5

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) are three terminal devices in which voltage
applied across the two terminals control the current flowing in the third terminal. The
BJT can be used as both a voltage-controlled current source (analog device) and a
voltage-controlled switch (digital device). The Bipolar Junction Transistor three
terminals are labeled Emitter (E), Base (B), and Collector (C), and are connected to
the three regions within a monolithic (single-piece) structure. The name Bipolar
implies, namely both mobile carriers, electron and holes, are contributing to the
charge transport, hence current. The Bipolar Junction Transistor is called an npn
transistor If the transistors emitter region n-type, base region p-type, and collector
region are n-type semiconductors. Likewise, the tr ansistor is pnp transistor if the
transistors emitter region p-type, base region, n-type, and collector region, p-type
semiconductor materials. Silicon is the dominant material in transistor fabrication
because of temperature and breakdown voltage advantages over other semiconductor
materials.
BJTs are available in different packaging scheme. These packaging schemes are
based on three broad categories of BJTs, namely general-purpose transistors, power
transistors and RF (radio frequency and microwave) transistors. General-purpose or
small-signal transistors are used for low or medium-power amplifiers or switching
circuits. They are packaged either in plastic cases as shown in figure 5-1 for both npn
and pnp transistor, or metal cases as shown in figure 5-2 for npn transistor and for
pnp transistor as shown in figure 5-3.
2 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

Figure 5-1: npn TO-92 or TO-226AA and pnp TO 92- or TO 226AE

Figure 5-2: npn TO-18 or TO-206AA, TO-52 or TO-206AC, TO39-or TO-205AD and Pin
configuration bottom view Emitter is closest to tab

Figure 5-3: pnp TO-46 or TO-206AB and Pin configuration bottom view Emitter is closest to
tab

Certain types of packages contain multiple transistors as shown in figure 5-4 for dual
metal can and dual ceramic flat-peak as shown in figure 5-5.

npn
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 3
Figure 5-4: Dual metal can

npn

Figure 5.5: Dual ceramic flat-peak

The SOT packaging scheme is shown in figure 5-6.

Figure 5.6: SOT-23 or TO-236AB

Some of the multiple transistor packages such as the dual-in-line (Dip) as shown in
figure 5-7 and small-outline (SO) are the same as those used for many integrated
circuit as shown in figure 5-8.

Figure 5-7: Quad dual in-line (DIP) and quad flat-pack. Dot indicates pin 1
4 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

Figure 5-8: Quad small outline (SO) package for surface-mount technology

Power transistors are used to handle current more than 1 Ampere and or large
voltages. Some package configuration for power amplifier and their pin assignments
are shown in figure 5-9.

Figure 5-9: TO-3 or TO-204AE, TO-225AA, Surface-mount technology, TO-218AC, TO-

220AB and TO-218

RF transistors are used in communications systems, designed to operate at extremely

high frequencies. Gallium arsenide GaAs) transistor is used for microwave (very high
frequency). Their packaging are designed to optimized certain high-frequency
parameters. Some of their packaging schemes are shown in figure 5-10.

Figure 5-10: RF transistors

After the removal of packaging material, pending the transistor is fabricated as a

discrete or integrated circuit structure as shown in figure 5-11 and 5-12 will reveal
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 5
Collector Base Emitter Metal

Si02
n+ n+
p
n
+
n
p-substrate

Figure 5-11: Planar-diffused IC bipolar junction transistor structure of a few squares micrometer

Base Emitter Metal

Sio2
n+
p

n + -substrate

Metal
Collector

Figure 5-12: Planar-diffused discrete transistor structure of several squares millimeter

The one dimensional idealized p + np and n + pn are shown in figure 5-13 and 5-14.

+ VEC
IE IC
E
Emitter Base Collector
C E + VEC C

+
+ p n p + +
VEB VBC
VEB VCB IB
p + np +

B I E = I B + IC B
VEC = VEB VCB

Figure 5-13: Idealized p + np Bipolar Junction Transistor

6 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

VCE +
IE IC
E
Emitter Base Collector
C E
VCE + C
n+
p n +
VBE VCB
VBE VBC IB
n+ pn +
+ B+ I E = I B + IC B
VCE = VBE VBC

Figure 5-14: Idealized n + pn Bipolar Junction Transistor

When the arrow points away from the base, it signifies n + pn transistor and when the
arrow points into the base, it signifies p + np transistors.
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 7

n+ p n
Emitter Base Collecor

Effective base

EC
EF
Ei
EV x
V

x
E B C
E E

nnE Depletion nB ( 0 ) Depletion

region region nnC
N DC
N DE N AB
PnE ( 0 ) n p (WB ) pnC 0
PnE 0
xE x=0 WB xC x
Emitter Base Collector

Figure 5-15: A simplified structure of the n + pn bipolar junction transistor, its energy band
diagram, voltage, electric field, change density and carrier distribution in various regions in
active mode of operation.
8 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Example 5-1

To come

Solution:

Bipolar Junction Transistor modes of operation

The Bipolar Junction transistors can be viewed as two pn junction diodes connected,
back-to-back, in series, namely the emitterbase junction diode and the collector-base
junction diode. The different modes of operation of bipolar junction transistor are
possible by forward or reverse biasing the two junction as shown in table 1-1.

Mode of operation E-B junction C-B junction

Saturation Forward bias Forward bias
Active Forward bias Reverse bias
Reverse active Reverse bias Forward bias
Cutoff Reverse bias Reverse bias

Table 5-1: Bipolar junction modes of operation and their junctions biasing

The combination of the bipolar junction transistor emitter-base junction and collector-
base junction voltages for the four modes of operations are given in Figure 5-16. The
junction voltage polarities are a given for both pnp and npn transistors.

VEB ( pnp )
VBE ( npn )

Active Saturation
VCB ( pnp )
VBC ( npn )
Cutoff Inverted

Figure 5-16: pnp and npn Bipolar Junction Transistor mode of operations and their junction
biases

The output I V characteristics for bipolar junction transistor in common-emitter

configuration for all mode of operation is given in figure 5-17. Where I C is collector
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 9
current flowing out of the transistor for pnp and flowing into the transitor for npn .
The output voltage is VEC for pnp and VCE for npn .

IC

Saturation
VCB = 0

IB > 0
IB = 0
Active
cutoff VEC ( pnp )
IB = 0 cutoff VCE ( npn )
IB > 0
Inverted
Active

Saturation

Figure 5-17: pnp and npn Bipolar Junction Transistor I V characteristic for the different
mode of operations

The 2-port device has four terminals, two input terminals and 2 output terminals. The
bipolar junction transistor is a 3-terminal device. In order that Bipolar junction
transitors to be employed as a 2-port device, one of the bipolar junction terminal
should be in common between input and output of the device. The common-base
configuration, common-emitter configuration and common-collector confuturation are
three configuration possibilities. The common base configuration has an input;
emitter-base voltage VEB and emitter current of I E . Its output is a collector-base
voltage VCB and collector current I C as shown in fugure 5-18.

+ VEC
IE IC IE + VEC IC
Emitter Base Collector
E +
p C E C
+ p n + + +
VEB VCB VEB VCB
( input ) ( output ) ( input ) IB ( output )

B B B B

Figure 5-18: Common Base configuration

A typical input-output I V characteristic of common-base two port device is given

in figure 5-19.
10 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
I E ( mA ) I C ( mA )
VCB = 20V
VCB = 10V I E = 4mA
VCB = 1V
I E = 3mA

I E = 2mA

I E = 1mA

IE = 0
VEB (V ) VCB (V )

Figure 5-19: I V Characteristics of input and output of the Common base configuration

The common emitter configuration has an input; emitter-base voltage VEB and base
current of I B . Its output is a collector-base voltage VCB and collector current I C as
shown in fugure 5-20.

IC IC
C C

Collector
p IC IC
IB VCB IB
Base VCE
B n B
( output )
VEB
Emitter
VBE ( output )
( input ) p+
IE ( input ) IE
+ + + +
E E E E

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

A typical input-output I V characteristic of common-emitter two port device is

given in figure 5-21.

I B ( A) I C ( mA )
VCE = 0V VCE = 10V
VCE = 20V
I B = 40 A
I B = 30 A
I B = 20 A
I B = 10 A
IB = 0
VEB (V ) VEC (V )
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 11
Figure 5-21: I V Characteristics of input and output of the Common base configuration

The common collector configuration has an input; collector-base voltage VCB and
base-current of I B . Its output is a emitter-collector voltage VEC and emitter current
I E as shown in fugure 5-22.

IE IE

+ IE V
p IE EC
IB VEC IB
n ( output )
VCB ( output ) VBC
( input ) p IC
( input ) IC
+ + + +

Figure 5-22: Common Collector configuration

Operation of the pnp transistor in the active mode

In the active mode of operation, the emitter-base junction is forward biased with
voltage VBE , which causes the p-type emitter region to be higher in potential than the
n-type base region. The collector base junction is reverse biased by voltage, VCB ,
which cause the p-type

n+ p n
I nE Electron flow I nc
IE I R =C IC
Recombination
I nB
Hole flow

I pc
I pB IRec

- + IB - +
VBE VBC
Forward Reverse

Figure 5-23: Bipolar Junction Transistor in active mode of operation.

The emitter current is made up of majority carriers from the base (holes) I pB and
majority carriers from the emitters (electrons) I nE injected across the forwardbiased
emitter-base junction.
12 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Emitter is more heavily doped than the base, resulting in more electrons injected from
the emitter than holes injected from the base.
The base width W is typically very thin. The collector current almost equals the
electron current flowing from the emitter to the base. (Recommendation with holes in
the base is minimal).

Collector Current
VBE

I C = I s e VT
[5-1]

where I S is scale current of saturation current given by

qADn ni2
IS =
N AW [5-2]

N A = Doping concentration in the base typical values of I S are 1014 to 1016 A

Base Current

iB also proportional to VBE .

iC
iB =

For high , W should be small, N A should be low and the emitter should be heavily
doped ( N D large)

I nEB = Emitter current due to injected electrons into the base I En

I nEB = Base current due to injected holes into the emitter I EP
I nEB = Recombination current in the base region
I nEB = Hole current due injected holes across reverse-biased base-collector junction
I nEB = Electron current due to injected holes across reverse-biased base collector
junction
I nEB = Electron current due collected electron from base which were injected to the
base from emitter originally ( I C )
Diode can be modeled in many different way pending on what application it is
employed.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Large-Signal Equivalent Circuit

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 13

iB iC E

B C iE

+
vBE
_ iB +
vBE iB iB
_
iE B C

E
iC
+
n pn p + np

Figure 5-24: Common Emitter configuration

C C
iC iE
vEB
+
_
iE iB
iB B
B
+ iE
vBE
_ iE iC
E E
n + pn p + np

Figure 5-25: Common Emitter configuration

npn BJT I V Characteristics

iC

iB
vBC +
+
B vCE
+
vBE
iE

E
14 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Figure 5-26: Common Emitter configuration

I V characteristics related output variable I C and input variable VBE , with voltage
VCB held constant. The typical curve of I C vs. VBE is shown in fugure 5-27.

iC ( mA )

Slope = g m

vBE (V )

Figure 5-27: Common Emitter configuration

iC
Saturation region Active region
(VBC < 0) 1
Slope =
r0

vBE

vCE
VA 0 Cut off

Figure 5-28: Common Emitter configuration

As vCE increases, the reverse bias across the collector-base junction also increases.
The depletion layer widens and the width WB of the base decreases. Since saturation
current I S is inversely proportional to base width WB then I C will increase. This is
known as base width modulation or early effect.
v v
BE
v BE

iC = I S e vT 1 + CE = I S e (1 + vCE )
vT

VA [5-1]

where VA is early voltage, denoted by

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 15
1
VA =
[5-2]

The output resistance looking into collector denoted by ro is shwn in figure 5-29

iB iC
B C

+ +
vBE iB r0 ir VCE
_
_

iE

E
n + pn

Figure 5-29: Common Emitter configuration with output resistance ro

iC = iB + ir
[5-3]

diC d di
= iB + r
dvCE dvCE dvCE [5-4]

1
@ vBE = const ( iB = const ) = 0 +
r0 [5-5]

1
di
1
d VVBE VCE
r0 = C = I e T 1 +
dvCE dvCE s VA [5-6]

r0 = output resistance looking into the collector

1
i
r0 = C
vCE vBE = constant [5-7]

VA

IC [5-8]

Example 5-2:
16 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Find the n ?

iC
IC 4 vBE 4
IC3 vBE 3
IC 2
vBE 2
I C1 vBE1

vCE
VA vCE 0

Figure 5-30: Common Emitter configuration

vBE 1
nVr
iC1 e

iC 2 vCE = const
vBE 2
[5-9]
e nVr

vBE iC1
n=
VT ln iC 2 [5-10]
vCE = const

Example 5-3:

Given

I b = 20 A
vCE = 5V

Courser 1
I C = 5.2mA [5-11]
hFE = 260 = DC

I b = 15 A
vCE = 5V

Courser 2
I C = 3.96mA [5-12]
hFE = 264 = DC
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 17
I b = 20 A

vCE = 10V Courser 3
[5-13]
I C = 5.44mA

I b = 15 A

vCE = 10V Courser 4
[5-14]
I C = 4.12mA

Find r0 , VA , DC , AC

iC

1 3
2 4

vCE

Figure 5-31: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

To come

Modes of Operation

VCC

iC RC
vC
vBC
+ +
vin i vCE
+
B
vBE
iE
18 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Figure 5-32: Common Emitter configuration

I V output characteristics related output variable iC and VCE , with input current iE
held constant. The typical family of curves of ic vs. VCB iC ( mA ) is shown in figure
4.8

iC
iB 4

VCC iCSAT iB 3
RC iB ( SAT )
Active region iB 2
1
Slope =
Saturation region RC iB1
vCE
vCC
vCE ( SAT )
Cut off

Figure 5-33: Common Emitter configuration

iE = iB + iC
[5-15]

vCE = vBE vBC

[5-16]

k = overdrive factor I B ( EOS ) is I B at the age of saturation.

Mode EBJ CBJ VBE VBC VCE iB iC iE

0.2
Active Forward Reverse 0.7 0.5 iB iB ( + 1) iB
0.2 forced iB
Saturation Forward Forward = 0.7 0.5 iB iB + iC

Cut-off Reverse Reverse < 0.7 < 0.5 VCC 0 0 0

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 19
iB iC
B C

+
0.7V
_ iB

iE

Figure 5-34: Acive mode

VCC

RC
vout

iE

Figure 5-35: Cut-off mode

VCC
I B ( EOS )
I C ( SAT ) RC
=

+
vout
+ v
CESAT
0.7V
IB Closed
K=
I B ( EOS )
K >2

Figure 5-36: Saturation mode

Example 5-4:

Find the terminal voltages and nodal currents of circuit in figure 5-25
for VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts , VB = 2volts and = 100
20 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VCC

IC RC = 4.7k
V +
+ BE
VB VCE
+
IB

IE RE = 1.3k

Figure 5-34: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

Find all currents and voltages. Assume transistor in active mode.

VE = 2V VBE = 2V 0.7V = 1.3V

[5-17]

1.3V
IE = = 1mA
1.3k [5-18]

100
= = = 0.99
+ 1 100 + 1 [5-19]

I C = I E = 0.99(1mA) = 0.99mA
[5-20]

IE
IB = = 0.01mA
+1 [5-21]

VC = 5V 0.99mA (1.72k ) = 3.3V

[5-22]

VCE = VC VE = 3.3 1.3 = 2.0V

[5-23]

VBC = 2V 3.3V = 1.3V

[5-24]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 21
CB Junction reverse biased by 1.3V, Active mode confirmed

Example 5-5:

Find the terminal voltages and nodal currents of circuit in figure 5-26
for = 100 , VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts , VB = 3volts

VCC

IC RC = 1.72k
+
+ VBC
VB VCE
+
IB VBE

IE RE = 1.3k

Figure 5-35: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

Assume transistor in active mode.

VE = 3V 0.7V = 2.3V
[5-25]

2.3V
IE = = 1.77 mA
1.3V [5-26]

I C = I E = 0.99 (1.77 mA ) = 1.75mA

[5-27]

VC = 5V 1.75mA (1.72k ) = 2V
[5-28]

VBC = 3V 2V = 1V
[5-29]

CB Junction forward biased saturation mode original assumption is incorrect.

Since the transistor is in saturation mode. VCE 0.2V = VCE ( SAT )
22 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VC = VE + VCE ( SAT ) = 2.3V + 0.2V = 2.5volts
[5-30]

( 5V 2.5V )
I C = I C ( SAT ) = = 1.45mA
1.72k [5-31]

I B = I E I C = 1.77mA 1.45mA = 0.32mA

[5-32]

I C ( SAT ) 1.45mA
Forced = = = 4.5 <
IB 0.32mA [5-33]

The Transistor is indeed saturated.

Example 5-6:

Find the terminal voltages and nodal currents of circuit in figure 5-27
for = 100 , VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts , VB = 0volts

VCC

IC RC = 1.72k

+
VBC +
VB VCE
+
IB VBE

IE RE = 1.3k

Figure 5-36: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

I E = 0V , I C = 0, I B = 0
[5-34]

VC = 10V
[5-35]

VCE = 10V
[5-36]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 23
(Cut off mode)

Example 5-7:

Find the terminal voltages and nodal currents of circuit in figure 5-28
for = 100 , VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts , VEE = 5volts

VCC
IC
RC = 3.3k

VBC +
+
VCE
+ VBE

RE = 4.3k
IE

VEE

Figure 5-37: Common Emitter configuration

Assume active mode

VE = 0.7V
[5-37]

VE ( VEE ) 0.7V ( 5V )
IE = = = 1mA
RE 4.3k [5-38]

I C = I E = 0.99mA
[5-39]

VC = 5V 0.99mA ( 3.3k ) = 3.27V

[5-40]

VBC = VB VC = 0 3.27 = 3.27V

[5-41]

Collector base junction is reversed biased and assumption is correct

24 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Example 5-8

Find the terminal voltages and nodal currents of circuit in figure 5-29
for = 100 , VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts , VEE = 5volts

VCC
IC
RC = 3.3k

VBC +
+
VCE
+ VBE

RE = 4.3k
IE

VEE

Figure 5-38: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

Assume active mode of operation

VE = 0.7V
[5-42]

( 5V 0.7V )
IE = = 2.15mA
2k [5-43]

I C = I E = 0.99 2.15mA = 2.13mA

[5-44]

VC = 5V + I C RC = 2.87V
[5-45]

VEC = 3.57V
[5-46]

VCB = 2.87V
[5-47]

Reverse Bias assumption is correct.

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 25
Example 5-9

Find resistance of RB for the transistor to saturate with an overdrive factor of 5

(K=5) in circuit in figure 5-30 for 20 < < 100 and VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V , VCC = 5volts ,
VB = 3volts

VCC
IC
1k

RB
VB

Figure 5-39: Common Emitter configuration

5 VCE ( SAT ) ( 5 0.2 )V

I C ( SAT ) = = = 4.8mA
1k 1k [5-48]

I C ( SAT ) 4.8mA
I B ( EOS ) = = 0.24mA
MIN 20 [5-49]

IB
k =5=
I B ( EOS ) [5-50]

I B = 5 0.24mA = 1.2mA
[5-51]

3V 0.7V
= 1.2mA
RB [5-52]

RB = 1.91k
[5-53]

Example 5-10:
26 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Find I C1 , I C 2 , VCE1 , and VCE 2 in figure 5-31, circuit where VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V and is
large.

Solution:

24V

149k 510k

Q1
VB1
VE1 Q2
VE 2
30k
3.7k
100k

Figure 5-39: Common Emitter configuration

30k
VB1 = 24V = 4V
30 k + 149 K [5-54]

VE1 = 4V 0.7V = 3.7V

[5-55]

3.7
I E1 = I C1 = = 1mA
3.7 k [5-56]

VCE1 = 24V 3.7V = 20.3V

[5-57]

VE 2 = VE1 VBE ( ON ) = 3.7V 0.7V = 3V

[5-58]

3V
I E 2 = IC 2 = = 30mA
100 [5-59]

VC 2 = 24V ( 30mA )( 510 ) = 8.7V

[5-60]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 27
VCE 2 = 8.7 3 = 5.7V
[5-61]

-Independent biasing

VCC

RB1 RC

RB 2
RE

Figure 5-40: Common Emitter configuration

VCC

IC RC

IB RB +
VCE
+
VBE
VBB
IE RE

Figure 5-41: Common Emitter configuration

VBB = I B RB + VBE = I E RE
[5-62]
28 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
IE
IB =
( + 1) [5-63]

VBB VBE
IE =
RB [5-64]
RE +
( + 1)

If

RB
RE 
( + 1) [5-65]

VBB VBE
IE
RE [5-66]

Independent of

VCE = VCC I C RC I E RE
[5-67]

VCC I E ( RC + RE )
[5-68]

VCC V
Typically we design VCE , I C RC CC
3 3

The Current Mirror

VCC
2I E vout

I REF ( + 1) Io
ro 2

Q1 Q2

IE IE

VEE

Figure 5-42: Common Emitter configuration

Chapter 5 Microelectronic
V
Circuits Analysis and Design 29
BE

Basic Equation I C = I S e VT Asssume r02 =

VBE1 = VBE 2 AND ASSUME I S 1 = I S 2 = I S

[5-69]

THEN I E1 = I E 2 = I E
[5-70]

IE
I B1 = I B 2 =
( )
1 + [5-71]

IO = IE
(1 + ) [5-72]

2I E +2
I REF = IE + = I
(1 + ) (1 + ) 1 + E [5-73]

IO
=
I REF +2 [5-74]

2I E +Z
I REF = IE + = I
1+ (1 + ) 1 + E [5-75]

IO
=
I REF + Z [5-76]

If
VBE VCE
1+ V
rO 2 , I C = I S e VT A

[5-77]

VCE 2
1+
IO VA
=
I REF + 2 V
1 + CE1 [5-78]
VA

Note that VCE1 = VBE1 0.7V AND VCE 2 as it depends on the value of vo use of
current mirror for biasing
30 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Vcc + VEE VBE
I REF =
R [5-79]

Io

1
slope=
ro2

vout
0
useful range
VCE ( sat ) BVCEO ( Break down voltage )

Figure 5-43: Common Emitter configuration

VCC
2I E vout

I REF ( + 1) Io
ro 2

Q1 Q2

IE IE

VEE

Figure 5-44: Common Emitter configuration

VCC + VEE VBE

I REf =
R [5-80]

Example 5-13

Find emittercurrent I E1 and voltage gain of circuit in Figure 5-45, given VA = 20V ,
VE1 = 1.0V ( DC ) = 49 VBE (ON ) = 0.7V VT = 25mV
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 31
VCC
2I E vout

I REF ( + 1) Io
ro 2

Q1 Q2

IE IE

VEE

Figure 5-45: Common Emitter configuration

To find I E1

10 0.7V
I REF = = 0.413mA
22.5k [5-81]

VCE1
1+
VA

I E1 = I REF
+ 2 1 + VCE 3 [5-82]
VA

6
1+
49 20
I E1 0.413mA 0.7 = 0.5mA
49 + 2 1 + [5-83]

20

vout
to find
vin
VT
re1 = = 50
0.5mA [5-84]

VA
ro1 = = 40k
0.5mA [5-85]

RIN = ( + 1) re1 = 2.5k

[5-86]
32 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

vout RIN (
10k 10k 40k )
=
vin 10k + RIN re1 [5-87]

= 17.42V
V [5-88]

Example 5-14

Calculate the DC bias voltages and currents.

VCC

RB1 RC

RB 2
RE

Figure 5-46: Common Emitter configuration

Solution:

Assume the voltage divider network in not LOADED by the transistor (Approx.
analysis)

4
VB = 20V = 1.818V
4 + 40 [5-89]

VE = VB 0.7V = 1.118V
[5-90]

VE
IE = = 0.559mA
RE [5-91]

VC = 20V ( 0.559mA )(10k ) = 14.4V ( I C I E )

[5-92]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 33
VCE = VC VE = 13.28V
[5-93]

Exact analysis (Thevenize the divider network)

VCC

IC RC

IB RB +
VCE
+
VBE
VBB
IE RE

Figure 5-47: Common Emitter configuration

4
VBB = 20V = 1.818V
40 + 4 [5-94]

RB = 40k 4k = 3.6k
[5-95]

VBB VBE
IE = = 0.549mA
RB [5-96]
RE +
( + 1)

VE = I E RE = 1.098V
[5-97]

VB = VE + 0.7V = 1.798V
[5-98]

VC = 20V ( 0.549mA )(10k ) = 14.51V

[5-99]

VCE = VC VE = 13.41V
[5-100]
34 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
The transistor as an amplifier

A transistor is biased in active mode of operation in order to be employed as an

amplifier. Before discussing the amplifier operation, the table 5-2 denotes the type of
values involves in amplifiers analysis and their symbols.

Symbol
Type of Value Examples
Variable Subscript
Total instantaneous Lowercase Uppercase iB , vBE
DC Uppercase Uppercase I B , VBE
Ac instantaneous Lowercase Lowercase ib , vbe
Quiescent-point Uppercase Uppercase plus Q I BQ ,VBEQ
RMS Uppercase Lowercase I b , Vbe
Maximum (sinusoid) uppercase Lowercase plus m I bm , Vbem

Table 5-3: Amplifier values and their symbols

VCC

RC iC

vCE
iB

vbe iE
+
VBE

Figure 5-48: transistor as an amplifier

DC biasing

In order that the transistor operate in active mode, the base-emitter junction is forward
biased by a DC voltage of VBE and collector-base junction is reversed biased by DC
power supply VBE through resistor RC . The signal vbe is set to zero.
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 35

VCC

RC IC

VCE
IB
+
VBE iE

Figure 5-49: DC biasing of transistor for an amplifier

For active mode of operation voltage at node VC given as

VC = VCE = VCC RC I C
[5-101]

should be higher than voltage at node VB to allow a signal swing at the collector node.

AC analysis

The instantaneous total base current is

iB = I B + ib
[5-102]

The instantaneous total collector current is

iC = I C + ic
[5-103]

The instantaneous total emitter current is

iE = I E + ie
[5-104]

The instantaneous total base-emitter voltage is

vBE = VBE + vbe

[5-105]

The instantaneous total base-collector voltage is

36 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
vBC = VBC + vbc
[5-106]

The instantaneous total collector-emitter voltage is

vCE = VCE + vce

[5-107]

The total instantaneous total collector current is related to base-emitter voltage

vBE

iC = I s e vT
[5-108]

The total instantaneous base-emitter voltage cab be written as sum of DC and AC

base emitter voltage
(VBE + vbe )

iC = I s e VT

[5-109]

VBE vbe

iC = I s e VT
e VT

[5-110]

VBE

I C = I s e VT
[5-111]

If vbe  VT (smaller than10mV ) using the Taylor expansion series and ignoring the
higher order than two.
vbe
v
e VT 1 + be
VT [5-112]

Total instantaneous value

v
iC = I C + ic = I C 1 + be
VT [5-113]

Small-signal value

IC
ic = vbe
VT [5-114]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 37
Transconductance:

ic i IC
gm = = C iC = I C =
vbe vBE VT [5-115]

For I C = 1mA
g m 40 mA
V

iB iC E

B C iE

+
vBE
_ iB +
vBE iB iB
_
iE B C

E
iC
+
n pn p + np

Figure 5-50: Common Emitter configuration

vBE
iC
I S e VT
high I C , large g m

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

38 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Transistor Low frequency Hybrid- model

ib ic
b c
+
v r g m v ro

ie
Rin Rout
re e

Figure 5-39: Voltage control current source (VCCS) Bipolar Junction Transistor simplified
hybrid- model for small signal analysis

ib ic
b c
+
v r ib ro

ie
Rin Rout
re e

Figure 5-40: Current control current source (CCCS) Bipolar Junction Transistor simplified
hybrid- model for small signal analysis

iB iC
B C
+
vBE
_ iB

iE

E
+
n pn

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 39
vbe = v
[5-116]

ic I
gm  = C
vbe VT [5-117]

The base small signal input impedance r is

v vbe
r = = = =
ib ic ic gm [5-118]
vbe

ve 1
re = = r & & r0
ie gm [5-119]

Assume r0 is very large.

1
re r &
gm [5-120]

1
re = &
gm gm [5-121]

1

g g
re = m m
1 [5-122]
+
gm gm

re =
(1 + ) g m [5-123]

re =
gm [5-124]

Since

=
1+
40 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VT
re =
IC [5-125]

VT
re =
IE [5-126]

Thermal voltage at room temperature is VT = 25mV

The output resistance re = 25 at I E = 1mA
We can now derive a relationship between r and re

r = = (1 + ) = (1 + )
gm (1 + ) g m gm [5-127]

And

re =
gm

r = (1 + ) re
[5-128]

vce
ro =
ic [5-129]

VA
ro =
Ic [5-130]

1
ro =
IC [5-131]

Current controlled current source small signal hybrid- model is given in Figure 5-
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 41

The T-Model

ic
c

ie
ib
ro
b
ie
re Rout

Rin
e

Figure 5-20: The T-model equivalent circuit Common Emitter configuration

Since ib is lower than ie by a factor of (1 + )

Looking into the base, we see an impedance (1 + ) times higher than re
Similarly

ic
c

ie
ib
ro
b
ie
re Rout

Rin
e

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

42 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Looking into the emitter, we see re in series with the reflected base resistance,
which is equal to

RB
(1 + )

Common-Emitter Amplifier:

The common-emitter bipolar junction transistor is biased with the two power supply
VCC and VEE .

VCC

RC
CC
RS CB
vout

RL
vS RB
RE CE

VEE

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

The reactance of a capacitor X C is given by

1
Xc = ( Ohms )
C

All capacitors are specified to have very large values ( )values then

1
Xc = = 0 ( Ohms )
()

Capacitors for any input frequencies are short-circuit except for DC, which are then
an open circuit.
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 43
The input signal source vS has a resistance RS , which through a large bypass capacitor
CB is connected to the transistor base. The output signal vout is taken across the
collector to ground.

Small signal equivalent circuit.

To obtain small signal equivalent circuit, short all capacitors and connect all power
supplies to AC ground as shown in Figure 5-45.

RC

RS vout

vS RL
RB

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

Replace the transistor by its Hybrid= model.

RS vb
vout

+
vS RB v r g m v ro RC RL

Rin Rout

Figure 5-20: equivalent hybrid -model of Common Emitter configuration

Input impedance

Rin = RB & r
[5-132]
44 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Output impedance

Rout = ro & Rc
[5-133]

Voltage gain

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-134]

Chain rule.

vb Rin
=
vin Rs + Rin [5-135]

vout = g m v ( ro & RL & Rc )

[5-136]

vout
= g m ( ro & RL & Rc )
v [5-137]

v = vb
[5-138]

vout
= g m ( ro & RL & Rc )
vb [5-139]

vout Rin
= g m ( ro & RL & Rc )
vin Rin + Rs [5-140]

Do the same analysis using the T-model

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 45
c
vout

ie ro RC RL
RS ib
b

ie
vS RB re Rout

Rin

Figure 5-20: Equivalent T-model for Common Emitter configuration

Rin = RB & r
[5-141]

Rout = Rc & ro
[5-142]

Voltage gain

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-143]

Chain rule

vb Rin
=
vin Rin + Rs [5-144]

vb = ie re
[5-145]

vout = ie ( ro & Rc & RL )

[5-146]

vout ( ro & Rc & RL )

=
vb re [5-147]
46 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
vout Ri ( ro & Rc & RL )
=
vin Ri + Rs re [5-148]

Note that

gm =
re

the two different models have the same results.

The important issues:
The voltage

[5-149]

The voltage gain from the base to the collector

vc
= ( gm )
vb

(The total AC resistance at the collector

The voltage gain from the base to the collector

vc
=
vb

(Total AC collector resistance/Total AC emitter resistance

Current gain of the common emitter amplifier

RC
ib vout
ic
iL

iS RS RL
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 47
Figure 5-20: Bipolar

iL ib ic iL
=
is is ib ic [5-150]

ib Rs
=
is Rs + r [5-151]

ic
=
ib [5-152]

iL Rc
=
ic Rc + RL [5-153]

Assume r0 =

iL Rs Rc
=
is Rs + r Rc + RL [5-154]

Rib = ( + 1)( re + RE1 ) = r + ( + 1) RE1

Rin = RB || Rib

Rout = r0 (1 + g m RE1 ) || RC  RC

vout vb vout
=
vs vs vb

vb Rin
=
vs Rin + R s

vout ( RC || RL )
=
vb re + RE1

assuming
48 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Rout >> Rc and Rout >> RL

vout Rin ( RC || RL )
=
vs Rin + RS re + RE1

Example 5-15:

= 100
ro =
VT = 25mV
VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V

VCC = 10V

RC = 3k
+
RBB = 100k vout

+
vIN

+
3V

Solution:

DC Analysis:

( 3V 0.7V )
IB = = 0.023mA
100k [5-155]

I c = I B = 2.3mA
[5-156]

Ic 2.3mA
IE = = = 2.323mA
0.99 [5-157]

Vc = Vcc I c Rc = 3.1V
[5-158]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 49
VCB = ( 0.7 3.1) V = 2.4V
[5-159]

(R.B, Active mode)

AC Analysis:

VT 25mV
re = = = 10.8
I E 2.323mA [5-160]

IC
gm = = 92 mA
VT V [5-161]

r = = 1.09k
gm [5-162]

Small-signal model = Hybrid-

100k b
+
+ + vout
vIN v r
g m v RC

Rin e

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-163]

vb r 1.09k
= = = 0.0108V
vin 100k + r 100k + 1.09k V [5-164]

vout mA
= g m ( 3k ) = 92 ( 3k ) = 276 V
V
vb V [5-165]

vout
= ( 0.0108 )( 276 ) = 2.98V
vin V [5-166]

Small signal model = T model

50 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

+
c
vout

RC
ie
100k
b
+ ie
vIN re

Rin e

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-167]

vb (1 + ) re
= = 0.0108
vin RBB + (1 + ) re [5-168]

vb = ie re
[5-169]

vout = ie Rc
[5-170]

vout RC
=
vb re [5-171]

vout (1 + ) re RC (1 + ) RC
= = = 2.98V
vin RBB + (1 + ) re re RBB + (1 + ) re V [5-172]

Directly on the schematic

i
vin = RBB e + ie re
1+ [5-173]

vout = ie RC
[5-174]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 51
vout ie RC (1 + ) RC
= = = 2.98V
vin ie RBB + (1 + ) re V [5-175]
RBB + ie re
1+

Example:

a) Draw the AC schematic

v
b) Find the small-signal voltage gain out
vin
VCC = 10V

RC = 10k
CC =
CB = vout

RS = 1.25k

vS RL = 10k
RB = 2.5k
1mA CE =

Rin
Rout
VEE = 10V

VCC = 10V

RC = 10k

RS = 1.25k vout

vS RL = 10k
RB = 2.5k

Rin
Rout
52 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VT
re = = 25
IE [5-176]

RIN = r = (1 + ) re = 2.5k
[5-177]

VA
ro =  10k
IC [5-178]

vb 2.5k & RIN

= = 0.5V
vin 2.5k & RIN + 1.25k V [5-179]

vout (10k & 10k & ro )

= 133.3V
vb re V [5-180]

vout vb vout
= = 66.6 V V
vin vin vb [5-181]

Example:

VT = 25mV
VA = 50V I E = 1mA = 99
v v v
Find RIN , Rout , b , out , out
\ vin vb vin

VCC = 10V

RB1 = 20k RC = 10k

CC =
CB = vout
vb
RS = 1k

vS RL = 10k
RB 2 = 10k
RE = 1.2k CE =

Rin
Rout
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 53
VT
re = = 25
IE [5-182]

VA
ro = 50k
IC [5-183]

r = (1 + ) re = 2.5k
[5-184]

RIN = 20k & 10k & r = 1.82k

[5-185]

Rout = ro & RC = 50k & 10k = 8.33k

[5-186]

vb RIN 1.82k
= = = 0.645V
vin Rs + RIN 1k + 1.82k V [5-187]

vout ( RC & ro & RL )

= or g m ( RC & ro & RL )
vb re [5-188]

0.99 (10k & 50k & 10k )

=
25 [5-189]

= 180V
V [5-190]

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-191]

(
= 0.645V
V )( 180V V ) = 116V V [5-192]

Common-Emitter Amplifier with Emitter Resistor

54 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field
VCC

RC
CC
RS CB vout

vS RE1 RL
RB

RE 2 CE

Rin Rout
VEE
codes.

Small signal equivalent circuit

RC

RS vout

vS RB
RE1 RL

Rin Rib Rout

Rout = ro (1 + g m RE1 ) & RC RC

[5-193]

Replace the transistor by its T-model

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 55

RC

c vout

ie RL
RS b ib

ie
vS RB re Rout
e
RE1

Rin Rib

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Rib = (1 + )( re + RE1 )
[5-194]

= r + (1 + ) RE1
[5-195]

Ri = RB & Rib
[5-196]

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-197]

vb Ri
=
vin Ri + Rs [5-198]

vout ( RC & RL )

vb re + RE1 [5-199]
56 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Assuming Rout  RC and Rout  RL

vout Ri ( RC & RL )

vin Ri + Rs re + RE1 [5-200]

v
Note that out is a ratio of AC resistances again.
We can now vb derive an expression of vout in terms of g
m
vb
i
gm  C
vbe [5-201]

RC

vout
vb

RE1 RL

Rib Rout

Define

iC
g meff 
vb

note that vb vbe

Then,

vout
= g meff ( RC & RL )
vb

vb = ie re + ie RE1
[5-202]

iC = ie
[5-203]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 57
iC
g meff = =
vb re + RE1 [5-204]

re
=
R [5-205]
1 + E1
re

gm

1 + g m RE1 [5-206]

In terms of g m .An easier equation to memorize, despite the approximate value.

Use the hybrid- model to find Rout

RS vb

+ +
vS RB v r g m v ro ix vx

RC
Rout
Rin

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

vx
Rout =
ix [5-207]

{
ve = ix RE1 & r + ( Rs & RB ) ix RE1 } [5-208]

ve ix RE1
iy
( r + Rs & RB ) ( r + Rs & RB ) [5-209]
58 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
ix RE1r
v = iy r =
( + Rs & RB )
r [5-210]

vx = ve + ( ix g m v ) ro
[5-211]

g m ix RE1r
= ix RE1 + ix + r
( r + Rs & RB ) o [5-212]

vx g m RE1r
Rout = = RE1 + ro 1 +
ix ( r + Rs & RB ) [5-213]

g m RE1
ro 1 +
1 + Rs & RB [5-214]
r

If Rs & RB  r

Rout ro (1 + g m RE1 )
[5-215]

Special Case = ideal current source load

RC
vout

+ Rout
+ vbe
vIN IE
Rin

vout ( ro & ) r
= = o
vin re re [5-216]

VA V
ro = = A
IC I E [5-217]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 59
VT
re =
IE [5-218]

vout V I V
= A E = A
vin I E VT VT [5-219]

Intrinsic gain
Intrinsic gain is the maximum possible gain

Comparison between a CE amplifier without and with RE

RC RC
Circuit diagram

vout vout

+ Rout + Rout
+ vbe + vbe IE
vIN IE vin
Rin RE
Rin

Rin = ( + 1) re = r Rin = ( + 1)( re + RE )

Input Impedance

Rin = ( + 1) re + ( + 1) RE

Rin = r + ( + 1) RE
Impedance

VA
Rout r0 (1 + g m RE )
Output

Rout = r0 =
IC
60 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

vout vout
= g m ( RC & Rout ) = g meff ( RC & Rout )
vin vin
vout ( RC & Rout ) vout ( RC & Rout )

Voltage gain
= =
vin re vin r + RE
vout RC e
vout R = if Rout >> RC
C if Rout >> RC vin re
vin re
and RE >> re
I gm
gm = C g meff
VT 1 + g m RE
vIN = vBE and
vBE < 10mV p p
( re )
vBE = vIN
for Linear Operations re + RE
Input linear range

( r + RE )
vin = e vBE
re
R
vin = 1 + E (10mV p p )
re
for Linear Operatoins

Example 5-20:

re = 25, = 99, ro =

RC = 2k
+
RBB = 12.5k vout
vb

vIN+ RIN RE = 100

AC schematic:

Rin = (1 + )( re + RE ) = (1 + 99 )( 25 + 100 ) = 12.5k

[5-220]

99
gm = = = = 39.6 mA
r (1 + ) re re V [5-221]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 61
gm 39.6
g meff 7.98 mA
1 + g m RE 1 + 39.6 ( 0.1) V [5-222]

vb RIN
= = 0.5V
vin RBB + RIN V [5-223]

vout mA
( 2k ) = 15.96 V
= g meff RC = 7.89 V
vb V [5-224]

vout vb vout
= 7.98V V
vin vin vb [5-225]

2nd method (T-model)

vb
= 0.5V
vin V [5-226]

(Same as above)

vout RC
=
vb ( re + RE ) [5-227]

Ration of resistances

( 0.99 ) 2k
=
25 + 100 [5-228]

= 15.84V
V [5-229]

vout
= ( 0.5 )( 15.84 ) V = 7.92 V
vin V V [5-230]

Example 5-6:

Find RIN
vb
Find
Find vicin
vvbout v
Find and out
vb vin
62 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Estimate the peak-to-peak value of vin when you start seeing distortion at the output
vout

VCC

10k
20k
20k +
vout
IC

+ 10k
Vin 20k 0.1k
Rin

0.2k

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Solution:

(a)

RIN = 20k & 20k & rin

[5-231]

rin = (1 + )( re + 100 ) = 12.5k

[5-232]

RIN = 5.56k
[5-233]

(b)

vb RIN
= = 0.73V
vin ( 2k + RIN ) V [5-234]

(c)

ic gm
 g meff
vb (1 + g m RE ) [5-235]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 63
IC
gm = 40 mA
VT V [5-236]

ic 40 mA
= V = 8 mA
(
vb 1 + 40 mA ( 0.1k )
V ) V [5-237]

(d)

vout
= g meff (10k & 10k ) = 40 V
vb V [5-238]

vout vb vout
= = ( 0.73)( 40 ) = 29.2V V
vin vin vb [5-239]

(e)

vb( p p ) (1 + g m RE ) vbe( p p ) (1 + 40 0.1) (10mV p p ) = 50mV p p

[5-240]

50mV p p
vin ( p p ) = = 68.5mV p p
0.73 [5-241]

Example:5-20
vout
Find RIN , Rout and transfer function where VT = 25mV , VA = , = 99 ,
I E1 = 1mA . vin
64 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VCC

10k
20k 20k

+
vout
10k
Rout
1k

+ Rin ( + 1)( re + 100 ) 100k

Vin = 12.5k
1k

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Solution:

RIN = 20k & 12.5k = 7.7 k

[5-242]

Rout = 10k & 20k = 6.7 k

[5-243]

vb RIN 7.7 k
= = = 0.89V
vin 1k + RIN 8.7k V [5-244]

vout (10k & 20k & 10k )

=
vb re1 + 100 [5-245]

0.99 ( 4k )
=
125 [5-246]

= 31.68V
V [5-247]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 65

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb
(
= 0.89 V V )( 31.68V V ) = 28.2V V [5-248]

Common-Base amplifier:

+VCC

RC

vout
b
Rout RL
RB

RE
Rin RS
+
Vin

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Small-signal equivalent circuit:

RC
vout
b
Rout RL

RE
Rin RS
+
Vin

66 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Replace the transistor by its T-Model

c vout

ie Rout
RC RL
b

ie
re
RS
e
+
RE VIN
Rin

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Rin = re & RE re
[5-249]

If RE  re

Rout RC
[5-250]

To be more exact

{
Rout RC & ro 1 + g m ( RE & Rs ) } [5-251]

vout ve vout
=
vin vin ve [5-252]

ve Ri re & RE
= =
vin Ri + Rs re & RE + Rs [5-253]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 67
ve = ie re
[5-254]

vout = ie ( RC & RL )
[5-255]

vout ( RC & RL )
=
ve re [5-256]

vout re & RE ( RC & RL )

=
vin re & RE + Rs re [5-257]

Example:

VT = 25mV , = 99 , ro =

+10V

RC
VBIAS

+ +
vout
+ VCE 40k

50 re

+
vIN RE = 20k
Rin

10V

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Solution:

a) Find I C required setting RIN approximately equal to 100

RIN = re & 20k re

[5-258]

If re  20k
68 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VT
re = 100 =
IE [5-259]

I C I E = 0.25mA
[5-260]

b) Find RC that will set VCE to 5V at the value of I C found in part (a)

VE = 10V + 0.25mA ( 20k ) = 5V

[5-261]

VC = VE + VCE = 5V + 5V = 0V
[5-262]

10V
RC = = 40k
0.25mA [5-263]

vout
c) Find
vin
vout RIN ( RC & 40k )
=
vin 50 + RIN re [5-264]

100 0.99 ( 40k & 40k )

=
50 + 100 100 [5-265]

= 132V
V [5-266]

Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

c
RS
b

e
+ Ri n Ri b vout
vIN RB
RL
RE
Rout
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 69
Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Replace the transistor by its T-Model

ic
c

ie
ib
ro
b
ie
re Rout

Rin
e

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Rib = (1 + ) re + ( RE & ro & RL )

[5-267]

Ri = RB & Rib
[5-268]

vout vb vout
=
vin vin vb [5-269]

vb Ri
=
vin Ri + Rs [5-270]

vout RE & ro & RL

=
vb re + RE & ro & RL [5-271]

vout Ri RE & ro & RL

=
vin Ri + Rs re + RE & ro & RL [5-272]

To find Rout :
70 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Rout = ro & RE & ( re + rR )
[5-273]

To find rR :

ic
c

ie
ix
+1 ro

ie
RS & RB re
ib

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Vx
rR =
ix [5-274]

ix
Vx = ( Rs & RB )
(1 + ) [5-275]

Rs & RB
rR =
(1 + ) [5-276]

R & RB
Rout = s + re & ro & RE
(1 + ) [5-277]

re

If, , ro and RE are large.

Multiple-Transistor Amplifiers:
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 71
Voltage divider and the effect of loading

vout 2k 1
= =
vin 2k + 2k 2 [5-278]

v A Is loaded by another 2k resistor

vout v A vout
=
vin vin v A [5-279]

vout 2k 1k 1

vin 2k + 2k 1k + 1k 4 [5-280]

Should be

vout 2k 1k 1
= =
vin 2k + 2k & 2k 1k + 1k 6 [5-281]

If a buffer is added

vout 2k 1k 1
= =
vin 2k + 2k 1k + 1k 4 [5-282]

Note:
Need to determine the TOTAL loading at a node before doing voltage division.

Example:

I E1 = I E 2 = 1mA
VT = 25mV
= 119
VA = 40V
v
Find out and Rout
vin
VA
ro1 = ro 2 = 40k
1mA [5-283]

VT
re1 = re 2 = = 25
1mA [5-284]

RIN 1 = (1 + ) re1 = 3k
[5-285]
72 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
RIN 2 = (1 + )( re 2 + 10k & 10k & 40k ) 534k
[5-286]

vb1 RIN 1
= = 0.231V
vin 10k + RIN 1 V [5-287]

vc1 (10k & RIN 2 & ro1 ) 0.992 (10k & 534k & 40k )
= =
vb1 re1 25 [5-288]

= 315V
V [5-289]

vout 10k & 10k & ro 2

= = 0.995V
vc1 re 2 + 10k & 10k & ro 2 V [5-290]

vout vb1 vc1 vout

= = 72 V V
vin vin vb1 vc1 [5-291]

10k & ro1

Rout = + re 2 & 10k & 10k & 40k
1 + [5-292]

= ( 67 + 25 ) & 10k & 10k & 40k

[5-293]

90
[5-294]

Example:

I E1 = I E 2 = 0.1mA
= 99
ro =
VT = 25mV

Solution:

25mV
re1 = re 2 = = 250
0.1mA [5-295]

RIN 1 = (1 + 99 )( re1 + 500 & 500 ) = 50k

[5-296]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 73

vout vb1 ve1 ve 2 vout

=
vin vin vb1 ve1 ve 2 [5-297]

vb1 RIN 1 50k

= = = 0.833
vin 10k + RIN 1 10k + 50k [5-298]

ve1 500 & 500

= = 0.5
vb1 re1 + 500 & 500 [5-299]

ve 2 250
= = 0.5
ve1 250 + 250 [5-300]

vout ( 20k ) ( 0.99 )( 20k )

= = = 79.2
ve 2 re 2 250 [5-301]

vout
= ( 0.833)( 0.5 )( 0.5 )( 79.2 ) = 16.5
vin [5-302]

Example:

re1 = re 2 = 25
= 49
VA =
v
Find RIN , Rout and out
vin
rin 2 = (1 + 49 )( re 2 + 1k & 50 ) = 3.63k
[5-303]

RIN = (1 + 49 )( re1 + 1k & rin 2 ) = 40.45k

[5-304]

10k
+ re1 & 1k
(1 + 49 )
Rout = + re 2 & 1k = 28
(1 + 49 ) [5-305]

vb1 RIN
= = 0.80V
vin 10k + RIN V [5-306]
74 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
ve1 1k & rin 2
= = 0.97 V
vb1 re 2 + 1k & rin 2 V [5-307]

vout 1k & 50
= = 0.66V
ve1 re 2 + 1k & 50 V [5-308]

vout
vin
(
= 0.80 V
V )( 0.97V V )( 0.66V V ) = 0.51V V [5-309]

Example:

VEE = VEB = 0.7V

npn = 99
pnp = 49
ro1 = ro 2 =
1 = 0.99
2 = 0.98
v
Find Vout and out
DC Analysis: vin

0.7 ( 10 )
I E1 = = 1mA
9.3k [5-310]

I C1 = I E1 = 0.99mA
[5-311]

VC1 20V (10k )( 0.99mA ) 10.1V

[5-312]

Assume I B 2 0

VE 2 = 10.1V + 0.7V = 10.8V

[5-313]

( 20 10.8 )V
IE2 = = 0.989mA
9.3k [5-314]

I C 2 = 2 I E 2 = 0.969mA
[5-315]

Vout = 9.69V
[5-316]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 75
AC Analysis:
re1 = 25 And re 2 = 25.3

vc1 10k & (1 + pnp ) re 2

44.9 V
vin re1 V [5-317]

vout 10k
395.3
vc1 re 2 [5-318]

vout vc1 vout

= = ( 44.9 )( 395.3) = 1.78 10 V V
4

vin vin vc1 [5-319]

Example:

Cascade amplifiers:
VT = 25mV , VA = , = 99
v
Find out
vin
VT
re1 = re 2 = = 25
1mA [5-320]

RIN = (1 + ) re1 = 2.5k

[5-321]

vb1 RIN
= = 0.63V
vin 1.5k + RIN V [5-322]

vc1 re 2
= = 0.99V 1V
vb1 re1 V V [5-323]

vout (10k & 10k )

=
vc1 re 2 [5-324]

= 198V
V [5-325]

vout
vin
(
= 0.63V
V )( 1V V )(198V V ) [5-326]
76 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
= 124.7 V
V [5-327]

Example:

I E1 = I E 2 = 1mA
VT = 25mV
VA =
= 99
v
Find out
Small vsignal
in equivalent:

re1 = re 2 = 25
[5-328]

RIN 1 = 1k & 25 25
[5-329]

RIN 2 = 10k & 20k & 20k & 17.5k = 3.9k

[5-330]

vout ve1 vc1 vout

=
vin vin ve1 vc1 [5-331]

25 ( 3.9k ) ( 2k )
350 V V
100 + 25 25 re 2 + 150 [5-332]

Example:

= 99 , VT = 25mV , ro = , VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V

Find
v
The differential gain out
voutvd
The common-gain
DC Analysis: vcm

I
I ( 6k ) + ( 0.1k ) + 0.7V = 10V
2 [5-333]

I = 1.537mA
[5-334]

AC Analysis:
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 77
25mV
re1 = re 2 = = 32.5
0.77mA [5-335]

Using the half-circuit approach (a and b are AC grounds for different input signals)

vout ( 4k )
=
vd re 2 + 100 [5-336]
2

vout ( 4k )
= = 14.9 V
vd 2 ( re 2 + 100 ) V [5-337]

Common-mode gain (Half circuit approach)

vout ( 4k + 2 R1 )
= = 0.98V
vcm re 2 + 100 + 2 RE V [5-338]

Graphical Analysis:

(VBB VBE )
iB =
RB [5-339]

vBE VBB
= +
RB RB [5-340]

Input load line.

Determine I BQ from above.

VCC = iC RC + vCE
[5-341]

vCE VCC
iC = +
RC RC [5-342]

Output load line.

From the example above
ib Swings from 40 A to 380 A
ic Swings from 2mA to 34mA
vce Swings from 5.5V to 19.5V
Current gain
78 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
ic ( 34 2 ) mA
= 94
ib ( 380 40 ) A [5-343]

DC and AC load lines:

DC load line:

VCE VCC
IC = +
RC + RE RC + RE [5-344]

AC load line:

vce
ic =
RAC [5-345]

Where RAC = RC & RL

VCE = I CQ RAC
[5-346]

For maximum symmetrical output swings, the Q point is centered at the AC load
line.

VCE = I CQ RAC = VCEQ

[5-347]

VCEQ
I C = = I CQ
RAC [5-348]

Substitute the above into the DC load line equation.

I CQ RAC VCC
I CQ = +
RC + RE RC + RE [5-349]

RAC VCC
I CQ 1 + =
C + RE C + RE
R R [5-350]

VCC
I CQ =
RAC + RC + RE [5-351]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 79
VCC
=
RAC + RDC [5-352]

Design Procedures For The Maximum Output Voltage Swing :

Step 1:
Determine RAC and RDC
Step 2:
Center the Q point with respect to the AC load line by setting

VCC
I CQ =
RAC + RDC [5-353]

The maximum peak-to-peak output swing is = I CQ RAC

Step 3:
(1 + ) RE
Set RB = for establishing bias stability.
Step 4: 10
Find VBB from the following:

VBB VBE
I CQ =
RB [5-354]
RE +
(1 + )

Or

R
VBB = VBE + I CQ RE + B
1+ [5-355]

Step 5:
Find R1 and R2

R2
VBB = VCC
R1 + R2 [5-356]

And

RB = R1 & R2
[5-357]

VCC
R1 = RB
VBB [5-358]
80 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
RB
R2 =
V [5-359]
1 BB
VCC

RB
R2 =
V [5-360]
1 BB
VCC

Example 5-20

VCE ( sat ) = 0V = 99
a) Find R1 and R2 for maximum symmetrical output voltage swings
b) Sketch the DC and the AC load lines.

VCC = 10V

R1 1k

vout

RL 1k
+
Vin R2

100k

Solution:

a)

RAC = RC & RL = 1k & 1k = 0.5k

[5-361]

RDC = RC + RE = 1k + 100 = 1.1k

[5-362]

VCC 10V
I CQ = = = 6.25mA
RAC + RDC 0.5k + 1.1k [5-363]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 81
(1 + ) RE
RB = R1 & R2 = = 1k
10 [5-364]

R 1k
VBB = VBE + I CQ RE + B = 0.7V + 6.25mA 0.1k + = 1.39V [5-365]
1+ 1 + 99

VCEQ = I CQ RAC = 3.13V

[5-366]

V
R1 = RB CC = 7.19k
VBB [5-367]

RB
R2 = = 1.16k
V [5-368]
1 BB
VCC

iC ( mA )

2 I CQ 12.5

VCC AC load line

9.09
RC + RE
Q
I CQ 6.25

DC load line

0 vCE (V )
VCEQ 2VCEQ VCC

Example:

VCE ( sat ) = 0V = 99
a) Find R1 and R2 for maximum symmetrical output voltage swings
b) Sketch the DC and the AC load lines.
82 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

VCC = 10V

R1 2k

vout

RL 2k
+
Vin R2

RE = 250

Solution:

RAC = RC & RL + RE = 2k & 2k + 250 = 1.25k

[5-369]

RDC = RC + RE = 2k + 250 = 2.25k

[5-370]

VCC 10V
I CQ = = = 2.86mA
RAC + RDC 1.25k + 2.25k [5-371]

VCEQ = I CQ RAC = 3.57V

[5-372]

(1 + ) RE
RB = = 2.5k
10 [5-373]

R
VBB = VBE + I CQ RE + B = 1.49V
1+ [5-374]

V
R1 = RB CC = 16.78k
VBB [5-375]

RB
R2 = = 2.94k
VBB [5-376]
1
VCC
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 83

iC ( mA )

2 I CQ = 5.72
AC load line
Q
I CQ = 2.86
DC load line
vCE (V )
0 2VCEQ = 7.14 VCC = 10
VCEQ = 3.57

Maximum symmetrical output voltage swing

= 2 I CQ ( 2k & 2k ) = 5.72VP P
[5-377]

C 0 = C at zero voltage
npn bipolar junction transistor diffusion capacitance in active and saturation mode of
operation
Qn = The minority carrier charge stored in the base region

W2
Qn = iC = F iC
2 Dn

W2
F = The forward base-transient time = 10 to 100 pS
The high frequency Hybrid - model 2 Dn
C = The emitter-base capacitance = Cde + C je Few pF to few tens pF.
C = Collector-base capacitance fraction to a few pF
r = Resistance > reactance of C
rbb = The base resistance between the base terminal b and a fictitious internal or
intrinsic terminal close to the emitter region ( few tens of ohms) rbb << r
84 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

rbb ib C ic
b
b c
+
v r C g m v ro

ie
Rin re Rout
e

Figure5-30: The equivalent circuit

The cut-off frequency

rbb Ib C Ic
b b c

+
Vb v r C g m v ro

e
e

Figure 5-35: equivalent circuit

I C = Short circuit collector current

I c = ( g m sC ) v

v = I b ( r || C || C )

Ic g m sC
h fe = =
1
Ib + s ( C + C )
r
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 85
for g m >> C

g m r 0
h fe  =
1 + s ( C + C ) r 1 + s ( C + C ) r

0 = Low frequency

1
=
( C ) r
C +

T = The unity-gain bandwidth = 0

gm
T =
C + C

gm
fT =
2 ( C + C )

h fe
dB

0
20dB
dec

0 log
T

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Example:

VCE ( sat ) = 0V = 99
Find R1 and R2 for maximum symmetrical output voltage swings
86 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VCC = 15V

R1
vout

RL 2k
+
Vin R2

RE = 2k

Solution:

RDC = RE = 2k
[5-378]

RAC = RE & RL = 1k
[5-379]

VCC
I CQ = = 5mA
RDC + RAC [5-380]

VCEQ = 15V I CQ RE = 5V
[5-381]

iC ( mA )

2 I CQ 10
VCC
7.5
RE
Q
I CQ 5

vCE (V )
0 5 10 15
VCEQ 2VCEQ VCC

Maximum symmetrical swing

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 87
= 2 I EQ ( 2k & 2k ) = 10VP P
[5-382]

Digital Logic Inverter

VCC

vIN vout

VTC of an ideal inverter

vout

VOH = VCC

VOL = 0V vIN
0 VCC
VTH =
2

VTH = Threshold voltage

VTC of a non-ideal inverter
88 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5

vout

dvout
= 1
VOH dvIN

NM L
dvout
= 1
dvIN
VOL
vIN
0
VOL VIL VIH NM H VOH

uncertain region

VIL = Maximum vIN which can be interpreted as logic "0"

VIH = Manimum vIN which can be interpreted as logic "1"
VOH = Maximum output voltage for logic "1"
VOL = Minimum output voltage for logic "0"

Noise margin (safety margin)

NM L = VIL VOL
[5-383]

NM H = VOH VIH
[5-384]

For an ideal inverter

VDD
NM L =
2 [5-385]

VDD
NM H =
2 [5-386]

BJT Inverter:
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 89

VCC = 5V

RC 1k

vout
RB
vIN
10k

VBE ( ON ) = 0.7V
[5-387]

VCE ( sat ) = 0.2V

[5-388]

VBE ( sat ) = 0.8V

[5-389]

= 90
[5-390]

vout

VOH Active

cutoff saturation

VOL

0 vIN
VIL VIH VOH
90 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VOH = VCC = 5V
[5-391]

VOL = VCE ( sat ) = 0.2V

[5-392]

VIL = VBE (ON ) = 0.7V

[5-393]

At the edge of the saturation

VCC VCE ( sat )

I C ( EOS ) = = I B ( EOS )
RC [5-394]

VIH VBE ( sat )

I B ( EOS ) =
RB [5-395]

Solving the two equations above

RB VCC VCE ( sat ) 10k 5 0.2

VIH = + VBE ( sat ) = + 0.8 = 1.33V
RC 1k 90 [5-396]

NM L = VIL VOL = 0.7V 0.2V = 0.5V

[5-397]

NM H = VOH VIH = 5V 1.33V = 3.67V

[5-398]

VBE B

E C
n+ p n VCE
Emitter Base Collector

WB 3
WB 2
recuction of base width
WB1 VCE1 < VCE 2 < VCE 3

x
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 91
Figure 5-20: Bipolar

A
0
=1

I C ( mA )
IS A
.5
=7
IS A
=5 A
IS
.5
=2
IS

VEC ( volts )

Figure 5-20: Bipolar

Maximum Ratings

Rating Symbol Value Unit

Collector-Emitter voltage VCEO 40 V dc
Collector-Base voltage VCBO 60 V dc
Emitter-Base voltage VEBO 6.0 V dc
Collector current continuous IC 200 mA dc
Total device dissipation @ TA = 25C PD 625 mW
Derate above 25C 5.0 mW / C
Total device dissipation @ TC = 25C PD 1.5 Watts
Derate above 25C 12 mW / C
Operating and storage junction TJ , Tstg -55 to +150 C
Temperature range

Thermal Characteristics

Rating Symbol Value Unit

Thermal resistance, junction to case R JC 83.3 C / W
Thermal resistance, junction to ambient R JC 200 C / W

Electrical Characteristics (TA = 25C unless otherwise noted.)

Characteristic Symbol Min Max Unit

92 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
Off Characteristics

Collector-Emitter breakdown voltage V( BR )CEO 40 - V dc

( I C = 1.0mA dc, I B = 0 )
Collector-Base breakdown voltage V( BR )CEO 60 - V dc
( I C = 10 A dc, I E = 0 )
Emitter-Base breakdown voltage V( BR )CEO 6.0 - V dc
( I E = 10 A dc, I C = 0 )
Base cutoff current I BL - 50 nA dc
(VCE = 30V dc, VEB = 3.0V dc )
Collector cutoff current I CEX - 50 nA dc
(VCE = 30V dc, VEB = 3.0V dc )
On Characteristics

DC current gain hFE -

( I C = 0.1mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 2N3903 20 -
2N3903 40 -
( I C = 1.0mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 2N3903 35 -
2N3903 70 -
( I C = 10mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 2N3903 50 150
2N3903 100 300
( I C = 50mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 2N3903 30 -
2N3903 60 -
( I C = 100mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 2N3903 15 - nA dc
2N3903 30 -
Collector-Emitter saturation voltage VCE ( sat ) V dc
( I C = 10mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) - 0.2
( I C = 10mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) - 0.3
Base-Emitter saturation voltage VBE ( sat ) V dc
( I C = 10mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) 0.65 0.85
( I C = 10mA dc, VCE = 1.0V dc ) - 0.95

Single power supply biasing arrangement of BJT

Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 93

VCC

RB1 IC RC
IB
VBB

RB2
IE RE

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

RB 2
VBB = VCC
RB 2 + RB1 [5-399]

RB1 RB 2
RB = RB1 || RB 2 =
RB1 + RB 2 [5-400]

VCC

IC RC
RB IB
VBB VCE

IE RE

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

94 Bipolar Junction Transistors Chapter 5
VBB BBE
IE =
R [5-401]
RE + B
+1

RBB
RE 
+1 [5-402]

VCC

RC

RB

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

VCC = RC I E + RB I E + VBE
[5-403]
Chapter 5 Microelectronic Circuits Analysis and Design 95

VCC

RC

IC
RB1
IB
VC

IE

Figure 5-20: Common Emitter configuration

IE
VCC = RC I E + RB + VBE
+1 [5-404]

VCC VBE
IE =
R [5-405]
RC + B
+1

RB
VCB = RB I B = IE
+1 [5-406]

Basic Single Stage BJT amplifier configuration