the 1854 Broad Street cholera out- was instituted.[37]
break. Snow was sceptical of the then-dominant miasma
theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious
bad airs. Although the germ theory of disease had not
yet been developed, Snows observations led him to dis-
count the prevailing theory. His 1855 essay On the Mode
of Communication of Cholera conclusively demonstrated
the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epi-
demic in Soho,[31][32] with the use of a dot distribution
map and statistical proof to illustrate the connection be-
tween the quality of the water source and cholera cases.
His data convinced the local council to disable the water
pump, which promptly ended the outbreak.
The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of
the water supply companies in London, including mini-
mum standards of water quality for the rst time. The Act
made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis
of pure and wholesome water, and required that all wa-
ter be eectually ltered from 31 December 1855.[33]
This was followed up with legislation for the manda-
tory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for
chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a world- water purication, early 20th century. From Chlorination of
wide precedent for similar state public health interven- Water by Joseph Race, 1918.
tions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of
Sewers was formed at the same time, water ltration was The rst continuous use of chlorine in the United States
adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir
on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock. (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for
Automatic pressure lters, where the water is forced un- Jersey City, New Jersey.[38] Chlorination was achieved by
der pressure through the ltration system, were innovated controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime
in 1899 in England.[29] (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The
treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal and
the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren
[39]
5.2 Water chlorination Fuller. Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection
using chloride of lime were rapidly installed in drinking
[40]
John Snow was the rst to successfully use chlorine to water systems around the world.
disinfect the water supply in Soho that had helped spread The technique of purication of drinking water by use
the cholera outbreak. William Soper also used chlori- of compressed liqueed chlorine gas was developed by a
nated lime to treat the sewage produced by typhoid pa- British ocer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B.
tients in 1879. Neseld, in 1903. According to his own account:
In a paper published in 1894, Moritz Traube formally
proposed the addition of chloride of lime (calcium It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be
hypochlorite) to water to render it germ-free. Two other found satisfactory ... if suitable means could
11
be found for using it.... The next important [7] RTW corrosivity index calculator, American Water
question was how to render the gas portable. Works Association .
This might be accomplished in two ways: By
liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron [8] Edzwald, James K., ed. (2011). Water Quality and Treat-
vessels, having a jet with a very ne capillary ment. 6th Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-
0-07-163011-5
canal, and tted with a tap or a screw cap. The
tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the [9] Crittenden, John C., et al., eds. (2005). Water Treatment:
amount of water required. The chlorine bub- Principles and Design. 2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley.
bles out, and in ten to fteen minutes the water ISBN 0-471-11018-3
is absolutely safe. This method would be of use
on a large scale, as for service water carts.[41] [10] Kawamura, Susumu. (2000). Integrated Design and Op-
eration of Water Treatment Facilities. 2nd Edition. New
York:Wiley. pp. 745, 104. ISBN 0-471-35093-1
U.S. Army Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of
Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the rst
[11] United States Environmental Protection Agency
practical demonstration of this in 1910. Shortly there- (EPA)(1990). Cincinnati, OH. Technologies for
after, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water
Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in Treatment Facilities. Document no. EPA/625/4-89/023.
a linen bag to treat water. For many decades, Lysters
method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in [12] Andrei A. Zagorodni (2007). Ion exchange materials:
the eld and in camps, implemented in the form of the properties and applications. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-
familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). This work 044552-6.
became the basis for present day systems of municipal
water purication. [13] Neemann, Je; Hulsey, Robert; Rexing, David; Wert,
Eric (2004). Controlling Bromate Formation During
Ozonation with Chlorine and Ammonia. Journal Amer-
ican Water Works Association 96 (2): 2629.
6 See also
[14] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001).
List of water supply and sanitation by country Recommendations for using uoride to prevent and con-
trol dental decay caries in the United States. MMWR
Microltration Recomm Rep 50 (RR-14): 142. PMID 11521913. Lay
summary CDC (2007-08-09).
Organisms used in water purication
[15] Division of Oral Health, National Center for Preven-
Water conservation tion Services, CDC (1993). Fluoridation census 1992
(PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-29.
Water recycling
[16] Reeves TG (1986). Water uoridation: a manual for en-
Water treatment
gineers and technicians (PDF). Centers for Disease Con-
trol. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
[23] Miranda, M. L.; Kim, D.; Hull, A. P.; Paul, C. J.; Galeano, 8 Further reading
M. A. O. (2006). Changes in Blood Lead Levels Asso-
ciated with Use of Chloramines in Water Treatment Sys- Standard Methods for the Examination of Water &
tems. Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (2): 221
Wastewater. American Public Health Association.
225. doi:10.1289/ehp.9432. PMC 1817676. PMID
17384768.
ISBN 0-87553-047-8.
[24] Health risks from drinking demineralised water. (PDF) Masters, Gilbert M. Introduction to Environmental
. Rolling revision of the WHO Guidelines for drinking- Engineering. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-
water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2004 tice Hall, 1998.
[25] Kozisek F. (2004). Health risks from drinking deminer- US EPA. Ground Water and Drinking Water.
alised water. WHO. Overview of drinking water topics and detailed in-
formation on US regulatory program. (Updated
[26] Water Distillers Water Distillation Myths, Facts, etc. 2012-03-07.)
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