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(acquired skill)
-Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory
Elements
-are made up of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down into simpler matter by physical
or chemical means
Compounds
-are made of two or more different elements bound together in a constant ratio and can be broken
down using chemical means but not physical means.
-have properties different from its component atoms.
Mixtures
-Two or more different elements/ compounds mixed together but not chemically bonded
-can be separated into its components by physical means
-components retain original properties
-identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of
elements and compounds
Heavy media separation: involves using a mixture of fine media material such as a magnetite or
ferrosilicon suspended in a slurry of water to produce a media slurry with a specific gravity that will
allow low density materials to float, and the other high density materials to sink. Used to separate
iron from its ore.
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
-identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of: solids of
different sizes, solids and liquids, dissolved solids in liquids, liquids, gases
-assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying the
differences in properties which enable these separations
Plasmapheresis: Very efficient way to separate blood from plasma withdrawn from a donor. Placed
in a centrifuge to swiftly separate plasma from blood cells as opposed to waiting for it the blood cells
to settle. Relies on differences in weight of plasma and red blood cells.
Separation of oxygen and nitrogen using fractional distillation: Air is placed in a fractional
distillation tank. Since nitrogen and oxygen have boiling points which are very close together this is
suitable. The tank can be chilled so that gaseous nitrogen can be extracted through the top and
liquid oxygen can be extracted through the bottom.
Sedimentation and Decanting: Minerals such as Gold, can be separated when the denser substances
sink to the bottom and the less dense material can be collected.
Properties:
Density, Solubility, Boiling/melting points, magnetic (e.g. in junkyards)
-describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists
Gravimetric analysis is a method based on accurate determining of mass to find the percentage
composition of a mixture/ compound.
-They may want to decide whether a new mineral deposit contains a sufficiently high percentage of
a required compound to make its extraction worth the money.
-To find the composition of soil in a location to see if it is suitable for crops.
-To determine if certain substances are present in the air/water to find out how polluted samples
are
-To decide whether a commercial mixture being sold has the same percentage composition as a
similar mixture by a rival company.
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
-apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
STUDENTS:
-gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations to represent all
chemical reactions encountered in the Preliminary course
-identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to separate the
components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as a sand, salt and water
-gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to estimate its percentage
composition
Experiment: Separating sand and salt and carrying out gravimetric analysis
Aim: To determine the percentage composition of a mixture of salt and sand, using gravimetric
analysis
Method:
-identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to identify
the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere
or atmosphere and use the evidence available to:
Atmosphere:
The properties of the mixture used in this separation are the very close boiling points of all three
gases.
The products of separation include oxygen, argon and nitrogen as well as a wastes such as
hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, organic vapours and other pollutants.
The waste products are a low risk environmental threat, because a lot of the waste products are
already present in the atmosphere. However increasing levels of carbon in the air may contribute to
global warming.
Apart from the noble gases and the gases in the air, virtually the rest of the 92 elements occur as
compounds because they are chemically reactive:
The higher the reactivity of an element, the less chance of finding it as an uncombined element.
-classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties
-account for uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
Common metals show many properties including: melting point, conductivity, strength and
hardness
Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Chromium and Nickel are common metals and therefore are
commonly used as building materials, transport, machinery, electrical wiring, appliances and
household goods.
E.g. Copper is used for electrical wiring because it is ductile and has high electrical conductivity.
(METAL CATIONS IN A LATTICE DELOCALISED ELECTRONS)
Gold is used as jewellery because of its lustre, low reactivity and rarity.
Aluminium is used as plane parts because it is light and very strong
Iron is used in building materials because it is strong
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
Diamond is used as jewellery and sometimes shields in military helicopters because of their extreme
hardness.
Helium is used in balloons because of its low molecular weight and density and non flammability/
cooling medium for nuclear reactors, helium/neon lasers
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
STUDENTS:
plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including malleability, hardness and
electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of common elements to present information about the
classification of elements as metals, non-metals or semi-metals
Method
1. To test each element sample for lustre, take a small ball of steel wool rubbing the sample evenly
and observe whether the surface of the sample becomes lustrous or shiny. This step is not required
if the sample is visibly lustrous or is in a powder form.
2. To test for electrical conductivity, connect the conducting wires from the power supply to the
element tested, to the a light source creating a circuit. If the element does conduct electricity then
the light source will remain off.
3. To test for hardness, take a sample of an element and rub it against another element to see if any
scratches are produced. If scratches are produced then the element used to rub is harder than the
element which is scratched.
4. To test for malleability, take a hammer and apply impact to the element. If the element can be
hammered into a sheet it is malleable.
Results
analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of metals and non-metals
Refer to STUDENTS LEARN TO: dot points
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present information about the
classification of elements as:
-metals, non-metals and semi-metals
-solids, liquids and gases at 25 C and normal atmospheric pressure
Underlined (except Hg and Br)= Gases at room temp, (N, O, F, Cl, Kr, Xe, Rn, Ar, Ne, He, H)
Liquids at room temp, (Mercury and Bromine)
Electrons exist in energy levels. As the energy level goes up, the greater the energy a level possesses.
There is a max number of electrons which can exist in energy levels. The general rule for this is 2n2, n
being the energy level. In atoms the electrons tend to be in the lowest energy levels possible
consistent with not over-filling the levels.
The atomic number is the number of protons (and electrons) in the nucleus of an atom of an
element
The mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
Electron 1/1840 -1
Atoms are neutral particles (protons =electrons). They are able to gain/lose these electrons. When
they do they are no longer neutral and called ions.
When there is an excess of (positive) protons compared to (negative) electrons, the ion is positively
charged and is called a cation.
When there is a shortfall of (positive) protons compared to (negative) electrons, the ion is negatively
charged and is called an anion.
Generally metals lose electrons to form positive ions and non metals gain electrons to form negative
ions.
-apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals
-apply Lewis electron dot structures to: - the formation of ions the electron sharing in some simple
molecules
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
-describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
Ionic compounds form due to the attraction of ions of opposite charge. The electron donation
between a metal to a non-metal is the reason for it becoming a charged ion. They are then attracted
to each other because they have an opposite charge forming a 3d repeating lattice of cations/anions
-distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one
atom
Diatomic molecule:
Is a pair of atoms permanently stuck together to form a molecule e.g. oxygen gas (O2).
They from a diatomic molecule as they need covalent bonds to have a stable outer shell.
Metals cannot form diatomic molecules as they are not involved in covalent bonds.
Monatomic molecule:
The noble gases are examples of monatomic atoms meaning they exist as independent atoms.
They dont need to join with another atom to become diatomic as they have a full outer shell.
Covalent bonds form between atoms where they share electrons to achieve a full outer shell (stable
configuration) (non-metal and non metal)
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
-construct formulae for compounds formed from: - ions atoms sharing electrons
Non transitional metals (you can tell by looking at the group number)
(Transition metals) Name will specify. .e.g. Iron (II) Oxide
Polyatomic ions
Prefix Meaning
mono- One atom
di- Two atoms
tri- Three atoms
tetra- Four atoms
penta- Five atoms
hypo= smaller
proportion of
per- greater
proportion of
STUDENTS:
-analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals, ionic compounds and
covalent compounds
Covalent network
-construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions
Ions are formed when atoms give up or accept electrons. Metals giving up electrons are cations. Non
metals gaining electrons are anions.
For example:
CATIONS
Na -> Na+ + e-
END OF PART 3
4. Energy is required to extract
elements from their naturally occuring
sources
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
-identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles
A physical change is one that does not lead to forming a new substance. These include changes in
physical properties such as a change in state, density or volume.
A chemical change ALWAYS involves a new substance with different properties/composition being
formed.
-summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference
between physical and chemical change
-identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during
the decomposition of synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday
life
Heat is absorbed to decompose Copper Carbonate into Copper Oxide solid and Carbon dioxide gas
CuCO3(s) -> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
Calcium carbonate (limestone) is decomposed to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide by heating it to
make lime, cement and glass
-explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compounds is an indication of the
strength of the attraction, or bond, between them
The amount of energy required to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of
the attraction or bonds between them. The stronger the bond, the higher the energy required to
break a bond.
In covalent bonds, non metals can be sharing one pair, two pairs or three pairs. The higher the
number of bonds the higher the energy required to break them.
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
STUDENTS:
-plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a carbonate by heat, using
appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide as products of the reaction
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown with about a teaspoon
of calcium carbonate in the test tube being heated and
some limewater in the second test tube.
3. While still heating the magnesium carbonate, remove the test tube containing the limewater and
place it on a rack.
Results
A chemical change occurs: a gas (CO2) was given off and changes colour from green to black.
Limewater can be used to detect CO2 due to the fact that a precipitate is formed when it is in the
presence of carbon dioxide. (This is according to the following formula)
Method: Silver nitrate is soluble, but the silver halide salts (silver chloride, silver bromide, silver
iodide) are not.
1. Add around 10mL silver nitrate solution to separate test tubes containing sodium chloride, sodium
bromide and sodium iodide solutions. The silver halide salts should precipitate out.
3. For each halide salt, place one dish in direct sunlight, another dish under an ultraviolet lamp and
the third in a dark cupboard. Leave for 10 minutes.
Results: the precipitation reactions for the preparation of the silver halides are given by
Oxygen test with glowing splint. In the presence of oxygen the flame will reignite.
Conclusion: Water is a compound and can be decomposed through electrolysis. This is a means of
obtaining pure oxygen and pure hydrogen for use as fuels.
-analyse and present the information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water tracing the
movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules
Boiling water is a physical change. H2O molecules remain intact. However water has changed from
closely packed molecules to well spaced molecules in a gas which mixes with air
Electrolysis is a chemical change and the bonds in the molecules are broken and new bonds formed.
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
The different chemical and physical properties of substances allows them to be distinguished and
used.
Physical properties are those determined without changing the chemical composition of the
substance. Includes colour, lustre, hardness, conductivity, melting/boiling points and solubility.
Chemical properties are those related to the reaction of one substance with another.
Includes changes when one substance decomposes or reacts with other substances. For example
mercury (II) oxide can e easily broken down by heat into mercury and oxygen but heating silicon
dioxide has no effect. Similarly sodium is so reactive it reacts with moisture in the air but gold
remains the same for centuries.
-describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent
network
In metallic bonds there are a 3D lattice of metal cations bonded together surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons.
Ionic bonds consist of strong electrostatic bonds formed between cations and anions.
Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non metal in an effort to attain a
stable octet of electrons. In the process the metal atoms becomes cations and the non metal atoms
become anions and the strong electrostatic attraction between them holds them together in a
repeating 3d lattice.
E.g. sodium gives up an electron to chlorine to become Na+ and Cl receives an electron to become Cl-
mimicking the stable arrangement of a noble gas.
Covalent bonds consist of two atoms sharing electrons to gain a stable configuration. The electrons
are not free to move around.
The bonding in metals can be described as 3D lattices of metal cations in a sea of electrons.
Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attraction
between the cat and anions. These ions are arranged in repeating regular, 3D lattices.
An empirical formula shows the ratio of the ions of atoms in the compound using simple whole
numbers.
Because ionic compounds consist of repeating 3D lattices, there are no identifiable discrete
molecules such as H2O. There is no set number of NaCl particles in any particular crystal of sodium
chloride and secondly there is no need as the formula for an ionic compound can be represented as
an empirical formula.
The radio of Na+ ions to Cl- ions in a NaCl lattice is 1:1 and therefore we can write NaCl.
-explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic,
covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic compounds
Ionic compounds consist of very large endlessly repeating lattice of ions. There are strong
electrostatic attractions between positive and negative and therefore require a lot of energy to
overcome them. Therefore these substances all have high melting/boiling points and are hard but
brittle solids.
Since the electrons or ions in a solid ionic compound are not free to move, they cannot conduct
electricity. However if they are dissolved or molten, the mobile ions will allow them to.
Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds involve atoms bonded together through the sharing of electrons with other
atoms. In these compounds, each atom is joined to other atoms in molecules. When a covalent
compound melts or boils, it is the forces between the molecules that are broken and very little
energy is need to make this happen so they exist as gases or soft easily melted solids.
There are no free electrons and ions cant move and therefore they do not conduct electricity.
Covalent network
Giant molecular lattices. Covalent bonding holds the atoms together in an extended network with
the bonding between atoms going on in 3D. Because of the large amount of energy needed to break
huge numbers of covalent bonds, all giant covalent network structures have high melting/boiling
points.
Electron movement in covalent network structures is generally restricted and do not conduct an
electric current. However in graphite each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy levels in
covalent bonding and so each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalised system of
electrons free to move throughout the plane. Graphite conducts electricity along this plane of
carbon atoms but not perpendicular to the plane.
Diamonds are EXTREMELY hard because it has a tetrahedral structure which is extremely
compact/compressed. There are millions of bonds in a diamond tetrahedral network meaning
energy required to break these bonds is palpable and stresses are absorbed in all directions.
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
STUDENTS:
-perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common elements in their elemental
state with the properties of the compound(s) of these elements (eg magnesium and oxygen)
Method: Take a piece of magnesium ribbon and, with a piece of steel wool, remove the oxide
coating on it. Note its appearance, test its flexibility and solubility in water.
Look at some oxygen gas in a test tube. Record the appearance of oxygen. Bubble some through
water and note its solubility.
Burn some dry Mg. Note the appearance of the ash, magnesium oxide. Test its solubility in water.
Results:
MgO is a white powder and is soluble in water. The compound MgO has a very different appearance
and properties to either of the elements from which it was formed.
-choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the limitations of
models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices
Advantages of models
-Summarise what we know
-Based on practical experiences
-Help us to visualise and understand ideas eg structure of matter
-Help us to understand mechanisms of chemical reactions
-Can be used to make predictions and design further experiments to test a model
Limitations of models
-Models and theories are not facts they are ideas so they depend on the observers interpretation.
Anyone can make mistakes. Scientists may misinterpret data and become too attached to their own
ideas and lose objectivity.
-Models may be based on incomplete or incorrect information
Joshua Pham The Chemical Earth Summaries Preliminary Chemistry
Covalent lattice
-Display the covalent bonds and correct ratios
-Models sometimes incorrectly suggest that a covalent lattice compound is a small number of atoms,
whereas the actual structure is a huge number of atoms in a network.
Ionic lattice
-Empirical formula suggests ionic bonds exist as small units which is not so.
-Tells us the ratio of ions present.
-Tell us that ionic substances exist in crystals with many ions packed together and the arrangement
of the ions determines shape of crystal.
-perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common substances in order to
classify them as metallic, ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network substances and relate their
characteristics to their uses (refer to dot point: -describe the physical properties used to classify
compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network)