Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

State-of-the-art literature review of WPT: Current limitations and

solutions on IPT
Dowon Kim , Ahmed Abu-Siada, Adrian Sutinjo
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Curtin University, Perth WA 6102, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: N. Tesla, the prospector of the power delivery in free space, suggested a huge amount of power can
Received 7 June 2017 be transferred through the earth while G. Marconi concentrated on inventing wireless communication
Received in revised form 23 August 2017 system over the ocean a hundred years ago. Whereas the telecommunication technology has been devel-
Accepted 13 September 2017
oped successfully, the development of wireless power transfer (WPT) system had been stagnant over
decades as large devices were required to create the resonant oscillation in a safety manner and the
Keywords:
system indicated low efciency. Due to the development of power devices and the day-by-day increase
Wireless power transfer
of mobile products, electric vehicles and wireless sensors in smart grids, WPT technology is expected
Inductive power transfer
Magnetic resonance
to undergo substantial advancement and signicant power systems applications in the near future. This
Maximum power transfer paper is aimed at introducing a state-of-the-art review for existing WPT technologies with detailed com-
parison. The paper also presents the limitation of inductive power transfer system through simulation
and practical analyses. Finally, recommendations and future perspective to overcome these limitations
are provided with four main themes: design, efciency, stability, and safety.
2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
2. Classication of WPT systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
2.1. Inductive power transfer (IPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
2.2. Capacitive power transfer (CPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
2.3. Microwave method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
3. Problem deduction in IPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
3.1. Circuit analysis of two-coil seriesseries WPT system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
3.2. Coil design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
3.3. S-parameter analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
3.4. Application of the frequency response analyser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
4. Current constraints and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
4.1. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
4.2. Efciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
4.3. Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
4.4. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
4.5. Summary and expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dowon.kim@postgrad.curtin.edu.au (D. Kim).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2017.09.018
0378-7796/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
494 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502
1. Introduction
Since electromagnetism was dened by the association of M.
Faraday and J. C. Maxwell in the nineteenth century [1], it was
claried that the electromagnetic radiation behaves as light and
hence it was proposed that electric energy is able to be transmit-
ted without wire [2]. Nikola Tesla proposed energy transmission
through air in 1897 [3]. He elevated an AC voltage up to 100 MV at
the top of a transmitting sphere where a 300 kW power at 150 kHz
resonant frequency was radiated to the far end of the coil [4]. He
believed that power energy can be transmitted and collected at any
place through the ground by oscillating standing wave. However,
practical measurements indicated low efciency as the research
was conducted on a large scale with the application of relatively
low frequency [5]. In addition, this research was suspended due to
the lack of nancial support. Consequently, the research on wire-
less electric energy transmission was shelved over decades [6].
With the rapid advancement in mobile devices, electric vehicles
and the global trend to adopt smart grids that call for millions
of low power-based sensors, wireless technology has come back
to the picture. Unlike information and communication technology
(ICT) which utilizes small amount of power to carry valid data, the
aim of WPT is to send a large amount of electric energy to the
load over a particular distance safely. For the last decades, a usage
of battery-powered devices such as mobile phones, electric vehi-
cles, and medical implants has signicantly increased worldwide
in which WPT can nd signicant applications. WPT can be also
implemented in various industrial and robotic applications such
as conveying electric power through a bent joint without physical
contact [6] and a robotic device that performs duty such as disaster
relief at non-accessible or dangerous area [7]. For these reasons, it
is necessary to develop more efcient and safer design of WPT tech-
nology. This paper is aimed at presenting a state-of-the-art review
for current WPT topologies and highlighting the limitations of the
mostly used technique, inductive power transfer system, through
simulation and practical analyses. While some WPT review papers
can be found in the literature, the fast advancement of capacitive
power transfer (CPT) systems was not adequately covered [810].
Moreover, the current state of IPT, CPT, and the microwave WPT
technologies are not covered in the recent publications. The key
contribution of this paper is summarised below:
providing a review of the state of the art for IPT, CPT and
microwave current technologies along with a brief comparison
of these techniques,
presenting a case study for IPT system through analytical
calculations, nite element simulation and experimental mea-
surements,
introducing a new application for frequency response analyser in
WPT,
providing recommendations and future perspective to overcome
current WPT limitations in four main themes: design, efciency,
stability, and safety.
This paper is organised as below:
Section 2 introduces a detailed classication and comparison of
current WPT technologies. In Section 3, the limitations of IPT system
are presented through analytical and experimental circuit analy-
ses on two-coil seriesseries topology. The practical measurements
in this section introduces a novel application for the frequency
response analyser that is conventionally used to detect windings
and core deformations within power transformers to observe the
variation of the wireless power transfer level over a wide fre-
quency range. Perspective recommendations with four categories:
Fig. 1. Inductive power transfer with compensating capacitors in series.
efciency, design, stability, and safety, to enhance the performance
of WPT technology are highlighted in Section 4.
2. Classication of WPT systems
WPT has been found feasible under two main categories:
radiative and non-radiative methods as shown in Table 1. The
non-radiative application is classied into two approaches: induc-
tive power transfer (IPT) and capacitive power transfer (CPT). An
innovative IPT-CPT combined system transferring electric power
of 2.84 kW at 1 MHz frequency with 94.5% efciency for a distance
of 150 mm was demonstrated in 2016 [11].
2.1. Inductive power transfer (IPT)
The rst demonstration of WPT which is analogous to the
present IPT topology was performed by Tesla in 1898 [13]. He
claried that the resonant system allows for the electromagnetic
coupling in near-eld between transmitter and receiver. Afterward,
further research was continued to enhance the technology of IPT in
the eld of biological engineering [1416]. The development of Litz
wire consisting of several stranded-wires to reduce skin and prox-
imity effect losses at high-frequency (HF) and the advancement of
HF power electronic switches contributed to the enhancement of
IPT in the mid of 19th century. A commercial inductively coupled
WPT was introduced by J. Boys in 1994 [17] and an intermediate
coil at the transmitting device to increase the transfer distance was
proposed in 1998 [18]. The intermediate coil, also known as a relay
coil, can enhance the efciency over the transferring distance, how-
ever it requires further considerations such as cost-effectiveness
and the difculty of tuning the frequency due to the additional unit
[19]. The magnetic resonant coupling (MRC) system introduced by
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2007 proposed
auxiliary coils with compensating capacitors at both transmitter
and receiver [20]. The transfer distance of this four-coil system was
enhanced by inserting additional sending and receiving coils [21].
This system could achieve 60 W of wireless power transfer at 2 m
distance. While system efciency between the transmitter and the
receiver was only 15% at 10 MHz, this achievement has motivated
researches to advance the WPT at mid-range distance.
It is convenient to think of inductively coupled power transfer as
an air core transformer. When the current owing in the source coil
it produces magnetic ux that links within the load coil and induces
electric energy into it based on Faradays law as shown in Fig. 1.
When the compensating capacitor cancels out the leakage induc-
tance of the winding, the energy conversion takes place between
the two coils wirelessly without signicant radiation. The operation
mechanism of both IPT and MRC system is based on the same prin-
ciple [19]. Although with four-coils the system can achieve larger
distance than the two-coil system [22], it was pointed out that
the system efciency and amount of power delivered are mainly
affected by the volume of copper (or number of turns) not by the
number of coils [23].
 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502 495

Table 1
Classication of WPT methods.

Category Classication

Non-radiative Radiative

Inductive power transfer (IPT) Capacitive power transfer (CPT) Microwave power transfer (MPT)

Composition Inductive coupling system, Capacitive coupling system, Microwave source,

Intermediator (if necessary) Intermediator (if necessary) Waveguide, Tx, Rx antenna,
Rectifying system
Transfer capacity mWkW mW3 kW W, mWkW
Frequency range kHzMHz kHzMHz GHz
Transfer distance 10 times of coil diameter <360 mm [12] mkm
Feature Non-radiated characteristics Non-radiated characteristics Radiated characteristics
Difculty of design Moderate Moderate High
Advantage Non-radiative Eddy current loss free High energy,
(uncertain safety) Long distance
Drawback Sensitive to misalignment and driving frequency High voltage Electromagnetic wave exposure
Application Home appliances, Railway vehicles, Space solar power system (SSPS),
Railway vehicles, Electric vehicles, Wireless sensor,
Electric vehicles Medical devices Home appliances

Fig. 2. Capacitive power transfer.

Fig. 3. Microwave method for space solar power.

2.2. Capacitive power transfer (CPT)

Power energy can also be transferred using capacitive coupling

between the transmitter and the receiver as shown in Fig. 2. It was
considered that CPT system is suitable to send low power at few
millimetres gap until the year 2015 [810,24]. However, a system
which can transfer an electric power of 700 W at 17 mm distance
to charge the battery pack of a railway vehicle with a 300 V DC out-
put voltage and 91% efciency at 2 MHz switching frequency was
introduced in the year 2016 [25]. Furthermore, a recent research
in 2017 indicated that 1.97 kW power is transferred over a gap of
150 mm by six-plate capacitive coupler with system efciency (or
dcdc efciency) of 91.6% [26]. This system requires consideration
of electromagnetic interference (EMI) effect and an extreme care
of safety due to the high voltage on the capacitive coupling plates
[26]. However, unlike IPT, CPT is free from eddy current loss due to
the high frequency current [27].
from 50 MW to 250 MW at middle Earth orbits in a distance range
between 6000 and 12,000 km as shown in Fig. 3 [29].
The overall efciency of SSP is generally under 17% at a
frequency range of 2.45 GHz5.8 GHz. Energy harvesting can be
accomplished when a rectifying antenna is installed near trans-
mitters to collect unused power. In general, the collectable power
is only from W to few mW [30]. Although the amount of energy is
little and the implementation of the rectenna is complex, MPT pro-
vides a great solution to charge wireless micro-sensors or medical
devices at remote areas [31].
3. Problem deduction in IPT

As WPT system generally requires a high frequency and a com-

2.3. Microwave method
In the case of microwave power transfer (MPT), the radia-
tive energy transfer occurs at far-eld. In 1968, W. C. Brown
demonstrated free-ying helicopter powered by MPT [4]. He then
improved the DC-RF-transfer-RF-DC system at a frequency of
2.45 GHz with a DCDC efciency of 26.5%. The rst ground-to-
ground MPT was demonstrated in 1975 [4]. In the experiment,
470 kW electric energy was radiated on the transmitter whose
diameter is 26 m and 30 kW power was received via the rectenna
arrays of 3.4 m by 7.2 m dimensions at 1 mile distance. The rectify-
ing efciency was 82.5% at 2.388 GHz transmitting frequency. The
US department of energy and National Aeronautics Space Admira-
tion (NASA) suggested a free energy transmission from space solar
power (SSP) in 1970s [28]. The expected transmitting power was
pensating component to comply with resonant condition, some
difculties are inevitable. To understand the mechanism of the
power transfer under magnetic coupling and to illustrate the imple-
mentation difculties, a two-coil WPT system is presented below.
3.1. Circuit analysis of two-coil seriesseries WPT system
A two-coil WPT circuit with compensating capacitors in series
at both sides is depicted in Fig. 4. The efciency of this seriesseries
(SS) system can be enhanced by installing intermediate coil, how-
ever this will require an accurate frequency tuning [23]. The circuit
input and output currents are expressed in the matrix form in Eq.
(1) where, r1 , r2 , L1 , L2 , C1 and C2 represent the parasitic resistance,
496 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502

Fig. 4. Circuit diagram of a 2 coil seriesseries WPT system.

self-inductance and compensating capacitance of the transmitting In the resonance condition, the receiving power PL is dened as
and receiving units, respectively. in Eq. (4). To accomplish maximum power transfer, the load resis-
     tance is extracted by differentiating Eq. (4) with respect to RL that
I1 1 Z2 + ZL jM12 Vp will lead to optimum load resistance RL,max given in Eq. (5).
= (1)
I2 Zdet jM12 Zp + Z1 0
02 M12
2 V2
p
PL = I22 RL =   2 RL (4)
The impedances in Eq. (1) can be derived as
Rp + r1 (RL + r2 ) + 02 M12
2

Z1 = r1 + jL
 1 + 1/jC1 , Z2 = r2 + jL2 + 1/jC2 and Zdet =
Zp + Z1 (Z2 + ZL ) + 2 M12 2 . To simplify the analysis, the trans-
 2
mitting and receiving units are assumed to be reciprocal i.e. 02 M12
2 +R r +r r
p 2 1 2
L1 = L2 , C1 = C2 from which resonant frequency can be calcu- RL,max = (5)
Rp2 + r12
lated as o2 = 1/L1 C1 = 1/L2 C2 . Additionally, it is assumed that
source impedance Zp and load impedance ZL are purely resistive;
ZL = RL , ZP = Rp . The efciency is dened as the ratio of the power Assuming the values of parasitic resistances r1 and r2 are very
transferred to the load to the total input power as in Eq. (2) small with respect to the load resistance RL , Eq. (5) can be simplied
where Rlump = 2RL Rp r2 + r22 Rp + RL2 r1 + 2RL r1 r2 + r1 r22 and k12 is to
the coupling coefcient (dened in Eq. (3)). As can be seen in 2
Eq. (2), efciency can be increased through controlling several o2 M12
RL,max = (6)
parameters: resonance frequency 0 and self-inductance of the Rp
two coils need to be as high as possible whereas the parasitic
resistances r1 and r2 should be minimized. These parameters With RL,max , the maximum receiving power can be expressed as
are strongly correlated with the resonance circuit quality factor below
Q = o L/r which represents the proportion of the stored energy
within the reactive components and the dissipated energy in the 02 M12
2 R
Lmax 2
PL,max =  2 Vp (7)
resistive components. Rp RLmax + 02 M12
2

2 R
o2 M12 L
=  
Rp + r1 (RL + r2 )2 + o2 M12
2
(RL + r2 ) 3.2. Coil design
RL
= R 2
 (2) Two identical coils were built to demonstrate the feasibility of
p RL +Rlump
+ (RL + r2 ) the WPT system of Fig. 4 as shown in Fig. 5(a). The transmitter (Tx)
2 k2 L1 L2
0 12
and the receiver (Rx) coils are identical. The wire radius, the loop
radius and the number of turns are 0.675 mm, 80 mm and 15 turns;
A high level of Q results in a large amount of power conver-
respectively. Self-inductance L of 56.96 H and parasitic resistance
sion however, this requires a precise adjustment to the resonance
r of 0.27  at resonance frequency fo = 1.16 MHz were extracted by
frequency. For this reason, a magnetic resonance WPT with mul-
the electromagnetic simulation software tool FEldberechnung fr
tiple intermediating coils is less practical than a two-coil system
Krper mit beliebiger Oberche (FEKO) [33]. During simulation,
although the transfer distance is superior in the former one. The
the source and the load resistors are assumed to be 50 , and the
efciency can also be enhanced by adjusting either the source
compensating capacitor is set to 330 pF. A sinusoidal voltage of 1 V
resistance Rp or the load resistance RL . The efciency also depends
at the calculated resonance frequency (1.16 MHz) is connected to
on the coupling coefcient k12 between the transmitting coil and
the Tx unit and the strength of the magnetic eld between the two
the receiving coil given in Eq. (3) [32]. k12 is sensitive to the dis-
coils is observed over a distance range of 0 mm500 mm as shown
tance between the coils and it sharply declines when the distance
in Fig. 5(b). Distribution of the magnetic eld on the cross-sectional
increases. In the coupling coefcient formula, N1 , N2 , a1 , a2 , L1 and
view around the receiving and transmitting coils is observed at a
L2 are number of turns, radius of coil loop, self-inductance at the
distance of 100 mm and 180 mm. A magnetic eld level of approxi-
transmitting and the receiving sides, respectively while D is the
mately 7 A/m is presented evenly at both the Tx and Rx coils when
distance between the coils.
the separation distance is 100 mm, whereas the magnetic eld
0 N1 N2 (a1 a2 )2 linkage with the receiving coil is decreasing till it vanishes at a par-
k12 =  3/2  (3) ticular distance between the two coils as shown in Fig. 5(c) and (d);
2 a21 + D2 L1 L2
respectively.
 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502 497

Fig. 5. Observation of magnetic-eld over the distance. (a) Actual coils, (b) values of relevant simulation parameters (c) distribution of magnetic eld at distance of 100 mm,
(d) distribution of magnetic eld at distance of 180 mm.

The mutual inductance corresponding to maximum power Table 2

Comparison of the obtained results.
transfer, M12,max is extracted by differentiating the receiving power
in Eq. (4) with respect to M12 (PL /M12 = 0) that will lead to Measurement result % Error

Rp RL FEKO Calculation
M12,max = (8) 40 mm S21 = 0.978 1.31% 1.71%
0
 dis- fo = 966 kHz 3.40% 1.02%
 Rp RL o N1 N2 (a1 a2 )2 tance S21 = 0.955 3.34% 4.02%
M12,max = k12 L1 L2 = =   32 (9) fo = 1.42 MHz 2.07% 8.97%
0 113 mm distance S21 = 0.915 3.99% 8.04%
2 a21 + D2
fo = 1.12 MHz 3.45% 3.45%
Result indicates that the mutual inductance as a key parameter 150 mm distance S21 = 0.655 10.27% 20.80%
fo = 1.13 MHz 2.59% 2.59%
for WPT is determined by the resistances Rp , RL and the resonance
frequency 0 . It is noticed that maximum power transfer can take
place at a critical distance Dc given in Eq. (10).

  23 of the maximum power transfer given in Eq. (8) [35]. The correla-

Dc =
 o N 2 a4 o
 a2 (10)
tion between the absolute value of S21 and the distance, frequency
2 Rp RL is displayed in Fig. 6. In this computation, the height of the helical
coil is 0.03 m and the distance is measured between the centres of
3.3. S-parameter analysis the coils. The highest level of S21 is achieved at a distance of 0.113 m
at a resonance frequency of 1.167 MHz. The practical results of
As the resonance frequency is at the megahertz range, it is incon- S21 measured by the network analyser (Agilent Technology Field-
venient to measure voltage and current directly for circuit analysis. Fox N9915A) is compared to the calculated value and the value
The scattering parameter (S-parameter) indicates the level of the obtained through FEKO simulation at the near, critical, and far dis-
transmitting and the reecting coefcients in the frequency domain tance as shown in Fig. 7. The expected critical distance is extracted
and it is convertible to Z-parameter [34]. The two-coil system in as 113 mm from Eq. (10) and the transferred power correspond-
Fig. 4 is considered as two-port network. The transmitting coef- ing to this critical distance is shown in Fig. 7(b) that shows highest
cient S21 represents the transfer efciency and is given in Eq. (11) level of S21 (0.915) at a frequency of 1.123 MHz. When the two coils
in which VL is the voltage across the load resistance RL . are at under- coupled-region, as the receiving unit is positioned far
  away from the transmitting unit more than the critical distance, the
Rp VL 2jM12 Rp RL transferred power declined sharply as can be seen in Fig. 7(c) while
S21 = 2 =   (11) multiple resonances can be observed when the distance between
RL Vp 2
Rp + Z1 (Z2 + RL ) + 2 M12
the two coils is less than the critical distance as shown in Fig. 7(a).
S21 can be at its maximum level when the circuit is at reso- These results indicate that the power is not transferred efciently
nance condition and the mutual inductance satises the condition at the original resonance frequency within over-coupled-region.
498 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502

Fig. 6. S21 over distance and frequency. (a) S21 on 2D, (b) S21 on 3D.

Fig. 7. Comparison of S21 results over distance. (a) 40 mm distance, (b) 113 mm distance (critical point), (c) 150 mm distance, (d) S21 measurement set-up.

Table 2 shows a comparison of the results obtained through
experimental measurements, simulation and analytical calculation.
The percentage error of the simulation and analytical analyses is
calculated with respect to the value obtained through experimen-
tal measurement. Table 2 reveals that the error in the simulation
and calculated results is relatively small when the transfer distance
is less than the critical distance (113 mm) and the error is increas-
ing beyond this distance. Also, it can be observed that the error
in calculation is higher than the simulation which is attributed to
the assumption of neglecting the skin and proximity effects in the
calculation analysis.
3.4. Application of the frequency response analyser
Frequency response analyser (FRA) based on fast furrier trans-
form (FFT) technique is widely used by the power utility industry to
identify winding and core deformations within power transform-
ers [3639]. FRA is more cost effective and more user-friendly than
a vector network analyser (VNA) [40]. In this section, a new FRA
application is introduced for WPT system due to the fact that the
winding of WPT can be considered as a coreless transformer. During
the measurement, the source and load resistances were set to 50 
and the voltage transfer ratio (VTR) of the output voltage VRL and
input voltage V1 as given in Eq. (12) were recorded over a frequency
range of 20 kHz to 10 MHz as shown in Fig. 8.
VRL (f )
A(f ) = 20 log10 | | [dB] (12)
V1 (f )
The maximum power transfer is obtained when the magnitude
of VTR reaches zero dB at a distance of 105 mm which is comparable
to the expected critical distance of 113 mm observed in the previ-
ous section. As illustrated in Fig. 8(a), the frequency bifurcation is
clearly observed under the critical distance and the band width of
the trace is wider than the trace at the critical distance as indicated
by the direction of the arrows on the graph.
On the other hand, the trace band width becomes narrower
when the distance increases as depicted in Fig. 8(b). Fig. 8(c)
reveals that the transfer impedance is maintained at a minimum
value of approximately 8  when the distance is under the criti-
cal distance. The transfer impedance increases for distances above
the critical distance as shown in Fig. 8(d). Results of this section
indicate that distance of the maximum power transfer and the fre-
quency bifurcation can be effectively identied through analysing
the WPT voltage transfer ratio and transfer impedance using fre-
quency response analyser.
 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502
Fig. 8. FRA measurement results. (a) VTR under Dc , (b) VTR over critical distance Dc , (c) Transfer impedance under Dc , (d) Transfer impedance over Dc .
4. Current constraints and solutions
From the above review and case study, one can identify four
main issues within WPT technology that need further research as
summarized in Table 3 and briey explained below.
4.1. Design
From Eq. (2), it was claried that a high Q factor enhances energy
conversion in near eld. By increasing the coupling coefcient,
self-inductance, resonance frequency, or reducing the parasitic
resistance of the coil, a high level of Q factor can be achieved. To
reduce the power loss on windings, two types of coils: solid-ferrite-
material-based and prefractured-material- based, are introduced
in Ref. [41]. Solid-ferrite-material-based coil is benecial when
the system efciency is more important than the difculty of the
implantation. On the other hand, a prefractured-material-based
coil is suitable for portable devices applications. For the suppres-
sion of the skin and the proximity effect on the conductor in the
high frequency range, a stranded Litz-wire is used [42]. Super-
conductor winding can be also used to improve the efciency
by 40% compared to conventional copper wound coil [43]. How-
ever, the implementation of superconductors is yet impractical and
expensive. The parasitic resistance of the coil can be mitigated by
rewinding the coil with a thick wire or utilizing a conductor made
of advanced material but the convenience of the implementation
and the cost need to be examined. Besides, in the system with a
single transmitter and a receiver, the interaction between the two
coils only occurs in a single coordinate plane. To resolve this mat-
499
ter, a three-dimensional transmitter was introduced in Ref. [44].
In such 3D system, the strength of the mutual inductance can be
compensated by the multidirectional couplings and the power is
transferred through the skew path with the domino coils [45]. A
prototype WPT at 60 Hz was demonstrated in Ref. [7]. To over-
come the lack of Q factor, a silicon steel magnetic core was used to
reinforce the coupling coefcient. However, the number of turns is
much larger than a high frequency-based system and the efciency
is sharply declined over 100 mm distance. In 2015, Korea Advanced
Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) implemented a new
topology of WPT that can send a few hundred watts of energy up
to 5 m distance. The expansion of the transfer distance was accom-
plished by inserting a dipole antenna made of a magnetic core into
the transmitting and the receiving windings [46].
4.2. Efciency
For a great performance of the WPT system, primarily, an
efcient HF power supply is essential. A power supply for WPT
generally falls into three topologies: resonant half, full bridge con-
verter or resonant push pull converter, and class-E amplier [27]. As
reported in Ref. [47], class-E amplier with independent gate drive
achieved end-to-end efciency of 75.7% for 295 W power transfer
at 134 kHz. The current-mode and voltage-mode class-E amplier,
providing an advanced performance over the load variation, was
presented in Ref. [48]. It was recorded that the efciency is 83%
with approximately 25 W power transfer at 6.78 MHz. More power
can be transferred with the impedance matching technique [49],
however, this calls for trading off between the amount of power
500 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502

Table 3
Classication and current matters of WPT.

Classication Indication of problems Reference

Design How can the resistance of the coils be reduced to enhance Q factor? [41,42,43]
What type of coil is most suitable for the system? (e.g. spiral, helical or others) [44,45]
How should inductive coupling over distance be compensated? [7,46]
Efciency What type of an amplier provides best performance? [47,48]
How should the impedance matching between Tx and Rx be performed correctly? [49,50]
How does the efciency increase below the critical distance? [51,35,52,53]
How should the high efciency be kept constantly with multiple coil or loads? [54,55]
Stability How should the system be protected from abnormal conditions? [56]
What kind of LC combination is applied to the resonant circuit? (e.g. SS, SP, PS or PP) [57,58]
How should the power transfer in multiple devices be optimized? [59]
Safety How should the radiation in magnetic coupling system be measured precisely? [60,61,62]
What kind of standard is applied to the radiation exposure measurement? [62]

Fig. 9. Comparison of electromagnetic eld limit for public exposure. (a) Electric eld, (b) magnetic eld.

transfer and the transfer efciency. Accomplishment of impedance
matching is not easy in WPT as various conditions in complex con-
jugate (i.e. reections, dynamic range, and signal to noise ratio)
need to be considered [50]. A frequency bifurcation is physically
unclear [63] and it is unavoidable at close distances between coils
in the inductive power transfer system. To enhance the efciency in
the magnetically over-coupled region, two non-identical receiving
and transmitting coils are proposed [35]. It was also veried that
the low efciency at near distance can be also enhanced by adjust-
ing the angle of the resonance coil to reduce the mutual inductance
M12 as the rapid increase of M12 at the over-coupled region results
in the frequency bifurcation [51]. Alternatively, the efciency at
short distances is improved by shifting the resonance frequency
[52]. In Ref. [53], an algorithm to optimize the load resistance for
maximum transfer efciency is presented. The transfer efciency
was improved from 53% to 71% with this optimization technique.
Distinct patterns of the frequency bifurcation are observed against
the variation of the frequency and the coupling coefcient between
Tx and Rx [64]. In general, inductively coupled system indicates
V-pattern similar to the one in Fig. 6. However, different patterns
such as I-type or W-type can be also shown when multiple relay (or
intermediating, repeating) coils are placed between the transmit-
ter and the receiver. The additional coil strengthens the magnetic
coupling and improves the efciency [54]. However, the system
becomes more sensitive to the frequency bifurcation and it requires
precise frequency tuning [55].
4.3. Stability
WPT system can be damaged when a malfunction occurs in
amplifying units or in any electrical components or due to the
high voltage induction in the energization without load condi-
tion. The circuits of WPT systems can be classied based on the
compensating capacitance to seriesseries (SS), seriesparallel (SP),
parallelparallel (PP) and parallelseries (PS) [57]. In Ref. [58] a SS
composition with constant current source is reported as the most
reliable conguration in terms of ve criteria: maximum efciency,
maximum power transfer, load-independent output voltage and
current, magnetic coupling co-efcient (k12 ) independency, and
allowance for no magnetic coupling (k12 = 0). As previously stated in
Section 3.1, the efciency of SS system signicantly declines with
the increase of the source resistance. The load detection system
without a supplementary communication device was introduced
in Ref. [56]. Three different conditions: safe, no-load, and fault
are determined by the voltage on the transmitter coil and the
source current. In addition, the optimal load resistance is handled
to achieve maximum power efciency or maximum power delivery
in a multiple receivers system [59].
4.4. Safety
The human exposure to electric and magnetic elds in the trans-
fer space must be considered in any WPT topology. A level of electric
eld exceeds the guideline of 83 V/m recommended by the Interna-
tional Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)
[65] when two coils are under the distance of 5 cm in a WPT sys-
tem of 1 W input power and 10 MHz frequency. On the other hand,
the level of the magnetic eld of the above-mentioned system com-
plies with the standard level of 21 A/m [60]. Although the inductive
coupling method is categorized as a non-radiative mechanism, the
residual electromagnetic power still arises in the vicinity of the WPT
system. In this regard, James C. Lin stated that WPT energy can be
absorbed into human bodies or biological organisms [61].
 D. Kim et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 154 (2018) 493502 501

Table 4
State of IPT-based WPT technologies.

Ref. Year Number of coils Frequency Power Distance End-to-end efcient Transfer efciency Application (charging)

[20] 2007 4 9.9 MHz 60 W 2m 15% 40%

[51] 2011 4 7.65 MHz 12 W 0.7 m 50% Laptop
[66] 2014 2 60 kHz 180 kW 70 mm 86% Railway vehicle
[7] 2015 2 60 Hz 314 W 50 mm 86.5% Rescue robot
165 W 100 mm 78.3% In nuclear station
[46] 2015 2 20 kHz 1403 W 3m 29% Back-up power
471 W 4m 16% For sensor charging
209 W 5m 8% In nuclear station
[67] 2015 2 13.56 MHz 60 mW 30 mm 50% 92.6% Medical implant
[68] 2016 2 6.78 MHz 5W 30 mm 51% 81% Mobile phone
[69] 2017 2 85.5 kHz 2860 W 150 mm 88.05% Electric vehicle

4.5. Summary and expectation
Since the technology of the middle-range power transfer was
introduced, the efciency and the transfer distance have been
improved over the last decade as summarized in Table 4. The key
challenges in developing reliable WPT system is to maximize the
amount of transferred energy in a safe manner while maintaining
the efciency over the distance. For instance, if the resonance fre-
quency merely rises to enhance Q factor, the parasitic resistance on
the coil might increase due to the skin effect and it is difcult to
tune the sensitive elements at the exact frequency. For advanced
WPT design, new materials such as superconductor or supercapac-
itor are applied. It was also claried that the additional magnetic
elements such as dipole magnetic cores in the coils or the extra
transmitters in 3-D planes can enhance the performance of WPT.
However, optimization analysis with economy study is essential
for the implementation of these solutions. As shown in Table 4,
the efciency of the recent developed systems reaches 90% due to
the high-performance power devices used in the implementation.
However, this high efciency presents only at near transfer distance
while poor efciency still occurs in the region of the weak magnetic
coupling.
It is expected that the demands of more high-powered and
more reliable WPT systems in various environments increase sig-
nicantly in the very near future. It is also expected that the demand
for higher amount of power transfer and simultaneous use of mul-
tiple WPT devices in a room increase [70]. It is noted that the
transfer efciency does not consider the source impedance unlike
the end-to-end efciency. As the general WPT system consists of
various units: power source, amplier (or converter), transmitter
and receiver, rectier, voltage regulator and load units, deni-
tions of efciencies need to be claried to avoid the confusion
of the terminology. To preserve the stability of the future WPT
system, the procedure of measuring electromagnetic interference
(EMI) in near-eld and the limit of EMI should be claried. The
safety on human exposure to the designated frequency must also
be concerned. In the comparison between ICNIRP guideline and
IEEE standard, it is needed to clarify the gap of the exposure limits
[62]. The public exposure limits suggested by the IEEE C95.1-2014
standard [71] and ICNIRP guidelines [72] along with the difference
between the two limits in a wide frequency range are illustrated
in Fig. 9. In this gure, various WPT applications listed in Table 4
are shown by their reference number at a specic frequency range.
The signicant discrepancies of the electric led and the magnetic
eld exposure limits over a hundred of V/m and A/m, respectively
are observed in the frequency range 60 Hz to 10 MHz. Comparable
values of the exposure limits of the two guidelines are observed at
the frequency range above 10 MHz.
5. Conclusion
As the demand of battery charging on mobile applications
and remote sensors increases, WPT in various methods: inductive
coupling, capacitive coupling and microwave, is regarded as a con-
venient solution for remote charging of these devices. This paper
presents a state-of-the-art review of the aforementioned WPT
mechanisms. The validity of enhancing Q factor and strengthening
mutual inductance between a transmitter and a receiver for the ef-
ciency improvement of a two-coil IPT circuit has been described by
analytical calculation, simulation analysis and experimental mea-
surements. The limitations of current WPT system were extracted
with solutions in four perspectives: design, efciency, stability and
safety. Although the amount of energy, transfer distance and ef-
ciency have been enhanced over decades by the advancement of
power materials and the improvement of the topologies, Teslas
desire has not been accomplished yet. To achieve conveying great
amount of electric energy in large distance with high efciency, the
four themes need to be concerned without partiality based on the
optimum analysis and the reasonable procedures.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the supports from Australian
government research training program and Curtin university post-
graduate scholarship.
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