Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

First Ladies Abigail Adams, Mary Todd Lincoln, Edith Wilson, Lady Bird Johnson

and Hillary Clinton were often teased by their husbands of previous boyfriends, and

reassured them that they made the right choice. However, several of the First Ladies

rebutted that if she had married someone else, then he would have been President.

The function of the First Lady is quite complicated; the presidential spouse is an

unelected partisan in a political institution. Nevertheless, she has the potential to spread

substantial influence in governmental matters. The public nature of the position gives

first ladies some latitude of performance in the public sphere, yet they must conform to

gender standards that reflect models of American womanhood1, and serve the private

sphere of home and family responsibilities. Based on expectations of gender roles, and

deviation from perceived standards, the First Lady is subject to criticism. The role of the

First Lady parallels changes in the status of American women; this paper will discuss the

appearance of the First Lady from a traditional hostess to active public icon and

confidante to the President of the United States.

Had Martha Washington been given manuals with titles like What to Expect When

Youre the First Lady and The Unofficial Guide to Being a First Lady, she undoubtedly

would have devoured them in an instant. Martha unconventionally journeyed into the

public sphere and spotlight, long reserved for men only. When Martha arrived at the

1 Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), p.

21.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

capital, New York City, at that time, her privileges were limited, and she was unwilling at

first2. In a letter to a niece, she confided:

I think I am more like a state prisoner than anything else, there is certain bounds

set for me which I must not depart from and as I can not doe as I like I am obstinate and

stay at home a great deal.3 As Washingtons tenure progressed, Martha oversaw the

household4, and soon embraced her role in the public sphere, hosting socials and official

state functions. She hoped to abandon European traditions of royalty, with focus on

domestic duties and cooking, more than lavish gatherings. Martha became famous for

many early American folk culture recipes, teaching culinary technique to American

women and readers, and pleasing George with desserts filled with nuts and fruits5.

Beyond recipes, there was much debate over what her official title should be; printed on

official calling cards6 , social invitations and dining cutlery, she asked to be addressed as

Mrs. Washington or Lady Washington. Mrs. Washingtons domesticated the role of

First Lady, as caregiver for her husband and children, and hostess for simple, social

gatherings, setting the stage for her successors.

2 Martha Washington, quoted in Fraser, Flora. New York Houses, 1789-1790 in The Washingtons:

George and Martha, "join'd by Friendship, Crown'd by Love" (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2015), 302.

3 "Letter." Martha Washington to Fanny Bassett Washington. October 23, 1789. In The Historical

Society of Pennsylvania.

4 Martha Washington, "Letter, Martha Washington to Fanny Bassett Washington, May 24, 1795," in

Martha Washington, Item #9, http://marthawashington.us/items/show/9 (accessed February 29,

2016).

5 Martha Washington's Book of Cookery and Book of Sweetmeats, transcribed by Karen Hess [Columbia

University Press: New York] 1995.

6 "Martha Washington's calling card and case," in Martha Washington, Item #68, http://

marthawashington.us/items/show/68 (accessed February 29, 2016).

Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

Abigail Adams brought very different ideas to marriage and womens role, and

dubbed the name, Mrs. President. While maintaining ceremonial responsibilities,

Abigail managed her husbands campaign and political platform and often acted as a

proxy for the President. She advocated for equal public education for women7,

emancipation of African-American slaves, and human rights movements.8 [Will insert

more about her involvement and interest in womens education.] She often received

criticism for stepping beyond the proper bound of her sex9, but was highly revered by

opinionated women10. As implied through affectionate, and informative writing

correspondence,11 John Adams valued Abigails opinions and encouraged her

involvement in substantive issues facing the country. Abigail demonstrated the

opportunity of a role beyond ceremonial duties, for spouses who wanted it with the

consent of the President. Other First Ladies of her time ignored chances to embrace

feminism and slipped into the limitations of the supportive, domestic role.

Dolley Madison, a Quaker from North Carolina, actively participated in James

Madisons campaign, but flaunted her life and publicized her efforts as a hostess, rather

7 Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 14 August 1776 [electronic edition]. Adams Family
Papers: An Electronic Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. http://www.masshist.org/
digitaladams/

8 Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 30 June 1778, draft [electronic edition]. Adams Family
Papers: An Electronic Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. http://www.masshist.org/
digitaladams/

9 Adams, Henry, Life of Albert Gallatin (Philadelphia, 1879), p. 185.

10 Perkins, Bradford, A Diplomats Wife in Philadelphia: Letters of Henrietta Listen, 1796-1800,

William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 11 (October 1954), p. 593.

11 Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams [electronic edition]. Adams Family Papers: An Electronic

Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/ (accessed

February 28, 2016).
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

than political activist. Once First Lady, Dolley was praised as Americas sweetheart, and

insisted on the name, Lady Presidentress. Although Dolley had little interest in the

political realm, President Madison depended on her social skills, in cementing friends and

appeasing foes.12 When hosting private parties, she befriended the spouses of political

figures and solicited support for legislation13, in her husbands favor. Dolleys use of the

unofficial sphere of political influence modeled the power of society for future first

ladies.

Dolley expanded the domestic role, hosting more social gatherings than any

predecessor or successor 14, including the first presidential inaugural ball, a celebration

that continues today. She institutionalized an ethos of hosting guidelines and manners,

and created the role of Executive Mansion hostess. Dolley redecorated the public rooms

and chose the yellow damask color scheme15 to match the interior design of that time.

Dolley dressed rather regally to present a grandiose faade for foreign diplomats and

guests, and acted kindly to all favored guests and opponents.16 After the White House

went ablaze in 1814, and Dolley held fewer social gatherings17, she began volunteering

12 Clark, Allen, Mr. Madison, November 1, 1805 [electronic edition]. Life and Letters of Dolly
Madison: An Electronic Archive. (Washington, Press of W.F. Roberts Co., 1914). https://archive.org/
details/lifelettersofdol01clar/ (accessed February 28, 2016).

13 Landau, Barry H. The President's Table: Two Hundred Years of Dining and Diplomacy. (New York, NY:
Collins, 2007), p. 7.

14 Ibid, p. 7.

15Caroli, Betty Boyd. Inside the White House: Americas Most Famous Home. (Washington, D.C.: The
Readers Digest Association, 1999), p. 36.

16 Ibid., p. 163.

17Landau, Barry H. The President's Table: Two Hundred Years of Dining and Diplomacy. (New York, NY:
Collins, 2007), p. 8.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

with other American women in an orphanage 18 to draw in good press. Dolley created a

celebrity status for first ladies, and positioned them as ideal cultural embodiments of

American womanhood. Her successors would use similar press coverage for adopted

volunteer projects, and expand womens presence in the public spotlight.

Mary Todd Lincoln was an intimidating nineteenth-century role model for

women, in spite of her lifes tragedies. Like most women of the era, she was concerned

with her marriage and family, but she also took much interest in Lincolns political career,

and her ambitions. Mary Todd Lincolns tone-deaf practice of the unofficial sphere of

politics allowed ambiguous privilege of that power. Following the traditions of her

predecessors, Mary hosted a variety of social events and suppers, in an effort to garner

support for her husband and engage in political and literary conversations.19 Mary was

praised as a trendsetter for her beauty and style, but heavily criticized for her personal

life, education and political views. Upon Lincolns re-election, the press subjected Mary

to criticism for her spending habits. 20 She was a shopaholic, and incurred many debts as

a result21. To avoid frustrating Lincoln, and financially ruining themselves, she creatively

made profit by selling White House manure.22 Losing her fight for social recognition,

18Clark, Allen, May 20, 1815 [electronic edition]. Life and Letters of Dolly Madison: An Electronic
Archive. (Washington, Press of W.F. Roberts Co., 1914). https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofdol01clar/
(accessed February 26, 2016).

19 Gould, Lewis L., Mary (Ann) Todd Lincoln, American First Ladies Their Lives and Their Legacy.
(Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2014), p. 184.

20Kennedy, Jacqueline, John F. Kennedy, and Charles Collingwood. "A Tour of the White
House." (Washington, D.C., Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), February 14, 1962), Accessed April 1,
2016. 12:45 48:00.

21 Clinton, Catherine. Mrs. Lincoln: A Life. (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2009), p. 220.

22 Tripler, Eugene, Some Notes of Her Personal Recollections. (New York, 1910) p. 139-140.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

which mattered a great deal then23, Mary visited hospitals for injured soldiers and former

slaves during the Civil War and delivered flowers, which gained good press, from those

who thought she had remained loyal to her youth hood in the Confederacy 24, and also

attracted criticism and threats from the Confederate troops. A paramount and

controversial First Lady, Mary Todd Lincoln through her perception of the First Lady,

developed the role to straddle between the male sphere of public policies and females

reserved domestic duties. Although ostracized for her intrusion into male mandate, she

devoted Lincolns tenure as a vanguard of American fashion and enlightenment,

structuring the expectations of womens roles in American culture, ahead of her time.

The role of the presidents wife has responded to changes in the nations highest

office itself and the social demands on women. During the period 1789 to 1865, often

referred to as the Antebellum Era, most of the presidential wives were less influential and

active than either their predecessors or successors. These first ladies established a

traditional approach to office, and remained nonpolitical as reflected in the ideals of

womanhood.25 Notable exceptions to the conformity of this era, Abigail Adams and

Mary Todd Lincoln played a role in social politicking as well as serving as an advisor

behind the scenes.

23 Turner, Justin G., Linda Levitt Turner, and Mary Todd Lincoln. To Sally Orne, Mary Todd Lincoln:
Her Life and Letters. (New York: Knopf, 1972).

24 An Eyewitness Account of a Visit by President and Mrs. Lincoln to Campbells Hospital Washington
D.C., Lincoln Herald, vol. 77 (Spring 1975), p. 68.

25 Caroli, Betty. First Ladies, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010) p. 76.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

As the most influential and scrutinized woman in the United States, the First

Lady functions as a barometer for the status of women in society and its shifting views of

womanhood.26 Womens rights activists started to gain support in the 1850s and

distinguished the link between womens family status and their political and civil

standing,27 activists campaigned for personal liberty, property and protection rights.

Moving beyond the construct of domesticated womanhood, first ladies to follow were at

the center of the debate over changing gender roles, challenged by feminism.

President Woodrow Wilsons first wife, and the first lady during her first term,

Ellen Wilson was revered as the embodiment of the career minded woman, and the

domestic woman. She participated in the public sphere as a working artist, and privately,

as a homemaker28. A year after Ellens unexpected death, and in preparing for Wilsons

re-election, Wilson married Edith Bolling. Edith served as Woodrows confidante, filter

and guardian, particularly during the latter part of his term. Advertising as a result of the

timing of her tenure and World War I, she hosted few social gatherings and confined

herself to the private sphere. The press credited Edith for sharing the burden of WWI

with Woodrow, 29 and echoed republican motherhood and feminine heroism, supported by

her husbands perspective on womens suffrage. Wilsons public endorsement of the

26 Quoted in Wertheimer, Molly, First Ladies Fundamental Rhetorical Choices: When to Speak? What

to Say? When to Remain Silent? in Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the
Twentieth Century, ed. Wertheimer, Molly (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlelield, 2003), 1.

27 Caroli, Betty Boyd. First Ladies: From Martha Washington to Michelle Obama. 4th ed. (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 74.

28 Dagget, Mabel, Woodrow Wilsons Wife, Good Housekeeping, vol. 56, March 1913.

29 What is Mrs. Wilson Doing?, The Ladies Home Journal, July 1918.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

federal woman suffrage amendment30 was motivated by the political and served activity

of women during the war time, Ediths continued push for equal rights, and his goals for

America, as outlined in his Fourteen Points.

Often, Edith would sit in on private meetings with political leaders and foreign

representatives. Edith played the public eye by leading fundraising efforts and

volunteering with the Red Cross, and paralleled the engagement of female reformers in

the years leading up to womans suffrage. However, inside the White House, she had

access to all confidential files, the Presidents mail and contacts31. Edith was the first

First lady to travel to Europe, during her tenure, to visit troops and sign the Treaty of

Versailles, on Wilsons behalf. 32 Her involvement emphasized her share of the

Presidents role and defined the American role of the First Lady in an international

context, among European royalty and political figures.33 In October of 1919, Woodrow

suffered a stroke, and Edith screened all contact between him and the Cabinet, 34 and led

presidential matters thereafter. 35

30Wilson Backs Amendment for Woman Suffrage, New York Times, January 10, 1918, 1. See also,
Wilson Favors Suffrage Vote; Says Changed Conditions Call for Federal Amendment, Boston Daily
Globe January 10, 1918, 1-2.

31Maddox, Robert J., Mrs. Wilson and the Presidency, American History Illustrated, vol. 7 (1973), p.
36-44.

32McWilliams, Ruth. 1984. Preparing for the Biagrapher: A Widows Task. Manuscripts, 26:3, p.
187-196.

33 Means, Marianne. The Woman in the White House. (New York, NY: Random House, 1963), 133.

34 Baker, Ray Stannard. Woodrow Wilson, Life and Letters, 8 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page &
Co., 1927-1939).

35 On December 11, 1975, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) included in a publicity release this
summary of Edith Wilson: During an era when women had not yet been given the right to vote, Mrs.
Wilson virtually took over the reins of the White House when her husband collapsed. Cited in Caroli,
Betty, First Ladies: From Martha Washington to Michelle Obama, (New York: Oxford, 2010), p. 153-4.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

In the eye of the public, Edith conducted herself as a balance between commoner

and U.S. royalty, and was regarded as a buffer between the President and the world. She

did not alert the public of her husbands condition, and also chose for him to carry on as

President36, with her as the gatekeeper.37 As revealed in her memoir38, Edith denies

any connection to overstepping as First Lady and becoming interim President, rather she

discusses her duty as the wife to her husband, and selecting which matters to present to

him.39 Although only criticized later for her actions,40 press coverage at the time praised

Edith as she equally balanced traditional and modern roles as a First Lady, and asked

American women to follow.

While Edith worked privately to tend to her husband and his affairs, Eleanor

was more focused on public relations, community service and pursing her goals.

Eleanor Roosevelts unparalleled activist role in her husbands campaign demonstrated

her confidence in him, and his potential to lead the nation. Eleanor became a gendered

celebrity,41 further popularizing the First Ladies institution as a model of womens civic

engagement. Although unenthused by the privacy in being First Lady, Eleanor intended

to be fully involved in political and economic affairs, and supported women in American

36 Wilson, Edith Bolling. 1938. My Memoir. (New York: Bobbs-Merrill), p. 289.

37 Wilson, Woodrow Papers, microfilm edition. (reel 505, scrapbook 5, 7). 1973. Washington, D.C.:
Library of Congress.

38 Wilson, Edith Bolling. 1938. My Memoir. (New York: Bobbs-Merrill).

39 Ibid., p. 289.

40On February 22nd, 1920 , Londons Daily Mail praised Edith and called her a perfectly capable
president. as quoted in Wilson, Woodrow Papers, microfilm edition. (reel 505, scrapbook 5,3). 1973.
Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress.

41 Gould, Lewis. American First Ladies. (New York, NY: Garland, 1996), p.424.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

society who sought a similar role, especially in light of the Great Depression. Eleanor

took advantage of the mass media outlets available, rallying public support and

addressing the country on the radio, sometimes instead of the President, 42 to create a

permanent image of the First Lady in the public sphere.

In addition to radio broadcasts, other media outlets were used and, Eleanor

conducted press conferences to inform the American people about life in the White House

and the political happenings and serious issues, particularly during the Depression and

World War II. Her discussions encouraged women to seek political involvement43 , be

informed and advance their careers beyond the American homemaker of the past.

In her monthly magazine column, in the Ladies Home Journal, If You Ask Me,44

she answers mailed in questions to quiet gossip and highlight issues important to her and

the American people. To address her stance on basic human rights, a reader asks about

the Four Freedoms, and who is entitled to this, specifically regarding race. Eleanor

responds, in her opinion, the basic freedoms apply to all in exactly the same way.45

Another question asks what Eleanor quantifies as a successful life for a man verses a

woman, and she responded with a statement implying that the genders are equal. 46

However, Eleanor did not always know the answer, and her honesty made her

well liked among household women, young girls and womens rights advocates. Another

42 Eleanor Roosevelt. "Pearl Harbor Radio Address." Advertisement. C-SPAN. December 7, 1941.

43 Roosevelt, Eleanor. If You Ask Me. (New York, NY: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1946), p. 22.

44 Roosevelt, Eleanor. If You Ask Me. (New York, NY: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1946).

45 Ibid., 117.

46 Ibid. 116-117.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

reader asked about a persons right to join a religious cult if their family is discouraging

them. Eleanor responded eloquently that she is not familiar with the readers meaning of

religious cult, and does not believe in religion strongly herself, but does believe that

religion should help people live a better life, and harmony among others. 47 Beyond

critical political issues, Eleanor also received many questions about her height, 48 and how

to manage being tall around short people. This, she answered in the best way possible to

say that height should not be a factor when meeting others, and favored

unconsciousness.49 Throughout the columns, Eleanor answered with poise, charm and

kindness, as she carried herself in reality. She advocated for, and believed in, basic

human rights and fair employment for all, including women and African Americans, and

later, helped to create the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.50 Still, in addition to

her enthusiasm for discussing key, and controversial issues, Eleanor honored and

continued the traditions of the First Ladys role too, and is well known as the most

favored First Lady51, accompanying the most favored President. 52

47 Ibid., p. 116.

48 Ibid., p. 115.

49 Ibid., p. 119.

50 Ibid, p. 56.

51 Siena Research Institute. Historians' Ranking of First Ladies in 2014. 2014. https://www.siena.edu/
assets/files/news/Appendix_A_Overall_Survey_Results.pdf.

52Siena Research Institute. Historians' Ranking of Presidents in 2010. 2010. https://www.siena.edu/assets/

files/news/Presidents_2010_Rank_by_Category.pdf
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

On the other hand, Jackie Kennedy outperformed her husband, ranking at third,

best known for her integrity and individual presence,53 whilst he is ranked eleventh, and

most acclaimed for his ability to speak and write.54 Jackie Kennedy presented a new

convention of glamor and appeal to the First Lady lifestyle. Jackies elegant style aided

her refurbishment of the White House public rooms. Her primary focus was to fill the

rooms with antiquities55 and reflect earlier presidencies following the founding of the

United States.56 Jackie also supported and influenced the President to recognize value in

allocating federal aid towards art and music programs in lower school education and

museums. However, unlike her immediate predecessors, Jackie was not an active

political advocate; rather John sought comfort in sharing political information with her in

private. John relied on her astute social skills to exchange conversation and regulate

foreign affairs with other political leaders57 . Jackies main asset was her mass appeal

domestically and globally in the public eye; her confident and graceful etiquette and good

taste, followed tradition, yet her personal opinions and independent interests symbolized

53 Siena Research Institute. Historians' Ranking of First Ladies in 2014. 2014. https://www.siena.edu/
assets/files/news/Appendix_A_Overall_Survey_Results.pdf.

54 Siena Research Institute. Historians' Ranking of Presidents in 2010. 2010. https://www.siena.edu/assets/

files/news/Presidents_2010_Rank_by_Category.pdf

55Kennedy, Jacqueline, John F. Kennedy, and Charles Collingwood. "A Tour of the White
House." (Washington, D.C., Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), February 14, 1962), Accessed April 1,
2016. 7:00-9:00.

56Landau, Barry H. The President's Table: Two Hundred Years of Dining and Diplomacy. New York, NY:
Collins, 2007.

57Gawalt, Gerard W. My Dear President: Letters Between Presidents and Their Wives. (New York: Black
Dog & Leventhal, 2005), p. 122.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

the mid-century era of achieving the American Dream, as a wife and a mother,

attainable for middle-class Americans.

Faced with the benefits and limitations of the public spotlight, Lady Bird Johnson

played an active role in her husbands political career, and often fooled people with her

feminine demeanor. During the race, LBJ signed the Civil Rights Act, which continued

to be a primary focus for Lady Bird during public appearances and campaigning.

Overshadowed by the mourning of Kennedy, upon moving to the White House, Lady

Bird was reluctant to undertake the full public role of the First Lady.58 Rather, she sought

advice from Jackie and took an interest and studied the First Ladies, her predecessors.

She aimed to work on projects that mirrored her husbands aims and hopes for the nation,

and frequently emphasized the idea that shes not elected. However, Lady Bird had

substantial influence on Johnsons speeches, decisions and often heard the details of the

crises that he faced every day. Lady Bird, very aware of public perception, guided LBJ

and controlled his diet, sleeping habits and health matters to keep him fit and help him

lead by example. Unfortunately, Johnsons health became a concern with the stress of the

Vietnam War. As a result, Lady Bird took on more responsibility in the administrative

role, in an informal place of her husband.

With interest in supporting and advancing LBJs legislative agenda and

aspirations for America, 59 Lady Bird worked to become more involved in volunteer work,

58 Ibid, p. 135.

59Lady Bird Johnson: An Oral History Interviews by Michael L. Gillette. (New York, NY: Oxford
University Press, 2012), p. 360.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

civic affairs and womens activism. She focused on two causes: health and

environmentalism.60 In LBJs 1964 State of the Union Address, he declared an

unconditional war on poverty, and Lady Bird supported the foundation of a summer

program where underprivileged pre-school children learn about basic medical care and

nutrition. This project is called Project Head Start.61 Lady Birds other project

campaigned for the beautification62 and conservation of national parks, highways and

taking measures towards anti-pollution. Lady Bird also served the hostess role with

programs and meetings for the female spouses of Congress, and held discussions to

further the work of her predecessors, advocating for womens equal rights.

Inspired by Eleanor Roosevelts commitment to womens full recognition by

and participation in American politics and business, First Ladies of the 1960s were

aware of the barriers women faced and worked to have personal impact in the

United States and involve other women in their efforts. In 1963, Betty Friedans

book The Feminine Mystique63 captured the frustration of housewives who felt

trapped and unfullilled. Friedan contradicted societal expectations of women only

working in the home and spurred national discussions to increase the scope of

acceptable public activities for women, known as Second Wave Feminism. Lady Bird

Johnson inlluenced the expanding roles of women by explicitly commenting on how

60"Oral Histories -- Johnson, Claudia "Lady Bird"" Interview by Merle Miller, Michael Gillette, Anthony
Champagne, W. C. Trueheart, Harry Middleton, Nancy Smith, Lou Rudolph, Jim Henders, S. Douglass
Cater, Louis S. Gomolak, Jan Jarboe Russell, Jon Brice, and Sandy Brice.

61 Lady Bird Johnson: An Oral History, p. 361-2.

62 "Oral Histories -- Johnson, Claudia "Lady Bird""

63 Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Norton, 1963.

Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

women should function in American society, and advised women to balance

domestic and civic life.64 As the womens movement developed and First Ladies

provided support to women in the workforce and encouraged involvement in public

affairs, continued by Betty Ford through publicity of her breast cancer treatment and

clear intentions to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment.65

With the resignation of Nixon in 1974, Gerald Ford was sworn into

Presidency. In his inaugural address, Gerald noted that he is indebted to Betty, his

wife. She had many plans to expand programming for the arts and for children with

disabilities, as well as her support for legal abortion.66 In a post-Watergate era,

Bettys willingness to discuss controversial issues gathered followers quickly.

Shortly after her husbands inauguration, she was diagnosed with breast cancer, and

openly shared her story, and her problems with substance abuse too. 67 Betty veered

from the traditional role of hostess too. She hired American craftsmen to create

centerpieces and other crafts to support and display the work of Americans. After

formal suppers, dancing would always follow with the Fords, often rellecting the

American popular culture of the 70s.68 During Fords 1976 campaign, Betty

64Radcliffe College. Office of Public Information. Records of the Office of Public Information,
1923-1998; Commencement, Lady Bird Johnson, 1964. RG X, Series 2, folder 4. Radcliffe College
Archives, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

65Maryanne Borrelli, Competing Conceptions of the First Ladyship: Public Responses to Betty Fords 60
Minutes Interview, Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Sep., 2001): 402.

66 Ford, Betty, Betty: A Glad Awakening (London: Robson, 1987).

67 Ford, Betty and Chase, Chris, The Times of My Life (New York: NY: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 183-5.

68 Howard, Jane, The 38th First Lady Not a Robot at All, New York Times Magazine, December 8, 1974.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

campaigned independently69 and travelled across the United States to reach women

delegates, liberal and moderate Republican voters. By a small margin, Jimmy Carter

won.

Rosalynn Carter has made many appearances to help raise the public prolile

of her husband, in preparation for his campaign. Beyond her husbands campaign,

Rosalynn promised, without precedent, if First Lady, she would assume

responsibility for guiding legislative reform on behalf of people who are mentally

ill.70 Her campaign efforts were labeled the Rosalynn Carter phenomenon, for the

number of people reached and distance travelled.

During her tenure, Rosalynn emphasized that she had a working partnership

with Jimmy, and would provide advice on his domestic and foreign affairs. She also

considered herself to be a messenger between Jimmy and the American public, often

reporting feedback about policies. Rosalynn undertook an international assignment

to Central and South America in 1977 without Jimmy, to meet with policy leaders

and discuss human rights, drug traflicking and nuclear weaponry, among other

critical issues. Similarly, she travelled abroad to Israel to negotiate the Camp David

Accords, and she was the American representative to meet the Pope in 1979 upon

his lirst visit to the U.S. Rosalynns personal and diplomatic achievements add the

role of a diplomat to the lirst ladys duties, and greatly increased the political

inlluence of the lirst lady position.

69 Weidenfeld,Sheila Rabb, First Ladys Lady: With the Fords at the White House (New York, NY: G.P.
Putnams Sons, 1979), p. 315-19.

70 Carter, First Lady, p. 100-118.

Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

In 1979, the federal government formally recognized the role of the First

Lady as a bona lide federal position, although excluded from the U.S. Constitution.

This appropriated that the First Lady has a premise to assist the president in

fullilling his duties, and permitted Rosalynn to take a more active role in the

administration and work towards the legislative reform for people who are mentally

ill. She expanded her support and volunteer projects to help senior citizens in need,

and people with mental disabilities.71 Carter used her newfound, and personally

designed position to draw attention to her primary causes: mental health and aging.

The media followed Rosalynn, and shifted the focus of the lirst lady to be outside of

the White House. Hosting luncheons only happened as a sign of activism, rather

than a regular social event. The role of the lirst lady outgrew the fanfare of hosting

private social activities, and escalated to political activism and involvement in public

affairs.

Contrary to Rosalynns development of the lirst lady, Nancy had other

interests to stay at home, look fashionable and stylish, and occasionally to

inlluence her husband, and do what is best for him. During Reagans campaign,

Nancy preferred to stand next to Ronald, but often had to make her own

appearances, to spread awareness, reiterating his views on issues. Initially, upon

moving to the White House, Nancy took to redecorating the house, and receiving

private contributions. Nancy was criticized for violating the Ethics in Government

Act of 1978, and named Queen Nancy,72 and blamed for the economic recession,

71 Betty Glad, Jimmy Carter: In Search of the Great White House (New York: NY, 1980), p. 138.

72 Alfred Descheidt designed a Queen Nancy postcard in late 1981. See New York Times, February 28,
1982, section III, p. 19.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

high unemployment and homeless families73. Following this, Nancy made her

primary focus to promote drug education and prevention programs for children and

adolescents. After travelling the country to advance her campaign, she expanded

internationally, inviting the wives of world leaders to attend a conference on youth

drug abuse, which she hosted at the White House.74 About a year later, in 1986,

President Reagan signed the National Crusade for A Drug Free America, an anti-

drug abuse bill. Following this, Nancy became the lirst First Lady to address the U.N.

General Assembly, speaking on international drug and traflicking laws. Nancy also

adjusted her schedule to meet and follow her husbands when possible, and felt

responsible to protect his life. Nancy framed her tenure as a traditional homemaker,

separating Ronalds work from hers as a mother and wife. The return of the

domestic ideal to the role of the First Lady paralleled the backlash to second-wave

feminism in American society.

After many triumphant moments for the womens liberation movement, a

backlash against the Second Wave of Feminism began in the 1970s. Nancy Reagans

primary interest in being a homemaker parallels the notion 75 that motherhood is a

natural process and should be regarded as sacred. The womens movement was

under attack as conservative politicians,76 like Ronald Reagan, encouraged a one-

dimensional private role for women. With critique of Second Wave Feminism, Third-

73 NBC documentary on Nancy Reagan, June 24, 1985, showed White House staffers making these
judgments.

74 Steinem, Gloria, Finally a Total Woman in the White House, Ms. (March 1981), p. 13.

75 Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. New York: Crown. 1991

76 Ms. Magazine No Comment. Ms. Magazine. August, 1982. Retrieved May 4, 2016.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

Wave Feminism was born. Third-wave feminism77 sought to empower women

against sexist patriarchy 78 and redelined strong womanhood to break gender

barriers.

While recognizing the domesticity of the First Lady institution, the position

demands superwoman qualities79, to embrace the public and private,

contemporary and traditional roles.80 Hillary Clinton, at times, was praised for

having these qualities, but more often received backlash for being too involved

publicly, and rumored to have anti-family values. 81 Despite this criticism, Bill Clinton

was elected and served two terms, often bragging that the nation received a two for

one deal.82 Then, Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and Hillary shared an

interest in advocating for gender equity in developing countries, and emphasized

the importance of human rights. In 1995, at the U.N. World Conference on Women,

Hillary delivered an important speech addressing the need for equal rights for

women internationally.83 Shortly after Hillary became First Lady, Bill gave her the

responsibility to head the Presidents Task Force on the Health Care Reform.

77Labaton, Vivien and Martin, Dawn Lundy. The Fire This Time: Young Activists and the New Feminism.
New York: Anchor. 2009.

78 Cobble, Dorothy Sue, Gordon, Linda, Henry, Astrid. Feminism Unfinished: A Short, Surprising History
of American Womens Movements. New York: Liveright. 2014.

79 OBrien, Patricia, The First Lady with a Career? Working Woman (August 1992), p. 44.

80 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History (New York, 2000).

81For an unfriendly account of how Hillary answered Dave Lettermans quiz on New York State trivia, see
Peggy Noonan, The Case Against Hillary Clinton (New York, 2000(, p. xix.

82 A 1972 law required that federal advisory committee meetings be open to the public, except for those
advisory committees made up entirely of federal officials that are exempt. Hillary Rodham Clintons legal
team argued that for the purposes of the 1972 law, she is a Federal officer or employee as First Lady. See
New York Times, May 1, 1993, p. 8.

83 Radcliffe, Hillary Rodham Clinton, p. 206-211.

Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

Although the reform was abandoned, Hillary initiated federal efforts to address

medical problems in the United States, including creating the Childrens Health

Insurance Program in 1997, which provided state support for children whose

parents could not provide health coverage. Hillary publicized and supported the

recovery of the Gulf War veterans, and hosted conferences at the White House,

supporting the spread of literacy, health education programs, and prevention of

school violence.

In Hillarys lirst year, she faced several accusations, which led to

investigations, linding Hilary not guilty, but revealed the Lewinsky scandal. Hillarys

support of and commitment to Bill factored greatly in preventing his resignation.84

Hillary did not neglect the hostess role of being a First lady either. In addition to

hosting conferences, she lilmed a webcast and monthly lectures to connect

Americas public to federal affairs and U.S. history and held larger parties for holiday

celebrations and fundraisers.85 She also restored a few rooms in the house, and

created the sculpture garden. Later, Hillary became the lirst First Lady to be elected

into public oflice, winning a New York Senate seat in 2000,86 and the lirst to join the

race for the presidency itself.

Following First Ladies have been compared to Hillary Clinton, and in an

interview, Laura Bush was asked if she would act more like her or Barbara Bush, and

84 Bob Woodward, in an excerpt from Shadow: Five Presidents and the Legacy of Watergate (New York,
1999) that appeared in Washington Post, June 14, 1999, described an interview that he had with the First
Lady in which she touched on her anger and humiliation. She referred to the Lewinsky period as a very,
very painful time for me, for my family, and for our country.

85 Time (February 3, 1992), p. 14.

86 Tomasky, M., Hillarys Turn: Inside Her Improbable, Victorious Senate Campaign (New York, 2001).
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

she simply answered that she will be herself and hopes to embody a traditional

First Lady, with her own style.87 Laura had three main causes for her White House

agenda: literacy, womens health and breast cancer awareness. Lauras literacy

initiative called Ready to Read, Ready to Learn88 ensures that all young children are

ready to read and learn when they enter the classroom, and called for well-trained

teachers too, particularly in low-income environments, which eventually led to the

No Child Left Behind Act. After the terror attacks of September 11th, 2001, Laura

became known as the mother of America,89 urging parents to tell their children that

they were safe. Whilst her husband received much criticism over his politics, Laura

focused on international education too, and claimed that students in Afghanistan

need further education, which will help solve terrorism.90 Through her campaign to

heighten morale in the war against terrorism, Laura concentrated on equal rights for

women internationally. Laura travelled extensively to carry her platform for equal

rights and other causes, like womens health too and erasing stigmas around the

topic. Standing next to a disliked President, Laura won supporters by bringing the

role of the First Lady to an international spotlight as she fought for controversial

87 20/20: George W. Talks with Barbara Walters, ABC News, January 19th, 2001.

88Department of Education, Preparing Children to Read and Learn: An Education Initiative of Laura
Bush, Washington, D.C., September, 2001.

89Headlines pointed to a changed role for the First Lady. See Fiore, Faye, A First Ladys
Metamorphosis, Los Angeles Times, October 10, 2001; Burleigh, Nina, A New Life for Laura Bush, US
Weekly, October 15, 2001.

90 For the transcription of Laura Bushs radio address, see www.ucsb.edu/ws/index/php?pid=24992, as

found in In Solo Radio Address, Laura Bush Opens Worldwide Effort to Spotlight Talibans Policies
Against Women, Chicago Tribune, November 17, 2001.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

issues in education, and to help women, leaving a legacy for herself and her position

in domestic, civic and political affairs.

The United States political sphere faced a turning point in the 2008 election

with the lirst female candidate, Hillary Clinton and the lirst African American

candidate running for the Democratic candidacy. Hillarys candidacy encouraged

debate over the proper role of a First Lady, and how it would change if the First Gent

came about. However, when Obama was elected, a new intersection was created.

Michelle Obama stood for womens rights and African Americans.91 Michelle took an

active role as her husband campaigned and benelited from the use of Internet blogs

and new technology to enhance her activity92. Michelle took after her recent

predecessors, like Hillary Clinton and Laura Bush, with her own initiatives for

education and healthy eating, and formed her own style too. Whilst Michelle Obama

stands as the First Lady, it is diflicult to gauge her impact on womens movements in

the United States. However, the 2008 election proved that the color of ones skin as

well as gender do not disqualify a candidate, and encourages the advancement and

further political involvement of the role of First Ladies.

Despite the absence of boundaries and election for the role, First Ladies are

expected to balance being a model of American womanhood whilst performing one of the

most publicly visible and influential positions in American culture. From the moment

Martha Washington assumed the role, the presidents wives have reflected the societal

91 Blacks Who Slept at the White House, Ebony, September 1988, p. 66.

92Harris, Gardiner, The Underside of the Welcome Mat, New York Times, November 11, 2009,
www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/weekinreview/09harris.html.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

expectations paralleling the status of American women, changing the role from hostess to

style icon to public activist and confidante to the President of the United States.
Joanna Felsenstein The Evolution of the First Lady

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