Fundamentals

Module 1: Power Basics
Unit 1: Types of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) Systems
Eduard Lucian BODOR

Data Centre Business Development
Manager for Central and Eastern Europe
2013 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved Advanced Technical Training Power Course July 2013
L1: To Know L2: Standby L3: Line Interactive L4: Double Conversion On-line L5: Delta Conversion On-line L6: Rotary L7: Eco-Mode
Elements of the Critical Path

A logical look at risk points
UPS System
UPS Batteries
Maintenance
Bypass
Output Distribution
Switchboards
Utility
Utility
Transformer
Power
Distribution
Auto Transfer Input Unit
Generator Switch UPS UPS System
set(s) Switch Gear Module(s) Static Switch
.
Static Transfer
High Failure Risk Switch
Medium Failure Risk
Low Failure Risk
Critical Loads
UTILITY INPUT UPS DISTRIBUTION
Origin of disturbances
External to electrical Internal causes
installation Industrial equipment
Atmospheric phenomena - Motor, Welding machine
Accident Power electronic equipment
Phase unbalance - speed drives, switch mode power
supplies
Switching of protection
device Building facilities
- Lifts, fluorescent lighting,
maintenance
Power quality in LV AC Networks
Transients - Harmonics
Voltage fluctuations (sags,

surges)
Frequency fluctuations
Micro-outages
( t < 10 ms )
Blackouts (Power cuts)

( short : 10 to 300 ms )
( long : > 300 ms )
Perfect power
System Earthing Arrangements

definitions
Defined by standards IEC 60364
The first letter refers to the neutral

T : the neutral point of the transformer is directly earthed
I : the neutral point is Isolated from earth or connected
to earth through an impedance
The second letter refers to the exposed conductive parts

T : exposed conductive parts are directly earThed
N : exposed conductive parts are directly connected to the Neutral
The third letter refers to the protective conductor for TN systems

C : Combined with the neutral conductor
S : Separate from the neutral conductor
Objective: protection of persons

against indirect contact
Indirect contact <=> insulation fault
5% of faults but 80% of accidents in LV
Causes
mechanical damage to insulation during installation
conductive dust
damage to insulation by overheating due to
the climate, inadequate ventilation, loose connections
Harmonics, overcurrents
switching surges, lightning, MV faults
electrodynamic forces produced by short circuits
Consequences
between live conductors -> short circuit
between live conductors and earth -> fault current
TT system Transformer neutral earthed

T T
Earth leakage currents Exposed conductive parts earthed

Tripping by an RCD (Residual Current Device )
Insulation fault => phase-to-earth short circuit
3P+N
RB PE
RA
TN system T N
Transformer neutral earthed
Earth leakage currents
Exposed conductive parts connected to neutral
Insulation fault => phase-to-neutral short circuit

Tripping by an overcurrent protection device
Fuse, thermal-magnetic circuit breaker, circuit breaker with electronic trip unit
3P+N
PE
TN system
neutral
TNC TNS
3
PE
IT system
1st insulation fault not dangerous but signalled by an alarm (IMD)
No tripping (fault location only)
3
2
1
N
PE
IMD
IT system
2nd insulation fault on another phase (equivalent to a fault on a TN
system)
phase-to-phase short circuit; Ifault = equivalent to that on a TN system
the operating current of the magnetic protection must be less than the fault
current
Tripping by an overcurrent protection device
3
2
1
N
PE
IMD
Summary
TT TN-C TN-S IT
Protection of persons
Protection of property
against the risk of fire
protection of equipment (1)
Power supply availability
Influence of electromagnetic disturbances (2)
Economic impact
(1)
in the event of an insulation fault
(2)
all types of electromagnetic disturbances :
- external : faults on the HV distribution system, switching surges, atmospheric disturbances...
- internal : insulation fault current, harmonics in the LV installatoin
Key parameter of Power Quality (PQ)
Circuit-breakers, discrimination
Basic Fundamentals of UPS requirements

Enterprise & Systems Line Of Business
Discrimination
Provided by chosing protective devices and their settings
such that a fault trips only the protective device
immediately upstream of the fault
Limits the open part of a faulty installation
Discrimination can be total or partial
Types of discrimination between circuit breakers
Discrimination type Types of trip units concerned Principle

Current All The fault current is less
than the upstream threshold
Time Electronic (STR type) The tripping time of the downstream
circuit breaker is less than the
tripping time of the upstream
circuit breaker
Zone selective interlocking STR xxUE for Compact NS 400 When 2 circuit breakers detect
to Masterpact circuit breakers a fault, the upstream device
is automatically delayed (via a
pilot wire)
Circuit breaker technology

Modular circuit breakers
rating -> thermal
curve -> magnetic
Thermal-magnetic trip units

adjustable thermal tripping (bimetal)
magnetic tripping as per curve
Electronic trip units

microprocessor-controlled short-time (magnetic) and long-time
(thermal) thresholds and time delays
Earth-fault tripping
built-in or add-on
Circuit breaker features
Tripping curves
3 to 5 In
Generators,
long cable lengths
(no inrush currents)
Curve B (replaces the L curve)
5 to 10 In
General applications
Curve C (replaces the U curve)
Circuits with high inrush currents

10 to 14 In - transformers
- motors
Curve D
Circuits and loads with high inrush currents
10 to 14 In - motors
- transformers
Curve K - auxiliary circuits
2.4 to 3.6 In Electronic circuits

- diodes
Curve Z - thyristors
12 In Motors (no thermal protection)

- motor starters
Curve MA
Rating a UPS
Steps in defining a UPS

installation
1/ Setting the required rating in steady state and under disturbed
conditions : design guide 1.17
Fulfill the power requirement
2/ Choice of the configuration : design guide 2
Unitary, parallel, redundancy
Provide the best power availability
3/ Choice of the UPS harmonic filtering : design guide 1.24
Comply to upstream harmonic limitations given by the spec
4/ Choice of the circuit-breakers : design guide 1.35, UPS manuals
Ensure the discrimination
5/ Neutral systems : design guide 1.30, intranet schematics collection
6/ Choice of the battery : design guide 5.36, MGEBat
Comply to the autonomy requirement
1/ Setting the required UPS rating :

flowchart
Loads Set UPS Sn > S Set Load crest current (Ic)
S (kVA), P (kW), Sn x 0,8 > S x Simultaneous inrush current
(PF), I (A)
Set UPS Sn 2,33

No Switch to mains 2 No
With 2,33 In > Ic In > Ic
Possible ?
Split ?
Circuit-breakers
Yes
Compute Icm
Yes
Yes
No Switch to mains 2 No
In > Icm* ?
Possible ?
Can Icm
Be splitted ?
Yes Yes
No
Set UPS Sn
With In > Icm UPS Sn
* Icm = strongest circuit breaker rating of the output distribution board

Energy storage, batteries
Maintaining power quality & reliability

requires selecting the best energy storage
technology
As of today lead-acid batteries are commonly used with UPS
long backup times & price
Battery shortcomings include:
space issues
environmental hazards
(frequent maintenance ??)
Rising lead costs
Industry exploring alternative technologies:
Different battery chemistries
Fuel-cells
Superconducting magnetic energy storage
Ultracapacitors/Supercapacitors
Flywheels
UPS Energy storage
requirements
DC UPSs energy storage must supply inverter

if AC-input power fails or goes out of tolerance
Stored energy must:
Instantaneously supply electricity to inverter during power problems
Be sized to supply the entire load
Offer sufficient backup time for given application to shut down or other
backup systems to start up (engine generator)
AC
input Load
power
Rectifier Inverter
Alternative technologies Fuel
Cells
Polymer electrolyte (PEM) fuel cells
the only type currently suitable for UPS
Clean: only by-product is water,
Large & difficult to implement
heat produced
Gas infrastructure
Occasionally used for low power, portable
equipment or in autonomous residential
applications where heat produced is used
for climate control
Practical commercial introduction of this
technology not expected for several years
Presently, products are very costly, limited
in availability & require complex site
preparation
Superconducting magnetic energy
storage - SMES
SMES stores magnetic energy in large electromagnets

in very low-temperature helium at -269
SMES operation
When charging, superconducting switches that offer
virtually no resistance supply a superconducting coil.
Current flows easily in cryo-refrigerated windings that
store magnetic energy.
Input current 20kA yields output current 500kA
Stored energy represents 5 MJ
SMES is a difficult technology to industrialize due to:
Ultra-low temperatures
generated magnetic field, disruptive to computers and
magnetic data storage
1 or 2 second backup time
High cost: 900,000 per MW for 1 sec backup
Ultracapacitors
Ultracapacitors have distinct advantages including:
storing high quantities of energy
accepting many charge/discharge cycles without suffering
any wear
acceptable service life
satisfactory operation over wide temperatures range
For high power ratings and backup times of several
seconds required by UPSs, cost is high
10,000 for 50 kW
Useful primarily for peak load shaving due to very fast
charge/discharge cycle
Relatively small in size, and are a promising
technology for UPS applications
Used to supply extra power (e.g. improve
performance of electrical vehicles) or supply low-
current, long-duration loads (e.g. computer memory
backup applications).
Flywheels Low speed

Operation:
"no-break" system, metal flywheel connected to genset
motor & generator
AC-input is available : machine operates in motor mode as
a synchronous conditioner
AC-input unavailable : synchronous machine operates as
AC generator using flywheels kinetic energy to supply
output voltage.
Regulation system maintains output voltage in spite of drop
in flywheel speed.
Advantages include:
Long backup times when used with engine generator set
Rotating at a relatively low speed (1,500 rpm); makes it possible to use standard bearings
Challenges:
Requires regular and costly maintenance with system shutdown
Environmental costs ?
Low efficiency, uses <5% of the stored kinetic energy
Systems as a whole are large & noisy
Flywheels Medium speeds

Operation:
Slower rotating speeds (5,000-10,000 rpm)
Reduces forces & enables several cost-effective compromises
given the necessary characteristics (cost, power ratings, backup
time, size) for use with a UPS
Lower speed => hybrid steel bearings with ceramic balls.
Advantages:
well suited to UPS characteristics
compact size for power ratings up to 500kW with backup times of
12 seconds up to 2 minutes.
Challenges:
requires more maturity for mission critical applications
regular maintenance
high cost
Flywheels: High speed

Operation:
Compact systems with high energy density thanks to new light-weight
composite materials & electronics developments
Currently being paired with UPSs for special applications.
High speeds : 30,000 to 100,000 rpm
kinetic energy proportional to the square of rotating speed
Motor-driven rotor maintained by magnetic bearings in a levitating position
in a vacuum
Advantages:
compact size
excellent efficiency
low noise levels
Disadvantages:
risks due to structural faults in the rotor
Very high cost of the materials
Environmental costs ?
Courtesy of Pentadyne Power
Technology comparisons : Power

ratings and backup times
Technology comparison
Batteries highly suited for autonomies between 5min. To 2 hours
Hybrid solutions with very short autonmies (3 sec. 1 min.): flywheels
or supercaps
1000
10h 2h Typical
autonomies 1min
Energy density /[Wh/kg]
100
10 3,6sec
0,1h
1
Short
0,1 autonomies
0,36sec 36msec
0,01 Power density [W/kg]

10 100 1000 10000
Plomb ZEBRA (Na/NiCl2) Supercapacitor

Li-Ion / Metal NiMH Flywheels
Li Polymer
VRLA bateries remains the best solution

for most UPS applications
Despite issues with space, weight, temperature sensitivity,
recycling requirements and maintenance needs
Relatively low cost, long backup times and proven technology
Fuel cells & superconducting magnetic energy storage are poorly

suited at this stage of development
Promising solutions
Medium-speed & high-speed flywheels, for some short-duration failures
(40-500kW),
but costly technology & needs to be better mastered
Pending questions about environmental costs
Ultracapacitors, for short backup needs / combined with batteries or
alternative power source
still in an emerging phase
Batteries
vented lead-acid batteries
sealed lead-acid batteries
Battery types and technology

2 primary battery families based on electrode type:
lead-acid blatteries (Pb);
nickel-cadmium batteries (NiCd).
lithium-ion batteries
up and coming technology, could eventually be suitable for high power
UPSs, cost is presently high
Various battery types:

sealed or "recombination" batteries (lead-cadmium, pure lead, lead-tin) level
of gas recombination is at least 95%, eliminates need to add water over
vented (lead-antimony), equipped with openings that:
release oxygen & hydrogen produced during chemical reactions;
reconstitute electrolyte by adding distilled or demineralized water.
Types of batteries used with UPSs

Sealed lead-acid (VRLA), used in 95% of installations
easy to maintain
do not require separate room
Vented lead-acid
require dedicated room
Vented nickel-cadmium
less sensitive to temperature extremes
sometimes used in harsh environments
Batteries installations
in cabinets next to UPS cabinet,
on racks or shelves in special rooms
Battery disadvantages
Perceived as weak point of UPS systems
reliability
Perimeter : equipment only, human mis-operation
not included
Must be regularly monitored and maintained
For maximum service life, they must operate
under optimum temperature conditions of 15 to
25
Excessive charge/discharge cycles cause
premature wear
Batteries must be recycled in accordance
with stringent governmental regulations
A matter of logistics
Vented lead-acid technology

Flat or tubular positive electrode (anode)
lead alloy grid (antimony or calcium) supporting the active material (lead
peroxide: PbO2)
flat plates offer better efficiency at low temperatures
tubular anodes offer higher mechanical strength and better behavior at high
currents
Flat negative electrode (cathode)
lead alloy grid supporting the active material (lead: Pb)
Acid electrolyte
diluted sulfuric acid (H2SO4) for ionic transfer
Rigid separator (polyester)
prevents short-circuits and lets the electrolyte ions through
Vented lead-acid technology

Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages
better resistance to temperature than sealed lead-acid batteries
resistance to microcycling (residual ripple)
10 to 12-year service life, depending on anode structure (tubular > flat)
price
sealed lead-acid (backup time < 1 hour) < price << NiCad
Disadvantages
high cost for backup times under one hour
installation costs
special room, explosion-proofing, evacuation of gases, gas detector, multi-voltage charger,
etc.
operating costs
maintenance personnel required to add water and for the charge and discharge cycles
large amount of floor space
the batteries cannot be stacked (because water must be added)
Sealed lead-acid technology

Flat positive electrode (anode)
lead alloy grid (Sb or CA) supporting the active material (PbO2)
Flat negative electrode (cathode)
lead alloy grid supporting the active material (lead: Pb)
Acid electrolyte
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) diluted with water or silica gel for ionic transfer
Rigid separator: AGM or gel
AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) = glass fiber (low resistance but inexpensive)
designed for UPSs
for controlled environments and rapid discharges, poor resistance to cycling, storage and
high temperatures
gel (high resistance but expensive)
designed for military and pharmaceutical applications
high resistance to temperature, cycling, storage and slow discharges
Gas recombination > 95%

Applications and technical characteristics
Applications
UPSs
emergency lighting
rapid discharges (< 1 hour)
Characteristics
discharge limits
from 100% to 80%, the voltage remains stable, < 80%, the voltage drops rapidly
rated for a limited number of cycles
capacity is expressed for ten hours (C10)
loss of capacity
0.75% per degree below 25 C
Cycling does not improve battery operation or service life

Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages
low cost
virtually no installation and operating costs
no maintenance, no special room (no gases freed), easily integrated
does not require a multi-voltage charger
small floor space required
small volume and can be stacked
Disadvantages
highly sensitive to temperature
service life reduced by 50% at 35 C
short service life
4 to 10 years
difficult to store (risk of excessive discharge)
must be replaced following excessive discharge
requires good voltage control at end of discharge
Operation and maintenance

Storage and use
Vented lead-acid batteries
battery stored empty (no electrolyte)
between -20 and +45 C
operation between -15 and 40 C
Sealed lead-acid batteries

battery stored charged, between -20 and +45 C
damage is irreversible if no recharge for six months at 20 C
operation is optimal between 15 and 25 C (possible between -15 and
+40 C)
service life between 4 to 5 years for 15 to 25 C average temperatures
service life between 2 and 2.5 years for 25 to 35 C average temperatures
Operation and maintenance

Installation
Vented lead-acid
on wooden or metal racks in a special room
explosion-proofing, ventilation, gas detector, etc.
charger must shut down if ventilation fails
control link with UPS
a single string or a number of parallel strings
Sealed lead-acid batteries

installed in the UPS cabinet
installed in cabinets next to or far from the UPS cabinet
on racks in any room (no risk of explosion)
natural ventilation is sufficient
a single string or a number of parallel strings
3 parallel strings is the optimal configuration for sealed lead-acid batteries
Phenomena encountered during

operation for lead-acid batteries
Self-discharge
natural internal sulfating causes a loss of capacity and a reduction of
open-circuit voltage
vented lead-acid batteries = 2% per month at 20 C
AGM sealed lead-acid batteries = 3% per month at 20 C
self-discharge if strings are parallel connected and if a cell is open-
circuited
self-discharge increases with the temperature
sealed lead-acid batteries = 6% per month at 30 C and 10% per month at
40 C
Factors reducing service life
temperature
the number of charge/discharge cycles
over charging
End of service life
corrosion of the grids resulting in opening of the circuit
deep discharge resulting in metallization of the separator and
consequently a short-circuit
http://www.avsusergroups.org/tfug_pdfs/2009_2banas.pdf
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Module 1: Power Basics

Unit 1: Types of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) Systems

Eduard Lucian BODOR

Elements of the Critical Path

Voltage fluctuations (sags,

Blackouts (Power cuts)

System Earthing Arrangements

The first letter refers to the neutral

The second letter refers to the exposed conductive parts

The third letter refers to the protective conductor for TN systems

Objective: protection of persons

TT system Transformer neutral earthed

Earth leakage currents Exposed conductive parts earthed

Insulation fault => phase-to-neutral short circuit

against the risk of fire

protection of equipment (1)

Power supply availability

Influence of electromagnetic disturbances (2)

Basic Fundamentals of UPS requirements

Discrimination type Types of trip units concerned Principle

Circuit breaker technology

Thermal-magnetic trip units

Electronic trip units

Circuit breaker features

Curve C (replaces the U curve)

Circuits with high inrush currents

2.4 to 3.6 In Electronic circuits

12 In Motors (no thermal protection)

Steps in defining a UPS

1/ Setting the required UPS rating :

Set UPS Sn 2,33

* Icm = strongest circuit breaker rating of the output distribution board

Maintaining power quality & reliability

DC UPSs energy storage must supply inverter

SMES stores magnetic energy in large electromagnets

Flywheels Low speed

Flywheels Medium speeds

Flywheels: High speed

Courtesy of Pentadyne Power

Technology comparisons : Power

0,01 Power density [W/kg]

Plomb ZEBRA (Na/NiCl2) Supercapacitor

VRLA bateries remains the best solution

Fuel cells & superconducting magnetic energy storage are poorly

Battery types and technology

Various battery types:

Types of batteries used with UPSs

Vented lead-acid technology

Vented lead-acid technology

Sealed lead-acid technology

Sealed lead-acid technology

Cycling does not improve battery operation or service life

Sealed lead-acid technology

Operation and maintenance

Sealed lead-acid batteries

Operation and maintenance

Sealed lead-acid batteries

Phenomena encountered during

Free Access to Education: Energy University!

Recognizing the need and

Schneider Electric, the

Free Access to Education: Energy

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