Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • SCH, S11, Hardenability and Heat Treatment

    Uploaded by

    Miki Jaksic
    10 views31 pages
    SCH, S11, Hardenability and Heat Treatment

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    SCH, S11, Hardenability and Heat Treatment

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    10 views31 pages

    SCH, S11, Hardenability and Heat Treatment

    Uploaded by

    Miki Jaksic
    SCH, S11, Hardenability and Heat Treatment

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 31
    STEEL CASTINGS HANDBOOK SUPPLEMENTS Supplement 1 Design Rules and Data .. Supplement 2 Summary of Standard Specifications for Stoo! Castings Supplement 3 Tolerances ... oe Supplement 4 Drafting Practices for Castings Supplement 5 General Properties of Steel Castings. Supplement 6 Repair Welding and Fabrication Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Castings Supplement 7 Welding of High Alloy Castings Supplement 8 High Alloy Data Sheets, Corrosion Series. Supplement 9 High Alloy Data Sheets, Heat Series Supplement 10 A Glossary of Foundry Terms Supplement 11. Hardenability and Heat Treatment 3-Ring Binder for Supplements .... - $200 wa 3 4 Steel Castings Handbook Supplement 11 Hardenability and Heat Treatment Preface This supplement describes the concept of hardenability and gives a method of determining the hardenability of cast steel from the chemical composition of the steel. In addition, the metallurgical features of various heat treatment cycles are reviewed. This information can be used as an aid in selecting the proper cast steel alloy and the heat treatment required to produce the desired final mechanical properties and microstructure. Chapter references in this supplement refer to chapters in the Steel Castings Handbook, Sth Edition, published by the Steel Founders’ Society of America. Contents HARDENABILITY End Quench Test : Calculated End Quench Curves Application of Idea! Critical Diameter, D Cooling Rate Equivalence Specifying Hardenability, Hardenabllity Bands Application of Harde: Alloy Content ‘Quench Severity Heat Treatment Quench Cracking Microstructure and Properties bility Concepts in Alloy Selection HEAT TREATMENT. Annealing Normalizing Hardening by Quenching ere eeee meena Other Quench Hardening Processes viosiesssnessesinsnersenensaneasensese 24 Tempering... colcttscssnssssetinensenesseeneeseneesensees 25 Stress Rellet oo... eae earner re teenie 25] Hydrogen Removal ............. cee conse : 26 Solutionizing fonuseeneeeene : 26 ‘Aging for Precipitation Hardening aren pares 5 eee a7) Efficient Heat Treatment ceeennese 27 REFERENCES cieeeeeeene pene 24) CASTING CENTER (PERLITE) 50 % MARTENSITE CRITICAL COOLING RATE (MARTENSITE) CASTING SURFACE ( MARTENSITE} TEM PERATURE Fig. 1 The difference in the cooling rates atthe surface and center of a steet casting andthe resulting microstructures, obtained Seecinen | oninice 4 $F insioe Fig. 2A. Jominy test specimea and support for water quench and determination of hardenabiity (Vin, ~ 25.4 mm), B. Pesformiag the end quench test HARDENABILITY Hardenability is the property of steel that governs the depth to which hardening occurs in a section during quenching. It should not be confused with hardness, which is the resistance to penetration as measured by the Rockwell, Brinell, or other hardness tests. Hardenability is of considerable importance because it relates directly to the strength of steel, as well as to many other mechanical properties, notably toughness and fatigue properties, The principal method of hardening carbon and low alloy steels consists of quenching the steel from the austenitizing temperature. Steels vary in their response (o this quenching operation because the depth below the surface of a part to which the part hardens will depend on the composition of the steel and the severity of the quench. Since the cooling rate during a quench is fastest at the surface of a part and slowest at its, center, and since the hardening reaction is time depen- dent, the composition of a steel, i.e. its hardenability, is a vital consideration in alloy selection. This can be explained by reference to Figure 1, which shows schematically the cooling curves for the center and surface of a hypothetical steel section superimposed ‘on the continuous cooling transformation diagram. The curve marked “50% martensite” intersects briefly the pearlite area; thus, half of the mass is transformed to pearlite and half transforms later to martensite ‘At some point closer to the surface, the cooling rate is given by the curve marked “critical cooling rate.”” This curve represents the cooling rate that is just fast enough to avoid transformation to any type of metal- lurgical structure except martensite Other steels, depending on their composition, may have the transformation area of Figure 1 shifted to the right (longer time). While the cooling curves for the surface and center would remain the same, the curve for 50% martensite would represent a slower cooling rate and might approximate the cooling rate at the center of the section. The critica! cooling rate would also be slower, and the result might be that the second steel quenched to 50% or more martensite at the center. Hardenability is a function of austenite grain size and composition of the steel. The grain size of impor- tance is that which exists when the steel goes into the quench. For most cast steels, this grain size is small and does not vary widely. Hardenability of cast steels, therefore, is determined largely by the stecl's analysis, End Quench Test The end quench test is used to measure the harden- ability of a steel, In this test, a I-in. diameter, 4-in. long cylinder (25.4 mm, and 01.6 mm) is heated to the austenitizing temperature appropriate to the steel. This temperature may be as low as 1SO0°F (816°C) for as high as 1700°F (927°C), but most steels will be heated in the range of 1600 to 1650°F (871-899°C), Special precautions are taken to minimize scaling during heating, DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO - mm wo 880 HARONESS~ HRC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END sin Fig. 3 Hardenability curves for C, Mn-B, N-Cr-Mo, and CrMo cat stele The sample is quickly transferred from the furnace to a jig where it is suspended vertically over a 1 /2-in, (12.7 mm) nozzle. Figure 2 shows the details of the test set-up and a photograph of the test being performed. At the lower end, the sample is subjected to a continuous stream of water from the nozzle, At this end, the sample is subjected to conditions equivalent to violent water quenching and at the upper end the cooling rate approximates air cooling. Rates compara- ble to still water quenching, oil quenching and forced air cooling are represented at points between the lower and upper ends of the sample. After the specimen has cooled completely, it is removed from the test fixture and two flat faces, 180 degrees apart, are ground along the length of the sample, Rockwell C hardness readings are taken on the flat faces from the quenched end in increments of 1/16 in. (1.59 mm). The hardness readings are plotted against distance from the quenched end to produce the hardenability or end quench curve. Figure 3 shows the end quench curves for four steels to show the various shapes assumed by these curves. ‘The carbon steel is shallow hardening and the chro- mium-molybdenum type is fairly deep hardening. Analyses of heats of a given grade of steel vary within limits. Therefore, the end quench curves vary slightly from heat to heat. When enough heats have been tested, their end quench curves will form a band ‘A number of end quench bands are shown later in this chapter (Figures 12 to 30). Calculated End Quench Curves There are cases where end quench curves are not available, such as in alloy development, or where the end quench test is not practical, such as determining whether or not a heat will meet a hardenability spe cation. In these cases, the end quench curve is ‘computed from analysis. The first step in the computation is calculation of the ideal critical diameter (D,). This is the diameter Of the largest cylinder which will have 50% martensite 0.28 IDEAL CRITICAL DIAM, ~ in IDEAL CRITICAL DIAM oe S203 o# 05 06 CARBON - % Fig. 4 The effect of ASTM grain size and carbon content on ‘the ideal critical diameter D,@). at the center when the cylinder has been cooled in an ideal quench. The ideal quench is one in which the surface of the workpiece drops instantly to the quenchant temperature and is maintained at that tem- perature. The calculation of ideal critical diameter was originally developed by Grossman and has remained essentially unchanged (1) Figure 4 gives the ideal diameter as a function of the carbon content for various austenite grain sizes. For cast steels, the curve for grain size 8 is ordinarily used. Having established the diameter (D,..) for the steel’s carbon content, the next step is to refer to Figure 5 for the multiplying factors (MF) of the alloying elements. The ideal critical diameter is calcu- lated from the formula: Dy = Dyc(MF sg.) (MF 53) (MF yi). 86. In applying the formula, residual elements as well as alloying clements must be included. The factor for copper is the same as that for nickel. ‘The calculation as outlined does not provide for including the effect of vanadium or boron. There is some uncertainty about the behavior of these elements. Vanadium up to about 0.1% increases hardenability, but beyond that there is considerable doubt about its effect. Further increases may even decrease hard- enability. The reason for this apparent discrepancy lies in the fact that hardenability is determined by the composition of austenite at the austenitizing tem- perature, rather than by the overall composition of steel. Vanadium-rich carbides form at higher vanadium levels and are difficult to dissolve at standard austeni- tizing temperatures. Boron increases hardenability of steels with carbon contents below about 0.3% and has little or no effect, in higher carbon steels. Boron is not widely used because it is difficult to achieve consistent hardenabil- ity from boron alloyed steels. When boron does raise hardenability, it seems o have more effect when added to a shallow-hardening steel than it has in a steel with higher hardenability. When dealing with these “Sy two elements, it is best to make a few heats with and without vanadium or boron to get some idea of the effect on the base alloy. Since most cast steels contain neither vanadium nor boron, the calculation as outlined above is of consider- able value. Calculation of D, using graphs can be tedious and error prone. There have been slide-rule type calculators produced for computing D, . Table 1 (3) can be used to determine the value of D, » This is accomplished by summing the appropriate numbers from Table 1. This, sum is then used to determine the value of D , from Table 2. Cast stels, because of aluminum deoxidation havea grain size of8, and hence only one carbon factoris FACTOR MULTIPLYING needed. 0 08 08 ee 20 ALLOYING ELEMENT - % Fig. 8 The effect of alloying elements on the hardenability index D, forcast steel Q), TABLE? Conversion of D; Factor (Sum from Table 1) to D; (Inches) ‘Sam D Sum D ‘Sum De ‘Sem De 100 1.00 iz 188 ry 278 185 437 101 102 123 70 Las 202 167 450 Loe 105 124 1% 148 288 183 479 P03 Lo? 125 176 var 295 169 490 04 hie 125 rez a8 302 170 sol 105 uz iz 16 9 309 in 313 1.08 Lis 128 10 180 316 i 525 107 Ls 123 195 151 3a va 3a? 108 120 130 200 182 331 174 550 108 Les 131 204 153 339 us S82 10 128 132 208 154 397 176 875 un 19 13 214 15s 355 ww 389 ue i 13 219 186 25 178 603 us 135 135 2m 1s7 an 179 617 rat 138 138 223 138 380 180 631 11s ra 137 24 139 309 18) 646 1s 14 138 240 180 398 Lee 6s uw 148 139 246 181 40 183 678 118 1st a0 2st 162 an 184 692 nis 158 1a 257 183 427 18s 108 120 1530 Lae 253 184 a7 186 724 12h Lez 149 269 165 a7 187 7a Used for Calculation of D, Factor (Sum) TABLE? Element Carbon _-Mangane Silicon Chromium Nickel & Copper Molybdenum 020 1458 2 0569) 1588 0306 2041 02 1909 256 700 1875 0978 2490 030 2317 2010 0228 2170 0483 arg 035 2588 306 0982 2445 0823 38 040 2987 3877 1072 2705 0392 4a oss 3222 3978 1189 209 0583 am 050 see 4055 103, sie) 730 2379 08s 614 4518 Mis 2403 0795 aso 3838 767 1523 2610 0860 ass soot 1823 811 92 a7 226 1732 4000 0986 7s S437 1833 ass, 102 ono 640 sai 4358 109 08s 5331 2028 4528 1168 090 6017 zie 4689 1229 09s 6122 zai 4847 1784 100 6368 2305; 4907 1399 105 6533, 200 sa 1389 Lie 608 2480 528 M61 ns 8240 2565 5422 1817 120 6296 2648 3883 1969 125 799 2730 5883 1825 130 7401 a0 807 1879 135 7598 2389 5939 1738, 140 om 2987 5007 760, us 7961 3003 5183 1ed7 180 is? aus 5274 01 155 304 18 6304 1967 180 64 3253 5490 7030 188 825 5594 2098 170 am 8695 21st Ls e023 5795 27 180 3054 6991 15 9199 987 228 303 7078 2430 9440 nn 2459 9584 7259 2498 2560 2520 21s 2606 220 2781 228 2317 230 2860 295 2388 240 2030 245 107 280 181 MAX. HARDNESS ~ HRC Ly 4 1020S CARBON ~% Fig. 6 The maximum hardness atthe quenched end as a function of carbon content (2), Once D, has been determined, the end-quench curve can be established from Figures 6 and 7. Figure 21-6 gives the maximum hardness as afunction of carbon content. Thisis the inital hardness that is plotted 1 16in. (1.59 mm) from the quenched end, It is also used in the ratio of initial hardness to distance hardness in Figure 7. ‘The numbers on the curves of Figure 7 indicate the number of 1/16-in. (1.59 mm) increments from the ‘quenched end. For example, 4/ 16, 8/16, 12/16in. 6.35, 12.70, 19.05 mm), etc. Using the D; determined earlier, proceed horizontally across the graph and note the ratio. called out by the intersection with each curve. The hardness at the indicated distances from the quenched end can then be caluclated and plotted to draw the end- ‘quench curve, ‘The end quench curve can also be drawn by use of Table 3 (4) which gives the hardness values at various distances from the quenched end for various combi ations of D, and carbon content. It is possible to construct the end-quench band for a given alloy by drawing a curve for the maximum D, and another for the minimum D,. Computing D, for a heat with all the elements at the top of the specification range and another with all the elements at their lower limits would result in a band which is absurdly wide. Since these extreme conditions do IDEAL CRITICAL DIAM. ~ in. IDEAL CRITICAL DIAM. - mm INITIAL HARDNESS DISTANCE HARONESS RATIO Fig. 7 Curves used forthe determination of hardness for certain distances from the quenched end (2) not occur, the problem becomes one of probability mathematics. The problem is avoided by calculating D, for 50 to 100 heats and, by statistical analysis, determining the distribution of D, and thus the maxi mum and minimum values Table 4 shows calculated D; values for various steels that are covered by the ASTM Specification A487. The compositions used forcomputing D, are included inthe table. Application of Ideal Critical Diameter D, ‘The definition of D, assumes that the work is cooled in an ideal quench. Real quenching operations can ‘only approach these ideal conditions. The depth of hardening obtained in practice therefore depends not only on the steel's hardenability but also the rate of cooling or severity of quench. Severity of quench is expressed by a number which is designated as “H value”; the larger the H value, the more severe the quench. The H value depends mainly on the quenching medium, its temperature, and the degree of agitation during quenching. Table 5 lists H values for quenching conditions often found in the foundry. The diameter of a cylinder which will quench to 50% martensite at the center (D) in commercial TABLES. 0.20% Carbon Dr ominy Distance (1/16 in) (iad T 7 a i 16 20 w a a io SCO ne? SC lO se an cada mS 62SS SDS 20 44538128008] am MWS alse tS tt eo aso MWS ek HS 8S 5B ak] 4m HS DDT Baan 40 0 MWS] sm HS SO wR 2G sso 4S S30 aD §0 4S mS wea wk ss MWS SSR Ska yoo MS SSS SSS TABLED-2 0.25% Carbon > Jominy Distance (1/18 cs) T 7 a 16 20 B = io ~O@7SsiSCiaSSSCSSCSC SSC 237 200 «7S 32S kRS ka 2007S Okan 1931858 00S 1 RSS tt 30 7S Sh OS S25 a8 447588 SS 4007S 8B B72 so 73S OS HSC OT so 7S 7S BST sm 7s ws 05k aaa tks 69 oS SS tw Sa yo ss SSS SSB TABLED. 0.30% Carbon >. Tominy Distance (1/16 in) (ind 7 7 = i 16 2 H a H 1s S00~*C«SSSsimOSSCSSCiSTSC*C*‘iaSSSSCSSC a eee De rade ase er ay 81 4 168 12 zo sod a8 ST SS ald 192 30 soo aS St? masa aso soo deo ka 40 soo 40S] 40 0s Aw mt mat 500 Soo SO BST 1S 2 sso soo SO 8S BL GB 362 so 0500s OSS sso 0 SOOT] a8 zoo sooo 88H TABLED-4 0.95% Carbon Di. Tominy Distance (1/16 in.) Gn) T z * @ 16 2 7% a @ 130 3060 233 188 168 185 ry 40 138 200 330 28 300 240 219 193 185 9 v3 250 so 70 350 287 249 ms as 208 2 300 09s 382 a2 280 253 m1 m2 aT 480 580 slo la 351 a0 an 268 27 252 400 saa sis 4 380 me 40 26 285 23 480 so S21 458 eo om us 0 317 08 500 530 53043 2 408 mo (8S 350 ern 580 suo 0 5108S HB eo as 382 381 800 530 330 322 ss 0 453 450 “oa 850 530 530 530 525 Sia sos aad 430 480 700 520 S30 530 530 so 930 so 525 s20 TABLES 0.40% Carbon D. Jominy Distance (1/16 in.) Ga) T 7 z @ e 2 En Ec] a 180 078 243 198 7s 163 154 46 40 200 seo 480317 252 m0 (od 13s 186 eo 250 so 8s 387 303 py 5 ms 219 213 3.00 so 20 01 28 2s 8 254 24 238 350 580505, 46 370 ms 88, 220 zo 265 400 560 «2 AB 402 a6 0S. ala 300 as 450 so S80 480 440 wo 61 as 333 323 500 580550 520 wo 43 og aro 350 350 58060 40 sia wo ea a 402 600 sso S80 855 53609 488 as 468 455 850 880 580550 5 S40 sa S20 sis 308 700 560 560 S50 56060 350 560 585 350 TABLE 3-6 0.45% Carbon D. =z Jominy Distance (1/16 in.) (a) T 7 z 1 is 20 a e a 150 oneal mS 208 18s 1m 162 154 ua Pye 8 m3 8S 220d 205 las 130 250 30 S20 BS 320 ms ous a7 m0 m4 300 0 eed 355 a0 80 287 ws 50 350 ia sede asa 339 0 3108 4 28 400 ia) sro a0 a 7S M28 a6 ao 450 so sea x20 485 au 2065 350 340 500 so S80 sas 500 452 aan oa 373 880 so S80 559 540 495 S08 23 800 300 $90 sao S61 335 sia so 490 480 650 580 30 sag 580 570 561 oe a 533 700 580 330 590 590 500 590 0 saz 578 ad | TABLES-7 | 0.50% Carbon D. Jominy Distance (1/16 in.) cy) T 7 z @ 16 20 a e a 150 20 as 20 720 195 180 1 164 188 200 20 300 30 a0 25 28 215 27 mt 250 820 550 08 335 230 251 250 22 Bs 300 e20 578 as m4 328 295 281 20 285 380 20 534 483 an 950 se aL 300 24 400 620 600 sla 45 393 380 a5 mI 2s 49 s20 609 ss 487 33 400 380 388 358 500 20 620 sma 528 as as ws a0 338 580 20 520 588 S17 s20 438 0 459 aS 500 e20 620 813 sae 561 sto 526 518 505 650 20020 620 B14 soo 590 380 sr 380 | 7.00 2020 620 20 20 620 520 510 505 | TABLES: 0.55% Carbon | D. stance (1/16 in) cs) T 7 = © 16 20 % w a | 130 45 es 8 227 703 188 178 170 162 | 2.00 64s 820 355 290 255 24 25 28 210 | 250 645 70 350 309 v2 Bo 253 24s | 3.00 64s 609 84 28 40 a8 21 230 2s | 3s BLS 81s 0 Gs an ol as) a10 305 400 65 620 535482 a9 a4 359 34s 538 450 6s 385 sos 450 as 338 380 370 500 es AS 598 S948 480 a 424 a2 580 545 64s e20 580 539 508 490 as 464 8.00 sas tS sols sa 380 sis 54 320 850 eS 645 sto 624 610 800 595 534 790 BSS 645 Bis tS 645 Crt) 628 TABLES-8 0.80% Carbon D. Jeminy Distance (1/16 in.) = (a) T a a 16 20 a E a 180 so ako m4 m2 «208 190 180 3 185 200 650 580 370 ms sa 7 ms m0 213 250 650 580 0 ety | et 28 mS 8S 250 300 650 so a7 ms MB a0 298 ws 280 350 650 25 S10 as BO as 320 a8 slo 400 so Sha a0 a5 380 S350 342 450 650 ea 37s sis 459 20 400 389 8 500 650 so OS 556 500 47 49 430 a8 580 850 550 28 sag 580 sis 498 480 a0 600 650 850 64s 2s seo 588 382 sto so 580 650 850 850 645 530 eo 607 00 590 700 550 850 580 650 850 850 650 545 540 TABLE4 Calculated 0, for ASTM ASB? Low Alloy Steels ‘Analysis! used in caloulation Class © ee cr INQ 2s aera 5 2N-29 Be ie a Is 4N-40-404 25 © 6N-6Q 3 10 ra 79 15 mw o 8n-20 Is 76020 9N-5Q 28 60 0 10N-109 25 ae) 15 UIN-1Q 1s a 6s 12N=12Q Is iso) 70 N13 2s so) 20 14Q 50 9 20 A-AN-AQ 20 640 20 BBN-BQ 25 4 20 CeN-cQ 20 040 20 DN. 8 700 20 BRRREBBEaR) ‘Calculated D, Mo Other in, om ov 08 139% 0? 20 269 6 23 386 98 35 948 Py soy 06 440” 1m” a B ioe oo 9.86 230 a 4a us 30 5a. be 38 461 7 0s 82 209 25 332 4 25 470 u9 10 128 B 10 162 a 10 170 a 10 18 4“ "Analysis used in calculation meets ASTM specification A@87 Vand B. TABLES _ Severity of Quench H-Values for Oil and Water ‘Agitation Valve Oo None 25-30 30-35 1.00-1.10 33-40 120-130 40-30 140-1530 0-80 H60-2.00 30-1.00 4.00 Does not include the effect of V. "Does not include the effect of 10 ) VALUES Fig. 8. Relationships among ideal critical size, D, actual critical size, D, and severity of quenching, 1 quenching operations will be less than the ideal critical diameter (D,). Figure 8 shows the relation of D to D, for quenches of various H values. For example, if a steel has D, =4 in, (101.6 mm) and is quenched 5, @ cylinder of 3.5 in, (88.9 quench to 0% martensite at the ~y CRITICAL THICKNESS Ty -mm 4 680 2% 0 & co <0 mm & 3. & 208 Bar et CRITICAL. THICKNESS Ty-in Fig, 9 The relation beteen ide eral diameter, Dy , and he critical thickness, Ty that canbe fully hardened usinga quenching ‘medium with severity H (5) center. If a cylinder of the same steel is quenched in oil with H = 0.4, a cylinder of 2.25 in. (57.15 mm) diameter will harden to 50% martensite at the center. The relationship of the ideal critical diameter and of the severity of quench to the thickness of plates is indicated in Figure 9. For example, assume that a plate of 4340 steel is quenched in still water. The parameters are: D, = 6.42 in. (163 mm) = 1.00 (from Table 21-2) Figure 9 shows that the critical plate thickness is 3.0 in, (76.2 mm). This is the thickness of a plate which will harden to 50% martensite. In contrast, using the same parameters, a 6-in. (152.4 mm) diameter rod or cylinder will harden to 50% martensite in the center. The difference between plates and cylinders arises from the slower rate of cooling associated with plates. Cooling Rate Equivalence parts of a section cool at different rates. The rates are affected by the severity of quench as indicated in Figures Band 9. The cooling rates along the end-quench bar vary from very fast to very slow, depending on the distance from the quenched end. There should bea cooling rate at some point along the end-quench bar which corresponds to the cooling rate ata given point in the section for the conditions of section size and quench severity. To determine this point on the end-quench bar the cooling rates of interest in the actual part are measured. in the temperature interval of 1350°F (732°C) down t0 600 or 700°F (316 or 371°C). This is the range where there is the greatest tendency of transformation to pearlite or bainite. Figure 10 gives the end-quench equivalent at surface, center, and two intermediate points in cy- lindrical sections in quenches of different severities (7). The temperature ranges were from 1350 to 60°F (732 to 316°C) at the surface, to 700°F (371°C) at 3/4 radius, to 800°F (427°C) at 1/2 radius and 900°F (482°C) at the center. This distorts the relation with the end quench curve, but the greatest effect on the relation is due to the quenchant and agitation. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm «2 # §80 2 49 60 e9 2 40 60 7 50 SURFACE Ye RADUS |" E Fig. 10 Couration curves for £ hu ei = r varer og sup 41281 dena cooing times end |? Rectaaae Tbe PRE LS Quench hardemabilty specimens 34 ) S 00% and round bars quenched in hot e yo 75 a niverslvscosty a 10 BY Ge), 79sec) at 120 F (°C) o £0 pote sale at 400° F (208°C) (6). 3 8 @ ee ° Bes waren 80 SF yeen' 29 80 set 29 3 RADIUS oc 790 center | € feo 8} wae ou sur So Se woren on sauri25 F a [ES eh R aShe £85) [ERE 8 Be ee ee gs 3 3 008 & es p sof 3 ad oh L 11 Io 1 @ 4 €@0 2 40 4 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH 6 8 0 " 20 40 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- SIXTEENTHS OF AN. INCH TABLES Equivalent End Quench Distance Plates—Hardness at Conter of Section ‘Equivalent End Quench Distance Plate —————— —— ‘Thickness ‘Sail 0 ‘Sill Water ‘Agitated Wate in mm 116i, ne Leia mm sien ma 27 45 7 20 32 20 32 354 100 ia 60 98 60 3s a 135 245 BS BS 8S Bs 508 215 saa ro i 20 it os 25 8 150 Bs 40 n2 162 Is 309 ins ns 9 260 a3. 240 3a TABLET _ Equivalent End Quench Distance for Plates—Cuenched in Agitated Water Equivalent End Quench Distance in 1/16. and mam Plate {Gt three distaness from the surface) Thickness a in (om) 1/46 in. (1.6 mem) mm) center os (27) 3 en oa 20 oa 10 es) 20 02 (6) 608) 1s a1) 28 69) 03) 8s (33) 20 os) a5 69 2.) Ro ash as (3) 30 an 539) Mo 22) 30 06.2) 30 “> (9.8) users) ‘The curves of Figure 10 may be used for bars of other ‘cross sections such as square of hexagonal, The diameter is that of a circle inscribed in the section. Data on end-quench equivalence of plates are not numerous. Table 6 gives the equivalent end-quench istance for the center of various plate thicknesses under different quenches. Table 4 shows the end-quench equi- valent for different parts of plate sections quenched in agitated water. ‘Whether graphs such as Figure 10 or tables such as Table 7 are used, the result is equivalent distance from the quenched end for points in the cross section of the quenched piece, Reference must then be made to the end-quench curve for the alloy to find the Rockwell hardness traverse of the section. The use of t formation will be discussed under Application of Hardenability Concepts. ‘Specifying Hardenability Hardenability is specified in several different ways. ‘The Society of Automotive Engineers Recommended Practice J-83Sa covers three grades of 0.3% carbon steel. The hardenability bands for the three grades are shown in Figure 11. The choice of analysis to fit the chosen grade is usually made by the manu- facturer, When the hardenability band is known for the steel, it can be accepted by both producer and customer and then the end-quench curve for each heat made to this specification will be required (0 fall within the band. In order to avoid the necessity of drawing 1 curve for each heat, the specification may simply call for a range of hardness at some stated distance from the quenched end, For example, it might call for Rockwell C 38 to 53 at 6/16 in. (9.5 mm) from the quenched end. The distance is generally chosen as the equivalent to a critical point in the section. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH Fig. 11 Hardenabiiy bands specified by SAE J-135e, Another form of specification might call out the maximum and minimum distances from the quenched end for a given hardness. For example, Rockwell C 40 at 3/16 to 14/16 in. (4,7 — 22.2 mm) from the ‘quenched end. ‘A common form of hardenability specification is the call for a range of the ideal critical diameter. As discussed above, this range is not calculated from the composition limits of the steel grade, but from the distribution of D, values calculated from a number of production heats. Hardenability Bands Hardenability bands for cast steels have been deter~ mined by the Steel Founders’ Society of America ‘They include carbon steels and many of the frequently used low alloy steels. The bands are shown in Figures 12 through 30. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm fo 2080 HARDNESS - HRC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in Hardenabilty curves for carbon cast steels DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm HARDNESS ~ HRC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~ in Fig. 12. Hardenabilty curves for carbon cast steels DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm copia HARONESS - HRC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - in Fig. 15. End-quench hardenabilty of nickel 2520 and 2330) cast steel DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO - mm HARONESS ~ HAC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -in Fig. 16 End-quench hardenabilty of nickel-chromium (3130) cast steel DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO - mm ow gg eee = B00 ol ° st DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~ in Fig. 14 End-quenched hardenablity of manganese (1330) cas, steel DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - in 17. End.quench hardenability band for aickel-chromium (G10) cast steel DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -mm fo, sso to 2 30 & Xd g Fao > Bl “~ a 1 ! 1 L L \ ! . Cn ose sR DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO - in DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END in Fig. 18 End.queach hardeosbiliy of molybdenum (4030) cast Fig. 21. End.quench hardenabilty of nickel-malybdenam see (4830 and 0) series cast te DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~ mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -mm 2% 30 40 0 2 3% 0 eo 60 ——>—S ° PH Teor Kiva v0 4 LV, Bok E20 . L 1 . 1 A L 1 L L % io ose DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - in Fig. 19 End.quench hardenabilty of chromiummolybdensm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~in Fig. 22 End-quench hardenablity of chromium (S130) east Ie er gimme mason ara anes : ESET, * 2 2 Bol 4 Be DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO ~in 20 End-queach hardenabilty of el-ehromium-molybdenum (4330) cast steel. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- in Fig. 23. End.quench hardenability of manganese molybdenum (8400) series cast steels DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~mm _ 2. ee Scant sl mara « oi TLL = 40 Fao 4 ie a © 030% 4 3 BiB wos | 3 : SESS | 320 Book | 1 7 , L L L L L J cemcs ue oa °o es 19 1s 2o as ee nee eee Fig. 26 End-quench hardenability band for 2.50 to 3.50% nickelchromium-molybdenum (600) series cat steel. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -mm ° eae SOE e g egos chromium, 0.40 to 0.60% molybdenum east steels. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO-mm 0 50 COPPER- MANGANESE SILICON 2 «0 60 O8 10 is 2S DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- in Fig. 25 End.quench hardenability of smanganese-nickelchromium-molybdenum (9530) cat steel. Many of the figures show the effect of carbon in alloys where the rest of the analysis is constant. Figures 28, 29 and 30 show the effect of boron on the end-quench band. This effect is obtained by the presence 0f 0.001 to 0.006% boron. Excessive additions of boron are not recommended because of the possibility of boride or carboboride formation and the effect of these com- pounds on casting and mechanical properties. The bands are useful in selection of an alloy or several alloys for given applications. Part of the width of the band for a given alloy is due to unavoidable variations in analysis from heat to heat. To some degree it is due to residual elements. If an clement, for instance chromium, is present as a residual, its presence will have an appreciable effect on hardenability. It follows that residual alloying elements must be watched and controlled as closely as specified elements if the hardenability band is not 0 widen, ‘The hardenability band for a wrought steel will be 1s 25 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO-in Fig. 27. End-quench hardenability of ‘copper-manganese-silicon cat steel the same as that for a cast steel if both the wrought steel and the cast steel have essentially the same analysis and grain size. tion of Hardenability Concepts in Alloy Alloy Content. The composition of a steel is an important factor of hardenability. Carbon is one ele- ment which is present in every steel and its effect con hardenability must be considered along with its effect on as-quenched hardness. Increasing carbon increases hardenability as shown by Figure 4 and by Figures 12 and 13. The effect of carbon on hardenability is comparatively slight. Figure 31 shows that the hardness of martensite inereases with higher carbon contents. Italso shows that the hardness increases with increasing percent martensite at constant carbon content. From the data in Figure 31 and the end-quench bands in Figure 12, it can be shown that 1020 steel will contain 50% martensite at about 2/16 in. (3.2 mm) from the quenched end, whereas the 50% martensite point for DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO -mm 10 “0 «co x0 so * 40 t 2 8 20) : 1 1 1 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - in Fig. 28 End-quench hardenabilty of manganese-molybdenum (3030) cat steel. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END~mm to 20 one teavettco) HARONESS - HRC DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- in Fig. 29 End-quench hardensbilty of ‘manganese-molybdenum-boron (80830) cast steel DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED ENO ~ mm a 40% 6 so, Pp _P__2_9 __#8 g g Zao} 4 oes as DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -in Fig. 30 End-quench hardenabilty of nicke-chromium-molybdenum-boron (85B30) cast steel as 10 8630 cast ste! 1040 steel is at 5/16 in. (8 mm) from the quenched end. Doubling the carbon content increases hardness, but raises hardenability only slightly, 10 na 338 2 a = 8 0 2 : x 4 5 2550854045888 CARBON -% Fig, 31. The effect of carbon on as-quenched hardness. The percent martensite present at any point can be determined by ‘atching the carbon content ofthe tec! with the hardness measured at that point using tis graph soo} . : 400%, B root 8 : Bn | € = sook & a o = g ae 008 3 3 f 2 sooh- of 7 fi : £ £ 400}- ao male ° pol 11 td 0020 040 06d 0.80 1.00 CARBON -% Fig, 32. Etfect of carbon content on M, temperature for 44 Widely used carbon and alloy steels (8, One disadvantage of increasing carbon is its effect on -M,, , the temperature at which martensite starts to form. igure 32shows the relationship ofthe M , temperature to the carbon content (7). The data are for both carbon and low alloy steels indicating that the lowering of the -M,, temperatures primarily a matter of carbon content. Steel is less plastic at a lower M, temperature and less able to accommodate the volume change of about 1.5% which is associated with the transformation to marten- site. Moreover, the higher-carbon martensite is harder and more brittle than low-carbon martensite; higher stresses, and sometimes distortion and cracking, there- fore result. Since varying the carbon content alone cannot produce the hardenability required by many applica. tions, alloying elements are added. The effects of several important alloying elements on hardenability m DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END ~mm ss 28 wo HeVALUE, 5.00° 2.00 1.00 926 STILL WATERY DIAMETER OF BAR - in DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END OF THE END-QUENCH HARDENABILITY SPECIMEN, 50 HeVALUE (SEVERITY OF QUENCH ) 15.00. STRONG SRINE QUENCH, VIOLENT AGITATION DIAMETER OF BAR - mm 2,00 POOR BRINE QUENCH, POOR WATER QUENCH, NO AGITATION 1.00 (0.50 VERY 000 olL QUENCH, 6000 AGITATION 0.20 POOR OIL QUENCH, No AGITATION CENTER HARDENING CORRESPONDING TO CENTER OF ROUND BAR, SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH Fig. 33 Grossmann chart relating bar diame thischartto evaluate severity of quench (6) are illustrated in Figure 5. A virtually unlimited number of alloy combinations could be visualized due tothe large number of possible combinations of carbon and alloying elements. The actual choice of alloying elements, i.e. of the grade of steel, depends, however, fon a number of practical considerations. Cost and availability of the element must be considered. Cost related factors will include raw materials, melting loss, and reliability of the addition. In all cases the carbon content should be only high enough to produce the strength and hardness required by the application. Unless there is some overriding reason to specify 4 given alloy, first consideration should be given to a grade which has appropriate hardenability and which isalready in production in the foundry that will produce the castings. Use of such an alloy will simplify the procurement of castings because it will make use of ‘the foundry’s experience and will not require the foundry to integrate another alloy into its production schedules. This last point is important when small ‘numbers of castings are ordered. Quench Severity. The Grossman chart (Figure 33) ‘can be used to obtain Hf values for quench severity under ‘operating conditions (6). As an example of the use of the chart, the hardness at the center of a 1.2-in. (30.5 mm) diameter bar quenched in still water (H = 1.0) will be the same as the hardness 4/16 in. (6.4 mm) from the ‘quenched end of the end-quench bar of the same alloy. To determine the H value of a commercial quench, an end-quench bar and cylinders of two different diameters are needed. The cylinder diameters are chosen so that the center hardnesses will fall on the sloping part of the end quench curve, The samples ardenabilty steel, and severity of quench (H-value). See text for discussion of method for using and the end-quench bar can be made from a wrought steel rod. The analysis is selected to give a usable end-quench curve, The two cylinders are quenched with a load of castings. In the example in Figure 33 for still water quench, the hardness at the center of the 1.5-in, (38.1 mm) diameter bar equalled that at 5/16-in. (8 mm) from the end of the end-quench bar. The hardness at the center of the I-in. (25.4 mm) diameter bar was equivalent to 3/16-in. (4.8 mm) from the quenched end of the end-quench bar, These (wo points and fa line joining them are plotted in Figure 33. The H value of this quench is slightly over 1.0. The curves for oil and hot salt were determined in the same way. Methods (8) have been devised which can be used to estimate the hardenability required to achieve the desired hardness and microstructure at critical locations of a casting of given size and configuration in a production quench. The best method consists of correlating end quench hardness data with equivalent hardness locations in the shape of interest. Figure 34 illustrates this method, Changes in the quenching medium can seriously affect the H value. An increased temperature reduces. the cooling effect of water, but has little effect on that of oils. The water temperature is not important up to 75°F (24°C) but between 75 and 120°F (24 and 49°C), the cooling power decreases materially. Above 120°F (49°C) the cooling power of water is quite low. Dissolved salts increase the cooling power of water. while emulsions reduce the cooling rate that can be obtained. Fig. 34 Determination of Jominy equivalent cooling (J eh ) rates, Jominy equivalent cooling (Ua) ‘leo! procedure tot fellows T"sSelect herdening ond quenching dz, Sons or 1020, ord ' ‘monster & quan f fred Components: seam, beorngs, er Soe g S Beenth «number of these compo srs (a te ancrboe a Sain the prducen fey. 4 Meoture hordnetsesebtsined ot oll ‘tea locations From the surface to the cor, the production quenched compo: lent hordness volues produced ot 7 Finolly, tome end quench (Ja) dominy bar mode from the same heat and end quenched from the em Raising the temperature of oil quenches to 1S0°F (66°C) raises the cooling rate slightly. Higher tempera- ture of oil quenches results in lower viscosity and less drag out (the amount of quenching medium that fails to drain from the component upon removal from the quench tank). The temperature, however, should never be higher than 50°F (28°C) below the flash point Of the oil for safety reasons. Contamination of oil with small amounts of water noticeably increases cooling rate. Breakdown of the oil may also speed up cooling. Both of these conditions are undesirable. ‘There are tests such as the hot wire test or the magnetic test that can be used to indicate changes inthe quenchant, A periodic check using the Grossman chart can also show changes in the H value. This test is preferred since it is simple and is performed under operating conditions. HeatTreatment. Thechoice of heat treatment, alloy content and hence hardenability determine the mechan- ical properties of steel. Hardness is rarely a design property; however, it is useful as an inspection tool because it relates to the mechanical properties. Before discussing hardenability-related consider- ations in selecting the method of heat treatment, it is necessary to define certain important heat treating terms. ‘The heat treatment conditions which are frequently referred to are “quenched and tempered” and “normalized and tempered.” These terms will be defined below under Heat Treatment in terms of the operations, Tensile strengths up to 90 or 95 ksi (621-655 MPa) are usually produced by normalizing and tempering but for strengths of 95 ksi (655 MPa) and higher, quenching and tempering must be employed, However, quenching can be used for tensile strengths below 90 ksi (621 MPa). This is done where the improvement in other properties is required. Quenching, as compared to normalizing, results in higher yield /tensile strength ratio and higher ductility for a given tensile strength. At a given strength level, impact values at room temperature are better in quenched steels and are much better at low tempera- tures. Despite the advantages derived from quenching, normalizing should not be overlooked. Normalizing is less expensive than quenching, particularly oil quenching, and presents less tendency to distortion and cracking. If the properties required by service conditions demand quenching, there are steps to be taken to decide whether or not a given alloy is applicable First, it should be noted that higher carbon steels are usually oil quenched rather than water quenched. Having decided between water and oil quench, the next step is to refer to Figure 10 to get. the end-quench-equivalent distance for various points in the section ‘Next, the lower limit of the hardenability band will ive the hardness traverse of the section. Finally, Figure 31 will give the martensite content at various Points in the cross section. As described below, it is seldom necessary or desirable to quench to 100% martensite at the center of a section Quench Cracking does not often occur in sec- tions which are thin, but in sections above 1 in. 25.4 mm) it can take place when through hardening occurs. Parts with abrupt section changes are particularly 19 oe WATER 7800 {200 | CENTER oF ga afl g soo & § to sco 2 7 a an 12 16 20, a rs CONVENTIONAL o1L 72°, 3 cenen oF oan 700 § i200 im evow sunrace eco # 5 soo & E ood sco # s00 # bet) 10 20 30~«40 50 oe : onan] 5 Zr200 8 g CENTER oF ean [rg é invaetow suneace 1500 r 42007 4005 50 100150. 200-280 TIME=min Fig. 95 Etfect of yction sie on cooling curves (6). prone to cracking because of stresses which develop during the quenching operation. Figure 35 shows the cooling curves for the center of different size bars for water and oil quenching and normalizing. The cooling rates indicated by these curves are fast enough to produce through hardening with many alloy steels, particularly for smaller diameters. This could lead to quench cracking. A section is considered through hardened if there is no less than 90% martensite at the center. Through hardening followed by tempering would insure the best combination of mechanical properties, but it has some drawbacks. Alloy cost, the use of more expensive oll quenching, and the danger of cracking should be considered. Hardenable alloys have been used in applications where through hardening occurred and where quench cracking was found. This has led to the erroneous conclusion that cracking tendency is a function of hardenability only. Cracking is due to the stresses developed by the volume change of the martensite transformation, the extent of this transformation, the design of the component, and its composition. Fortunately, through hardening is seldom necessary. In wear applications where wear is from one side, See eae oS Sy f ‘toe tempered Ni-Cs-Mo (8635 sel SoaSERL LS A A. Ferrite-pearlt structure light and dark constituents respectively) of normalized 0.295 Stel B. Martens structure of quenched and Fig. 37 A. Ferrite pealte structure of t-in, (25.4 mm) thick pate casting of 0.20% C see obtained by normalizing. B. Same asin A, but finer, obt 1d by quenching and tempering. Representative Properties: us, ys El RA ha el Poa SS Ps case tO) ess) a) re al through hardening is desirable but not always obiain- able. Most cast sections are subjected to torque or bending, Here the center of the section carries little fo no stress and there is no reason to require through hardening. Hardenability data aid in the selection of an alloy to use available quenching equipment to produce a ‘cast section with the desired microstructure and me- chanical properties. Microstructure and Properties. The type of met- allurgical structure that a given heat treatment pro- duces depends to a large extent on alloy content, i.e. hardenability, as well as the section size being heat treated, and the specific location within a given section. ‘A ferrite-pearlite structure will form upon nort ing most carbon steels and many low alloy steels ( 36 A); martensite forms upon quenching provided the C. = Impact Enersy RT °C) WF SFO) icin eae a eC ee ees eae rae eer 00} ae al 106) | 29 0) cooling rate is high enough for the particular alloy composition (Figure 36B). Even though quenching may not produce martensite the resultant structure will be finer and typically produce superior toughness. These difference are illustrated for low hardenability carbon steel in Figure 37 A and B. ‘The location within a given component, oF section, may have small or large effects on structure and properties—depending on hardenability. For carbon ste] (Figure 38) minor differences are noted in the ferrite-pearlite structure of a 4-in. (101.6 mm) thick ‘A2I6-WCC type carbon steel plate that was quenched and tempered. The hardness at the surface, 1/4 T, and center locations was BHN 163, 142, and 137, respect- ively. The toughness, in terms of Nil Ductility Transition ‘Temperature, NDTT, was —40, —30, and —20° F (— 40, —34, and —29° C), respectively. ) si 100% Surface wat Conter 500x Fig. 38 The ferstepealite structure of a quenched and tempered 4in (102 mm) thick, A-216-WCC type, carbon sel plate casting Quite pronounced microstructural and mechanical property differences arc to be expected when sections are quenched and do not through harden due to insufficient hhardenability. An example is shown in Figure 39 for a 17-in.-(432 mm) thick gear blank of cast 8635 steel that was quenched and tempered. Near-surface areas were martensitic while a structure of acicular ferrite-pearlite was observed for locations 8.5 in. (216 mm) from the surface. Data in Figure 39 illustrate relatively small effects on strength—but major changes in ductility and toughness. ‘The dramatic differences in structure and mechanical Properties of the preceding example are not observed ‘when the composition ofthe steel is selected to providea hardenability that causes through hardening. Unifor- 21 mity is also achieved when the hardenability is in- sufficient to produce martensite in any part of the ‘quenched component. Such situations often apply to carbon steel castings such as illustrated in Figure 37 and to low alloy steels as illustrated in Figure 40 for the normalized and tempered turbine blade casting with sections from 1-1/2 to 28 in, (38-711 mm) thick. HEAT TREATMENT The heat treatment is an important step in the production of steel castings because it develops the ‘mechanical properties of a hardenable steel. For aus- tenitic stainless steels the heat treatment is important to optimize corrosion resistance Several types of heat treatment exist. The essential a 250% e 250% Fig. 99 A. The martensitic microstructure at the surface of x quenched and tempered Ni-Cr-Mo (cist 8635) I7-in. (432 mm) thick geut blank. B. The acicular, ferrcepearite structure ofthe casting in A~at the center ofthe 17in. (232 mm) thick section Representative Properties: urs ys El = Impact Energy at RT. ist MPa ksi MPa = fob 3 a 160 ni 6 1007 4 » a 8 no 138 = = 2 4 5 Sareea E 5 ba A tox 8 tox oc 10x Fig. 40 A. Ferrite-pealte structure representation ina 1S.in. (38 mm) section of a larger [S-t0n, 2% Ni, 20% C stel turbine blade casting that was normalized and tempered, B, Same asin A, but coarser and acicular Widmanstattn structure inthe center of a in. (178 ‘mm) thick portion of the same casing. C. Same as in B, but coarse and blocky in appearance in the center of a 28-in. (711 mm) thick portion of the same casting Representative urs ys EL RA BNC, ~ Impact Energy a RT Properties: kia nm J » A w 552 9 ue 16s se w B 16 ma a ms 155 56 %6 c 1s si “ a7 oR 8 3 ” 2 HOLOING N gerou anna t « = Cain cooe) e \ \ \ N \ \ TIME Fig. 41 A generalized setch of the steps inthe eat eating of steel castings. elements of any heat treatment are the heating cycle and the cooling cycle. Figure 41 shows schematically a heating cycle and three different cooling cycle types. The length of time that a casting is held at temperature and the cooling rate are important factors. The holding time should be long enough to complete the microstructural transformation that is desired, Annealing ‘Annealing is practiced on low carbon steels to provide soft, readily machinable structure. The Strength of annealed castings is low, but ductility is high. Low alloy steels may be annealed for machinabil- ity and given a final heat treatment later Ina full anneal the castings are heated above the upper critical temperature, held there long enough to complete the transformation to austenite, and then furnace cooled at a controlled rate to obtain a stress- relieved casting with a pearlite-ferrte structure that is ductile and readily machinable. There are variations ‘of the annealing heat treatment for specialized purposes, for instance to achieve a spheroidized pearl ite structure. Annealing temperatures of such special- ized treatments may differ substantially from that of 4 full anneal. Full annealing and spheroidizing heat treatments are expensive and should not be specified unless the last increment in ductility is actually re- quired Cooling is accomplished by reducing, or simply turning off, the heat inpot to the furnace. When the castings have cooled to below the lower critical tem- perature, about 800°F (827°C), the transformation of austenite is usually complete. The castings should then be removed from the furnace and air cooled or even quenched. Furnace cooling to lower temper 2B : ee veo 8 : a " d Fi PPAR POLITE Peas Fg. 42 Norman tegen freon see ures merely wastes furnace time and requires extra heat to bring the furnace up to temperature for the next load. Normalizing ‘Normalizing consists of heating the steel to a suitable temperature above the upper critical transformation temperature (Figure 42), holding long enough to complete the transformation to austenite, removing the work from the furnace and cooling it in still air. Some castings are tempered after normalizing, ‘The castings must be placed so that the air can circulate freely around every casting. If air flow is restricted, the operation will be more like annealing. On the other hand, accelerated cooling by fans or forced-air flow may produce a result more like quenching, ‘The microstructure that results from normalizing is a mixture of ferrite and pearlite, associated with only low residual stresses and almost no distortion. Tensile strengths up to 95 ksi (655 MPa) can be obtained in this way. Normalizing and tempering, is used to meet a number of standard specifications in this strength range. Because of the uniform structure obtained upon normalizing, machinability is good, ‘The cost of normalizing makes this heat treatment attractive. It requires less furnace time than annealing, and its cooling cycle is less expensive than quenching, Hardening by Quenching In hardening by quenching, the work is heated above the transition temperature (austenitized) as in annealing ‘or normalizing (Figure 43). The work is cooled more rapidly than in the other heat treatments —fast enough so that pearlite and ferrite do not have time to form (Figure 1), There are, however, air hardening grades of steel which do not require accelerated cooling by quench- AUSTENITE. #799 g ® @ é & ul 1300 k a+ PEARLITE CARBON ~% Fig. 43. Hardening temperatures for catbon steels ing in water or oil. Prominent examples are the 13-Cr steel grade CA-IS and the 13Cr-4Ni steel grade CA 6NM, Certain lowalloy steels are considered air harden ing in relatively thin sections. Water and oil are the media most commonly used for quenching steel castings. Water is used whenever possible. Higher-carbon and deep-hardening steels require oil quenching. Some complicated shapes also demand oil quenching to minimize quench cracking, Oil quenches a little more slowly than water at all temperatures. At lower temperatures the cooling curves for oil taper off, meaning even slower rates QUENCHING AND TEMPERING aa es MARTEMPERING than for water. Thus martensite forms more slowly in oil than in water. Certain organic chemicals can be added to water to give a quenching solution which resembles oil in its heat removal characteristics. The main advantage of these solutions is that they have the behavior of cil without the fire hazard of oil. Their greatest disadvantage is that they coat the work and so change the composition of the bath. The quench severity of these baths varies widely with small changes in composition. Tight control is necessary and difficult ‘Quenching of carbon and low alloy steels is always followed by tempering. Tempering makes it possible toadjust the mechanical properties of quenched steel. The higher tensile strength levels of carbon and low alloy steels can be obtained only by quenching and tempering. Quenching and tempering produces the optimum combination of strength and toughness properties. Other Quench Hardening Processes Martempering and austempering are two quenching processes which harden the steel without producing as much stress, distortion, and cracking. These heat treat~ ‘ments are only rarely used for steel castings. Thereis also a modified martempering process or isothermal process. ‘These three processes are diagrammed in Figure 44 along with the conventional quenching process, The cross-hatched areas represent the time-temperature ‘combinations where transformations occur. ‘Austempering is of little importance in steel casting work. It is not practical for heavy sections as they exist in conventional sand castings. There may be some application for investment castings. lhe, 718-44. Comparison of FERHAY" aeenching processes “YEMPEREO MaRTenstre ISOTHERMAL QUENCHING AND TEMPERING TEMPERATURE = Log TIME: 4 ‘y TABLE # Tempera Formation in TEMPERING TEMPERATURE -*¢ 1 carbon and Alloy Cat Stele) eee 308 me 2 Mareniie — Marensie— Marensie Es Sian ae < Pe gs0 woe ms om @ 1 m we ae oy 0m gor wee eae 38 0 Sot seo asa Ba os oss so mao er er re o 33 Soo wo am 8 S$ ts eons S28 as-quencneo nanoness & 36 mm @ 2 Bao 7 mE os oe on oa a ee oe et ae TEMBERING TEMPERATURE —"F oo fe osm - @ 0 Sa mes ar In martempering, the work is quenched in a molten salt bath to a temperature just above the temperature where martensite begins to form (M, ). Itis held in the salt bath long enough for the temperature to equi the heaviest sections. After that, the work is removed from the salt and air cooled. Martensite then forms between the M, and the temperature at which mar- tensite formation is essentially complete, M, . Table 8 lists both M, and M, temperatures for a number of cast steels. In modified martempering, the work is quenched into a bath at a temperature between the M, and M, temperatures. When the temperature at the surface and center of the work has equalized, the work is removed from the bath and either air cooled or placed in a tempering furnace, In general, any steel that is usually oil quenched can be martempered. The maximum size section that will through-harden is appreciably less in martemper- ing compared to conventional quenching. Tempering Tempering is a heat treatment which follows quenching of martempering, and sometimes normaliz~ ing. One purpose of tempering isto reduce the residual stress which develops during cooling and transforma- tion. Another objective of tempering is to modify the metallurgical structure of martensite and thereby ad- just strength and other mechanical properties to speci- fied levels. ‘Tempering consists of heating the work toa temper- ature below the transformation range, holding for a specified time and finally, cooling. Carbon and low alloy cast steels are tempered in the range of 350 to [30°F (177-704°C). The time of holding at tem- Perature may vary from 30 minutes to several hours. ‘A longer time at a given tempering temperature, or a higher tempering temperature fora given time, produce areater tempering, The effects of temperature are shown in Figure 45 where hardness is used to measure the S20% WS

    You might also like