*

* *________________- homogeneous mixture of

two or more substances
AP Chemistry *________________ substance present in
Ms. Mehlbrech greater amount
*________________ Substance present in
lesser amount
*Usually say solutes are dissolved in solvents
*Ex. Salt (the solute) is dissolved in water
(the solvent)

* *
How can you determine the difference between
the two solutions on the lab bench?
*When NaCl dissolves in water ions (Na+
and Cl-) are in the solution
Beaker A: Table salt in water Beaker B: Table Sugar in water
These ions carry the ________________
See which one conducts electricity:
from one electrode to another, completing
_______________________________________________________ the ________________
Is water by itself a good conductor? No ions present when sugar dissolves in
_____________________________________________ water

* *
*________________ substance whose
aqueous solution contains ions *Nature of ions present can be predicted from
the name of the substance
________________________________
substance whose aqueous solution does not Ex. Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
contain ions Dissociates into Na+ and SO42-
When being dissolved the ions are
surrounded by water molecules preventing Must remember the formulas
them from recombining
Salt Solution Animation
and charges of common ions!!!

1
 * *
*Usually consists of intact molecules dispersed
through the solution
There are a few molecular substances that
form ions in aqueous solutions
Most important are acids (ex. HCl)
* *
*Do not confuse ________________
with electrolyte ________________!
Acetic acid is very soluble, but a weak
electrolyte whereas Barium hydroxide is
insoluble, but what does dissolve dissociates
completely so it is a strong electrolyte
* *
*For now, remember:
________________ ionic compounds
are ________________ electrolytes
*Ionic compounds consist of a metals and
nonmetals
*________________ exist in solution
completely or nearly completely as ions
-- Includes essentially all ________________
compounds and a few molecular compounds (i.e. HCl)
________________ exist mostly as
molecules with only a small fraction as ions in
solution
-- Example: Acetic acid (HC2H3O2) is mostly in
molecular form with a few H+ and C2H3O2- ions
*________________for an ionization reaction
means it is significant in both directions results
in balance of rates (chemical equilibrium) used
for weak electrolytes
Ex. HC2H3O2 (aq) H+ (aq) + C2H3O2- (aq)
________________indicates no tendency
to recombine used for strong electrolytes
Ex. HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
*________________-- reactions that result
in the formation of an insoluble product
________________ an insoluble product
formed by a reaction in solution
Precipitation reactions occur when certain
oppositely charged ions attract each other so
strongly that they form an insoluble ionic
solid
2
 * *
*No rules based on simple physical properties, but
*To predict precipitates, must know rules or experimental observation has led to guidelines
guidelines for solubility
To predict formation of a precipitate:
________________ the amount of 1. Note the ions present in the reactants
substance that can be dissolved in a given 2. Consider the possible combinations of the cations and
quantity of solvent anions
3. Have solubility rules memorized to know if any
For our purposes, substances with a combinations are insoluble
solubility less than 0.01 mol/L will be
considered insoluble

* *
*Examples:
*Exchange reactions or methathesis
Predict the identity of the precipitate that forms
reactions reactions in which positive and
when solutions of BaCl2 and K2SO4 are mixed
negative ions appear to exchange partners and write the balanced equation for the reaction.
-- from Greek word for to transpose Balanced equation:
-- Precipitation reactions conform to the
following pattern as do many acid-base
reactions Precipitate:
AX + BY AY + BX

* *
Will a precipitate form when solutions of
Ba(NO3)2 and KOH are mixed? *When writing chemical equations for reactions in
aqueous solutions, useful to indicate explicitly whether
the dissolved substances are ions or molecules
Ex. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

The above is a ________________because it shows

the chemical formulas of the reactants and products

3
 * *
*Because Pb(NO3)2, KI, and KNO3 are all soluble ionic *Notice that both K+ and NO3- appear on both sides
compounds and strong electrolytes, can rewrite equation of the equation
showing the ions in solution When an ion appears in identical form as both a
Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) reactant and a product it is referred to as a
________________
PbI2 (s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq)
Spectator ions play no direct role in the
This is called a ________________________________, reaction
because all of the soluble strong electrolytes are shown as They can be omitted and we are left with the
ions ________________________________
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) PbI2 (s)

* *
*Net ionic equations include only the ions directly involved
in the reaction
*Steps for writing net ionic equations
Charge is conserved in reactions, so the sum of the charges *Write a balanced ________________for the
must be the same on both sides of the equation reaction
If every ion in a complete ionic equation is a spectator ion *Rewrite the equation to show the ions that form
then ________________occurs in solution (only ________________dissolved in
Net ionic equations are widely used to illustrate the
solution are written in ________________)
similarities between large numbers of reactions involving
electrolytes as well as the chemical behavior of strong *Identify and cancel ________________
electrolytes due to the kinds of ions each one contains

* *
Example 1: Example 2:
Write the balanced net ionic equation for the precipitation Write the balanced net ionic equation that occurs when
reaction that occurs when solutions of calcium chloride and aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and potassium phosphate
sodium carbonate are mixed are mixed.

4
 * *
*________________ substances that ionize in aqueous *H2SO4 is a ________________ yields 2 H+ ions
solutions to form hydrogen ions per molecule of acid
*Increase the number of H+ in solution Ionization occurs in two steps:
*Often called proton donors 1. H2SO4 (aq) H+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)
Different acids can ionize to form different
2. HSO4- (aq) H+ (aq) + SO42-
numbers of H+ ions
HCl and HNO3 are ________________ yield 1 Although H2SO4 is a strong electrolyte, only the
H+ per molecule of acid first ionization is complete, so the solution contains
H+, HSO4-, and SO42-

* *
*________________ substances that accept (react with) *Compounds that do not contain OH- can also be
H+ ions bases
*Produce ________________________________when Example:
they dissolve in water
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-
Common ionic hydroxide compounds: NaOH, (aq)
KOH and Ca(OH)2 when dissolved in water they Ammonia accepts an H+ from water and therefore
dissociate into their component ions produces an OH- ion
Because only a small fraction of NH3 forms ions,
it is a weak electrolyte

* *
*Strong electrolytes (completely ionized) are
_______________________________________________
Weak electrolytes (partly ionized) are
________________________________________________
Strong acids are more reactive than weak acids when
the reactivity depends only on the concentration of H+
Reactivity can depend on the anion as well
Example: HF partially ionizes (weak), but very
reactive
*Commit Table 4.2 to memory
*Keep in mind:
*Some of the most common acids are strong
*Three of the strong acids result from combining a
hydrogen atom with a halogen (exception: HF)
*List of strong acids is very short most acids are weak
*The only common strong bases are hydroxides of the
alkali metals and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+

5
 * *
*________________________________ solution *In general, a neutralization reaction between an
of an acid and base are mixed. acid and a base produces water and a salt.
Products of the reaction have none of the characteristic
properties of either acids or bases Net ionic equation for HCl + NaOH:

Ex. H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq) The above reaction summarizes the essential features of a
(acid) (base) (water) (salt) neutralization between any strong acid and strong base
From this reaction, salt has come to mean any ionic
compound whose cation comes from a base and whose
anion comes from an acid

* *
*Metathesis reactions also occur when a strong acid *Many other bases besides OH- can react with H+
and a metal hydroxide react in a neutralization *Both sulfide and carbonate ions are common
reaction. *Reactions produce ________________that have low
solubility in water
Example:
Example: Molecular equation
Molecular equation: Mg(OH)2 (s) + HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
2HCl (aq) + Na2S (aq) H2S (g) + 2NaCl (aq)
Net ionic equation: Mg(OH)2 (s) + H+ (aq) Mg2+ (aq) + H2O (l)
Net ionic equation
2H+ (aq) + S2- (aq) H2S (g)
(H2S is what give rotten eggs their odor)

* *
*Carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids to form CO2
*Reaction of ________________with an acid give *______________________________________________
__-- reactions in which electrons are transferred between
carbonic acid (H2CO3) reactants
Example: *Corrosion is an example (iron rusting, battery terminals
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2CO3 (aq) corroding)
-- H2CO3 decomposes into ________________in solution, so *When a metal corrodes, it loses electrons and forms cations
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) *Example:
Ca (s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Net ionic equation:
H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq) H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Loss of an electron by a substance is called oxidation (Calcium
was oxidized to form Ca2+)

6
 * *
*Called oxidation because first reactions of this type *Oxidation numbers (________________) - way of
involved oxygen keeping track of electrons in reactions
Example: *The actual charge of an atom if ________________
2Ca (s) + O2 (g) 2CaO (s) *Otherwise it is the ________________ charge
As calcium is oxidized, the oxygen becomes O2- (gains electrons)
assigned by a set of rules
When a substance gains electrons, we say its reduced (reduction
reaction)
*Oxidation occurs when there is an increase in
oxidation number (becomes more positive), reduction
When one substance loses electrons, the other one must gain them, occurs when there is a decrease in oxidation number
hence oxidation reactions are always accompanied by reduction
(becomes more negative)
reactions
*________________

* *
*Many kinds of redox reactions:
* Rules for assigning oxidation number:
*________________, because oxygen converted to
1. An atom in its elemental form has an oxidation compounds of oxygen
number of ________________
2. The oxidation number of monoatomic ions is equal *Metals with either acids or salts -- ________________
to the ________________ on the ion A + BX AX + B
3. Nonmetals usually have ________________ Many metals react with acids in displacement reactions
oxidation numbers although there are some to form hydrogen gas
exceptions
4. The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral Example:
compound equals ________________ Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
5. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic
ion is equal to the charge on the ion

* *
*Predicting Oxidation and Reduction
*Metals can be oxidized by various salts in aqueous *Metals vary in whether they will be ________________
solutions
Example: *List of metals in the order of ease of oxidation is an
________________ (reverse is a reduction potential table)
Fe (s) + Ni(NO3)2 (aq) Fe(NO3)2 (aq) + Ni (s)
*More likely to be ________________ if electrons are
Net Ionic: easily lost
Fe (s) + Ni 2+ (aq) Fe 2+ (aq) + Ni(s) *Metals at the top are more likely to be oxidized called
________________
*Bottom metals are called ________________ very stable
*Any metal on the list can be ________________by those
below it

7
 * *
*What is the oxidation number of manganese in the
following compounds?
MnO2
*Always obey law conservation of mass
*Also must balance electrons
KMnO4 *________________: consider oxidation-reduction
reactions as 2 processes
MnCl2 Oxidation half-reaction
Reduction half-reaction

* *
Overall equations can be balanced using half
*________________: Sn2+ (aq) Sn4+ (aq) + 2e- reactions:
*________________: 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2e- 2Fe2+ (aq) 1. Divide the equation into half reactions, one for oxidation
and one for reduction
These are half-reactions the electrons lost in 2. Balance each half reaction
the oxidation half reaction must equal the a) First balance elements other than H and O
number of electrons gained in the reduction b) Balance O by adding H2O
half reaction
c) Balance H by adding H+
When this is met, the half reactions can be d) Balance the charge by adding e-
added and the electrons canceled to give the 3. Multiply each half reaction by an integer, so the electrons
overall balanced redox equation. lost by one equal the electrons gained by another
*Full reaction (net-ionic): 4. Add the two half reactions, canceling substances that are
on both sides
Sn2+ (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) Sn4+ (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq) 5. Check to make sure atoms and charges are balanced
If occurs in basic solution, neutralize any H+ with OH-

* *
*Balance the following equation using the half-
reaction method: *________________ amount of solute dissolved in a
given amount of solvent or solution
MnO4- (aq) + Cl- (aq) Mn2+ (aq) + Cl2 (aq)
(acidic solution)
*More solute = ________________
________________ moles of solute per liter of solution
Example: 1.00 molar solution (1.00 M) has 1 mole of solute
per liter of solution

8
 * *
Practice: Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
*Preparation of a molar solution
dissolving 5.00 g of sucrose in water to form exactly 100.mL *Calculate grams of solute needed based on molarity
of solution *Weigh out number of grams of solute needed
*Add a small quantity of water into a volumetric flask
*Add the solute and dissolve by swirling the flask
*Add more water until the solution reaches the
calibration mark on the flask
*Stopper and invert flask to mix

* *
*The relative concentrations of ions in a solution that
Practice: What is the molar concentration of K+ in a 0.015
contains a dissolved ionic compound depends on the
M solution of potassium carbonate?
chemical formula of the compound.
Examples: 1.00 M NaCl = 1.00 M Na+ and 1.00 M Cl-
1.00 M Na2SO4 = 2.00 M Na+ and 1.00 M SO42-

* *
*Using dimensional analysis we can calculate number of Practice: How many moles of HNO3 are in 2.0 L of a
moles contained a specific volume of solution 0.200 M solution of HNO3?
*________________is a conversion between volume of
solution and moles of solute

9
 * *
*________________ lowering a solutions concentration by
adding more solvent Practice: How many mL of 3.0 M H2SO4 are needed to
*When more solvent is added, the number of moles of solute make 450 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4?
remains unchanged (Moles solute before dilution = moles solute
after dilution)
Mconc x Vconc = Mdil x Vdil or ________________
-- Any unit can be used for volume as long as it is the same
on both sides

* *
*Coefficients in a reaction give us the relative number of *Practice: How many grams of NaOH are needed to
moles of reactants and products neutralize 20.0 mL of a 0.150 M H2SO4 solution?
*Can use molarity to convert the amounts of substances
into moles

* *
*________________ involves combining a sample of the Practice: What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0
unknown solution with a solution of known mL is needed to neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H2SO4?
concentration (________________)
*Enables you to find the concentration of a particular solute in 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
the unknown solution
*Can be acid/base, redox, or precipitation
*________________ point where stoichiometrically equivalent
quantities are brought together
*________________ tell us when the end point of the titration
has been reached
*________________ when color change occurs, usually
coincides with the equivalence point
*Must choose appropriate indicators whose end points
correspond with the equivalence point

10
 * *
A sample of 1.50 g lead (II) nitrate is mixed with 125 c. What are the concentrations of all ions that
mL of 0.100 M sodium sulfate solution. remain in solution after the reaction is complete?
a. Write the chemical equation for the reaction

b. Which is the limiting reactant in the reaction?

* *
a) hydrogen sulfide is bubbled through a solution of silver nitrate.
* For each of the following reactions, in part (i) write a
balanced equation for the reaction and in part (ii)
answer the question about the reaction. In part (i),
coefficients should be in terms of lowest whole
numbers. b) excess water is added to solid calcium hydride.

* Assume that solutions are aqueous unless otherwise

indicated. Represent substances in solutions as ions if
the substances are extensively ionized. Omit formulas
for any ions or molecules that are unchanged by the c) excess silver acetate is added to a solution of trisodium
reaction. phosphate.

* You may use the empty space at the bottom of the next
page for scratch work, but only equations that are
written in the answer boxes provided will be graded. d) solid sodium cyanide is added to water.

* *
A 10.00 milliliter sample of NH3 solution is titrated with a
For each of these three steps taken during the standard HCl solution.
following titration:
1) An unknown volume of water is added to the HCl solution.
a) State whether it introduces an error into the titration a.
results.
b.
b) For any of the steps that introduce(s) an error, state c.
whether the titration result will be raised or lowered
compared to the result obtained if the error had not 2) An unknown volume of water is added to the 10.00
been made. milliliter sample of NH3 solution.
c) Explain why the result is high or low for each error that a.
you detect. b.
c.
3) Phenolphthalein is used as the indicator.
a.
b.
c.

11