REVIEW JBMR

Diagnosis and Management of Osteonecrosis of the Jaw:

A Systematic Review and International Consensus
Aliya A Khan, Archie Morrison, David A Hanley, Dieter Felsenberg, Laurie K McCauley, Felice ORyan,
Ian R Reid, Salvatore L Ruggiero, Akira Taguchi, Sotirios Tetradis, Nelson B Watts, Maria Luisa Brandi,
Edmund Peters, Teresa Guise, Richard Eastell, Angela M Cheung, Suzanne N Morin, Basel Masri,
Cyrus Cooper, Sarah L Morgan, Barbara Obermayer-Pietsch, Bente L Langdahl, Rana Al Dabagh,
K. Shawn Davison, David L Kendler, George K Sndor, Robert G Josse, Mohit Bhandari,
Mohamed El Rabbany, Dominique D Pierroz, Riad Sulimani, Deborah P Saunders, Jacques P Brown,
and Juliet Compston, on behalf of the International Task Force on Osteonecrosis of the Jaw

Author afliations appear just before the reference list at the end of the article.

ABSTRACT
This work provides a systematic review of the literature from January 2003 to April 2014 pertaining to the incidence,
pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ), and offers recommendations for its management
based on multidisciplinary international consensus. ONJ is associated with oncology-dose parenteral antiresorptive therapy of
bisphosphonates (BP) and denosumab (Dmab). The incidence of ONJ is greatest in the oncology patient population (1% to 15%),
where high doses of these medications are used at frequent intervals. In the osteoporosis patient population, the incidence of ONJ is
estimated at 0.001% to 0.01%, marginally higher than the incidence in the general population (<0.001%). New insights into the
pathophysiology of ONJ include antiresorptive effects of BPs and Dmab, effects of BPs on gamma delta T-cells and on monocyte and
macrophage function, as well as the role of local bacterial infection, inammation, and necrosis. Advances in imaging include the use
of cone beam computerized tomography assessing cortical and cancellous architecture with lower radiation exposure, magnetic
resonance imaging, bone scanning, and positron emission tomography, although plain lms often sufce. Other risk factors for ONJ
include glucocorticoid use, maxillary or mandibular bone surgery, poor oral hygiene, chronic inammation, diabetes mellitus, ill-
tting dentures, as well as other drugs, including antiangiogenic agents. Prevention strategies for ONJ include elimination or
stabilization of oral disease prior to initiation of antiresorptive agents, as well as maintenance of good oral hygiene. In those patients
at high risk for the development of ONJ, including cancer patients receiving high-dose BP or Dmab therapy, consideration should be
given to withholding antiresorptive therapy following extensive oral surgery until the surgical site heals with mature mucosal
coverage. Management of ONJ is based on the stage of the disease, size of the lesions, and the presence of contributing drug therapy
and comorbidity. Conservative therapy includes topical antibiotic oral rinses and systemic antibiotic therapy. Localized surgical
debridement is indicated in advanced nonresponsive disease and has been successful. Early data have suggested enhanced osseous
wound healing with teriparatide in those without contraindications for its use. Experimental therapy includes bone marrow stem cell
intralesional transplantation, low-level laser therapy, local platelet-derived growth factor application, hyperbaric oxygen, and tissue
grafting. 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

KEY WORDS: OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW; BISPHOSPHONATES; DENOSUMAB; IMAGING; RISK FACTORS; DIAGNOSIS; TREATMENT;
MANAGEMENT

Introduction management of ONJ are also presented. This review updates

T his work provides a systematic review of the literature and
international consensus on the classication, incidence,
pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of osteonecrosis
of the jaw (ONJ) in both oncology and osteoporosis patient
populations. Resulting recommendations for the diagnosis and
previous systematic reviews and consensus statements regard-
ing the management of ONJ.(1,2)
Bisphosphonate (BP)-associated ONJ is dened by the
American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) as
an area of exposed bone in the maxillofacial region that does
not heal within 8 weeks after identication by a health care

Received in original form August 26, 2014; revised form November 3, 2014; accepted November 5, 2014. Accepted manuscript online November 21, 2014.
Address correspondence to: Aliya A. Khan, #209-331 Sheddon Avenue, Oakville, Ontario, Canada. E-mail: aliya@mcmaster.ca
Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, Vol. 30, No. 1, January 2015, pp 323
DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.2405
2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research

3
provider, in a patient who was receiving or had been exposed
to a BP and who has not received radiation therapy to the
craniofacial region.(3) The American Association of Oral and
Maxillofacial Surgeons (AAOMS) has recently (2014) updated
their denition of medication-related ONJ to (1) current or
previous treatment with antiresorptive or antiangiogenic
agents; (2) exposed bone or bone that can be probed through
an intraoral or extraoral stula(e) in the maxillofacial region
that has persisted for more than 8 weeks; and (3) no history of
radiation therapy to the jaws or obvious metastatic disease to
the jaws.(4)
The International Task Force on Osteonecrosis of the Jaw
(hereafter, this Task Force or the Task Force) denes ONJ as: (1)
exposed bone in the maxillofacial region that does not heal
within 8 weeks after identication by a health care provider; (2)
exposure to an antiresorptive agent; and (3) no history of
radiation therapy to the craniofacial region. Early data suggest
that antiangiogenic agents may contribute to the development
of ONJ in the absence of concomitant BP therapy; the Task Force
plans to address this in more detail in a subsequent document as
more evidence emerges.
Oral ulceration with bone sequestration
The Task Force is also of the view that bone necrosis may
occur in the absence of antiresorptive therapy, with
attendant oral ulceration and bone sequestration (OUBS).
However, such occurrences, typically associated with signi-
cant morbidity, are uncommon. OUBS was initially described
as lingual mandibular sequestration and ulceration because
of the predilection for involvement of the posterior lingual
mandibular bone, but this terminology has been replaced by
OUBS. The sequestrum can slough spontaneously, resulting in
rapid resolution. However, in some cases, conservative
surgical removal of the dead bone is indicated to permit
efcient healing.(57) The incidence of OUBS in the general
population is not well dened. It is possible that cases of
OUBS may be captured in incidence data pertaining to drug-
related ONJ. Currently, it is not known what proportion of the
spontaneous sequestration cases persist beyond 8 weeks and
there are no studies identifying the prevalence or incidence
of OUBS. OUBS was not included in the main systematic
review, which pertains to drug-related ONJ; however, this
Task Force conducted a separate literature search on OUBS
and, at the end of this document, has provided a summary of
that search as well as current recommendations pertaining
to diagnosis and management based on international
consensus.
Methods
In January 2012, an International ONJ Task Force was formed
with expertise from basic science and from multiple medical,
dental, and surgical specialties. There was representation from
14 national and international societies addressing bone health
(The sponsoring societies are the American Society of Bone and
Mineral Research, American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgeons, Canadian Association of Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgeons, Canadian Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Patholo-
gy and Oral Medicine, European Calcied Tissue Society,
International Bone and Mineral Society, International Society
of Clinical Densitometry, International Osteoporosis Foundation,
4 KHAN ET AL.
International Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons,
International Society of Oral Oncology, Japanese Society for
Bone and Mineral Research, Osteoporosis Canada, Pan Arab
Osteoporosis Society and The Endocrine Society). The Task Force
formalized nine key questions to be addressed relevant to the
diagnosis and management of ONJ in oncology and osteoporo-
sis patient populations (Supporting Table S1). A systematic
review of published literature was completed based on these
key questions. A search strategy was developed by combining
medical subject headings and/or text words from four
categories: interventions (BPs and denosumab); population
(oncology and osteoporosis); areas of interest for the review
(classication, diagnosis, incidence, risk factors, treatment); and
outcome (osteonecrosis of the jaw). All searches were limited to
human studies published in the English language and excluded
reviews, editorials, and letters. The electronic search was
conducted in Medline (January 1, 2003 to April 10, 2014) and
EMBASE (January 1, 2003 to April 10, 2014) using OVID (see
Supporting Table S2 for search strategies). The results from both
databases were combined and duplicates excluded. The
Cochrane Database of systematic reviews was also searched
for applicable references. A manual search of the bibliography of
identied published articles was also performed. In order to
obtain additional unpublished data, personal communication
with relevant experts was conducted and pharmaceutical
companies were invited to submit relevant information. A total
of 46 records were included from manual searches and expert
communication. The total number of references were reviewed
was 933 and from these, 599 papers were reviewed in full (see
Supporting Fig. S1 for articles reviewed and retained for each of
the nine questions).
The published literature was critically appraised and graded
based on quality of evidence (see Supporting Table S3 for
Level of Evidence scales and Supporting Tables S4 and S5 for
Evidence Grades, respectively). All assessments were made in
duplicate with disagreements discussed between reviewers
until consensus was achieved. If no consensus was possible, a
third reviewer would have provided the nal decision.
However, adjudication by a third reviewer was not necessary
in any instance.
The key questions and a summary of the current evidence
were reviewed in detail by the ONJ Task Force at an in-
person meeting in October 2012. The panel members were
divided into subgroups, with each subgroup being respon-
sible for responding to a specic question, each represented
in a section of this systematic review. Each subgroup
communicated electronically, and regularly scheduled con-
ference calls were implemented in order to address points of
controversy in order to arrive at consensus. The co-chairs
reviewed the sections from each of the subgroups and
completed the manuscript. The manuscript was circulated to
the Task Force and was modied until consensus was
achieved on each of the sections; there were a total of 21
circulations and manuscript revisions. A second in-person
meeting occurred in October 2013, followed by teleconfer-
ences to ensure that all recommendations had consensus
agreement. Consensus was not achieved regarding appro-
priate terminology for staging of ONJ because of limited
available prospective data. After approval by each of the
supporting societies, the manuscript was nalized. Funding
and in-kind support for the ONJ Task Force has been received
solely from the sponsoring societies; industry support was
not requested nor received.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
 This guideline will be updated every 5 years or as required
using the same criteria outlined above.
Results and Discussion
Supporting Table S6 provides the key recommendations with
their supporting levels of evidence.
1. How is ONJ defined, and staged?
As noted in the Introduction, this Task Force dened ONJ as (1)
exposed bone in the maxillofacial region that does not heal
within 8 weeks after identication by a health care provider; (2)
exposure to an antiresorptive agent; and (3) no history of
radiation therapy to the craniofacial region.
The rst report describing ONJ was published in 2003,(8) and
the rst peer-reviewed article describing ONJ was published by
Ruggiero and colleagues(9) in 2004. In 2007, the denition of ONJ
was formalized by AAOMS(10) and further claried by the
ASBMR(3) as area of exposed bone in the maxillofacial region
that did not heal within 8 weeks after identication by a health
care provider, in a patient who was receiving or had been
exposed to a BP and had not had radiation therapy to the
craniofacial region.
Recently, ONJ has been identied in BP-nave patients
receiving denosumab (Dmab),(1114) which necessitated accom-
modation of Dmab in the denition. Emerging data has also
suggested an association between antiangiogenic agents and
the development of ONJ and a subsequent paper is planned to
address this as more data emerge.
Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis of ONJ includes other previously-
dened clinical conditions such as alveolar osteitis, sinusitis,
gingivitis/periodontitis, periapical pathosis, and some forms of
cement-osseous dysplasia showing secondary sequestration.
Bone inammation and infection are usually present in
patients with advanced ONJ, and appear to be secondary
events.
In a Beagle model with increasing doses of BPs, regions of
matrix necrosis increased in size and number with no evidence
of infection or microbial colonization initially, but after time,
exposed bone and surrounding soft tissue became secondarily
infected resulting in a clinical picture similar to osteomyelitis.(15)
However, the histologic analyses of these bone specimens rarely
demonstrated the criteria required to establish a diagnosis of
acute or chronic osteomyelitis (typical histologic ndings
include regions of nonviable bone with surrounding bacterial
debris and inammatory cell inltration). Analyses of the
physical properties of resected necrotic bone from ONJ patients
have also failed to demonstrate any unique features that would
serve as a reliable biomarker for ONJ.(16,17)
Patient history and clinical examination remain the most
sensitive diagnostic tools for ONJ. A clinical nding of exposed
bone in the oral cavity for 8 weeks or longer in the absence of
response to appropriate therapy is the consistent diagnostic
hallmark of ONJ.
Areas of exposed and necrotic bone may remain asymptom-
atic for prolonged periods of weeks, months, or even years.(17)
These lesions most frequently become symptomatic with
inammation of surrounding tissues. Signs and symptoms
may occur before the development of clinically detectable
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW: REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL ONJ TASK FORCE
osteonecrosis and include pain, tooth mobility, mucosal
swelling, erythema, ulceration, paresthesia, or even anesthesia
of the associated branch of the trigeminal nerve.(18,19) Some
patients may also present with symptoms of altered sensation in
the affected area because the neurovascular bundle may
become compressed from the surrounding inammation.(20,21)
These features may occur spontaneously or, more commonly
following, dentoalveolar surgery. The vast majority of case series
have described ONJ occurring at sites of prior oral surgery,
particularly at extraction sites.(2229) Exposed bone has also been
reported as occurring spontaneously in the absence of prior
trauma or in edentulous regions of the jaw or at sites of
exostoses in oncology patients. Intraoral and extraoral stulae
may develop when necrotic mandible or maxilla becomes
secondarily infected.(30) Chronic maxillary sinusitis secondary
to osteonecrosis with or without an oral-antral stula may
be the presenting feature in patients with maxillary bone
involvement.(31)
Staging
Evidence identied for the staging of osteonecrosis of the jaw is
reviewed in Supporting Table A1. Because there was so little
evidence reviewed for the staging section, recommendations
from this section should be considered consensus statements
rather than evidence-based statements.
The clinical staging system currently being used was
developed by Ruggiero and colleagues(32) and has been
adopted by AAOMS.(10,33) This system is of value in identifying
the stage characteristics of the condition and providing
appropriate terminology for diagnosis and management
(Supporting Table S7). Patients with Stage 1 disease have
exposed bone and are asymptomatic with no evidence of
signicant adjacent or regional soft tissue inammation or
infection. Stage 2 disease is characterized by exposed bone
with associated pain, adjacent or regional soft tissue
inammatory swelling, or secondary infection. Stage 3
disease is characterized by exposed bone associated with
pain, adjacent or regional soft tissue inammatory swelling,
or secondary infection, in addition to a pathologic fracture, an
extraoral stula or oral-antral stula, or radiographic evidence
of osteolysis extending to the inferior border of the mandible
or the oor of the maxillary sinus.
Nonspecic oral signs or symptoms not explained by
common periapical or periodontal disease in the absence of
clinically exposed bone may develop in patients in the presence
or absence of antiresorptive therapy. These symptoms include
bone pain, stula track formation, abscess formation, altered
sensory function, or abnormal radiographic ndings extending
beyond the connes of the alveolar bone. The term Stage 0
ONJ is used by AAOMS(2) to refer to any or all of these symptoms
or signs in patients on antiresorptive therapy. Members of this
Task Force, however, expressed concern that the use of such
Stage 0 terminology may lead to overdiagnosis of ONJ because
these same presenting symptoms may ultimately lead to an
alternative diagnosis. A recent study by Schiodt and col-
leagues(34) concluded that the non-exposed variant of ONJ is the
same disease as exposed ONJ and further recommended that
the non-exposed disease could be classied as either Stage 1, 2,
or 3, dependent on the underlying characteristics of the disease.
The demographics of patients on antiresorptive medications
overlap those of patients with chronic periodontal and
periapical disease. Thus, many patients on antiresorptive
5
therapy will present to the dentists ofce for common dental
care. Overdiagnosing patients with ONJ could lead to detrimen-
tal effects in their skeletal health, especially if modication or
discontinuation of the antiresorptive medication is entertained.
Odontalgia is caused by a number of conditions, necessitating
careful exclusion. Radiographic ndings of altered bone
morphology, increased bone density, sequestration, or perios-
teal bone formation in a patient with odontalgia may be early
radiographic features suggestive of a prodromal phase of ONJ
and such patients require close follow-up and monitoring by the
oral health care provider (see Supporting Table S8). It appears
from the limited data available that up to 50% of such patients
may progress to the development of clinical ONJ with bone
exposure.(19) Several members of the Task Force felt that this
condition could be referred to as preclinical ONJ. However,
because at least 50% of these lesions do not progress to overt
ONJ, the Task Force felt unable to unanimously support the
designation preclinical ONJ as appropriate for this particular
clinical manifestation until further prospective data become
available.
ONJ lesions occur more commonly in the mandible than the
maxilla (65% mandible, 28.4% maxilla, 6.5% both mandible and
maxilla, and 0.1% other locations; see Supporting Table A2) and
are also more prevalent in areas with thin mucosa overlying
bone prominences such as tori, exostoses, and the mylohyoid
ridge.(9,32,35) The extent of lesions can vary and range from a
nonhealing extraction site to exposure and necrosis of large
sections of the mandible or maxilla.(18) The exposed bone is
typically surrounded by inamed erythematous soft tissue.
Purulent discharge at the site of the exposed bone is evident in
the presence of secondary infection.(36,37) Microbial cultures
from areas of exposed bone usually isolate normal oral
microbes.(38,39) However, in the presence of extensive soft
tissue involvement, microbial cultures may identify coexisting
oral pathogens and enable the selection of an appropriate
antibiotic regimen. Interestingly, although ONJ is exclusive to
the jaws by denition, it should be noted that osteonecrosis of
the external auditory canal in patients on BP therapy has also
been reported.(4046)
2. How common is ONJ?
For the full review of evidence regarding the prevalence and
incidence of ONJ in osteoporotic and oncology populations,
please refer to Supporting Tables A3 and A4, respectively.
2a. Osteoporosis
There are very limited prospective cohort data evaluating the
frequency of ONJ in the osteoporosis patient population,
making it difcult to accurately evaluate its incidence. The
published data evaluating the incidence of ONJ have largely
been obtained from case-series, retrospective observational
studies, or retrospective cohort studies, typically from pooled
data from insurance or healthcare databases. Pooled data can be
problematic in that search terms may not be specic to ONJ.
Prevalence
The prevalence of ONJ in patients prescribed oral BPs for the
treatment of osteoporosis ranges from 0% to 0.04%, with the
majority being below 0.001%.(4757) The prevalence of ONJ in
those prescribed high dose intravenous (i.v.) BPs is signicantly
higher than that seen with low dose i.v. or oral BPs, with
6 KHAN ET AL.
prevalence rates of 0% to 0.348% and the majority being under
0.005%.(47,48,5860) Felsenberg(61) noted a prevalence of ONJ in
patients treated with BPs for osteoporosis of <1/100,000. Lo and
colleagues(52) evaluated the Kaiser Permanente database and
found the prevalence of ONJ in those receiving BPs for more
than 2 years to range from 0.05% to 0.21% and appeared to be
related to duration of exposure. In Canada, Khan and
colleagues(62) completed a survey of oral surgeons in Ontario
and found the prevalence of ONJ in those on BPs to be
approximately 0.001%.
Barasch and colleagues(24) completed a case-control study and
noted an association between oral BPs and ONJ with an odds ratio
(OR) of 12.2 (95% condence interval [CI], 4.3 to 35). This study,
however, included patients with cancer on oncologic doses of
BPs, which likely increased the incidence of ONJ. Vestergaard and
colleagues(63) evaluated jaw-related events in BP users with
nonusers in a historical cohort study and noted a hazard ratio (HR)
of 3.15 (95% CI, 1.44 to 6.87) with alendronate use.
Incidence
The incidence of ONJ in patients prescribed oral BPs for the
treatment of osteoporosis ranges from 1.04 to 69 per 100,000
patient-years.(62,6466) The incidence of ONJ in patients
prescribed i.v. BPs for the treatment of ONJ ranges from 0
to 90 per 100,000 patient-years.(58,59,65,67,68) Last, the incidence
of ONJ in patients who are prescribed Dmab ranges from 0 to
30.2 per 100,000 patient-years.(6972) In Australia, Mavrokokki
and colleagues(54) conducted a national survey and found the
incidence of ONJ in osteoporotic patients receiving BPs to be
0.01% to 0.04%. However, in Sweden, Ulmner and col-
leagues(66) surveyed oral surgery and dental clinics and
estimated an incidence of 0.067%. Zavras and Zhu(73)
evaluated medical claims in the United States and found no
association between oral BP use and the risk of minor jaw
surgery. However, in those receiving i.v. BPs there was a
fourfold increased risk of minor jaw surgery, possibly reecting
an increased risk of ONJ. Similar ndings were noted by
Pazianas and colleagues.(74)
In the Health Outcomes and Reduced Incidence with
Zoledronic Acid Once Yearly (HORIZON) Pivotal Fracture Trial
involving 7765 patients receiving either zoledronic acid 5 mg or
placebo over 3 years, a single adjudicated case of ONJ was
identied in each arm. Both patients had additional risk factors
for ONJ (prednisone use in the patient receiving placebo and
diabetes with dental abscess in the patient receiving zoledronic
acid) and both resolved with antibiotics and debridement.(67)
The data from four additional randomized controlled trials
(RCTs) evaluating 5 mg zoledronic acid were combined with the
data from the HORIZON Pivotal Fracture Trial and the overall
incidence of ONJ was reviewed.(75) The additional trials included:
the HORIZON Recurrent Fracture Trial with 2127 subjects after a
recent low-trauma hip fracture followed for 1.9 years(58); the
Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis Trial involved 833 subjects
and compared zoledronic acid 5 mg or risedronate 5 mg over 1
year(76); the Male Osteoporosis Trial involved 302 subjects
followed over 2 years receiving either zoledronic acid 5 mg
annually or alendronate 70 mg orally weekly(77); and the
Prevention of Osteoporosis Trial evaluated 581 subjects over
2 years randomized to either zoledronic acid 5 mg annually
versus placebo.(78) The combined adverse event database was
searched for possible cases of ONJ using preferred Medical
Dictionary for Regulatory Activities terms and no additional
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
cases of ONJ were identied in these four additional RCTs. In all,
the incidence of adjudicated ONJ was <1 in 14,200 patient
treatment years with zoledronic acid 5 mg.
In the completed Phase II and III clinical trials evaluating Dmab
in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, no cases of
ONJ were positively adjudicated in placebo-treated or Dmab-
treated subjects after more than 16,000 patient-years of follow-
up.(71,7982)
In the extension of the Phase III clinical trial evaluating Dmab
in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis (FREEDOM
extension), eight cases of ONJ were identied.(69) Four cases
developed in the long-term treatment group with patients
receiving 5 to 6 years of Dmab. Two of the four patients
continued on Dmab, while two discontinued drug therapy. All
cases that developed ONJ healed following treatment. ONJ
developed in two patients receiving Dmab in the crossover
extension study at 1.5 years and 2 years of exposure; one patient
continued on Dmab, while the other discontinued therapy with
both healing thereafter. In the seventh year of the FREEDOM
extension trial, one additional case of ONJ was observed in the
long-term study and one in the crossover study. All cases healed
with conservative therapy (normal soft tissue covering previ-
ously exposed bone). Three of these individuals stopped
treatment, but one continued Dmab therapy without recurrence
of ONJ.
From the currently available data, the incidence of ONJ in the
osteoporosis patient population appears to be very low, ranging
from 0.15% to less than 0.001% person-years of exposure and
may be only slightly higher than the frequency observed in the
general population. It will, however, be important to quantify
this, identify those at a greater risk of ONJ, implement measures
to further decrease the likelihood of ONJ developing in patients
taking BP or Dmab therapy for osteoporosis.
2b. Oncology
In general, the oncology patient with bone metastases is
exposed to more intensive osteoclast inhibition than those with
osteoporosis and the incidence of ONJ is much higher. The
majority of the cases of ONJ have occurred with the use of high-
dose i.v. BPs in the oncology patient population.
Data evaluating the incidence of ONJ in those with cancer
include limited prospective studies as well as retrospective
studies and case-series.
Prevalence
The prevalence of ONJ in oncology patients treated with i.v. BPs
ranges from 0% to 0.186%.(47,83107)
Incidence
The incidence of ONJ in oncology patients treated with i.v. BPs
ranges from 0 to 12,222per 100,000 patient-years,(14,23,62,65,108148)
and the incidence of ONJ in oncology patients treated
with Dmab ranges from 0 to 2,316 per 100,000 patient-
years.(14,120,123,136,140142,149)
The Phase III, randomized placebo-controlled studies com-
paring zoledronic acid 4 mg with Dmab 120 mg dosed monthly
for the management of bone metastases have been pooled and
analyzed for ONJ adverse events. In these studies, where
counseling on oral health was provided, the incidence of ONJ
was approximately 1% to 2%. In these pooled studies of Dmab,
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW: REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL ONJ TASK FORCE
in comparison to BPs, a similar or slightly higher numerical
incidence of ONJ was seen with Dmab, but was not statistically
signicant.(20) Additional details of this study are outlined
below, and similar results have been noted in other
studies.(14,26,28,120,123,139,149153)
In patients with cancer, the incidence of ONJ appears to
be related to dose and duration of BP or Dmab expo-
sure.(50,105,106,125) There is considerable variability in the
reported incidence and prevalence of ONJ occurrence
in association with monthly administration of i.v.
BPs.(26,28,29,65,83,85,99,103,105107,109,113,119,122,125,132,139,150,154161)
The incidence of ONJ in the oncology patient population
may be affected by the type of malignancy being
treated.(28,65,85,99,107,119,132,150,154156,159,162) Confounding varia-
bles also include the use of other drugs that may also impact
bone health, such as glucocorticoids, or antiangiogenic drugs,
such as bevacizumab. Christodoulou and colleagues(113) retro-
spectively evaluated the incidence of ONJ among 116 patients
receiving i.v. BPs. The prevalence of ONJ was 1.1% for those on
i.v. BPs alone; however, this increased to a prevalence of 16% in
those on BPs in addition to antiangiogenic agents (bevacizumab
and sunitinib).
In a placebo-controlled trial in 1432 men with prostate cancer
receiving androgen deprivation therapy (716 Dmab, 716
placebo), there were 33 cases of ONJ in the Dmab arm
(cumulative incidence 5%), and none in the placebo arm.(149)
This was a time-to-event (discovery of bone metastasis) study
with some subjects followed up to 42 months.
The incidence of ONJ has been reviewed in an integrated
analysis of three clinical trials comparing Dmab 120 mg
monthly to zoledronic acid 4 mg monthly in the prevention
of skeletal-related events (SREs): pathological fracture;
radiation therapy to bone; surgery to bone; and spinal
cord compression.(26) These trials were in patients with
breast cancer, prostate cancer, multiple myeloma, or solid
tumors with bone metastases. Dmab use was associated with
signicantly fewer SREs in the breast and prostate cancer
trials. Overall, in 5723 patients studied over approximately
30 months, there were 89 ONJ cases: 52 in the Dmab arms
(1.8%) versus 37 in the zoledronic acidtreated arm (1.3%).
Although there were more ONJ cases in the Dmab-treated
subjects, the difference was not statistically signicantthe
combined three trials had only sufcient power to detect a
difference in relative risk of 76% between treatment
arms.(152)
In a recent meta-analysis of seven randomized controlled
trials, Dmab was associated with an overall 1.7% risk of ONJ and
an increased risk of developing ONJ in comparison to a
combination of BP-treatment or placebo-treatment groups.
However, the increased risk of ONJ with BP therapy alone was
not statistically signicant. At this time there are not enough
data to determine if there is a difference in the risk of ONJ with
high-dose Dmab therapy versus high-dose intravenous BP
therapy.(163) Cessation of Dmab therapy may be associated with
more rapid rate of resolution of ONJ than occurs with BPs;
however, this requires further prospective study.
3. Who develops ONJ? What are the risk factors and
comorbidity?
For a complete listing of the evidence reviewed for this topic,
please refer to Supporting Table A5. A summary table of risk
factors can be found in Supporting Table S9.
7
 Epidemiological data on the prevalence and incidence of ONJ
are limited and, when available, typically not based on
prospective studies or population-based surveys.
Signicant risk factors for the development of ONJ in the
oncology population, in declining order of importance, include:
i.v. BPs (both dose of BP and duration of exposure impact ONJ
risk)(24); zoledronic acid(83,105,112,150,164); pamidronate(150); Dmab
(from incidence and prevalence data); radiation therapy(24);
dental extraction(24,105,150,161,165); chemotherapy(84); periodontal
disease(166); oral BP use(24); osteoporosis(105); local suppura-
tion(24); glucocorticoid therapy(106); diabetes(28); denture
use(150,165,167); erythropoietin therapy(106); tobacco use(28);
hyperthyroidism(28); renal dialysis(106); cyclophosphamide ther-
apy(106); etidronate(168); and increasing age.(106,161)
Signicant risk factors for the development of ONJ in the
osteoporosis patient population, in declining order of impor-
tance, include: suppuration(24); BP use(24); dental extraction(24);
and anemia.(24)
Although Dmab was not identied as a risk factor in any of the
searches, the data presented in the incidence and prevalence
section would suggest that it is an additional risk factor, similar
to BPs. It should be noted that both the BPs and Dmab are
essentially included in the denition of drug-associated ONJ, so
dening either as a risk factor for drug-related ONJ is
methodologically perilous. However, it is clear that both of
these drugs increase the incidence and prevalence of ONJ in
both osteoporotic and oncology populations, as described in
section 2 (How common is ONJ?), and are thus strongly
implicated as being risk factors for ONJ.
4. Why does ONJ develop?
The pathophysiology of ONJ is not well understood. Until
recently, most studies addressed the potential role of BPs, but
the knowledge that Dmab therapy also increases the risk of
ONJ(13,69) emphasizes the need to explore mechanisms
common to both interventions. All of the evidence reviewed
regarding the pathophysiology/etiology of ONJ is provided in
Supporting Table A6. A summary of these data is provided in
Supporting Table S10.
Infection
The sequence of events leading to the development of ONJ
is unclear; in particular, it is unknown whether necrosis
precedes or follows infection. Dental disease is a well-
established risk factor for ONJ,(35) implicating infection and
inammation in the pathogenetic process. Aggregates of
bacteria and polymorphonuclear leukocytes are commonly
seen in ONJ tissue and the presence of bacterial microlms
has been described in close association with active
osteoclastic resorption on the bone surface.(38,166) Bacteria
are known to stimulate bone resorption(169,170); hence, the
microorganisms present may directly contribute to bone
necrosis. In addition to preexisting dental trauma and
disease, inhibitory effects of BPs on the proliferation and
viability of oral keratinocytes(171176) may further damage
the integrity of the oral mucosa and increase the risk of
infection. Activation by BPs of gamma delta T cells may
stimulate the production of proinammatory cytokines and
later depletion of these T cells may impair the immune
response to infection.(177179)
8 KHAN ET AL.
Bone turnover
Suppression of bone turnover may also play a role in the
development of ONJ.(180,181) The association of ONJ with potent
antiresorptive drugs(62,69) and the increased risk with higher
doses of BPs and Dmab would be consistent with this
contention.(14,62,120) In Beagle dogs treated with high doses of
BPs, areas of necrosis in the mandible sometimes develop, with
nonviable osteocytes in the affected bone.(15) However, low
bone turnover is not characteristically seen in affected tissue
from ONJ patients(166); furthermore, ONJ has not been reported
in other conditions associated with low bone turnover.
Vascularity
BPs are known to have antiangiogenic properties(177179) and it
has been suggested that these may also contribute to the
development of ONJ. ONJ has been described in several patients
treated for cancer with antiangiogenic agents, in particular
sunitinib(182) and bevacizumab,(157) although in these patients
other risk factors were also present. Dmab is not known to have
antiangiogenic effects, and normal vasculature has been
reported in most histological studies of ONJ tissue.(166,183)
Animal studies with BPs do not support any diminution of
vascular volume with BP administration.(184)
Genetic predisposition
Not all patients with similar comorbidities and similar medical
management develop ONJ; hence, pharmacogenomics may
inuence the risk of developing ONJ. It has been suggested that
polymorphisms in the farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase(185) or
cytochrome P450 CYP2C8 genes(186,187) might predispose some
individuals to develop ONJ. Genomewide association case-
control studies have been performed in oncology patients and
this is an area undergoing further exploration.(188,189)
5. What is the role of imaging in diagnosis and
management?
The evidence reviewed for the imaging of ONJ can be found in
Supporting Table A7.
ONJ is a clinical diagnosis based on history and physical
exam. Radiographic features of ONJ remain relatively nonspe-
cic. Plain lm radiography is usually unremarkable in the early
stages of the disease because decalcication is limited.(190) The
presence of localized or diffuse osteosclerosis or a thickening
of the lamina dura on plain lm imaging may predict future
sites of exposed necrotic bone.(190) Poor ossication at a
previous extraction site may also be an early radiographic
feature of ONJ. Findings on computed tomography (CT) are
nonspecic and may include areas of focal sclerosis, thickened
lamina dura, early sequestrum formation, and reactive
periosteal bone.(191194) CT imaging is of value in delineating
the extent of disease and is helpful in planning surgical
intervention.(192,195) Features noted on bone scanning include
increased tracer uptake at sites that subsequently develop
necrosis.(196) The utility of nuclear bone scanning in patients at
risk of ONJ requires further study.(196,197)
Imaging modalities used as adjunctive assessment in the
evaluation of the ONJ patient may include plain radiographs, CT,
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and functional imaging with
bone scintigraphy and positron emission tomography (PET).
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
Each one of these approaches has advantages and limitations.
Supporting Figs. S2 and S3 provide clinical and radiographic
images of patients with Stage 1 and 2 ONJ, respectively. Plain
radiographs are often sufcient to support the diagnosis of ONJ
for reasons described below, thus precluding the need for
additional, more costly imaging procedures. However, advanced
imaging may become necessary if the diagnostic information
obtained via plain lms is incomplete.
Radiographsintraoral and panoramic radiographs
Intraoral (periapical and bitewing) radiographs are easy to
acquire, inexpensive, and deliver a low radiation dose. Images
are of high resolution and are useful in assessing early features of
ONJ, including thickening of the lamina dura, increased
trabecular density of the alveolar bone, and widening of the
periodontal ligament space.(198) In addition, they provide useful
information regarding the presence of carious lesions, peri-
odontal disease, or periapical disease, which are all important
risk factors for ONJ.(199)
Panoramic radiographs are also of value and provide
assessment of both arches, as well as adjacent anatomic
structures including the maxillary sinus, nasal cavity, mental
foramen, and mandibular canal. The typical radiographic
ndings of ONJ on intraoral and panoramic radiographs are
increased trabecular density, incomplete healing of extraction
sockets, sequestrum formation, thickening of the mandibular
canal or sinus oor cortication, and periosteal bone
formation.(30,192,195,200,201)
Intraoral and panoramic projections are useful screening tools
for assessing the presence of dental disease and the severity and
extent of osteonecrotic changes, as well as for follow-up of
patients with ONJ. However, if the diagnostic information is
ambiguous or more detailed investigation of the dental and
osseous health is required, more advanced imaging is necessary
as described in the following sections.
CT and cone beam CT
CT has clear advantages over 2D imaging in characterizing the
features of ONJ. The cortical and trabecular architecture of the
maxilla and mandible can be evaluated as well as the presence
of periosteal bone reaction, presence of sequestrum, and
integrity of adjacent vital structures, allowing for earlier
detection of ONJ lesions.(193,200)
Common CT ndings in ONJ patients include diffuse
osteosclerosis, areas of osteolysis, cortical erosion, increased
periosteal bone formation, and sequestration. Potential stula
track formation and incomplete extraction socket healing may
be seen.(30,200203) Typically, these radiographic changes extend
beyond the clinically exposed bone areas. In early stages of ONJ,
increased trabecular density may not be detected on panoramic
radiographs but may be seen on CT.(204) CT radiographic
ndings may underestimate the extent of bony changes as
assessed during surgery.(193) CT may demonstrate radiographic
evidence of altered bone architecture at the symptomatic site
and aid in disease diagnosis.(190,205) Radiographic features of
osteosclerosis can be seen in the absence of clinically exposed
bone,(38) and in individuals with symptoms of bone pain careful
evaluation is advised because these radiographic features may
be a reection of an early prodromal phase of ONJ.
Cone beam CT (CBCT) offers similar advantages to CT in
evaluating the osseous structures of the face, while delivering
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW: REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL ONJ TASK FORCE
signicantly less radiation. CBCT allows improved detection of
periodontal and periapical disease in comparison to dental
radiographs, particularly if a small eld of view (FOV) is
used.(206,207) There are no conclusive denitive studies regarding
the use of CBCT use and the diagnosis of ONJ. Data are limited to
preliminary investigations.
A major disadvantage of CBCT is the low contrast resolution
and poor soft tissue detail. However, the ability of CBCT to image
bony structures is similar to that of CT.(207) Because of the high-
resolution volumetric imaging, CBCT shows improved diagnos-
tic ability for periodontal and periapical disease in comparison to
conventional radiographs.(206) CBCT imaging ndings of the
osteonecrotic areas are similar to those with CT, and include
increased bone density, osteolysis, cortical erosions, sequestra-
tion, and periosteal bone reaction.(192,208,209)
MRI
MRI offers similar advantages to CT in evaluating the osseous
ONJ changes, while it appears to be superior in assessing bone
marrow change at the early stage of ONJ, as well as the soft
tissue changes surrounding the osteonecrotic area.
One of the most consistent and earliest MRI ndings is a
decrease of bone marrow signal intensity on T1-weighted
images that can be present prior to clinical features of
ONJ.(193,197,201,210) T2-weighted and short T1 inversion recovery
(STIR) sequences may show increased signal intensity because of
high water content,(204) while irregular gadolinium enhance-
ment of bone marrow and soft tissues around osteolytic areas is
observed.(197,201,210) In advanced disease the bone marrow
signal intensity on T2-weighted and STIR images can be variable:
the exposed bone shows decreased signal intensity, and the
unexposed diseased bone shows increased signal intensi-
ty.(201,211) Sequestra display a low-signal-intensity center with
a high-signal-intensity rim on the T2-weighted image.(197,212)
Soft tissue thickening and edema and lymph node enlargement
can also be observed.(36,210) Similar to CT, MRI shows increased
ability to detect osseous ONJ changes compared to panoramic
radiographs; however, it may also fail to demonstrate the full
extent of bony changes seen on surgical exploration.(193)
Nuclear imaging with scintigraphy and PET
Bone scintigraphy using Tc99m methylene diphosphonate
(MDP) or hydroxymethylene diphosphonate (HDP) has a high
sensitivity for detecting early disease. Bone scintigraphy shows
increased radionuclide uptake with increased perfusion and
increased blood pool. Single-photon emission CT (SPECT) and
fusion SPECT/CT provide more precise localization of osteo-
necrotic areas with surrounding areas of increased radionu-
clide uptake.(191,213) In 67.5% of patients with ONJ, increased
Tc99m-MDP or HDP was observed in areas that later
developed clinical osteonecrosis; thus, bone scans may be
useful in early identication of ONJ.(196,214) However, it is not
uncommon for conditions other than ONJ to produce
increased uptake in the jaw, including tumor or periodontal
disease.(215,216)
PET alone or in combination with CT has also been used for
the assessment of ONJ patients, using both F-18 uoride (NaF)
and F-18 uorodeoxyglucose (FDG) tracers.(214,217,218) Interest-
ingly, FDG-PET uptake appears to increase with ONJ severity,
although a clear relationship has not been established, which is
possibly due to the small number of patients in the study.(217)
9
 In summary, imaging is of value in diagnosing ONJ. This is
particularly the case in those individuals on antiresorptive
therapy with ONJ-like symptoms, but without obvious bone
exposure. Because periapical and periodontal disease is an
important risk factor for ONJ, identifying early dental disease
with imaging and proceeding with dental preventive measures
may decrease the risk of ONJ and minimize the need for dental
extractions.(118,219) In addition, imaging enables exclusion of
other conditions that may contribute to necrosis, such as
metastatic disease.(220,221) There are no pathognomonic features
of ONJ on imaging that denitively differentiate ONJ from other
conditions.(222) However, imaging can assist in identifying the
extent of bone and soft tissue disease as well as providing
information on dental, periodontal, and periapical health. A
summary of imaging ndings with ONJ is presented in
Supporting Table S11.
Recommendations for imaging
A. Individuals on low-dose antiresorptive treatment without
signs or symptoms of ONJ do not require any additional imaging
over and above routine dental evaluation.(223225)
B. Patients on high-dose antiresorptive treatment without
ONJ are at signicant risk of developing ONJ and early
identication of dental disease is important.(118,219) Following
a complete examination of the oral cavity, high-risk patients
should ideally receive bitewing and periapical intraoral radio-
graphs of all existing teeth as well as panoramic radiographs.
When available, CBCT 3D imaging using high-resolution
protocols could also be performed, given the superior ability
of CBCT (compared to conventional radiographs) in diagnosing
periapical and periodontal disease. Following a baseline
evaluation of oral health, additional conventional and CBCT
radiographs are performed only if necessary in the presence of
oral complaints or signs or symptoms of ONJ.(226)
C. In patients in whom ONJ is a clinical consideration on low-
dose or high-dose antiresorptive therapy presenting with oral
symptoms, CBCT or CT imaging may aid in evaluating early
changes in the cortical and trabecular architecture of the maxilla
and mandible. Imaging also allows assessment of possible
sequestrum or stula track formation and evaluation of the
status of any involved teeth. If both CBCT and CT are available,
small-FOV, high-resolution CBCT is preferred because it delivers
less radiation and provides similar diagnostic information as CT.
CBCT may be performed in conjunction with bitewing,
periapical, and panoramic radiographs. If clinically indicated,
MRI may provide additional information of the presence and
extent of osteonecrosis.
D. In patients with clinical ONJ under conservative manage-
ment (Stage 1 and 2), the nature and extent of osseous changes
around the area of clinical bone exposure can be evaluated with
CT or small-FOV high-resolution CBCT imaging. Dental disease in
all existing teeth should also be determined with bitewing,
periapical, and panoramic radiographs.
E. In patients with clinical ONJ where surgical intervention is
considered (Stage 2 and 3), CBCT or CT may be complemented
with MRI, bone scan, or PET for a more thorough evaluation of
involved bone and soft tissues.
6. Are biomarkers useful in identifying ONJ?
Please refer to Supporting Table A8 for a full description of all the
papers reviewed in this section.
10 KHAN ET AL.
ONJ is a complication associated with the use of the
antiresorptive therapies, either with BPs and/or Dmab. Marx
and colleagues(227) suggested that quantication of bone
resorption may be useful for prognosis. They reported data
on 30 women treated with oral BPs for low bone density who
had subsequently presented with ONJ. Seventeen of these
women were still taking oral BP at the time of presentation, and
had C-terminal telopeptide (CTX) values of 30 to 102 pg/mL
(mean 73 pg/mL). After 6 months off BPs, CTX values were 162 to
343 pg/mL (mean 228 pg/mL), a mean rise of 26 pg/mL/month.
ONJ healed in all patients over the following 18 months, and the
authors concluded that this was causally associated with the
higher bone turnover. Although this is possible, the hypothesis
was not formally tested because none of the patients were
assessed while continuing BP therapy. At presentation, there
was no correlation between CTX and clinical severity in this
cohort, nor in 60 other ONJ patients receiving i.v. BPs. They
concluded that if CTX is >150 pg/mL in patients receiving oral
BPs then invasive oral surgical procedures can be completed
with minimal risk of osteonecrosis, although no data supporting
this statement are presented (Marx criteria: CTX <100 pg/
mL high risk, 100 to 150 pg/mL moderate risk, and >150 pg/
mL minimal risk).
Cross-sectional studies in patients with ONJ have evaluated
the association between CTX levels and disease severity.
Although Bagan and colleagues(228) found no relationship in
15 oncology patients, Kwon and colleagues(229) found that CTX
levels were related (r 0.47) to the number of the ONJ lesions
and their stage in 18 patients receiving oral BP therapy, although
CTX levels were not different from those in BP-treated
osteoporosis patients without ONJ.(230)
The utility of CTX has been evaluated in its ability to predict
outcomes in patients with ONJ. In each of these studies, many
patients were at risk by the Marx criteria. Atalay and
colleagues(231) found that CTX did not predict treatment
prognosis in 20 cancer patients, despite a wide range of
baseline CTX values. CTX levels in BP-treated subjects have been
assessed as a predictor of ONJ risk after oral surgery. Kunchur
and colleagues(232) measured CTX in 222 BP users undergoing
extractions. Only one patient developed ONJ and had a
moderate level of CTX (126 pg/mL). Lee and Suzuki(233) assessed
CTX levels in 54 patients on oral BPs undergoing oral surgery and
despite a very wide range of CTX values prior to surgery (39 to
330 pg/mL; mean of 161 pg/mL), no patient developed ONJ.
Similarly, OConnell and colleagues(234) measured CTX values in
23 patients on BPs, 21 with osteoporosis and two with cancer,
prior to oral surgery (CTX range, 50 to 370 pg/mL; mean 180 pg/
mL). After 5 months of observation, no patient had developed
ONJ. In the HORIZON trial, one case of ONJ developed in 5903
patients given zoledronic acid, and a second case developed in
the 5140 placebo-treated subjects.(75) In this trial, 43% of
patients had serum CTX <100 ng/mL 6 months after zoledronic
acid and would be considered at high risk by the Marx criteria,
yet ONJ risk was no higher than in the placebo group. The very
low incidence of ONJ in osteoporosis subjects indicates that
even very large studies are underpowered to answer this
question.
Few other biomarkers of bone turnover have been assessed
with respect to ONJ management or to their utility in making
decisions regarding the individual patients risk for ONJ. One
study found that neither N-terminal telopeptide (NTX) nor bone
alkaline phosphatase was associated with the development of
ONJ.(235) Lehrer and colleagues(236,237) performed two studies
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
with neither nding an association of ONJ with CTX, NTX, bone
alkaline phosphatase, or osteocalcin.
Thus, although low CTX is a reection of recent antiresorptive
treatment, current data do not establish it as having a useful role
in managing patients with or at risk of ONJ.
7. Can ONJ be prevented and what is the role of drug
interruption?
Supporting Table A9 presents all the data with respect to
prevention of ONJ.
Recommendations to reduce the risk of ONJ include
completion of necessary oral surgery prior to initiation of
antiresorptive therapy,(154,219,238,239) the use of antibiotics
before and/or after the procedure,(22,25,239242) antimicrobial
mouth rinsing,(22,25,241) appropriate closure of the wound
following tooth extraction,(240242) and maintenance of good
oral hygiene.(103,238,240,241,243,244)
The etiology of ONJ continues to be further investigated. Poor
oral health, minor oral surgery, and use of potent antiresorptive
agents appear to be associated with the condition. In an attempt
to prevent ONJ, optimizing oral health prior to the initiation of
BP and Dmab therapy is emphasized. Indeed, this simple
intervention appears to be efcacious in reducing the risk of ONJ
as noted by Ripamonti and colleagues(219) and Dimopoulos and
colleagues,(118) and Montefusco and colleagues(239) retrospec-
tively assessed the role of prophylactic antibiotics prior to dental
procedures for the prevention of ONJ in a group of patients with
multiple myeloma. Interestingly, of the 178 patients assessed,
eight cases of ONJ developed, but all cases occurred in the
group not provided with prophylactic antibiotics. It was
concluded that a course of antibiotics prior to dental procedures
may prevent the occurrence of subsequent ONJ.
Following the initial reports of ONJ in association with BP use
in 2003, the vast majority of cases (>90%) have occurred in
cancer patients receiving sixfold to 10-fold higher doses of BPs
than those used to treat osteoporosis. Invasive oral surgery
procedures have been identied as an important risk factor for
ONJ. Therefore, it is recommended by the Task Force that
patients who undergo invasive oral surgery have their
antiresorptive therapy withheld following the procedure until
soft tissue healing has occurred. However, it is acknowledged
that there is little evidence to support this recommendation in
terms of changing the outcome of the dental procedure because
BPs remain in bone for many years. In patients taking lower-dose
BPs for osteoporosis, the risk of ONJ is recognized to be
extremely low (1 in 10,000 to 1 in 100,000 patients, compared
with 1% to 2% per year for cancer patients receiving higher
doses of BPs). In 2011, the American Dental Association
Guidelines recognized the lower risk in osteoporosis patients,
and stated that discontinuation of oral BP was not necessary
prior to dental procedures.(245)
In determining the best approach for each individual patient
with respect to ongoing antiresorptive therapy it is necessary to
stratify risk and weigh the risks of ONJ with the risk of fracture in
osteoporosis patients and the risk of SREs in oncology patients.
The ONJ risk will be impacted by comorbidity as well as the
extent of the planned surgery.
Clinical judgment is always essential, and in patients who may
require extensive invasive oral surgery, as well as those with
multiple risk factors for ONJ (diabetes, periodontal disease,
glucocorticoid treatment, immune deciencies, smoking, etc.), it
may be advisable to stop antiresorptive therapy if it is possible to
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW: REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL ONJ TASK FORCE
do so without adverse consequences for bone health. In such
circumstances the Task Force recommends stopping antire-
sorptive therapy.
For cancer patients requiring oncology doses of i.v. BPs or
Dmab, a thorough dental examination with dental radiographs
should be ideally completed prior to the initiation of oncology-
dose antiresorptive therapy in order to identify dental disease
before drug therapy is initiated. Any necessary invasive dental
procedure including dental extractions or implants should
ideally be completed prior to initiation of BP or Dmab therapy.
Non-urgent procedures should be assessed for optimal timing
because it may be appropriate to complete the non-urgent
procedure prior to osteoclast inhibition, delay it until it is
necessary, or perhaps plan for it during a drug holiday; however,
there are no compelling data to guide these decisions.
Injudicious discontinuation of osteoporosis therapy can lead
to increased risk of fractures, including hip and vertebral
fractures. The decision to discontinue therapy with bone active
agents must also consider the risk of fracture and implications
for skeletal health.
In the presence of ONJ in a patient receiving BP or Dmab, it is
recommended that oncology-dose antiresorptive drug therapy
be withheld until soft tissue closure with well-epithelialized
mucosa is achieved.
8. How should ONJ be managed?
A review of all the evidence for the treatment of ONJ is found in
Supporting Table A10.
There are no universally accepted treatment protocols for
ONJ. In the absence of a dened treatment algorithm for ONJ,
there is a generally accepted approach of palliation of symptoms
and controlling associated infection. Treatment strategies range
from conservative nonsurgical therapy to early surgical
intervention. The extent of surgery also varies and is dependent
upon the stage of disease.
Treatment
Many variables may contribute to the treatment decision-
making tree, including age, sex, disease status (osteoporosis,
metastatic disease versus multiple myeloma, for example), ONJ
stage and lesion size, medication exposure, and medical and
pharmacological comorbidities. The specics of how these
factors inuence the course of ONJ and its treatment response
are largely unknown and, as such, clinical judgment should
guide individual treatment approach.
Other important factors to consider in this group of patients
are prognosis and life expectancy, quality of life, and an
individuals ability to cope with their ONJ lesion(s). A similar-
sized lesion may be asymptomatic in one patient, but pose
considerable difculties in another.
Conservative management
The majority of patients with ONJ have been managed
conservatively. Conservative therapy includes maintaining
optimal oral hygiene (diligent home self-care and regular
professional dental care), elimination of active dental and
periodontal disease, topical antibiotic mouth rinses, and
systemic antibiotic therapy, as indicated. This is consistent
with the previous recommendations of the Canadian Associa-
tion of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (CAOMS), AAOMS, and
11
the American Dental Association,(1,2,33,245) and is supported by
many practitioners.(132,246) Conservative therapy is the mainstay
of care and although it may not necessarily lead to complete
resolution of lesions, it may symptomatically provide long-term
relief.(26,247) Among patients with breast cancer and multiple
myeloma, Fortuna and colleagues(248) reported a more rapid
response to conservative therapy in the breast cancer group
compared to those with multiple myeloma.
Recent case reports of successful treatment of ONJ with
teriparatide are encouraging(249,250) and this may become a
conservative treatment choice for those with osteoporosis and
without cancer or prior radiation therapy to bone. Because
teriparatide has been reported to facilitate osseous wound
healing in the oral cavity,(249) it may be a viable approach for
patients on antiresorptive therapy for the treatment of
osteoporosis. Considering the low risk of ONJ in patients with
osteoporosis being treated with osteoporosis doses of anti-
resorptive agents and the absence of evidence that changing to
teriparatide would alter the outcome of an invasive dental
procedure in someone who does not have ONJ, it is not
recommended at this time to switch to teriparatide in those at a
low risk of ONJ or fracture. However, in an osteoporotic patient
with established ONJ, treatment with teriparatide may be of
value as observed in published case reports.(251256)
The same approach should not be used in patients with
cancer, a history of skeletal radiation, or with active bone
metastases, because these patients are at risk for the develop-
ment or advancement of bone malignancies and teriparatide
should be avoided unless prospective studies demonstrate a
favorable benet-to-risk ratio for its use.
Other experimental treatment approaches found in the
literature awaiting further substantiation include topically
applied ozone,(257) bone marrow stem cell intralesional
transplantation,(258) and addition of pentoxifylline and tocoph-
erol to the standard antibiotic regimen.(259) The latter reportedly
reduced both ONJ symptoms and the amount of exposed bone.
One in vitro study suggested that geranylgeraniol might
potentially prevent BP-induced predisposition to ONJ.(260)
Favorable outcomes have been reported with low-level laser
therapy, in conjunction with conservative and/or surgical
debridement, but further conrmation is needed.(261,262)
Conservative therapy should be continued as long as there is
not: (1) obvious progression of disease; (2) pain that is not being
controlled by conservative means; or (3) a patient who has had
antiresorptive therapy discontinued by their oncologist because
of ONJ.
Surgical management
Early treatment recommendations for ONJ discouraged surgical
intervention with conservative therapy continuing indenitely
or until there was progression of disease. However, there are
now many reports demonstrating success with surgical
management of these lesions. With surgery, a full-thickness
mucoperiosteal ap should be elevated and extended to reveal
the entire area of exposed bone and beyond to disease-free
margins. Resection of the affected bone should be extended
horizontally and inferiorly to reach healthy-appearing, bleeding
bone. Sharp edges should be smoothed and primary soft tissue
closure achieved in a tension-free fashion with sutures that
resorb after 1 week.(263) Several authors have reported better
outcomes with larger resections compared to limited debride-
ment and/or conservative therapy.(264,265)
12 KHAN ET AL.
We propose that if surgery is indicated, resection with
tension-free closure affords the most positive results.
Adjunctive treatments, in combination with surgery, have
been also described in the literature. Vescovi and col-
leagues(262) achieved good results treating ONJ lesions with
laser-assisted surgical debridement; in contrast, Atalay and
colleagues(231) found no statistically signicant benet of this
approach in comparison to conventional surgery. Martins and
colleagues(266) conducted a preliminary retrospective survey
of patients undergoing antibiotic therapy plus surgery
followed by low-level laser therapy and platelet-rich plasma
applied to the surgical wound, and observed improved
healing.
Promising results have also been reported with surgical
debridement in combination with platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF) applied to the site in Stage 2 ONJ cases.(242)
Pautke and colleagues(267) reported that intraoperative uores-
cence guidance was helpful in identifying surgical resection
margins in Stage 2 ONJ cases. Hoefert and Eunger(268)
suggested that longer-term preoperative antibiotics (23 to 54
days) resulted in improved surgical outcomes versus short-term
antibiotic therapy (1 to 8 days). Surgical success rates have been
higher in patients with multiple myeloma or in those with
osteoporosis receiving low-dose BP therapy in comparison to
patients with solid tumors.(269)
Adjunctive therapy with hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) in combi-
nation with surgery has been investigated(270,271) with encour-
aging results. Further research is required with these innovative
combination therapies prior to formalizing treatment
recommendations.
In summary, in the absence of debilitating ONJ lesions,
conservative therapy with optimal oral hygiene, topical
antibiotic rinses, and systemic antibiotics are advised as needed
for pain or infection.(238)
For nonresponsive ONJ lesions, surgery is an option and
includes ostectomy of the affected area with resection margins
that extend into adjacent normal-appearing bone. Soft tissue
closure should be tension-free with no underlying sharp edges
of bone that could lead to mucosal breakdown.
In the presence of a pathologic fracture or ONJ extending to
the sinus or inferior border of the mandible, or if the ostectomy
to healthy tissue leads to a discontinuity defect, consideration
should be given to microvascular composite tissue grafting at
the time of surgical resection in the mandible and the same or
obturator construction for the maxilla.
At present, other adjunctive procedures as discussed in this
section may be considered, but all require further research to
dene their value.
9. Research and future directions
It has been 10 years since the original case descriptions of ONJ
were reported. The insights gained during this past decade into
the pathophysiology of ONJ as well as mechanisms involved that
could be targeted for therapeutic approaches have increased,
but are not at a sufcient level to enable the development of
optimal care strategies for our patients.(272) Over these 10 years,
the paucity of scientically sound information has often led to
confusion among patients and healthcare providers. We need to
do better and must rely on the scientic community, supported
by governmental agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and
foundations, to expand our knowledge and improve patient
care.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
 The pathophysiology of ONJ needs to be more clearly
delineated using well-characterized animal models that lend
themselves to better understanding the human condition.
Several ONJ animal models have been described in mice, rats,
minipigs, and dogs treated with high doses of bisphospho-
nates.(15,273289) Most of these models use tooth extrac-
tion,(275,280286,288) while others stimulate experimental
periodontal or periapical disease(273,274,279,287) to induce
ONJ-like lesions. Recently, ONJ was described in mice treated
with RANKL inhibitors without BPs, indicating the central role
of osteoclast inhibition in ONJ pathogenesis.(289) These animal
models capture several of the clinical, radiographic, and
histologic features of ONJ. However, differences in bone
composition, bone remodeling, and overall metabolism
between animals and humans have been problematic. None
have effectively captured the full picture of the human
condition such that interventional approaches can be reliably
tested.
ONJ appears to occur most commonly in those with
metastatic bone disease receiving high doses of osteoclast
inhibitors concurrently with anticancer therapy. In this patient
population, the risk-benet prole associated with the osteo-
clast inhibitors is unique from other indications for an
antiresorptive therapy, in that their risk of skeletal complications
of malignancy is estimated as one event occurring every 3 to
4 months in the absence of osteoclast inhibition.(290) These SREs
may be catastrophic, for example spinal cord compression
resulting in paralysis, or hypercalcemia of malignancy, which is
often a life-threatening event. When administered at U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA)-recommended dosing, the use
of potent osteoclast inhibitors reduces the risk of skeletal-
related events by approximately 20% to 50%.(291) Hence, the
oncology patient with metastatic bone disease, and their clinical
care team, may view the risk of ONJ as the lesser of two evils.
However, the risk of ONJ is much lwer than the risk of SRE for the
vast majority of cancer patients.
As advances in osteoclast inhibition and anticancer thera-
pies are made, it is critical that treatment regimens be
assessed for both short-term and long-term adverse events,
including ONJ. This is the case for both early-stage and late-
stage cancers. In early-stage breast cancer, there are evolving
data that the potent osteoclast inhibitors may have an
anticancer effect in postmenopausal women. Therefore, it is
possible that the BPs may be used in a larger patient
population including those who may not have low bone mass.
In one adjuvant zoledronic acid Phase III study, approximately
2% of the patients with breast cancer treated with zoledronic
acid developed ONJ,(133) although other studies have reported
a lower incidence.
Further research will provide effective strategies to prevent
ONJ as well as dene the risk of SRE and ONJ in individuals
with metastatic bone disease. A greater understanding of
these risks will enable clinicians to more effectively tailor
drug therapy with respect to dose and frequency of
administration of the osteoclast inhibitor in order to
minimize both the risk of SRE and ONJ. The management
of these individuals requires a multidisciplinary approach to
develop evidence-based clinical practice algorithms. The
panel will provide guidance through expert opinion and best
evidence currently available for the oncology patient in a
subsequent document.
Ongoing registries of ONJ include independent international
studies and a study funded by Amgen. There is an ongoing
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research OSTEONECROSIS OF THE JAW: REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL ONJ TASK FORCE
biomarkers study as well as ongoing case-control ONJ studies
and correlative investigations incorporated into BP and Dmab
clinical trials. The results of these studies will add prospective
epidemiologic information on risk factors associated with the
development of ONJ. In addition, basic science studies of
the mechanism of ONJ include investigation of the effect of
antiresorptive therapy on wound healing, the oral mucosal
barrier, and identication of biomarkers predictive of the
development of ONJ.
There is considerable room for clinical, translational, and basic
science research because the cellular mechanisms involved in
oral wound healing and the inuences of antiresorptive
medications need to be claried. Much of the hope for progress
resides in the eld of osteoimmunology. Although osteoclasts
have been the focus of studies in the mineralized tissue eld for
decades, the dependence of oral wound healing on osteoclasts
is understudied. The temporal nature of osteoclastic activity in
oral wounding and the role of osteoclasts as phagocytic cells in
the wound environment are of interest. For example, are the
signaling molecules different in activated osteoclasts depending
on the mineral surface they are associated with? Do osteoclasts
associate differently with bacterial toxin-contaminated surfaces?
What is the impact of antiresorptives in the inammatory lesion?
The role of osteocytes in osseous necrosis, remodeling, and
antiresorptive drug actions requires further investigation. The
impact of antiresorptive drugs on non-osteoclast bone marrow
cells such as macrophages is ill-dened. Do BPs or anti-RANKL
antibodies alter the prole of classical M1 macrophages, M2
alternatively activated macrophages, or pro-resolving
macrophages?
There is a clear need for improved diagnostic and prognostic
factors for ONJ. Improved prospective studies in patients at risk
for ONJ could provide better insight into predictors of the
condition as well as optimizing preventive approaches. What is
the impact of inhibiting osteoclasts early during wound healing
(eg, immediately postextraction) when osteoclasts are responsi-
ble for recontouring the wound margins versus later (eg, when
the immature woven bone is remodeled to form mature lamellar
bone)?
Finally, current therapeutic options are inadequate for the
prevention and treatment of ONJ. It is challenging to do large
clinical trials with the patient population currently presenting
with ONJ. However, we do not yet have in-depth studies of the
effects of any drugs used for the treatment of osteoporosis and
cancer on osseous tissues in the oral cavity. Such studies are
necessary to clarify potential issues specic to craniofacial
bones. A detailed trajectory of healing postextraction in patients
on antiresorptives relative to patients on anabolic agents or
normal healthy controls has not been performed and would
provide valuable new insights into skeletal site specicity and
oral wound healing.
Oral Ulceration and Benign Sequestration
A literature search was conducted specically pertaining to oral
ulceration and benign sequestration (OUBS) on June 25, 2014
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term oral ulcera-
tion and sequestration). The literature search yielded 11
total citations, three of which were not related and were
discarded. The remaining eight papers were case reports or case
series.(5,292298) Two additional investigations were added
through expert review.(6,7)
13
Diagnosis
This condition presents as a variably painful ulceration, usually
involving the posterior lingual mandible at the level of the
mylohyoid ridge.(57,292) There is a hard insensitive base formed
by exposed non-vital bone. The ulcer can persist for periods that
vary between a few days to several months. Occlusal radio-
graphs show a localized radiopacity, representing the necrotic
bone, supercial to the lingual cortical plate. Similar lesions can
occur over oral exostoses. Histopathologic exam of the necrotic
bone base shows irregular zones of resorption, microbial
colonization, and often, adherent fragments of acutely inamed
granulation tissue. The condition occurs in the absence of
predisposing systemic disease or antiresorptive therapy.
Pathophysiology
The pathogenesis is not well understood. However, ulceration,
either traumatic or in the form of an aphthous ulcer, is thought
to be the initial pathologic event.(57,292) Sequestration could
occur following subsequent disruption of blood supply from the
periosteal layer to the poorly vascularized supercial cortical
bone and possible secondary infection. The devitalized and
secondarily infected bone base then impedes resolution of the
ulcer. The predilection of the condition for posterior lingual
mandibular bone has resulted in suggestions that the anatomic
site might be of etiologic importance. Of possible signicance,
many of these cases occur in patients who have lost posterior
molars or have restorations, which do not recapitulate the
normal lingual inclination of the molars. Thus, the protective
lingual inclination of the molars over the mylohyoid ridge is lost
and the nonkeratinized mucosal lining over the projecting
mylohyoid ridge would not be shielded from chronic trauma
during mastication. After the ulcer has formed, it would be
further susceptible to secondary infection because it is located in
a relatively stagnant oral region. The suggestion that an
aphthous ulcer, rather than a traumatic ulcer, might be the
primary lesion could result in the same sequence of pathologic
events, and these are not mutually exclusionary suggestions.
Management
This is usually a self-limited condition that heals with conserva-
tive measures.(57,292) The necrotic bone may undergo sponta-
neous exfoliation. If the sequestrum is mobile, the process can
be expedited with gentle manipulation of the sequestrum
through the ulcer base. If the dead bone is adherent to the
underlying cortex, surgical removal might be required. However,
often a patient approach with supportive management
involving antimicrobial rinses, such as chlorhexidine or tetracy-
cline, will result in detachment of the sequestrum from
underlying vital bone and eventually permit spontaneous
exfoliation. Once the necrotic bone has been removed, efcient
healing occurs.(299)
Future research directives
There is a need for further research on OUBS. Studies are
required to evaluate the incidence and prevalence of this
condition. The proportion of OUBS conditions that can result in
signicant morbidity in terms of size, duration, and pain should
be assessed. Development of a staging system would be of
value, particularly with respect to optimization of treatment
strategies. The role of this condition as an initiating event for the
signicant drug-associated ONJs should be evaluated.
14 KHAN ET AL.
Disclosures
M Bhandari received funding from Smith and Nephew,
Stryker, Amgen, Zimmer, Moximed, Bioventus, Merck, Eli
Lilly, Sano, De Puy; ML Brandi has served on the board for
Alexion, Servier, Eli Lilly, and Amgen, and received funding
from Servier, NPS, Eli Lilly, Amgen, Alexion, Shire, SPA, Bruno
Farmaceutici, and MSD; J Brown has served on the board for
Amgen, Eli Lilly, and Merck, and received funding for grant,
lectures, and development of educational presentations from
Amgen, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novartis, and Actavis; A Cheung
received grants and consultancy fee from Amgen, Eli Lilly, and
Merck, and honoraria from Amgen and Eli Lilly; C Cooper
received consultancy, lecture fees, and honoraria from
Amgen, GSK, Alliance for Better Bone Health, MSD, Eli Lilly,
Pzer, Novartis, Servier, Merck, Medtronic, and Roche; D
Hanley received fees for consultancy, lectures, development
of educational presentations from Amgen, Eli Lilly, Merck,
Novartis, and Warner Chilcott; R Eastell received grants,
lecture fees, and travel expenses from Amgen, AstraZeneca,
IDS, Novartis, Roche, Alexion, Otsuka, IBMS, and Merck; K
Davison has served on the board for Amgen Merck and
Novartis and received consultancy, lecture fees, funding for
development of educational presentations, and manuscript
preparation and travel expenses from Amgen, Merck, and
Novartis; T Guise has received consultancy, expert testimony
lecture fees from Novartis, AstraZeneca, Amgen, and Exelixis;
L McCauley received consultancy fees from Dentsply and
owns Amgen stock; B Josse has served on the board for
Merck, Eli Lilly, and Amgen, and received funding for grants,
lectures, and travels from Amgen and Eli Lilly; D Kendler
received consultancy, grants, and lecture fees from Amgen,
Pzer, Eli Lilly, Merck, and Astellas; A Khan has served on the
board for Amgen and Eli Lilly and has received grants and
lecture fees from Amgen, Eli Lilly, NPS, and Merck; B Langdhal
has served on the board for Amgen, Merck, and Eli Lilly, and
received consultancy fees and grants from Eli Lilly, Axellus,
Amgen, Merck, and Eli Lilly; S Morin has served on the board
for Amgen, Merck, and Eli Lilly, and received consultancy fees
and grants from Merck; B Obermayer-Pietsch received
consultancy and lecture fees from MSD, IDS, and Eli Lilly; F
ORyan received support for travel from AAOMS; E Peters no
conict to disclose. I Ried has served on the board for Merck,
and received consultancy, testimony, and lecture fees from
Novartis, Merck, Amgen, Sano, and Eli Lilly; S Ruggerio
received consultancy fees from Amgen; D Saunders received
consultancy fees from Takeda; A Taguchi received consultan-
cy and lectures fees and grants from Asahi Kasei and Teijin; S
Tetradis has received consultancy fees and grants from
Amgen; N Watts is the co-founder, director, and stockholder
of OsteoDynamics, and has received consultancy and lecture
fees from Amgen, AbbVie, Amarin, Bristol-Meyers Squibb,
Corcept, Endo, Imagepace, Janssen, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novartis,
Noven, NPS, Pzer/Wyeth, Radius, and Sano-Aventis;
J Compston, B Masri, A Morrison, D Pierroz, E Rabbany, and
G Sndor state that they have no conicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
Expert Panel of Reviewers: Howard Holmes, Edward Dore, Maria
Luisa Bianchi, Michel Fortier, Michel Fortin, Kevin Lung, Douglas
Peterson, Reena Talwar, and Toshiyuki Yoneda.
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
Author Affiliation
AA Khan Department of Medicine, Divisions of Endocrinology and Metabolism and Geriatrics, McMaster University,
Hamilton, ON, Canada
A Morrison Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
DA Hanley Departments of Medicine, Community Health Sciences and Oncology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB,
Canada
D Felsenberg Centre of Muscle & Bone Research, Charit-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Free
University & Humboldt-University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
LK McCauley Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI,
USA
F ORyan Kaiser Permanente Medical Center, Oakland, CA, USA
IR Reid Department of Medicine, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
S Ruggiero New York Center for Orthognathic and Maxillary Surgery, Lake Success, NY, USA
A Taguchi Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, School of Dentistry, Matsumoto Dental University,
Shojiri, Japan
S Tetradis Division of Diagnostic and Surgical Sciences, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
NB Watts Mercy Health Osteoporosis and Bone Health Services, Cincinnati, OH, USA
ML Brandi Department of Surgery and Translational Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
E Peters University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
T Guise Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology at Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA
R Eastell Department of Human Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
AM Cheung University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
SN Morin Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
B Masri Jordan Osteoporosis Center, Jordan Hospital & Medical Center, Amman, Jordan
C Cooper MRC Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK; NIHR Nutrition
Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK; NIHR Musculoskeletal
Biomedical Research Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
S Morgan University of Alabama at Birmingham Osteoporosis Prevention and Treatment Clinic, Division of Clinical
Immunology and Rheumatology, Birmingham, AL, USA
B Obermayer-Pietsch Medical University Graz, Div. Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Graz,
Austria
BL Langdahl Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
R Al Dabagh Faculty of Dentistry , University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
KS Davison Department of Graduate Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
D Kendler Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC,
Canada
GK Sndor Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oulu University Hospital, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
RG Josse Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
M Bhandari Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery and Department of Clinical Epidemiology and
Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
M El Rabbany Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
DD Pierroz International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF), Nyon, Switzerland
R Sulimani College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
DP Saunders Department of Dental Oncology, Northeast Cancer Centre/Health Science North, Sudbury, ON, Canada
JP Brown Laval University, Quebec, Quebec, Canada
J Compston Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK

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