Evolution of Cable Television

IPTV
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This article is about Internet Protocol Television. For public television broadcasting, see Iowa
Public Television.
Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is the delivery of television content over computer
networks based on the logical Internet Protocol (IP), rather than through traditional terrestrial,
satellite, and cable television formats. Unlike downloaded media, IPTV offers the ability to
stream the source media continuously. As a result, a client media player can begin playing the
content (such as a TV channel) almost immediately. This is known as streaming media.
Although IPTV uses the Internet protocol it is not limited to television media streamed from the
Internet, which is known as Internet television. IPTV is widely deployed in subscriber-based
telecommunications networks with high-speed access channels into end-user premises via set-top
boxes or other customer-premises equipment, as well as IPTV deployment for media delivery
around corporate and private networks. IPTV in the telecommunications arena is notable for its
ongoing standardisation process (e.g., European Telecommunications Standards Institute).
IPTV services may be classified into three main groups:
Live television and live media, with or without related interactivity;

Time-shifted media: e.g. catch-up TV (replays a TV show that was broadcast hours or
days ago), start-over TV (replays the current TV show from its beginning);
Video on demand (VOD): browse and view items in a stored media catalogue.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 History
o 2.1 Promise
3 Markets
o 3.1 Residential
o 3.2 Commercial and corporate
o 3.3 Hospitality
4 Architecture
o 4.1 Elements
o 4.2 Architecture of a video server network
o 4.3 Residential IPTV home networks
o 4.4 Telecomms IMS architecture
5 Protocols
6 Via satellite
7 Hybrid IPTV
8 Advantages
o 8.1 Economics
o 8.2 Interactivity
o 8.3 Video-on-demand
o 8.4 IPTV-based converged services
9 Limitations
o 9.1 Latency
10 Bandwidth requirements
11 Privacy implications
12 Vendors
13 Service bundling
14 Regulation
15 See also
16 References
17 External links
Definition[edit]
Historically, many different definitions of IPTV have appeared, including elementary streams
over IP networks, transport streams over IP networks and a number of proprietary systems.
One official definition approved by the International Telecommunication Union focus group on
IPTV (ITU-T FG IPTV) is:
IPTV is defined as multimedia services such as television/video/audio/text/graphics/data

delivered over IP based networks managed to provide the required level of quality of service and
experience, security, interactivity and reliability.[1]
Another definition of IPTV, relating to the telecommunications industry, is the one given by
Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) IPTV Exploratory Group on 2005:
IPTV is defined as the secure and reliable delivery to subscribers of entertainment video and
related services. These services may include, for example, Live TV, Video On Demand (VOD)
and Interactive TV (iTV). These services are delivered across an access agnostic, packet
switched network that employs the IP protocol to transport the audio, video and control signals.
In contrast to video over the public Internet, with IPTV deployments, network security and
performance are tightly managed to ensure a superior entertainment experience, resulting in a
compelling business environment for content providers, advertisers and customers alike.[2]
History[edit]
The term IPTV first appeared in 1995 with the founding of Precept Software by Judith Estrin and
Bill Carrico. Precept developed an Internet video product named IP/TV. IP/TV was a multicast
backbone (MBONE) compatible Windows and Unix-based application that transmitted single
and multi-source audio and video traffic, ranging from low to DVD quality, using both unicast
and IP multicast Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) and Real time control protocol (RTCP).
The software was written primarily by Steve Casner, Karl Auerbach, and Cha Chee Kuan.
Precept was acquired by Cisco Systems in 1998.[3] Cisco retains the IP/TV trademark.
Internet radio company AudioNet started the first continuous live webcasts with content from
WFAA-TV in January 1998 and KCTU-LP on 10 January 1998.[4]
Kingston Communications, a regional telecommunications operator in the UK, launched KIT

(Kingston Interactive Television) the brainchild of Matt Child, an IPTV over digital subscriber
line (DSL) broadband interactive TV service in September 1999 after conducting various TV and
video on demand (VoD) trials. The operator added additional VoD service in October 2001 with
Yes TV, a VoD content provider. Kingston was one of the first companies in the world to
introduce IPTV and IP VoD over ADSL as a commercial service. The service became the
reference for various changes to UK Government regulations and policy on IPTV. In 2006, the
KIT service was discontinued, subscribers having declined from a peak of 10,000 to 4,000.[5][6]
In 1999, NBTel (now known as Bell Aliant) was the first to commercially deploy Internet
protocol television over DSL in Canada[7][8] using the Alcatel 7350 DSLAM and middleware
created by iMagic TV (owned by NBTel's parent company Bruncor[9]). The service was marketed
under the brand VibeVision in New Brunswick, and later expanded into Nova Scotia in early
2000[10] after the formation of Aliant. iMagic TV was later sold to Alcatel.[11]
In 2002, Sasktel was the second in Canada to commercially deploy Internet Protocol (IP) video
over DSL, using the Lucent Stinger DSL platform.[12]
In 2005, SureWest Communications was the first North American company to offer high-
definition television (HDTV) channels over an IPTV service.[13]
In 2005, Bredbandsbolaget launched its IPTV service as the first service provider in Sweden. As
of January 2009, they are not the biggest supplier any longer; TeliaSonera, who launched their
service later now has more customers.[14]
In 2007, TPG became the first internet service provider in Australia to launch IPTV.
Complementary to its ADSL2+ package this was, and still is,[when?] free of charge to customers on
eligible plans and now[when?] offers over 45 local free to air channels and international
channels. [citation needed] By 2010, iiNet and Telstra launched IPTV services in conjunction to internet
plans but with extra fees.[15]
In 2008, PTCL (Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited) launched IPTV under the brand
name of PTCL Smart TV in Pakistan. This service is available in 150 major cities of the country
offering 140 live channels and more than 500 titles for VOD with key features such as:
EPG (electronic programme guide)

Parental Control
Time-Shift Television
VOD (video on demand)
In 2010, CenturyLink after acquiring Embarq (2009) and Qwest (2010) entered five U.S.
markets with an IPTV service called Prism.[16] This was after successful test marketing in Florida.
During the 2014 Winter Olympics Shortest path bridging (IEEE 802.1aq) was used to deliver 36
IPTV HD Olympic channels.
In 2016, KCTV (Korean Central Television) introduced the Set-top box called "Manbang"
(meaning everywhere or every direction), claiming to provide video-on-demand services in
North Korea via quasi-internet protocol television (IPTV). With "Manbang", viewers are able to
watch five different TV channels in real-time, find information related to the leaders activities
and Juche ideology, and read articles from the newspaper Rodong Sinmun and the Korean
Central News Agency (KCNA). According to KCTV, viewers can use the service not only in
Pyongyang, but also in Sinuiju and Sariwon. Stating that the demands for the equipment are
"particularly" high in Sinuiju, with several hundred users in the region.[17]
Promise[edit]
The technology was hindered by low broadband penetration and by the relatively high cost of
installing wiring capable of transporting IPTV content reliably in the customer's home.[citation needed]
However, residential IPTV was expected to grow[original research?] as broadband was available to more
than 200 million households worldwide in 2005.[18]
In December 2009, the FCC began looking into using set-top boxes to make TVs with cable or
similar services into network video players. FCC Media Bureau Chief Bill Lake had said earlier
that TV and the Internet would soon be the same, but only 75 percent of homes had computers,
while 99 percent had TV. A 2009 Nielsen survey found 99 percent of video viewing was done on
TV.[19]
Markets[edit]
Residential[edit]
Map of IPTV countries of the world.[citation needed]

Countries where IPTV is available in at least some parts of the country
The number of global IPTV subscribers was expected to grow from 28 million in 2009 to 83
million in 2013. Europe and Asia are the leading territories in terms of the over-all number of
subscribers. But in terms of service revenues, Europe and North America generate a larger share
of global revenue, due to very low average revenue per user (ARPU) in China and India, the
fastest growing (and ultimately, the biggest markets) is Asia. The global IPTV market revenues
are forecast to grow from US$12 billion in 2009 to US$38 billion in 2013.[20]
Services also launched in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Pakistan, Canada, Croatia,
Lithuania, Moldova, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Mongolia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia,[21]
the Netherlands,[22] Georgia, Greece, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Hungary,[23][24] Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Latvia, Turkey, Colombia, Chile and Uzbekistan.[25] The
United Kingdom launched IPTV early and after a slow initial growth, in February 2009 BT
announced that it had reached 398,000 subscribers to its BT Vision service.[26] Claro has launched
their own IPTV service called "Claro TV". This service is available in several countries in which
they operate, such as Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua. IPTV
is just beginning to grow in Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America, and now it is
growing in South Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan and India.[27] but significant plans
exist in countries such as Russia. Kazakhstan introduced[28] its own IPTV services by the national
provider Kazakhtelecom JSC[29] and content integrator Alacast under the "iD TV" brand in two
major cities Astana and Almaty in 2009 and is about to go nationwide starting 2010.[needs update]
Australian ISP iiNet launched Australia's first IPTV with fetchtv.[30]
The first IPTV service to launch on the Chinese mainland sells under the "BesTV" brand and is
currently available in the cities of Shanghai and Harbin.[31] In India, IPTV was launched by Airtel
and the government service provider MTNL and BSNL through tie up with AKSH and is
available in most of the major cities of the country. Meanwhile, UF Group which is the franchise
owner for UFO movies in Southern India plans to offer multiple host of services such as
customer's movies on demand, shopping online, video conferencing, media player, e-learning on
their single IPTV set top box branded as Emagine.[32]
In Sri Lanka, IPTV was launched by Sri Lanka Telecom (operated by SLT VisionCom) in 2008,
under the brand name of PEO TV. This service is available in whole country.
In Pakistan, IPTV was launched by PTCL in 2008, under the brand name of PTCL Smart TV.
This service is available in 150 major cities of the country.
In the Philippines, PLDT offers Cignal IPTV services as an add-on in certain ADSL and fiber
optic plans.[33][34]
In Malaysia, various companies have attempted to launch IPTV services since 2005. Failed
PayTV provider MiTV attempted to use an IPTV-over-UHF service but the service failed to take
off. Hypp.TV was supposed to use an IPTV-based system, but not true IPTV as it does not
provide a set-top box and requires users to view channels using a computer. True IPTV providers
available in the country at the moment are Fine TV and DETV. In Q2 2010, Telekom Malaysia
launched IPTV services through their fibre to the home product UniFi in select areas. In April
2010, Astro began testing IPTV services on TIME dotCom Berhad's high-speed fibre to the
home optical fibre network. In December 2010, Astro began trials with customers in high-rise
condominium buildings around the Mont Kiara area. In April 2011, Astro commercially
launched its IPTV services under the tag line "The One and Only Line You'll Ever Need", a
triple play offering in conjunction with TIME dotCom Berhad that provides all the Astro
programming via IPTV, together with voice telephone services and broadband Internet access all
through the same fibre optic connection into the customer's home.
In Turkey, TTNET launched IPTV services under the name IPtivibu in 2010. It was available in
pilot areas in the cities of Istanbul, zmir and Ankara. As of 2011, IPTV service is launched as a
large-scale commercial service and widely available across the country under the trademark
"Tivibu EV".[35][36] Superonline plans to provide IPTV under the different name "WebTV" in
2011. Trk Telekom started building the fibre optic substructure for IPTV in late 2007.
Commercial and corporate[edit]
IPTV has been widely used since around 2002 to distribute television and audio-visual (AV)
media around businesses and commercial sites, whether as live TV channels or Video on
Demand (VOD). Examples of types of commercial users include airports, schools, offices,
hotels, and sports stadiums, to name just a few.
Hospitality[edit]
IPTV is a natural progression from pay-per-view (PPV) and video on demand (VOD) offerings
in the hospitality sector. Some players such as Guest-tek, Locatel, Select-TV, VDA, and Tivus
have started offering IPTV to hotels before moving into residential homes. In 2005 GuestTek
launched its OneView Media platform providing IPTV to guest rooms in hotels, where users
could watch IP-VOD and IPTV from a STB/SBB (Set-back box) connected to the TV. In 2013
Locatel Company launched the most comprehensively integrated IPTV platform available into
new markets in Australia, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Ethiopia and Sri Lanka.[citation needed]
Architecture[edit]
A simplified network diagram for IPTV
Elements[edit]
IPTV head-end: where live TV channels and AV sources are encoded, encrypted and
delivered in the form of IP multicast streams.
Video on Demand (VOD) platform: where on-demand video assets are stored and served
as IP unicast streams when a user makes a request. The VOD platform may sometimes be
located with, and considered part of, the IPTV headend.
Interactive portal: allows the user to navigate within the different IPTV services, such as
the VOD catalogue.
Delivery network: the packet switched network that carries IP packets (unicast and
multicast).
Endpoints: User equipment that can request, decode and deliver IPTV streams for display
to the user. This can include computers and mobile devices as well as set-top boxes.
Home TV gateway: the piece of equipment at a residential IPTV user's home that
terminates the access link from the delivery network.
User set-top box: the piece of endpoint equipment that decodes and decrypts TV and
VOD streams for display on the TV screen.
Architecture of a video server network[edit]
Depending on the network architecture of the service provider, there are two main types of video
server architecture that can be considered for IPTV deployment: centralised and distributed.
The centralised architecture model is a relatively simple and easy to manage solution. Because
all media content is stored in centralised servers, it does not require a comprehensive content
distribution system. Centralised architecture is generally good for a network that provides
relatively small VOD service deployment, has adequate core and edge bandwidth and has an
efficient content delivery network (CDN).
Distributed architecture is just as scalable as the centralised model, however it has bandwidth
usage advantages and inherent system management features that are essential for managing a
larger server network. Operators who plan to deploy a relatively large system should therefore
consider implementing a distributed architecture model right from the start. Distributed
architecture requires intelligent and sophisticated content distribution technologies to augment
effective delivery of multimedia contents over service provider's network.[37]
Residential IPTV home networks[edit]
In many cases, the residential gateway that provides connectivity with the Internet access
network is not located close to the IPTV set-top box. This scenario becomes very common as
service providers start to offer service packages with multiple set-top boxes per subscriber.
Networking technologies that take advantage of existing home wiring (such as power lines,[38][39]
phone lines or coaxial cables[40][41]) or of wireless hardware have become common solutions for
this problem, although fragmentation in the wired home networking market has limited
somewhat the growth in this market.[42][43]
In December 2008, ITU-T adopted Recommendation G.hn (also known as G.9960), which is a
next-generation home networking standard that specifies a common PHY/MAC that can operate
over any home wiring (power lines, phone lines or coaxial cables).[44] During 2012 IEC will adopt
a prenorm for POF networking at Gigabit speed. This pre standard will specify a PHY that
operates at an adaptable bit rate between 100 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s depending on the link power
budget.
Groups such as the Multimedia over Coax Alliance, HomePlug Powerline Alliance, Home
Phoneline Networking Alliance, and Quasar Alliance (Plastic Optical Fibre)[45] each advocate
their own technologies.
Telecomms IMS architecture[edit]
There is a growing standardisation effort on the use of the 3GPP IP Multimedia Subsystem
(IMS) as an architecture for supporting IPTV services in telecomms carriers networks. Both
ITU-T and ETSI are working on so-called "IMS-based IPTV" standards (see e.g. ETSI TS 182
027[46]). Carriers will be able to offer both voice and IPTV services over the same core
infrastructure and the implementation of services combining conventional TV services with
telephony features (e.g. caller ID on the TV screen) will become straightforward.[47] The
MultiService Forum recently conducted interoperability of IMS-based IPTV solutions during its
GMI event in 2008.[48]
Protocols[edit]
IPTV covers both live TV (multicast) as well as stored video-on-demand/VoD (unicast).
Playback requires a broadband device connected to either a fixed or wireless IP network in the
form of either a standalone personal computer or limited embedded OS device such as a
smartphone, touch screen tablet, game console, connected TV or set-top box. Video compression
is provided by either a H.263 or H.264 derived codec, audio is compressed via a MDCT based
codec and then encapsulated in either an MPEG transport stream or RTP packets or Flash Video
packets for live or VoD streaming. IP multicasting allows for live data to be sent to multiple
receivers using a single multicast group address. H.264/MPEG-4 AVC is commonly used for
internet streaming over higher bit rate standards such as H.261 and H.263 which were more
designed for ISDN video conferencing. H.262/MPEG-1/2 is generally not used as the bandwidth
required would quite easily saturate a network which is why they are only used in single link
broadcast or storage applications.
In standards-based IPTV systems, the primary underlying protocols used are:
Service provider-based streaming:

o IGMP for subscribing to a live multicast stream (TV channel) and for changing
from one live multicast stream to another (TV channel change). IP multicast
operates within LANs (including VLANs) and across WANs also. IP multicast is
usually routed in the network core by Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM),
setting up correct distribution of multicast streams (TV channels) from their
source all the way to the customers who wants to view them, duplicating received
packets as needed. On-demand content uses a negotiated unicast connection.
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) over User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the
lower overhead H.222 transport stream over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
are generally the preferred methods of encapsulation.
Web-based unicast only live and VoD streaming:
o Adobe Flash Player prefers RTMP over TCP with setup and control via either
AMF or XML or JSON transactions.
o Apple iOS uses HLS adaptive bitrate streaming over HTTP with setup and control
via an embedded M3U playlist file.
o Microsoft Silverlight uses smooth streaming (adaptive bitrate streaming) over
HTTP.
Web-based multicast live and unicast VoD streaming:
o The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) recommends RTP over UDP or TCP
transports with setup and control using RTSP over TCP.
Connected TVs, game consoles, set-top boxes and network personal video recorders:
o local network content uses UPnP AV for unicast via HTTP over TCP or for
multicast live RTP over UDP.
o Web-based content is provided through either inline Web plug-ins or a television
broadcast-based application that uses a middleware language such as MHEG-5
that triggers an event such as loading an inline Web browser using an Adobe
Flash Player plug-in.
A telecommunications company IPTV service is usually delivered over an investment-heavy

walled garden network.
Local IPTV, as used by businesses for audio visual AV distribution on their company networks
is typically based on a mixture of:
1. Conventional TV reception equipment and IPTV encoders

2. IPTV gateways that take broadcast MPEG channels and IP wrap them to create multicast
streams.
Via satellite[edit]
Although IPTV and conventional satellite TV distribution have been seen as complementary
technologies, they are likely to be increasingly used together in hybrid IPTV networks that
deliver the highest levels of performance and reliability. IPTV is largely neutral to the
transmission medium, and IP traffic is already routinely carried by satellite for Internet backbone
trunking and corporate VSAT networks.[49] The use of satellite to carry IP is fundamental to
overcoming the greatest shortcoming of IPTV over terrestrial cables the speed/bandwidth of
the connection, as well as availability.
The copper twisted pair cabling that forms the last mile of the telephone and broadband network
in many countries is not able to provide a sizeable proportion of the population with an IPTV
service that matches even existing terrestrial or satellite digital TV distribution. For a competitive
multi-channel TV service, a connection speed of 20 Mbit/s is likely to be required, but
unavailable to most potential customers.[50] The increasing popularity of high-definition television
(with twice the data rate of SD video) increases connection speed requirements, or limits IPTV
service quality and connection eligibility even further.
However, satellites are capable of delivering in excess of 100 Gbit/s via multi-spot beam
technologies, making satellite a clear emerging technology for implementing IPTV networks.
Satellite distribution can be included in an IPTV network architecture in several ways. The
simplest to implement is an IPTV-direct to home (DTH) architecture, in which hybrid DVB-
broadband set-top boxes in subscriber homes integrate satellite and IP reception to give near-
infinite bandwidth with return channel capabilities. In such a system, many live TV channels
may be multicast via satellite (IP-encapsulated or as conventional DVB digital TV) with stored
video-on-demand transmission via the broadband connection. Arqivas Satellite Media Solutions
Division suggests IPTV works best in a hybrid format. For example, you would use broadband
to receive some content and satellite to receive other, such as live channels.[51]
Hybrid IPTV[edit]
This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date
information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available
information. (July 2011)
Hybrid IPTV refers to the combination of traditional broadcast TV services and video delivered
over either managed IP networks or the public Internet. It is an increasing trend in both the
consumer and pay TV [operator] markets.[52][53][54]
Hybrid IPTV has grown in popularity in recent years[when?] as a result of two major drivers. Since
the emergence of online video aggregation sites, like YouTube and Vimeo in the mid-2000s,
traditional pay TV operators have come under increasing pressure to provide their subscribers
with a means of viewing Internet-based video [both professional and user-generated] on their
televisions. At the same time, specialist IP-based operators [often telecommunications providers]
have looked for ways to offer analogue and digital terrestrial services to their operations, without
adding either additional cost or complexity to their transmission operations. Bandwidth is a
valuable asset for operators, so many have looked for alternative ways to deliver these new
services without investing in additional network infrastructures.
A hybrid set-top allows content from a range of sources, including terrestrial broadcast, satellite,
and cable, to be brought together with video delivered over the Internet via an Ethernet
connection on the device. This enables television viewers to access a greater variety of content
on their TV sets, without the need for a separate box for each service.
Hybrid IPTV set-top boxes also enable users to access a range of advanced interactive services,
such as VOD / catch-up TV, as well as Internet applications, including video telephony,
surveillance, gaming, shopping, e-government accessed via a television set.
From a pay-TV operators perspective, a hybrid IPTV set-top box gives them greater long-term
flexibility by enabling them to deploy new services and applications as and when consumers
require, most often without the need to upgrade equipment or for a technician to visit and
reconfigure or swap out the device. This reduces the cost of launching new services, increases
speed to market and limits disruption for consumers.[55]
The Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) consortium of industry companies is

currently[when?] promoting and establishing an open European standard for hybrid set-top boxes for
the reception of broadcast and broadband digital TV and multimedia applications with a single
user interface.[56] These trends led to the development of Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV set-top
boxes that included both a broadcast tuner and an Internet connection usually an Ethernet port.
The first commercially available hybrid IPTV set-top box was developed by Advanced Digital
Broadcast, a developer of digital television hardware and software, in 2005. The platform was
developed for Spanish pay TV operator Telefonica,[57] and used as part of its Movistar TV
service, launched to subscribers at the end of 2005.
An alternative approach is the IPTV version of the Headend in the Sky cable TV solution. Here,
multiple TV channels are distributed via satellite to the ISP or IPTV providers point of presence
(POP) for IP-encapsulated distribution to individual subscribers as required by each subscriber.
This can provide a huge selection of channels to subscribers without overburdening Internet
trunking to the POP, and enables an IPTV service to be offered to small or remote operators
outside the reach of terrestrial high speed broadband connection. An example is a network
combining fibre and satellite distribution via an SES New Skies satellite of 95 channels to Latin
America and the Caribbean, operated by IPTV Americas.[58]
While the future development of IPTV probably lies with a number of coexisting architectures
and implementations, it is clear[according to whom?] that broadcasting of high bandwidth applications such
as IPTV is accomplished more efficiently and cost-effectively using satellite[59] and it is predicted
that the majority of global IPTV growth will be fuelled by hybrid networks.[60]
Advantages[edit]
The Internet protocol-based platform offers significant advantages, including the ability to
integrate television with other IP-based services like high speed Internet access and VoIP.
A switched IP network also allows for the delivery of significantly more content and
functionality. In a typical TV or satellite network, using broadcast video technology, all the
content constantly flows downstream to each customer, and the customer switches the content at
the set-top box. The customer can select from as many choices as the telecomms, cable or
satellite company can stuff into the pipe flowing into the home. A switched IP network works
differently. Content remains in the network, and only the content the customer selects is sent into
the customers home. That frees up bandwidth, and the customers choice is less restricted by the
size of the pipe into the home. This also implies that the customer's privacy could be
compromised to a greater extent than is possible with traditional TV or satellite networks. It may
also provide a means to hack into, or at least disrupt (see Denial of service) the private network.
Economics[edit]
The cable industry's expenditures of approximately $1 billion per year are based on network
updates to accommodate higher data speeds. Most operators use 23 channels to support
maximum data speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. However, because video streams require a
high bit rate for much longer periods of time, the expenditures to support high amounts of video
traffic will be much greater. This phenomenon is called persistency. Data persistency is routinely
5% while video persistency can easily reach 50%. As video traffic continues to grow, this means
that significantly more CMTS downstream channels will be required to carry this video content.
Based on today's market, it is likely that industry expenditures for CMTS expansion could
exceed $2 billion a year, virtually all of that expenditure being driven by video traffic. Adoption
of IPTV for carrying the majority of this traffic could save the industry approximately 75% of
this capital expenditure.[61]
Interactivity[edit]
An IP-based platform also allows significant opportunities to make the TV viewing experience
more interactive and personalised. The supplier may, for example, include an interactive
programme guide that allows viewers to search for content by title or actors name, or a picture-
in-picture functionality that allows them to channel surf without leaving the programme
theyre watching. Viewers may be able to look up a players stats while watching a sports game,
or control the camera angle. They also may be able to access photos or music from their PC on
their television, use a wireless phone to schedule a recording of their favourite show, or even
adjust parental controls so their child can watch a documentary for a school report, while theyre
away from home.
In order that there can take place an interaction between the receiver and the transmitter, a
feedback channel is needed. Due to this, terrestrial, satellite, and cable networks for television do
not allow interactivity. However, interactivity with those networks can be possible by combining
TV networks with data networks such as the Internet or a mobile communication network.
Video-on-demand[edit]
IPTV technology is bringing video on demand (VoD) to television,[62] which permits a customer
to browse an online programme or film catalogue, to watch trailers and to then select a selected
recording. The playout of the selected item starts nearly instantaneously on the customer's TV or
PC.
Technically, when the customer selects the movie, a point-to-point unicast connection is set up
between the customer's decoder (set-top box or PC) and the delivering streaming server. The
signalling for the trick play functionality (pause, slow-motion, wind/rewind etc.) is assured by
RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol).
The most common codecs used for VoD are MPEG-2, MPEG-4 and VC-1.
In an attempt to avoid content piracy, the VoD content is usually encrypted. Whilst encryption of
satellite and cable TV broadcasts is an old practice, with IPTV technology it can effectively be
thought of as a form of Digital rights management. A film that is chosen, for example, may be
playable for 24 hours following payment, after which time it becomes unavailable.
IPTV-based converged services[edit]
Another advantage is the opportunity for integration and convergence. This opportunity is
amplified when using IMS-based solutions.[63] Converged services implies interaction of existing
services in a seamless manner to create new value added services. One example is on-screen
Caller ID, getting Caller ID on a TV and the ability to handle it (send it to voice mail, etc.). IP-
based services will help to enable efforts to provide consumers anytime-anywhere access to
content over their televisions, PCs and cell phones, and to integrate services and content to tie
them together. Within businesses and institutions, IPTV eliminates the need to run a parallel
infrastructure to deliver live and stored video services.
Limitations[edit]
IPTV is sensitive to packet loss and delays if the streamed data is unreliable. IPTV has strict
minimum speed requirements in order to facilitate the right number of frames per second to
deliver moving pictures. This means that the limited connection speed and bandwidth available
for a large IPTV customer base can reduce the service quality delivered.
Although a few countries have very high-speed broadband-enabled populations, such as South
Korea with 6 million homes benefiting from a minimum connection speed of 100 Mbit/s, in other
countries (such as the UK) legacy networks struggle to provide 35 Mbit/s[64][needs update] and so
simultaneous provision to the home of TV channels, VOIP and Internet access may not be
viable. The last-mile delivery for IPTV usually has a bandwidth restriction that only allows a
small number of simultaneous TV channel streams typically from one to three to be
delivered.[65]
Streaming IPTV across wireless links within the home has proved troublesome; not due to
bandwidth limitations as many[who?] assume, but due to issues with multipath and reflections of the
RF signal carrying the IP data packets. An IPTV stream is sensitive to packets arriving at the
right time and in the right order. Improvements in wireless technology are now[when?] starting to
provide equipment to solve the problem.[66]
Due to the limitations of wireless, most IPTV service providers today use wired home
networking technologies instead of wireless technologies like IEEE 802.11. Service providers
such as AT&T (which makes extensive use of wireline home networking as part of its AT&T U-
verse IPTV service) have expressed support for the work done in this direction by ITU-T, which
has adopted Recommendation G.hn (also known as G.9960), which is a next-generation home
networking standard that specifies a common PHY/MAC that can operate over any home wiring
(power lines, phone lines or coaxial cables).[67][68]
Latency[edit]
The latency inherent in the use of satellite Internet is often held up as reason why satellites
cannot be successfully used for IPTV. In practice, however, latency is not an important factor for
IPTV, since it is a service that does not require real-time transmission, as is the case with
telephony or videoconferencing services.
It is the latency of response to requests to change channel, display an EPG, etc. that most affects
customers perceived quality of service, and these problems affect satellite IPTV no more than
terrestrial IPTV. Command latency problems, faced by terrestrial IPTV networks with
insufficient bandwidth as their customer base grows, may be solved by the high capacity of
satellite distribution.
Satellite distribution does suffer from latency the time for the signal to travel up from the hub
to the satellite and back down to the user is around 0.25 seconds, and cannot be reduced.
However, the effects of this delay are mitigated in real-life systems using data compression,
TCP-acceleration, and HTTP pre-fetching.[69]
Satellite latency can be detrimental to especially time-sensitive applications such as on-line

gaming (although it only seriously affects the likes of first-person shooters while many MMOGs
can operate well over satellite Internet[70]), but IPTV is typically a simplex operation (one-way
transmission) and latency is not a critical factor for video transmission.
Existing video transmission systems of both analogue and digital formats already introduce
known quantifiable delays. Existing DVB TV channels that simulcast by both terrestrial and
satellite transmissions experience the same 0.25-second delay difference between the two
services with no detrimental effect, and it goes unnoticed by viewers.
Bandwidth requirements[edit]
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Bandwidth capacity for simultaneously two HDTV streams, two SD streams, additional to HSD
and voice
Digital video is a combination of sequence of digital images, and they are made up of pixels or
picture elements. Each pixel has two values, which are luminance and chrominance. Luminance
is representing intensity of the pixel; chrominance represents the colour of the pixel. Three bytes
would be used to represent the colour of the high quality image for a true colour technique. A
sequence of images is creating the digital video, in that case, images are called as frames.
Movies use 24 frames per second; however, the rate of the frames can change according to
territories' electrical systems so that there are different kinds of frame rates, for instance, North
America is using approximately 30 frames per second where the Europe television frame rate is
25 frames per second. Each digital video has dimensions width and height; when referred to
analogue television, the dimension for SDTV is 720480 pixels, on the other hand, numerous
HDTV requires 19201080 pixels. Moreover, whilst for SDTV, two bytes (16 bits) is enough to
create the colour depth, HDTV requires three bytes (24 bits) to create the colour depth.[citation needed]
Thereby, with a rate of 30 frames/second, the uncompressed data rate for SDTV becomes
3072048016,[vague] in other words, 147,456,000 bits per second. Moreover, for HDTV, at the
same frame rate, uncompressed date rate becomes 301920108024 or 1,492,992,000 bits per
second. With that simple calculation, it is obvious that without using a lossy compression method
a service providers service delivery to the subscribers is limited.
There is no absolute answer for the bandwidth requirement for the IPTV service because the
bandwidth requirement is increasing due to the devices inside the household. Thus, currently
compressed HDTV content can be delivered at a data rate between 8 and 10 Mbit/s, but if the
home of the consumer equipped with several HDTV outputs, this rate will be multiplied
respectively.
The high-speed data transfer will increase the needed bandwidth for the viewer, at least 2 Mbit/s
is needed to use web-based applications on the computer. Additionally to that, 64 kbit/s is
required to use landline telephone for the property. In minimal usage, to receive an IPTV triple-
play service requires 13 Mbit/s to process in a household.
Privacy implications[edit]
Due to limitations in bandwidth, an IPTV channel is delivered to the user one at a time, as
opposed to the traditional multiplexed delivery. Changing a channel requires requesting the
head-end server to provide a different broadcast stream, much like VOD (For VOD the stream is
delivered using unicast, for the normal TV signal multicast is used). This could enable the
service provider to accurately track each and every programme watched and the duration of
watching for each viewer; broadcasters and advertisers could then understand their audience and
programming better with accurate data and targeted advertising.
In conjunction with regulatory differences between IPTV and cable TV, this tracking could pose
a threat to privacy according to critics.[71] For IP multicast scenarios, since a particular multicast
group (TV channel) needs to be requested before it can be viewed, the same privacy concerns
apply.
Vendors[edit]
A small number of companies supply most current IPTV systems. Some, such as Movistar TV,
were formed by telecoms operators themselves, to minimise external costs, a tactic also used by
PCCW of Hong Kong. Some major telecoms vendors are also active in this space, notably
Alcatel-Lucent (sometimes working with Movistar TV), Sri Lanka Telecom, Ericsson (notably
since acquiring Tandberg Television), NEC, Accenture (Accenture Video Solution), Thomson,
Huawei, and ZTE, as are some IT houses, led by Microsoft. California-based UTStarcom, Inc.,
Tennessee-based Worley Consulting, Tokyo-based The New Media Group, Malaysian-based
Select-TV and Oslo/Norway-based SnapTV also offer end-to-end networking infrastructure for
IPTV-based services, and Hong Kong-based BNS Ltd. provides turnkey open platform IPTV
technology solutions. Global sales of IPTV systems exceeded 2 billion USD in 2007.
Hospitality IPTV Ltd, having established many closed network IPTV systems, expanded in 2013
to OTT delivery platforms for markets in New Zealand, Australia and Asia Pacific region.[citation
needed]
Google Fiber offers an IPTV service in various US cities which includes up to 1 Gigabit-speed
internet and over 290 channels depending of package via the fibre optic network being built out
in Kansas City Kansas and Kansas City Missouri.
Many of these IPTV solution vendors participated in the biennial Global MSF Interoperability
2008 (GMI) event which was coordinated by the MultiService Forum (MSF) at five sites
worldwide from 20 to 31 October 2008. Test equipment vendors including Netrounds,
Codenomicon, Empirix, Ixia, Mu Dynamics and Spirent joined solution vendors such as the
companies listed above in one of the largest IPTV proving grounds ever deployed.
Service bundling[edit]
For residential users, IPTV is often provided in conjunction with video on demand and may be
bundled with Internet services such as Internet access and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
telecommunications services. Commercial bundling of IPTV, VoIP and Internet access is
sometimes referred to in marketing as triple play service. When these three are offered with
cellular service, the combined service may be referred to as quadruple play.
Regulation[edit]
Historically, broadcast television has been regulated differently from telecommunications. As
IPTV allows TV and VoD to be transmitted over IP networks, new regulatory issues arise.[72]
Professor Eli M. Noam highlights in his report "TV or Not TV: Three Screens, One Regulation?"
some of the key challenges with sector specific regulation that is becoming obsolete due to
convergence in this field.[73]
See also[edit]
Comparison between OTT and IPTV
Comparison of streaming media systems
Comparison of video services
Content delivery network
Internet television
List of music streaming services
List of streaming media systems
P2PTV
Protection of Broadcasts and Broadcasting Organizations Treaty
Software as a service
Streaming media
TV gateway
Web television
Webcast
Video on demand
(Redirected from Video On Demand)
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message)
The BBC iPlayer interface on the Freesat digital service
Video on demand (display) (VOD) are systems which allow users to select and watch/listen to
video or audio content such as movies and TV shows when they choose to, rather than having to
watch at a specific broadcast time, which was the prevalent approach with over-the-air
broadcasting during much of the 20th century. IPTV technology is often used to bring video on
demand to televisions and personal computers.[1]
Television VOD systems can either "stream" content through a set-top box, a computer or other
device, allowing viewing in real time, or download it to a device such as a computer, digital
video recorder (also called a personal video recorder) or portable media player for viewing at any
time. The majority of cable- and telephone company-based television providers offer both VOD
streaming,free content, whereby a user buys or selects a movie or television program and it
begins to play on the television set almost instantaneously, or downloading to a digital video
recorder (DVR) rented or purchased from the provider, or downloaded onto a PC or to a portable
device, for viewing in the future. Internet television, using the Internet, is an increasingly popular
form of video on demand. VOD can also be accessed via desktop client applications such as the
Apple iTunes online content store.
Some airlines offer VOD as in-flight entertainment to passengers through individually controlled
video screens embedded in seatback so or armrests or offered via portable media players. Some
video on demand services, such as Netflix, use a subscription model that requires users to pay a
monthly fee to access a bundled set of content, which is mainly movies and TV shows. Other
services use an advertising-based model, where access is free
Contents
[hide]
1 Functionality
2 History
3 Role of piracy and peer-to-peer
4 Types
o 4.1 Transactional
o 4.2 Catch-up TV
o 4.3 Subscription models
o 4.4 Near video on demand
o 4.5 Push video on demand
o 4.6 Advertising video on demand
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
Functionality[edit]
Downloading and streaming video on demand systems provide the user with all of the features of
Portable media players and DVD players. Some VOD systems that store and stream programs
from hard disk drives use a memory buffer to allow the user to fast forward and rewind digital
videos. It is possible to put video servers on local area networks, in which case they can provide
very rapid response to users. Streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a
WAN, in which case the responsiveness may be reduced. Download VOD services are practical
to homes equipped with cable modems or DSL connections. Servers for traditional cable and
telco VOD services are usually placed at the cable head-end serving a particular market as well
as cable hubs in larger markets. In the telco world, they are placed in either the central office, or
a newly created location called a Video Head-End Office (VHO).
History[edit]
The first video on demand (VOD) systems used tapes as the realtime source of video streams.
GTE started as a trial in 1990 with AT&T providing all components. By 1992 VOD servers were
supplying previously encoded digital video from disks and DRAM. [2]
In the US the 1982 anti-trust break-up of AT&T resulted in a number of smaller telephone
companies called Baby Bells. Following this the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984
prohibited telephone companies from providing video services within their operating regions. In
1993 the National Communication and Information Infrastructure (NII) was proposed and passed
by the US House and senate, thus opening the way for the seven Baby Bells Ameritech, Bell
Atlantic, BellSouth, NYNEX, Pacific Telesis, Southwestern Bell and U S WEST to implement
VOD systems. All of these companies and others began holding trials to set up systems for
supplying video on demand over telephone and cable lines.
In November 1992 Bell Atlantic announced a VOD trial. IBM was developing video server
code-named Tiger Shark. Concurrently Digital Equipment was developing a scalable video
server (configured from small to large for a range of video streams). Bell Atlantic selected IBM
and April 1993 the system became the first VOD over ADSL to be deployed outside the lab,
serving 50 video streams.
In June 1993 US West filed for a system consisting of the Digital Equipment Corporation
Interactive Information Server, with Scientific Atlanta providing the network, and 3DO as the
set-top box, with video streams and other information to be deployed to 2500 homes. In 1994-5
US West went on to file for VOD at several cities. 330,000 subscribers in Denver, 290,000 in
Minneapolis, and 140,000 in Portland.
Many VOD trials were held with various combinations of server, network and set-top. Of these
the primary players in the US were the telephone companies, using DEC, Microsoft, Oracle,
IBM, Hewlett-Packard, USA Video, nCube, SGI, and other servers. The DEC server system was
used in more of these trials than any other.[3] [4] [5] [6]
The DEC VOD server architecture used interactive gateways to set up video streams and other
information for delivery from any of a large number of VAX servers, enabling it in 1993 to
support more than 100,000 streams with full VCR-like functionality. In 1994 it would upgrade to
the DEC Alpha computer for its VOD servers, allowing it to support more than a million users.[7]
By 1994 the Oracle scalable VOD system used massively parallel processors to support from 500
to 30,000 users. The SGI system supported 4000 users.[8] The servers connected to networks of
increasing size to eventually support video stream delivery to whole cities.
In the UK, from September 1994, a VOD service formed a major part of the Cambridge Digital
Interactive Television Trial[9] in England. This provided video and data to 250 homes and a
number of schools connected to the Cambridge Cable network (later part of NTL, now Virgin
Media). The MPEG-1 encoded video was streamed over an ATM network from an ICL media
server to set top boxes designed by Acorn Online Media. The trial commenced at a speed of
2 Mbit/s to the home, subsequently increased to 25 Mbit/s.[10] The content was provided by the
BBC and Anglia Television. Although a technical success, difficulty in sourcing content was a
major issue, and the project closed in 1996.
In 1997, Enron Corporation had entered the broadband market, constructing and purchasing
thousands of miles of fiber optic cables throughout the United States.[11][12] In 2001, Enron and
Blockbuster Inc. attempted to create a 20-year deal to stream movies on demand over Enron's
fiber optic network.[13] However, the "heavily promoted" deal fell through, with Enron's shares
dropping following the announcement.[13]
In 1998, Kingston Communications became the first UK company to launch a fully commercial
VOD service and the first to integrate broadcast TV and Internet access through a single set-top
box using IP delivery over ADSL. By 2001, Kingston Interactive TV had attracted 15,000
subscribers. After a number of trials, HomeChoice followed in 1999, but were restricted to
London. After attracting 40,000 customers, they were bought by Tiscali in 2006 who were in
turn bought by Talk Talk in 2009. Cable TV providers Telewest and NTL (now Virgin Media)
launched their VOD services in the United Kingdom in 2005, competing with the leading
traditional pay TV distributor BSkyB. BSkyB responded by launching Sky by broadband, later
renamed Sky Anytime on PC. The service went live on 2 January 2006. Sky Anytime on PC uses
a legal peer-to-peer approach, based on Kontiki technology, to provide very high capacity multi-
point downloads of the video content. Instead of the video content all being downloaded from
Sky's servers, the content comes from multiple users of the system who have already
downloaded the same content. Other UK TV broadcasters have implemented their own versions
of the same technology, such as the BBC's iPlayer, which launched on 25 December 2007, and
Channel 4's 4oD (4 On Demand) which launched in late 2006. Another example of online video
publishers using legal peer-to-peer technology is based on Giraffic technology which was
launched in early 2011 with large Online Video-on-Demand publishers such as US based VEOH
and UK based Craze's OnlineMoviesBox movie rental service.
The BBC, ITV and Channel 4 planned to launch a joint platform provisionally called Kangaroo
in 2008.[14] This was abandoned in 2009 following complaints investigated by the Competition
Commission. That same year, the assets of the defunct Kangaroo project were bought by
Arqiva,[15] who used the technology behind Kangaroo to launch the SeeSaw service in February
2010.[16] A year later, however, SeeSaw was shut down from lack of funding.[17]
Some VOD services require the viewer to have a TV set-top box. This photo shows the set-top
box for the Jazzbox VOD service and its accompanying remote control.
VOD services are now available in all parts of the United States, which has the highest global
take-up rate of VOD.[18] In 2010, 80% of American Internet users had watched video online,[19]
and 42% of mobile users who downloaded video preferred apps to a normal browser.[20]
Streaming VOD systems are available on desktop and mobile platforms from cable providers (in
tandem with cable modem technology) who use the large downstream bandwidth present on
cable systems to deliver movies and television shows to end users, who can typically pause, fast-
forward, and rewind VOD movies due to the low latency and random-access nature of cable
technology. The large distribution of a single signal makes streaming VOD impractical for most
satellite television systems. Both EchoStar/Dish Network and DirecTV offer video on demand
programming to PVR-owning subscribers of their satellite TV service. In Demand is a cable
VOD service that also offers pay-per-view. Once the programs have been downloaded onto a
user's PVR, he or she can watch, play, pause, and seek at their convenience. VOD is also quite
common in more expensive hotels. VOD systems that store and provide a user interface for
content downloaded directly from the Internet are widely available.[citation needed]
According to the European Audiovisual Observatory, 142 paying VOD services were operational
in Europe at the end of 2006. The number increased to 650 by 2009.[21] At the January 2010
Consumer Electronic Show in Las Vegas, Sezmi CEO Buno Pati and president Phil Wiser
showed a set-top box with a one-terabyte hard drive which could be used for video on demand
services previously offered through cable TV or broadband. A movie, for example, could be sent
out once using a broadcast signal, rather than numerous times over cable or fiber-optic lines, and
this would not involve the expense of adding many miles of lines. Sezmi planned to lease
broadcast spectrum to offer a subscription service which National Association of Broadcasters
president Gordon H. Smith said would provide a superior picture to that of cable or satellite, at a
lower cost.[22]
Developing VOD required extensive negotiations to identify a financial model that would serve
both content creators and cable providers while providing desirable content for viewers and an
acceptable price point. Key factors identified for determining the economic viability of the VOD
model included VOD movie buy rates and setting Hollywood and cable operator revenue
splits.[23] Cable providers offered VOD as part of digital subscription packages, which by 2005,
primarily allowed cable subscribers to only access an "on-demand" version of content that was
already provided in linear traditional broadcasting distribution. These on-demand packages
sometimes include "extras" and "bonus footage" in addition to the regular content.
Role of piracy and peer-to-peer[edit]

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Although video on demand generally refers to delivery mechanisms operating in accordance with
applicable laws, the motivation for the development of video on demand services can be traced
back to peer-to-peer (P2P) networking and the development of file sharing software. These
innovations proved that it was technically possible to offer the consumer potentially every film
ever made, in a way which does not burden the original provider with the linear costs associated
with centralised streaming media. Some P2P services offered movies and TV shows without
having paid for the rights. Torrenting is a popular alternative to legal streaming[24] with 6%[25] of
global internet traffic involved in file sharing applications. Many legal services such as Spotify[26]
use peer-to-peer distribution to better "scale" their platforms. Netflix is considering switching to
a P2P model [27] to cope with net neutrality problems from downstream providers.
Types[edit]
Transactional[edit]
Transactional video on demand (TVOD) is a distribution method by which customers pay for
each individual piece of video on demand content.[28] For example, a customer would pay a fee
for each individual movie or TV show that they watch. TVOD has two sub-categories: electronic
sell-through (EST), by which customers can permanently access a piece of content once
purchased via Internet; and download to rent (DTR), by which customers can access the content
for a limited time upon renting.[28][29] Examples of TVOD services include Apple's iTunes online
store and Google's Google Play service.
Catch-up TV[edit]
A growing number of TV stations offer "catch-up TV" as a way for viewers to watch TV shows
though their VOD service hours or even days after the original television broadcast. This enables
viewers to watch a program when they have free time, even if this is not when the program was
originally aired. Some studies show that catch up TV is starting to represent a large amount of
the views and hours watched, and that users tend to watch catch up TV programs for longer,
when compared to live TV (e.g., regular scheduled broadcast TV).[30]
Subscription models[edit]
A screenshot of "The Great Courses Plus", a subscription video on demand service offered by
The Teaching Company that offers instructional videos.
Subscription VOD (SVOD) services use a subscription business model, where subscribers are
charged a monthly fee to access unlimited programs. These services include Netflix, Hulu Plus,
Amazon Video, Videoland, HBO Go and CuriosityStream.[31]
Near video on demand[edit]
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Near video on demand (NVOD) is a pay-per-view consumer video technique used by multi-
channel broadcasters using high-bandwidth distribution mechanisms such as satellite and cable
television. Multiple copies of a program are broadcast at short time intervals (typically 1020
minutes) on linear channels providing convenience for viewers, who can watch the program
without needing to tune in at only scheduled point in time. A viewer may only have to wait a few
minutes before the next time a movie will be programmed. This form is very bandwidth-
intensive and is generally provided only by large operators with a great deal of redundant
capacity and has been reduced in popularity as video on demand is implemented.
Only the satellite services Dish Network and DirecTV continue to provide NVOD experiences.
These satellite services provide NVOD because many of their customers have no access to the
services' broadband VOD services. Before the rise of video on demand, the pay-per-view
provider In Demand provided up to 40 channels in 2002, with several films receiving up to four
channels on the staggered schedule to provide the NVOD experience for viewers.[32] As of 2014,
Cable pay-per-view channels are now used for sports and events. In Australia, pay TV
broadcaster Foxtel offers NVOD for new release movies.[33] As of 2016, movies are no longer
provided on cable PPV channels, as nearly all U.S. cable systems use VOD to deliver movies.[34]
Push video on demand[edit]
Push video on demand is so-named because the provider "pushes" the content out to the viewer's
set-top box without the viewer having requested the content. This technique used by a number of
broadcasters on systems that lack the connectivity and bandwidth to provide true "streaming"
video on demand. Push VOD is also used by broadcasters who want to optimize their video
streaming infrastructure by pre-loading the most popular contents (e.g., that week's top ten films
or shows) to the consumers' set-top device. In this way, the most popular content is already
loaded onto a consumer's set-top DVR. That way, if the consumer requests one of these films, it
is already loaded on her/his DVR. A push VOD system uses a personal video recorder (PVR) to
store a selection of content, often transmitted in spare capacity overnight or all day long at low
bandwidth. Users can watch the downloaded content at the time they desire, immediately and
without any buffering issues. Push VOD depends on the viewer recording content, so choices can
be limited.[35]
As content occupies space on the PVR hard drive, downloaded content is usually deleted after a
week to make way for newer programs or movies. The limited space on a PVR hard drive means
that the selection of programs is usually restricted to the most popular content. A new generation
of Push VOD solution recently appeared on the market which, by using efficient error correction
mechanisms, can free significant amount of bandwidth and that can deliver more than video e.g.
digital version of magazines and interactive applications.
Advertising video on demand[edit]
Advertising video on demand is a VOD model which uses an advertising-based revenue model.
This allows companies that advertise on broadcast and cable channels to reach people who watch
shows using VOD. As well, this model allows people to watch programs without paying
subscription fees. Hulu has been one of the major AVOD companies, though the company ended
free service in August 2016. Ads still run on the subscription service. Yahoo View continues to
offer a free AVOD model. Advertisers may find that people watching on VOD services do not
want the same ads to appear multiple times. Crackle has introduced the concept of a series of ads
for the same company that tie in to what is being watched.[36][37]
See also[edit]
Internet portal
BitTorrent
Comparison of video hosting services
Direct to video
Electronic sell-through
Music on demand
Terrestrial television
"Air TV" redirects here. For the anime, see Air (visual novel).
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Over the Air antenna
Terrestrial television or broadcast television is a type of television broadcasting in which the

television signal is transmitted by radio waves from the terrestrial (Earth based) transmitter of a
television station to a TV receiver having an antenna. The term is more common in Europe,
while in North America it is referred to as broadcast television or sometimes over-the-air
television (OTA). The term "terrestrial" is used to distinguish this type from the newer
technologies of satellite television (direct broadcast satellite or DBS television), in which the
television signal is transmitted to the receiver from an overhead satellite, and cable television, in
which the signal is carried to the receiver through a cable.
Terrestrial television was the first technology used for television broadcasting, with the first
long-distance public television broadcast from Washington, D.C., on 7 April 1927. The BBC
began broadcasting in 1929 and had a regular schedule of television programmes in 1930.
However, these early experimental systems had insufficient picture quality to attract the public,
due to their mechanical scan technology, and television didn't become widespread until after
World War II with the advent of electronic scan technology. The television broadcasting
business followed the model of radio networks, with local television stations in cities and towns
affiliated with television networks, either commercial (in USA) or government-controlled (in
Europe), which provided content. Television broadcasts were in black and white until the
transition to color television in the 1950s and 60s.[1]
There was no other method of television delivery until the 1950s with the beginnings of cable
television and community antenna television (CATV). CATV was, initially, only a re-broadcast
of over-the-air signals. With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the
1970s and 1980s, viewing of terrestrial television broadcasts has been in decline; in 2013, it was
estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.[2][3] A slight increase in use began
after the 2009 final conversion to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer HDTV
image quality as an alternative to CATV for cord cutters.[citation needed]
Rooftop television antennas like these are required to receive terrestrial television in fringe
reception areas far from the television station.
Contents
[hide]
1 Europe
2 North America
3 Asia
4 Digital terrestrial television
5 Competition for radio spectrum
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Europe[edit]
Following the ST61 conference, UHF frequencies were first used in the UK in 1964 with the
introduction of BBC2. In UK, VHF channels were kept on the old 405-line system, while UHF
was used solely for 625-line broadcasts (which later used PAL colour). Television broadcasting
in the 405-line system continued after the introduction of four analogue programmes in the UHF
bands until the last 405-line transmitters were switched off on January 6, 1985. VHF Band III
was used in other countries around Europe for PAL broadcasts until planned phase out and
switchover to digital television.
The success of analogue terrestrial television across Europe varied from country to country.
Although each country had rights to a certain number of frequencies by virtue of the ST61 plan,
not all of them were brought into service.
North America[edit]
In 1941, the first NTSC standard was introduced by the National Television System Committee.
This standard defined a transmission scheme for a black and white picture with 525 lines of
vertical resolution at 60 fields per second. In the early 1950s, this standard was superseded by a
backwards-compatible standard for color television. The NTSC standard was used in the
Americas as well as Japan until the introduction of digital television.[4]
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Advanced Television Systems Committee developed the
ATSC standard for digital high definition terrestrial transmission. This standard was eventually
adopted by many North American countries, including the United States, Canada, Dominican
Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico.[5] [6]
North American terrestrial broadcast television operates on analog channels 2 through 6 (VHF-
low band, 54 to 88 MHz, known as band I in Europe), 7 through 13 (VHF-high band, 174 to
216 MHz, known as band III elsewhere), and 14 through 51 (UHF television band, 470 to
698 MHz, elsewhere bands IV and V). Unlike with analog transmission, ATSC channel numbers
do not correspond to radio frequencies. Instead, a virtual channel is defined as part of the ATSC
stream metadata so that a station can transmit on any frequency but still show the same channel
number.[7] Additionally, broadcast translators and signal boosters can be used to rebroadcast a
terrestrial television signal using an otherwise unused channel to cover areas with marginal
reception. (see North American broadcast television frequencies for frequency allocation
charts)[8]
Analog television channels 2 through 6, 7 through 13, and 14 through 51 are only used for LPTV
translator stations in the U.S. Channels 52 through 69 are still used by some existing stations, but
these channels must be vacated if telecommunications companies notify the stations to vacate
that signal spectrum.
Asia[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
Terrestrial television broadcast in Asia started as early as 1939 in Japan through a series of
experiments done by NHK Broadcasting Institute of Technology. However, these experiments
were interrupted by the beginning of the World War II in the Pacific. On February 1, 1953, NHK
(Japan Broadcasting Corporation) began broadcasting. On August 28, 1953, Nippon TV (Nippon
Television Network Corporation), the first commercial television broadcaster in Asia was
launched. Meanwhile, in the Philippines, Alto Broadcasting System (now ABS-CBN), the first
commercial television broadcaster in Southeast Asia, launched its first commercial terrestrial
television station DZAQ-TV on October 23, 1953, with the help of Radio Corporation of
America (RCA).
Digital terrestrial television[edit]

Main article: Digital terrestrial television
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events
or newly available information. (December 2014)
By the mid-1990s, the interest in digital television across Europe was such the CEPT convened
the "Chester '97" conference to agree means by which digital television could be inserted into the
ST61 frequency plan.
The introduction of digital television in the late 1990s and early years of the 21st century led the
ITU to call a Regional Radiocommunication Conference to abrogate the ST61 plan and to put a
new plan for digital broadcasting only in its place.
In December 2005, the European Union decided to cease all analog audio and analog video
television transmissions by 2012 and switch all terrestrial television broadcasting to digital audio
and digital video (all EU countries have agreed on using DVB-T). The Netherlands completed
the transition in December 2006, and some EU member states decided to complete their
switchover as early as 2008 (Sweden), and (Denmark) in 2009. While the UK began the switch
in late 2007, it was not completed until 24 October 2012. Norway ceased all analogue television
transmissions on December 1, 2009.[9] Two member states (not specified in the announcement)
have expressed concerns that they might not be able to proceed to the switchover by 2012 due to
technical limitations; the rest of the EU member states had stopped analog television
transmissions by the end 2012.
Many countries are developing and evaluating digital terrestrial television systems.
Australia has adopted the DVB-T standard and the government's industry regulator, the
Australian Communications and Media Authority, has mandated that all analogue transmissions
will cease by 2012. Mandated digital conversion commenced early in 2009 with a graduated
program. The first centre to experience analog switch-off will be the remote Victorian regional
town of Mildura, in 2010. The government will supply underprivileged houses across the nation
with free digital set-top DTV converter boxes in order to minimise any conversion disruption.
Australia's major free-to-air television networks have all been granted digital transmission
licences and are each required to broadcast at least one high-definition and one standard-
definition channel into all of their markets.
In North America a specification laid out by the ATSC has become the standard for digital
terrestrial television. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set
the final deadline for the switch-off of analog service for June 12, 2009. All television receivers
must now include a digital tuner. In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and
Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), set August 31, 2011, as the date that over-the-air
analog transmission service ceased in metropolitan areas and provincial capitals. [10] [11] In
Mexico, the Federal Telecommunications Institute (IFT) set the final deadline for the end of
Analog Television for December 31, 2015.
The total elimination of analog broadcast television service is a very unfortunate move since
reception of a digital broadcast television signal requires a much stronger signal than reception of
an analog signal. A weak digital signal or interference results in no reception whereas a weak
analog signal even with interference will still give useful, intelligible, although less than ideal
reception. In fringe areas, inclement conditions, cable outage, emergency situations due to bad
weather, natural disaster, or other unfortunate circumstance such as war, a useful digital
broadcast television signal may not be present. When a tornado or hurricane warning is in effect
it is important to be able to follow what is happening. Hence it is essential to have good analog
broadcast television service available which has now been outlawed by misdirected government
agencies. Most current model television sets are capable of receiving analog signals as well as
digital signals.
Two of the major network digital television stations, WTOL-TV (CBS) and WTVG-TV (ABC),
in Toledo, Ohio, which has a 240 square mile urban area with a population of over 500,000, are
only licensed to run low power transmitters, around 15kW. The FCC wants you to subscribe to a
cable or satellite service to generate tax dollars. For a 15kW station you need to be within 5
miles or so of the transmitter for reliable reception, especially if you are in an area with many
trees and do not have an outdoor antenna on a tower tall enough to reach above nature's canopy
under which the signal becomes very weak in wet weather. With digital television there is only
perfect picture and sound, unintelligible garbage, or nothing at all. More commonly, major
metropolitan stations run transmitters in the 500kW to 1000kW range which gives more reliable
reception over a much wider area. The other three major network Toledo area digital broadcast
television stations, 49.5kW WGTE (PBS), 118kW WNWO (NBC), and 110kW WUPW (FOX),
have more powerful transmitters but still reception is less than reliable with an indoor antenna at
10 to 12 miles out from the station transmitter.
Competition for radio spectrum[edit]

This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date
information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available
information. (December 2010)
In late 2009, US competition for the limited available radio spectrum led to debate over the
possible re-allocation of frequencies currently occupied by television, and the FCC began asking
for comments on how to increase the bandwidth available for wireless broadband. Some have
proposed mixing the two together, on different channels that are already open (like White
Spaces) while others have proposed "repacking" some stations and forcing them off certain
channels, just a few years after the same thing was done (without compensation to the
broadcasters) in the DTV transition in the United States.
Some US commentators have proposed the closing down of over-the-air TV broadcasting, on the
grounds that available spectrum might be better used, and requiring viewers to shift to satellite or
cable reception. This would eliminate mobile TV, which has been delayed several years by the
FCC's decision to choose ATSC and its proprietary 8VSB modulation, instead of the worldwide
COFDM standard used for all other digital terrestrial broadcasting around the world. Compared
to Europe and Asia, this has hamstrung mobile TV in the US, because ATSC cannot be received
while in motion (or often even while stationary) without ATSC-M/H as terrestrial DVB-T or
ISDB-T can even without DVB-H or 1seg.
The National Association of Broadcasters has organized to fight such proposals, and public
comments are also being taken by the FCC through mid-December 2009, in preparation for a
plan to be released in mid-February 2010.
See also[edit]
Television portal
List of United States over-the-air television networks

Pay television
Broadcast television systems
Lists of television channels for lists by country and language.
Television channel frequencies
DVB-T
ATSC tuner
Television antenna
Satellite television
List of digital television
broadcast standards
DVB standards (countries)
DVB-T (terrestrial)
o DVB-T2
DVB-S (satellite)
o DVB-S2
o DVB-S2X
DVB-C (cable)
o DVB-C2
DVB-H (handheld)
o DVB-NGH
o DVB-T2-Lite
DVB-SH (satellite)
ATSC standards (countries)
ATSC
(terrestrial/cable)
o ATSC 2.0
ATSC
3.0
ATSC-M/H
(mobile/handheld)
ISDB standards (countries)
ISDB-T (terrestrial)
o ISDB-T
International
SBTVD/ISDB-
Tb (Brazil)
ISDB-S (satellite)
ISDB-C (cable)
1seg (handheld)
DTMB standards (countries)
DTMB (terrestrial)
o DTMB-A
CMMB (handheld)
DMB standard (countries)
T-DMB (terrestrial)
S-DMB (satellite)
Codecs
Video
o HEVC
o H.262/MPEG-
2 Part 2
o H.264/MPEG-
4 AVC
o AVS
o VC-1
Audio
o MP2
o MP3
o AC-3
o E-AC-3
o AAC
o HE-AAC
Frequency bands
VHF
UHF
SHF
v
t
e
Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers by relaying it

from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the viewer's location.[1] The signals
are received via an outdoor parabolic antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-
noise block downconverter.
A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television programme for viewing on a television
set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television
provides a wide range of channels and services. It is the only television available in many remote
geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television service.
Modern systems signals are relayed from a communications satellite on the Ku band frequencies
(1218 GHz) requiring only a small dish less than a meter in diameter.[2] The first satellite TV
systems were an obsolete type now known as television receive-only. These systems received
weaker analog signals transmitted in the C-band (48 GHz) from FSS type satellites, requiring
the use of large 2-3 meter dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish"
systems, and were more expensive and less popular.[3]
Early systems used analog signals, but modern ones use digital signals which allow transmission
of the modern television standard high-definition television.
Different receivers are required for the two types. Some transmissions and channels are
unencrypted and therefore free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are transmitted
with encryption (pay television), requiring the viewer to subscribe and pay a monthly fee to
receive the programming.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Technology
o 1.1 Sun outage
2 Uses
o 2.1 Direct broadcast via satellite
o 2.2 Television receive-only
3 History
o 3.1 Early history
o 3.2 Beginning of the satellite TV industry, 19761980
o 3.3 TVRO/C-band satellite era, 19801986
o 3.4 1990s to present
4 See also
5 References
Technology[edit]
Satellite television dishes in Malaysia.
An Inview Neelix set-top box.
Back view of a linear polarised LNB.

Corrugated feedhorn and LNB on a Hughes DirecWay satellite dish.
The satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a geostationary orbit 37,000 km
(23,000 mi) above the earth's equator. The advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital
period equals the rotation rate of the Earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky.
Thus the satellite dish antenna which receives the signal can be aimed permanently at the
location of the satellite, and does not have to track a moving satellite. A few systems instead use
a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve
hours, known as a Molniya orbit.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting
antenna located at an uplink facility.[5] Uplink satellite dishes are very large, as much as 9 to 12
meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter.[5] The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and
increased signal strength at the satellite.[5] The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite
and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received
by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite.[6] The transponder
re-transmits the signals back to Earth at a different frequency (a process known as translation,
used to avoid interference with the uplink signal), typically in the C-band (48 GHz), Ku-band
(1218 GHz), or both.[5] The leg of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving Earth station
is called the downlink.[7]
A typical satellite has up to 32 Ku-band or 24 C-band transponders, or more for Ku/C hybrid
satellites.[8] Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz.[8] Each
geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2 longitude from the next satellite to avoid
interference; for Ku the spacing can be 1.[9] This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 =
180 geostationary C-band satellites or 360/1 = 360 geostationary Ku-band satellites.[9] C-band
transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while Ku-band transmission is affected by
rain (as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this particular frequency).[10] The latter is
even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds.[10]
On occasion, sun outage will occur when the sun lines up directly behind the geostationary
satellite to which the receiving antenna is pointed.[11] The downlink satellite signal, quite weak
after traveling the great distance (see inverse-square law), is collected with a parabolic receiving
dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point.[12] Mounted on brackets at the dish's
focal point is a device called a feedhorn or collector.[13] The feedhorn is a section of waveguide
with a flared front-end that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and conducts them to a
probe or pickup connected to a low-noise block downconverter (LNB).[14] The LNB amplifies the
signals and downconverts them to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF), usually in the
L-band.[14]
The original C-band satellite television systems used a low-noise amplifier (LNA) connected to
the feedhorn at the focal point of the dish.[15] The amplified signal, still at the higher microwave
frequencies, had to be fed via very expensive low-loss 50-ohm impedance gas filled hardline
coaxial cable with relatively complex N-connectors to an indoor receiver or, in other designs, a
downconverter (a mixer and a voltage-tuned oscillator with some filter circuitry) for
downconversion to an intermediate frequency.[15] The channel selection was controlled typically
by a voltage tuned oscillator with the tuning voltage being fed via a separate cable to the
headend, but this design evolved.[15]
Designs for microstrip-based converters for amateur radio frequencies were adapted for the
4 GHz C-band.[16] Central to these designs was concept of block downconversion of a range of
frequencies to a lower, more easily handled IF.[16]
The advantages of using an LNB are that cheaper cable can be used to connect the indoor
receiver to the satellite television dish and LNB, and that the technology for handling the signal
at L-band and UHF was far cheaper than that for handling the signal at C-band frequencies.[17]
The shift to cheaper technology from the hardline and N-connectors of the early C-band systems
to the cheaper and simpler 75-ohm cable and F-connectors allowed the early satellite television
receivers to use, what were in reality, modified UHF television tuners which selected the satellite
television channel for down conversion to a lower intermediate frequency centered on 70 MHz,
where it was demodulated.[17] This shift allowed the satellite television DTH industry to change
from being a largely hobbyist one where only small numbers of systems costing thousands of US
dollars were built, to a far more commercial one of mass production.[17]
In the United States, service providers use the intermediate frequency ranges of 9502150 MHz
to carry the signal from the LNBF at the dish down to the receiver. This allows for transmission
of UHF signals along the same span of coaxial wire at the same time. In some applications
(DirecTV AU9-S and AT-9), ranges of the lower B-band[ambiguous] and 22503000 MHz, are used.
Newer LNBFs in use by DirecTV, called SWM (Single Wire Multiswitch), are used to
implement single cable distribution and use a wider frequency range of 22150 MHz.[citation needed]
The satellite receiver or set-top box demodulates and converts the signals to the desired form
(outputs for television, audio, data, etc.).[18] Often, the receiver includes the capability to
selectively unscramble or decrypt the received signal to provide premium services to some
subscribers; the receiver is then called an integrated receiver/decoder or IRD.[19] Low-loss cable
(e.g. RG-6, RG-11, etc.) is used to connect the receiver to the LNBF or LNB.[14] RG-59 is not
recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above
950 MHz, but may work in some circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire,
signal levels, cable length, etc.[14]
A practical problem relating to home satellite reception is that an LNB can basically only handle
a single receiver.[20] This is because the LNB is translating two different circular polarizations
(right-hand and left-hand) and, in the case of K-band, two different frequency bands (lower and
upper) to the same frequency range on the cable.[20] Depending on which frequency and
polarization a transponder is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four
different modes in order to receive a specific "channel".[20] This is handled by the receiver using
the DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode.[20] If several satellite receivers are to be attached
to a single dish, a so-called multiswitch will have to be used in conjunction with a special type of
LNB.[20] There are also LNBs available with a multiswitch already integrated.[20] This problem
becomes more complicated when several receivers are to use several dishes (or several LNBs
mounted in a single dish) pointing to different satellites.[20]
A common solution for consumers wanting to access multiple satellites is to deploy a single dish
with a single LNB and to rotate the dish using an electric motor. The axis of rotation has to be set
up in the north-south direction and, depending on the geographical location of the dish, have a
specific vertical tilt. Set up properly the motorized dish when turned will sweep across all
possible positions for satellites lined up along the geostationary orbit directly above the equator.
The disk will then be capable of receiving any geostationary satellite that is visible at the specific
location, i.e. that is above the horizon. The DiSEqC protocol has been extended to encompass
commands for steering dish rotors.[citation needed]
There are five major components in a satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast
center, the satellite, the satellite dish, and the receiver. "Direct broadcast" satellites used for
transmission of satellite television signals are generally in geostationary orbit 37,000 km
(23,000 mi) above the earth's equator.[21] The reason for using this orbit is that the satellite circles
the Earth at the same rate as the Earth rotates, so the satellite appears at a fixed point in the sky.
Thus satellite dishes can be aimed permanently at that point, and don't need a tracking system to
turn to follow a moving satellite. A few satellite TV systems use satellites in a Molniya orbit, a
highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve
hours.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting
antenna located at an uplink facility.[21] Uplink facilities transmit the signal to the satellite over a
narrow beam of microwaves, typically in the C-band frequency range due to its resistance to rain
fade.[21] Uplink satellite dishes are very large, often as much as 9 to 12 metres (30 to 40 feet) in
diameter[21] to achieve accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite, to improve
reliability.[21] The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are
transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders
tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite.[21] The transponder then converts the signals to
Ku band, a process known as "translation," and transmits them back to earth to be received by
home satellite stations.[21]
The downlinked satellite signal, weaker after traveling the great distance (see inverse-square
law), is collected by using a rooftop parabolic receiving dish ("satellite dish"), which reflects the
weak signal to the dish's focal point.[22] Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a
feedhorn[22] which passes the signals through a waveguide to a device called a low-noise block
converter (LNB) or low noise converter (LNC) attached to the horn.[22] The LNB amplifies the
weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in which the satellite television signals are
transmitted, and converts the block of frequencies to a lower frequency range in the L-band
range.[22] The signal is then passed through a coaxial cable into the residence to the satellite
television receiver, a set-top box next to the television.
The reason for using the LNB to do the frequency translation at the dish is so that the signal can
be carried into the residence using cheap coaxial cable. To transport the signal into the house at
its original Ku band microwave frequency would require an expensive waveguide, a metal pipe to
carry the radio waves.[23] The cable connecting the receiver to the LNB are of the low loss type
RG-6, quad shield RG-6, or RG-11.[24] RG-59 is not recommended for this application as it is not
technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but will work in many circumstances,
depending on the quality of the coaxial wire.[24] The shift to more affordable technology from the
50 Ohm impedance cable and N-Connectors of the early C-Band systems to the cheaper 75 Ohm
technology and F-Connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in
reality, modified UHF television tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down
conversion to another lower intermediate frequency centered on 70 MHz where it was
demodulated.[23]
An LNB can only handle a single receiver.[25] This is due to the fact that the LNB is mapping two
different circular polarisations right hand and left hand and in the case of the Ku-band two
different reception bands lower and upper to one and the same frequency band on the cable,
and is a practical problem for home satellite reception.[25] Depending on which frequency a
transponder is transmitting at and on what polarisation it is using, the satellite receiver has to
switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific desired program
on a specific transponder.[25] The receiver uses the DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode,
which handles this.[25] If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish a so-called
multiswitch must be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB.[25] There are also LNBs
available with a multiswitch already integrated.[25] This problem becomes more complicated
when several receivers use several dishes or several LNBs mounted in a single dish are aimed at
different satellites.[25]
The set-top box selects the channel desired by the user by filtering that channel from the multiple
channels received from the satellite, converts the signal to a lower intermediate frequency,
decrypts the encrypted signal, demodulates the radio signal and sends the resulting video signal
to the television through a cable.[24] To decrypt the signal the receiver box must be "activated" by
the satellite company. If the customer fails to pay his monthly bill the box is "deactivated" by a
signal from the company, and the system will not work until the company reactivates it. Some
receivers are capable of decrypting the received signal itself. These receivers are called
integrated receiver/decoders or IRDs.[24]
Analog television which was distributed via satellite was usually sent scrambled or unscrambled
in NTSC, PAL, or SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is frequency
modulated and is converted from an FM signal to what is referred to as baseband. This baseband
comprises the video signal and the audio subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further
demodulated to provide a raw audio signal.
Later signals were digitized television signal or multiplex of signals, typically QPSK. In general,
digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is based on open standards such as
MPEG and DVB-S/DVB-S2 or ISDB-S.[citation needed]
The conditional access encryption/scrambling methods include NDS, BISS, Conax, Digicipher,
Irdeto, Cryptoworks, DG Crypt, Beta digital, SECA Mediaguard, Logiways, Nagravision,
PowerVu, Viaccess, Videocipher, and VideoGuard. Many conditional access systems have been
compromised.
Sun outage[edit]
An event called sun outage occurs when the sun lines up directly behind the satellite in the field
of view of the receiving satellite dish.[26] This happens for about a 10 minute period daily around
midday, twice every year for a two-week period in the spring and fall around the equinox.
During this period, the sun is within the main lobe of the dish's reception pattern, so the strong
microwave noise emitted by the sun on the same frequencies used by the satellite's transponders
drowns out reception.[26]
Uses[edit]
Direct broadcast via satellite[edit]
DBS satellite dishes installed on an apartment complex.

A Sky "minidish".
Direct-To-Home can either refer to the communications satellites themselves that deliver service
or the actual television service.[27] Most satellite television customers in developed television
markets get their programming through a direct broadcast satellite provider.[27] Signals are
transmitted using Ku band and are completely digital which means it has high picture and stereo
sound quality.[2]
Programming for satellite television channels comes from multiple sources and may include live
studio feeds.[28] The broadcast center assembles and packages programming into channels for
transmission and, where necessary, encrypts the channels. The signal is then sent to the uplink [29]
where it is transmitted to the satellite. With some broadcast centers, the studios, administration
and up-link are all part of the same campus.[30] The satellite then translates and broadcasts the
channels.[31]
Most systems use the DVB-S standard for transmission.[27] With pay television services, the
datastream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment. While the underlying
reception technology is similar, the pay television technology is proprietary, often consisting of a
conditional-access module and smart card. This measure assures satellite television providers
that only authorized, paying subscribers have access to pay television content but at the same
time can allow free-to-air channels to be viewed even by the people with standard equipment
available in the market.
Some countries operate satellite television services which can be received for free, without
paying a subscription fee. This is called free-to-air satellite television. Germany is likely the
leader in free-to-air with approximately 250 digital channels (including 83 HDTV channels and
various regional channels) broadcast from the Astra 19.2E satellite constellation.[32] These are
not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in approximately 18 million homes, as well as in
any home using the Sky Deutschland commercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite
broadcasts ceased on 30 April 2012.[33][34]
The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations
of BBC channels, ITV channels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) that are broadcast without encryption
from the Astra 28.2E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S receiver (a DVB-S2
receiver is required for certain high definition television services). Most of these channels are
included within the Sky EPG, and an increasing number within the Freesat EPG.
India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS package as "DD Free
Dish", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network. It is
broadcast from GSAT-15 at 93.5E and contains about 80 FTA channels.
While originally launched as backhaul for their digital terrestrial television service, a large
number of French channels are free-to-air on satellites at 5W, and have recently been
announced as being official in-fill for the DTT network.
In North America (United States, Canada and Mexico) there are over 80 FTA digital channels
available on Galaxy 19 (with the majority being ethnic or religious in nature). Other FTA
satellites include AMC-4, AMC-6, Galaxy 18, and Satmex 5. A company called GloryStar
promotes FTA religious broadcasters on Galaxy 19.
Television receive-only[edit]
Main article: Television receive-only
A C-band satellite dish used by TVRO systems.
The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite television
reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink operations
(transmit and receive). This was the primary method of satellite television transmissions before
the satellite television industry shifted, with the launch of higher powered DBS satellites in the
early 1990s which transmitted their signals on the Ku band frequencies.[3][35] Satellite television
channels at that time were intended to be used by cable television networks rather than received
by home viewers.[36] Early satellite television receiver systems were largely constructed by
hobbyists and engineers. These early TVRO systems operated mainly on the C-band frequencies
and the dishes required were large; typically over 3 meters (10 ft) in diameter.[37] Consequently,
TVRO is often referred to as "big dish" or "Big Ugly Dish" (BUD) satellite television.
TVRO systems were designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television or
audio from both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites.[38][39] The higher
frequency Ku-band systems tend to resemble DBS systems and can use a smaller dish antenna
because of the higher power transmissions and greater antenna gain. TVRO systems tend to use
larger rather than smaller satellite dish antennas, since it is more likely that the owner of a TVRO
system would have a C-band-only setup rather than a Ku band-only setup. Additional receiver
boxes allow for different types of digital satellite signal reception, such as DVB/MPEG-2 and
4DTV.
The narrow beam width of a normal parabolic satellite antenna means it can only receive signals
from a single satellite at a time.[40] Simulsat or the Vertex-RSI TORUS, is a quasi-parabolic
satellite earthstation antenna that is capable of receiving satellite transmissions from 35 or more
C- and Ku-band satellites simultaneously.[41]
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications
system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit.[42][43]
This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the
Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.[44][45]
The first public satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the
Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962, although a test broadcast had taken
place almost two weeks earlier on 11 July.[46] The signals were received and broadcast in North
American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.[46] Launched in 1962, the
Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.[47] The
first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963.[48]
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early
Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965.[49] The first national network of
television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was
based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and
delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations.[50] The first commercial North
American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which
was launched on 9 November 1972.[51] ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974.[52] It transmitted at 860 MHz
using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on
the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe
using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in
use.[53]
The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran
1, was launched on 26 October 1976.[54] It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the
transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave
technology.[55]
Beginning of the satellite TV industry, 19761980[edit]
The satellite television industry developed first in the US from the cable television industry as
communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable
television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and
Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use
satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became
the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.[56]
In the US, PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television
programming by satellite in 1978.[57]
In 1979 Soviet engineers developed the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and
delivering of TV signals via satellites. They launched the Gorizont communication satellites later
that same year. These satellites used geostationary orbits.[58] They were equipped with powerful
on-board transponders, so the size of receiving parabolic antennas of downlink stations was
reduced to 4 and 2.5 metres.[58] On October 18, 1979, the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government
license.[59] The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalogue featured the first
home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500.[60] The dishes were nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) in
diameter[61] and were remote controlled.[62] The price went down by half soon after that, but there
were only eight more channels.[63] The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations
(SPACE), an organisation which represented consumers and satellite TV system owners, was
established in 1980.[64]
Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish
size.[65] The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were 10 to
16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m) in diameter,[66] made of fibreglass or solid aluminum or steel,[67] and in the
United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000.[68] Programming sent from
ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in geostationary orbit located 22,300 miles
(35,900 km) above the Earth.[69][70]
TVRO/C-band satellite era, 19801986[edit]
Further information: Television receive-only
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe. On 26 April 1982, the
first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky1), was launched.[71] Its signals
were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites.[71] Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO
systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of
gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand
systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.[68][72] Dishes pointing to one
satellite were even cheaper.[73] People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television
service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.[68][70] The large dishes were a
subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most
condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use,
except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.[3] These restrictions were altered in 1986
when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.[65] A municipality could
require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a
setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.[65] The necessity of these restrictions would
slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.[65]
Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to
receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO
systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to scramble their signal and develop
subscription systems.
In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984,
which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were
scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable
fee.[70][74] Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an
incentive to offer competition.[75] In January 1986, HBO began using the now-obsolete
VideoCipher II system to encrypt their channels.[66] Other channels used less secure television
encryption systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish
systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that
clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive.[76] Eventually HBO allowed dish
owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than
what cable subscribers were paying, and required a descrambler to be purchased for $395.[76] This
led to the attack on HBO's transponder Galaxy 1 by John R. MacDougall in April 1986.[76] One
by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels.[77]
The Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association (SBCA) was founded on December
2, 1986 as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association
(DBSA).[72]
Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and Data Encryption Standardbased
encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a black market for
descrambler devices which were initially sold as "test" devices.[77]
The necessity for better satellite television programming than TVRO arose in the 1980s. Satellite
television services, first in Europe, began transmitting Ku band signals in the late 1980s. On 11
December 1988 Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power
satellite coverage to Western Europe.[78] This was one of the first medium-powered satellites,
transmitting signals in Ku band and allowing reception with small(90 cm) dishes for the first time
ever.[78] The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence,
British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market, and accelerated its demise.[78]
1990s to present[edit]
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air.[74] While HBO
initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for
$200 a year.[74] Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay
television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have
cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result.[74] Scrambling also led to the
development of pay-per-view events.[74] On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-
band signal but left its Ku band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who
could not see their advertising.[79] Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States
still used C-band.[79] ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due
to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates.[79] The piracy on satellite
television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer
Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in
signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison.[80]
A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.[80]
Satellite television had also developed in Europe but it initially used low power communication
satellites and it required dish sizes of over 1.7 metres. On 11 December 1988 Luxembourg
launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western
Europe.[81] This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in Ku band
and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm).[81] The launch of Astra beat the winner of the
UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market.
In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct
broadcasting company using medium power satellites. The relatively strong transmissions
allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the
Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network satellite television systems.
On March 4, 1996 EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar
1 satellite.[82] EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of
channels available on Dish Network to 170.[82] These systems provided better pictures and stereo
sound on 150200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly
reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their
broadcasts to digital television transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system.[83]
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as
PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early
1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent Ku band) are higher in both
frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy efficiency of modern
satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation
methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analog modulation methods.[84]
Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the Ku band, but only 24 in the C band, and
several digital subchannels can be multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately (SCPC) on a single
transponder.[85] Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and
semiconductor materials have also had an effect.[85] However, one consequence of the higher
frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy
downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.[86]
In a return to the older (but proven) technologies of satellite communication, the current DBS-
based satellite providers in the USA (Dish Network and DirecTV) are now utilizing additional
capacity on the Ku-band transponders of existing FSS-class satellites, in addition to the capacity
on their own existing fleets of DBS satellites in orbit. This was done in order to provide more
channel capacity for their systems, as required by the increasing number of High-Definition and
simulcast local station channels. The reception of the channels carried on the Ku-band FSS
satellite's respective transponders has been achieved by both DirecTV & Dish Network issuing to
their subscribers dishes twice as big in diameter (36") than the previous 18" (& 20" for the Dish
Network "Dish500") dishes the services used initially, equipped with 2 circular-polarized LNBFs
(for reception of 2 native DBS satellites of the provider, 1 per LNBF), and 1 standard linear-
polarized LNB for reception of channels from an FSS-type satellite. These newer DBS/FSS-
hybrid dishes, marketed by DirecTV and Dish Network as the "SlimLine" and "SuperDish"
models respectively, are now the current standard for both providers, with their original 18"/20"
single or dual LNBF dishes either now obsolete, or only used for program packages, separate
channels, or services only broadcast over the providers' DBS satellites.
In the early 1990s, four large American cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct
broadcasting company using medium-power satellites.[87] The relatively strong transissions
allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes for the first time in North America.[87] Its popularity
declined with the 1994 launch of Hughes' DirecTV.[88] DirecTV acquired USSB on 14 December
1998 for $1.3 billion and PrimeStar in 1999 for $1.83 billion.[89]
On 4 March 1996 EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar
1 satellite.[90] EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of
channels available on Dish Network to 170.[90] These systems provided better pictures and stereo
sound on 150200 video and audio channels, and also allowed small dishes to be used.[90] This,
along with the widespread availability of DBS services and advances in noise reduction as a
result of improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials ended the popularity of
TVRO systems.[91] In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to digital television
transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system.[92]
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as
PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early
1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent Ku band) are higher in both
frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy efficiency of modern
satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation
methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analogue modulation
methods.[93] Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the Ku band, but only 24 in the
C band, and several digital subchannels can be multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately
(SCPC) on a single transponder.[91] Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave
technology and semiconductor materials also had an effect.[91] One consequence of the higher
frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade. where viewers lose signal during a heavy
downpour. Ku band signals are more vulnerable to rain fade than C-band signals.[94]
On 29 November 1999 US President Bill Clinton passed the Satellite Home Viewer
Improvement Act (SHVIA).[95] The act allowed Americans to receive local broadcast signals via
direct broadcast satellite systems for the first time.[95]
Satellite Television for the Asian Region (STAR), a service based in Mumbai and Hong Kong
which now provides satellite TV coverage to Asia and Australia, introduced satellite TV to the
Asian region in the early 1990s. It began broadcasting signals using the AsiaSat 1 satellite on 1
January 1991.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Freesat
Dish TV
Dish Home
List of direct broadcast satellite providers
Television receive-only
Satellite television by region
Commercialization of space
Free-to-air
Microwave antenna
Molniya orbit
Satellite dish
Satellite subcarrier audio
Smart TV: provides television via internet connection
SMATV
Television antenna
Cable television
challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United
States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may
improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as
appropriate. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A coaxial cable used to carry cable television onto subscribers' premises
The bottom product is a set-top box, an electronic device which cable subscribers use to connect
the cable signal to their television set.
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via

radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light
pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television
signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to
the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-
television services may also be provided through these cables. Analog television was standard in
the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable
operation.
A "cable channel" (sometimes known as a "cable network") is a television network available via
cable television. When available through satellite television, including direct broadcast satellite
providers such as DirecTV, Dish Network and BSkyB, as well as via IPTV providers such as
Verizon FIOS and AT&T U-verse is referred to as a "satellite channel". Alternative terms
include "non-broadcast channel" or "programming service", the latter being mainly used in legal
contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are
HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E!, Eurosport and CNN International.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community
Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948. In
areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous
terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual
homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was
distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History in the USA and Canada

2 Distribution
3 Principle of operation
o 3.1 Hybrid fiber-coaxial
4 Deployments by continent
5 Other cable-based services
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History in the USA and Canada[edit]

Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada.
From its founding, it primarily served small communities without access to a television station,
or ones with an adverse location that prevented reception of outside signals even if they were not
far away, such as being in a valley. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals
were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried
only a maximum of seven channels, using 2, 4, 5 or 6, 7, 9, 11 and 13, as the equipment was
unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth.
The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap
between 4 and 5 and the 86 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in
early systems that maximized 7 channels, either Channel 5 or Channel 6 was eliminated from the
lineup.
As equipment improved, all twelve channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF
television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be
priority, but technology allowed low-priority signals to be placed on such channels by
synchronizing their blanking intervals. Similarly, a local VHF station could not be carried on its
broadcast channel as the signals would arrive at the TV set slightly separated in time, causing
"ghosting"[citation needed]
The bandwidth of the amplifiers also was limited, meaning frequencies over 250 MHz were
difficult to transmit to distant portions of the coaxial network, and UHF channels could not be
used at all. To expand beyond 12 channels, non-standard "midband" channels had to be used,
located between the FM band and Channel 7, or "superband" beyond Channel 13 up to about
300 MHz; these channels initially were only accessible using separate tuner boxes that sent the
chosen channel into the TV set on Channel 2, 3 or 4.
Before being added to the cable box itself, these midband channels were used for early
incarnations of Pay TV i.e. The Z Channel (Los Angeles) and HBO but transmitted in the clear
i.e. not scrambled as standard TV sets of the period could not pick up the signal nor could the
average consumer ``de-tune the normal stations to be able to receive it.
Once tuners that could receive select mid-band and super-band channels began to be
incorporated into standard television sets, broadcasters were forced to either install scrambling
circuitry or move these signals further out of the range of reception for early cable-ready TVs
and VCRs. However, once all 181 allocated cable channels had been incorporated, premium
broadcasters were left with no choice but to scramble.
Unfortunately for pay-TV operators, the descrambling circuitry was often published in
electronics hobby magazines such as Popular Science and Popular Electronics allowing
anybody with anything more than a rudimentary knowledge of broadcast electronics to be able to
build their own and receive the programming without cost.
Later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to
connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common,
Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups. About this time, operators
expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the "midband" and "superband" VHF channels
adjacent to the "high band" 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in
Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two
cables.
During the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government
access (PEG) created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. As cable
penetration increased, numerous cable-only TV stations were launched, many with their own
news bureaus that could provide more immediate and more localized content than that provided
by the nearest network newscast.
Such stations may use similar on-air branding as that used by the nearby broadcast network
affiliate, but the fact that these stations do not broadcast over the air and are not regulated by the
FCC, their call signs are meaningless. These stations evolved partially into today's over-the-air
digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e.g. NBS 37* would in the case of no
local CNB or ABS station being available rebroadcast the programming from a nearby affiliate
but fill in with its own news and other community programming to suit its own locale. Many live
local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most
major television markets in the early 1980s.
indicates that - just as there are no national or regional networks known by NBS, CNB or
ABS, there is also no Channel 37 either allowed in analog broadcast TV due to the
frequency being reserved for science and astronomy.
This evolved into today's many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-
only produced television movies and miniseries. Cable specialty channels, starting with channels
oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and
"narrowcasting" became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast
signals on cable systems, some of which by this time had expanded beyond 35 channels. By the
mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution
contracts with cable networks on their own.
By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain
different selections of additional channels above the basic selection. By subscribing to additional
tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels. Large cable
companies used addressable descramblers to limit access to premium channels for customers not
subscribing to higher tiers, however the above magazines often published workarounds for that
technology as well.
During the 1990s, the pressure to accommodate the growing array of offerings resulted in digital
transmission that made more efficient use of the VHF signal capacity; fibre optics was common
to carry signals into areas near the home, where coax could carry higher frequencies over the
short remaining distance. Although for a time in the 1980s and 1990s, television receivers and
VCRs were equipped to receive the mid-band and super-band channels. Due to the fact that the
descrambling circuitry was for a time present in these tuners, depriving the cable operator of
much of their revenue, such cable-ready tuners are rarely used now - requiring a return to the set-
top boxes used from the 1970s onward.
The conversion to digital broadcasting has put all signals - broadcast and cable - into digital
form, rendering analog cable television service mostly obsolete, functional in an ever-dwindling
supply of select markets. Analog television sets are still accommodated, but their tuners are
mostly obsolete; oftentimes, dependent entirely on the set-top box.
Distribution[edit]
A cable television distribution box (left) in the basement of a building in Germany, with a splitter
(right) which supplies the signal to separate cables which go to different rooms
To receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the
local utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's
building through a service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the subscriber's building
does not have a cable service drop, the cable company will install one. The standard cable used
in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm impedance, and connects with a type F connector. The
cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building exterior,
and built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different rooms to
which televisions are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the incoming
cable with a small device called a splitter. There are two standards for cable television; older
analog cable, and newer digital cable which can carry data signals used by digital television
receivers such as HDTV equipment. All cable companies in the United States have switched to
or are in the course of switching to digital cable television since it was first introduced in the late
1990s.
Most cable companies require a set-top box to view their cable channels, even on newer
televisions with digital cable QAM tuners, because most digital cable channels are now
encrypted, or "scrambled", to reduce cable service theft. A cable from the jack in the wall is
attached to the input of the box, and an output cable from the box is attached to the television,
usually the RF-IN or composite input on older TVs. Since the set-top box only decodes the
single channel that is being watched, each television in the house requires a separate box. Some
unencrypted channels, usually traditional over-the-air broadcast networks, can be displayed
without a receiver box.[1] The cable company will provide set top boxes based on the level of
service a customer purchases, from basic set top boxes with a standard definition picture
connected through the standard coaxial connection on the TV, to high-definition wireless DVR
receivers connected via HDMI or component. Older analog television sets are "cable ready" and
can receive the old analog cable without a set-top box. To receive digital cable channels on an
analog television set, even unencrypted ones, requires a different type of box, a digital television
adapter supplied by the cable company. A new distribution method that takes advantage of the
low cost high quality DVB distribution to residential areas, uses TV gateways to convert the
DVB-C, DVB-C2 stream to IP for distribution of TV over IP network in the home.
Principle of operation[edit]
Diagram of a modern hybrid fiber-coaxial cable television system. At the regional headend, the
TV channels are sent multiplexed on a light beam which travels through optical fiber trunklines,
which fan out from distribution hubs to optical nodes in local communities. Here the light signal
from the fiber is translated to a radio frequency electrical signal, which is distributed through
coaxial cable to individual subscriber homes.
In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies
depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences
through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at
the cable company's local distribution facility, called the "headend". Many channels can be
transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At
the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each
channel a different frequency "slot" on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere
with each other. The main cable meets lines from the subscriber's residence in an outdoor cable
box, and either the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company
translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed
onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically
encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an
activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the
subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay his bill, the cable company can send a signal to
deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception.
There are also usually "upstream" channels on the cable to send data from the customer box to
the cable headend, for advanced features such as requesting pay-per-view shows or movies,
cable internet access, and cable telephone service. The "downstream" channels occupy a band of
frequencies from approximately 50 MHz to 1 GHz, while the "upstream" channels occupy
frequencies of 5 to 42 MHz. Subscribers pay with a monthly fee. Subscribers can choose from
several levels of service, with "premium" packages including more channels but costing a higher
rate. At the local headend, the feed signals from the individual television channels are received
by dish antennas from communication satellites. Additional local channels, such as local
broadcast television stations, educational channels from local colleges, and community access
channels devoted to local governments (PEG channels) are usually included on the cable service.
Commercial advertisements for local business are also inserted in the programming at the
headend (the individual channels, which are distributed nationally, also have their own nationally
oriented commercials).
Hybrid fiber-coaxial[edit]
Main article: Hybrid fibre-coaxial
Modern cable systems are large, with a single network and headend often serving an entire
metropolitan area. Most systems use hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) distribution; this means the
trunklines that carry the signal from the headend to local neighborhoods are optical fiber to
provide greater bandwidth and also extra capacity for future expansion. At the headend, the radio
frequency electrical signal carrying all the channels is modulated on a light beam and sent
through the fiber. The fiber trunkline goes to several distribution hubs, from which multiple
fibers fan out to carry the signal to boxes called optical nodes in local communities. At the
optical node, the light beam from the fiber is translated back to an electrical signal and carried by
coaxial cable distribution lines on utility poles, from which cables branch out to subscriber
residences.
Deployments by continent[edit]
Main article: Cable television by region
Cable television is mostly available in North America, Europe, Australia and East Asia, and less
so in South America and the Middle East. Cable television has had little success in Africa, as it is
not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. So-called "wireless cable" or
microwave-based systems are used instead.
Other cable-based services[edit]

Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of
large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over
coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as cable
internet, cable telephony and wireless services, using both unlicensed and licensed spectrum.
Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the
network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem
with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional
thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone
modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2k and
prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable
systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus
allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are
expensive.
In North America, Australia and Europe, many cable operators have already introduced cable
telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves
installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals
from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop
(replacing the analog last mile, or plain old telephone service (POTS)) to the company's
switching center, where it is connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The
biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for
emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems
to be the most promising and able to work with the quality of service (QOS) demands of
traditional analog plain old telephone service (POTS) service. The biggest advantage to digital
cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable, namely that data can be
compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched
service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. In
many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered
by many cable companies and does not rely on Internet Protocol (IP) traffic or the Internet.
Traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly

compete in providing voice, video and data services to residences. The combination of television,
telephone and Internet access is commonly called "triple play", regardless of whether CATV or
telcos offer it.
What Is A Trust Fund?
The Basics of Using Trust Funds to Protect and Preserve Wealth
By Joshua Kennon
Updated February 17, 2017
I have long been a proponent of using trust funds as a way to build wealth for future generations
but many new investors tend to shy away from concepts they think are only for the rich.
Although trusts have an association with blue blood families and powerful moguls, trust
funds can make a lot of sense even if you are a widowed grandmother who just wants to leave
$30,000 to a grandchild to help him complete his or her education.
In this introductory article, my goal is to break down the basics of trust funds for you so that, five
minutes from now, you can answer these three questions:
What is a trust fund?

How is a trust fund structured?
Why would I, or other investors, consider using a trust fund?
What Is a Trust Fund?
A trust fund is a special type of legal entity that holds property for the benefit of another person,
group, or organization. There are many different types of trust funds and many different trust
fund provisions that change how they work. Generally speaking, all trust funds have three
important parties:
1. The Grantor: This is the person who establishes the trust fund, donates the property (such as
cash, stocks, bonds, real estate, mutual funds, art, a private business, or anything else of value) to
the fund, and who decides the terms upon which it must be managed.
2. The Beneficiary: This is the person for whom the trust fund was established. It is intended that
the assets in the trust, though not belonging to the beneficiary, will be managed in a way that will
benefit him or her, as per the specifics laid out by the grantor when the trust fund was created.
1. The Trustee: The trustee, which can be a single individual, an institution (such as a bank trust
department that appoints one of its staff to the responsibility), or multiple trusted advisors, is
responsible for overseeing that the trust fund maintains its duties as laid out in the trust
documents and applicable law. The trustee is often paid a small management fee. Some trusts
give responsibility for managing the trust assets to the trustee, while others require the trustee to
select qualified investment advisors to handle the money.
How Is a Trust Fund Structured?
Trust funds are a fictional entity given life by the state legislature of the state in which the trust
was formed. Certain states have advantages over others depending on what it is the grantor is
attempting to accomplish, which is why it is so important to work with a qualified attorney when
drafting your trust fund documents. Some states permit so-called perpetual trusts, which can last
forever, while others will forbid such entities for fear of creating another landed gentry class that
results in future generations inheriting large amounts of wealth that the beneficiaries did not
earn. One of the most popular provisions inserted into trust funds is the so-called "spendthrift"
clause. What this means in plain English is that the beneficiary cannot pledge the assets of the
trusts, or dip into them, to satisfy his debts. This can make it impossible for profligates to find
themselves destitute after they incur large gambling debts, for example. Why? The casinos
probably won't be able to touch the principal. It is a way for concerned parents to make sure their
irresponsible children don't end up homeless or broke, regardless of how terrible their life
decisions are.
Why Would I, or Other Investors, Consider Using a Trust Fund?
In addition to the creditor protections that can be enjoyed, there are several reasons trust funds
are so popular:
If you don't trust your family members to follow the letter of your intentions following your
passing, a trust fund with an independent third-party trustee can often alleviate your fears. For
example, if you want to make sure your son and daughter from a first marriage inherit a lake
cabin that must be shared among them, you could use a trust fund to do it.
There are some significant tax advantages that can be achieved when using trust funds. For
example, setting up a so-called Charitable Annuity Trust or Charitable Remainder Trust can make
it possible to shield thousands, or even millions, of dollars from taxes, while benefiting your
favorite charity.
Trust funds can be used in a way that maximizing estate tax bypasses so you can get more cash to
more generations further down the family tree.
Grandparents often set up trust funds for their grandchildren, designed to pay educational
expenses and then distribute any additional principal following graduation as start-up money to
establishing a life.
Trust funds can protect assets that you cherish, such as a family business, from your
beneficiaries. Imagine you own an ice cream factory and feel tremendous loyalty towards your
employees. You want the business to continue being successful, and run by the people who work
in it, but you want the profits to go to your son, who has an addiction problem. By using a trust
fund, and letting the trustee be responsible for overseeing management, you could achieve
this. Your son would still get the financial benefits of the business but he would have no say in
running it.
There are some interesting ways to transfer large sums of money by using a trust fund, including
establishing a small trust that buys a life insurance policy on the grantor. When the grantor
passes away, the insurance proceeds are distributed to the trust, funding it. That money is then
used to acquire investments that generate dividends, interest, and rents for the beneficiary to
enjoy.
Please keep in mind that, while I hope it has been helpful, this is a brief overview of trust funds.
To learn more, you may want to read The Complete Book of Trusts, which provides a great
overview of 60 different types of trust funds and the reasons each is used. Please note that
whether or not a trust fund is appropriate for your situation will depend on your unique
circumstances, what you want to accomplish, and even the laws of your particular state. It is of
the utmost importance that you discuss your needs with a qualified trust attorney, your
accountant, and your registered investment advisory firm.
The Balance does not provide tax, investment, or financial services and advice. The information
is being presented without consideration of the investment objectives, risk tolerance, or financial
circumstances of any specific investor and might not be suitable for all investors. Past
performance is not indicative of future results. Investing involves risk including the possible loss
of principal.

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IPTV

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

IPTV services may be classified into three main groups:

Live television and live media, with or without related interactivity;

IPTV is defined as multimedia services such as television/video/audio/text/graphics/data

Kingston Communications, a regional telecommunications operator in the UK, launched KIT

EPG (electronic programme guide)

Map of IPTV countries of the world.[citation needed]

Commercial and corporate[edit]

A simplified network diagram for IPTV

Architecture of a video server network[edit]

Residential IPTV home networks[edit]

Telecomms IMS architecture[edit]

In standards-based IPTV systems, the primary underlying protocols used are:

Service provider-based streaming:

A telecommunications company IPTV service is usually delivered over an investment-heavy

1. Conventional TV reception equipment and IPTV encoders

The Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) consortium of industry companies is

IPTV-based converged services[edit]

Satellite latency can be detrimental to especially time-sensitive applications such as on-line

The BBC iPlayer interface on the Freesat digital service

Role of piracy and peer-to-peer[edit]

Near video on demand[edit]

Push video on demand[edit]

Advertising video on demand[edit]

Over the Air antenna

Terrestrial television or broadcast television is a type of television broadcasting in which the

Digital terrestrial television[edit]

Competition for radio spectrum[edit]

List of United States over-the-air television networks

DVB standards (countries)

ATSC standards (countries)

ISDB standards (countries)

DTMB standards (countries)

DMB standard (countries)

Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers by relaying it

Satellite television dishes in Malaysia.

An Inview Neelix set-top box.

Back view of a linear polarised LNB.

DBS satellite dishes installed on an apartment complex.

Main article: Television receive-only

A C-band satellite dish used by TVRO systems.

Beginning of the satellite TV industry, 19761980[edit]

TVRO/C-band satellite era, 19801986[edit]

Further information: Television receive-only

A coaxial cable used to carry cable television onto subscribers' premises

Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via

1 History in the USA and Canada

History in the USA and Canada[edit]

Main article: Hybrid fibre-coaxial

Other cable-based services[edit]

Traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly

What is a trust fund?

What Is a Trust Fund?

How Is a Trust Fund Structured?

Why Would I, or Other Investors, Consider Using a Trust Fund?

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