BIOSTAT PRELIM REVIEWER
each category
I. DESCRIBING DATA W/ GRAPHS
VARIABLE- is a characteristic that
changes or varies over time and/or for
different individuals or objects under
consideration.
- UNIVARIATE (single variable)
- BIVARIATE (two)
- MULTIVARIATE (more than two)
- TYPES:
1. QUALITATIVE (Categorical Data) -
measure a quality or characteristic on
each experimental unit
2. QUANTITATIVE - measure a
numerical quantity or amount on each
experimental unit. (Age, Weight,
Temp)
A. DISCRETE - can assume only a
finite or countable number of
values.
B. CONTINUOUS - can assume the
infinitely many values
corresponding to the points on a
line interval.
EXP. UNIT- s the individual or object on
which a variable is measured.
A single MEASUREMENT/ DATA VALUE
results when a variable is actually
measured on an experimental unit.
DATA can be:
2. SAMPLE- a subset of measurements
selected from the population of interest.
3. POPULATION -is the set of all
measurements of interest to the
investigator.
HOW TO MEASURE QUALITATIVE DATA:
DATA DISTRIBUTION- data distribution
can be constructed through statistical table.
1. You can measure how often in three
different ways:
- The frequency, or number of
measurements in each category
- The relative frequency, or proportion of
measurements in each category
- The percentage of measurements in
2. Once the measurements have been
categorized and summarized in a statistical
table, you can use either:
- PIE CHART- is the familiar circular graph
that shows how the measurements are
distributed among the categories; Since a
circle contains 360, you can use this
equation to find the angle: (Angle =
Relative frequency X 360)
- BAR CHART- shows the same distribution
of measurements among the categories,
with the height of the bar measuring how
often a particular category was observed
PARETO CHART- bar chart in which
the bars are ordered from largest to
smallest.
HOW TO MEASURE QUANTITATIVE DATA:
1. You can use:
- PIE CHART- displays how the total
quantity is distributed among the
categories; to calculate per slice, you
can use: (category total) X 360
- BAR CHART - uses the height of the
bar to display the amount in a particular
category.
- LINE CHART- represents time series;
discern a pattern or trend that will likely
continue into the future
2. DOTPLOTS - simplest graph for
quantitative; for small measurements.
3. STEM & LEAF PLOT- presents a
graphical display of the data using the
actual numerical values of each data
point.
- ex: 70, 70, 75 (Stem - 7; Leaf- 0, 0, 5)
- STEPS:
a. list the stems in a COLUMN w/ a
vertical line on their right
b. record the leaf portion in the same
row (HIGHEST -> LOWEST)

INTERPRETING GRAPHS:
1. Examine the LOCATION & SPREAD;
Where is the data CENTERED?
2. Examine the SHAPE of the distribution.
- SYMMETRIC
- SKEWED RIGHT
- SKEWED LEFT
- BIMODAL (two peaks) / UNIMODAL (1
peak)
3. Look for any unusual measurements or
OUTLIERS.
4. RELATIVE FREQUENCY TABLE- for a
quantitative data set is a bar graph in
which the height of the bar shows how
often (measured as a proportion or
relative frequency) measurements fall in a
particular class or subinterval; The
classes or subintervals are plotted along
the horizontal axis.
- STEPS:
a. Choose the number of classes,
(approximate) usually between 5-12.
The more data you have, the more
classes you should use.
b. Calculate the approximate min. class
width: (smallest - largest) no. of
classes & the convenient class
width: round up to the next no. / if its
already a whole no. round up also.
CLASS WIDTH- difference bet.
consecutive lower class limits.
c. If the data are discrete, you might
assign one class with their respective
frequency no. to create a graph; For a
large nos. or continuous, you need
to group them into classes.
CLASS - interval of many values
- UPPER CLASS LIMIT - largest
value
- LOWER CLASS LIMIT -
smallest
d. Locate the class boundaries. The
lowest class must include the smallest
measurement. Then add the
remaining classes using the left
inclusion method.
e. Construct a statistical table
containing the classes, their
frequencies, and their relative
frequencies.
f. Construct the histogram like a bar
graph (histo bars have NO spaces)
- class intervals are on the horizontal
axis
- The height of the bar represents:
a. The PROPORTION of
measurements falling in that class
or subinterval.
b. The PROBABILITY that a single
measurement, drawn at random
from the set, will belong to that
class or subinterval.
II. DESCRIBING DATA W/ NUMERICAL
VALUE
III.
IV. PROBABILITY & PROBABILITY OF
DISTRIBUTION
RELATIVE FREQUENCY- RF = f/n
PROBABILITY -used as a tool; it allows
you to evaluate the reliability of your
conclusions about the population when you
have only sample information
- when population is KNOWN probability
is used to describe the likelihood of
observing a particular sample outcome.
- when population is UNKNOWN
probability is used in making statistical
inferences.
EXPERIMENT- is the process by which an
observation (or measurement) is obtained;
or may not produce a numerical value.
- Sometimes it helps to visualize an
experiment using a picture called a
Venn diagram
 - Some experiments can be generated in the ordering or arrangement of the objects
stages, and the sample space can be is not important, but only the objects that
dis- played in a tree diagram. are chosen. In this case, you can use a
SIMPLE EVENT - the outcome that is counting rule for COMBINATION.
observed on a single repetition of the
experiment.
- An alternative way to display the simple
events is to use a probability table,
EVENT - a collection of simple events.
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE - when one
event occurs, the other cannot, and vice
versa.
SAMPLE SPACE (S) - set of all simple
events

SIMPLE EVENT & THEIR PROBABILITIES:

-Each probability must lie between 0 and 1;
The sum of the probabilities for all simple
EVENT RELATIONS & PROBABILITY
events in S equals 1.
RULES:
PROBABILITY OF EVENT A- is equal to
the sum of the probabilities of the simple UNION OF EVENTS- (of A & B) denoted by
events contained in A. A B, is the event that either A or B or both
occur.
- INTERSECTION OF EVENTS- (of A & B)
denoted by A B, is the event that both A
- and B occur.
COMPLEMENT OF AN EVENT- (of A)
STEPS on how to calculate:
denoted by A is the event that A does not
1. List ALL the simple events in the
occur; P(A) = 1 - P(A)
sample space
2. ASSIGN an appropriate probability to ADDITION RULE- Given two events, A
each simple event and B, the probability of their union, A B,
3. DETERMINE which simple event
is equal to P(A B)= P(A)+P(B)
result in the event of interest
4. SUM the probabilities of the simple MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE/ DISJOINT- it
events that result in the event of means that when A occurs, B cannot, and
interest. vice versa; they cannot both happen
THE MN RULE together when the experiment is performed;
P(A B) = 0 ; The occurrence of event B
THE EXTENDED MN RULE( )
certainly affects the probability that event A
A second useful counting rule follows from can occur; mutually exclusive events must
the mn Rule and involves orderings or be dependent.
PERMUTATION.
When two events are mutually exclusive or
- count the number of combinations or disjoint: P(A B) = 0 and
pairs to be chosen.
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B).
- Then count the number of ways to
arrange the chosen ones. INDEPENDENT- the probability of event B
is not influenced or changed by the
occurrence of event A, or vice versa;
 P(A B) = P(A)P(B) and P(A B) = P(A) +
P(B) - P(A)P(B).
BAYES RULE

LAW OF TOTAL PROBABILITY

DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES & THEIR

PROBABILITIES:
A variable x is a RANDOM VARIABLE if
the value that it assumes, corresponding to
the outcome of an experiment, is a chance
or random event.
PROBABILITY OF DISTRIBUTION- for a
discrete random variable is a formula,
table, or graph that gives the possible
values of x, and the probability p(x)
associated with each value of x.

V. USEFUL DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS

VI. NORMAL PROBABILITY

DISTRIBUTION