Deep Foundation

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Background
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (KAEA 4234)
GEOTECHNICS (KAES 3235) 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
In situations where the soil at shallow depths is poor, in
Background order to transmit the load safely, the depth of the
- Deep Foundation - Type of Piles foundation has to be increased till a suitable soil stratum
- Installation Effect is met.
- Material
- Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
In view of increased depth, such foundations are called
3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION deep foundations.
The manner in which soil resists stresses from shallow

and deep foundation is quite different.
Dr. Meldi Suhatril
Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya.
The mechanisms that resist load applied to foundations
have been depicted in subsequent slides.
Background Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pv Pv 1.0. INTRODUCTION Pu Pu
References References
Type of Piles Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect
- Material -Material
- Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY Skin friction 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
End bearing Vertical uplift loads:

Vertical compressive loads: Shallow foundation:
Shallow foundation: by bearing capacity. by dead weight of foundation and soil above it.
Deep foundation : by a combination of skin - friction and Deep foundation:
end bearing. by a combination of dead weight and skin friction.
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M M
1.0. INTRODUCTION H H 1.0. INTRODUCTION
-Material -Material
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Horizontal loads:
Shallow foundation: Moments:
by friction or adhesion developed along the foundation - Shallow foundation:
soil interface. By redistribution of bearing pressure.
Deep foundation: Deep foundation:
by lateral earth pressures. by converting them to axial compression and uplift.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pile foundations are an example of deep foundations 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Piles are useful in transferring loads through poor soil
or water to a suitable bearing stratum by means of end
Type of Piles A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft, which is Type of Piles bearing. These are called end bearing piles or point
- Installation Effect driven or installed into the ground by suitable means. - Installation Effect bearing piles.
-Material -Material
Piles are usually driven in groups to provide foundation 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
When the piles are installed in soft soils such that the
3.0. GROUP ACTION for structures. 3.0. GROUP ACTION load is transferred through friction along the length of
piles, they are called friction piles.
Pile group may be subjected to vertical loads, horizontal
loads or a combination of these two. Piles are also used to resist horizontal loads as in the
case of foundations for retaining walls, bridge
abutments and wharves. These piles are called laterally
loaded piles.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION In case of large lateral loads, piles are driven at an angle 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Piles may be required to increase the stability of tall
References
and hence termed batter piles. These are found to serve References
structures, where the foundations are subjected to
Type of Piles
better than vertical piles. Type of Piles large eccentric loads, inclined loads and moments.
-Material Short piles are sometimes used for compacting loose -Material
They are also used to avoid damage due to the
-Installation Mode sand deposits which get densified by the vibrations set -Installation Mode
possible scouring of the soil immediately below the
3.0. GROUP ACTION
upon driving. Such piles are known as compaction piles. 3.0. GROUP ACTION foundation.
Piles are sometimes used to resist uplift loads and are

thus in tension. They are called tension piles.
Piles can also be used to provide anchorage against

horizontal pull as in the case of anchored bulkheads and
are termed as anchor piles.
Types of Pile Types of Pile

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Types of Piles: Piles have been classified using different 1.0. INTRODUCTION
d) Mode of load transfer
Background
criteria. Some of these are: Background - Bearing, friction, tension, etc
- Installation Effect a) Material of construction - Installation Effect
e) Method of forming
-Material
- Timber pile , steel pile , concrete pile, and composite -Material
- precast, prestressed, cast-in-situ, etc.
piles. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
f) Method of installation
b) Cross-section - driven, bored, vibrated, jetted, etc.
- Circular, square, hexagonal, I-section, H-section,
pipe, etc
c) Shape
- Cylindrical, tapered, underreamed, etc
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Installation Effect Displacement piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
It has been realised that perhaps the best way of 1.0. INTRODUCTION
In a loose sand, such a pile densifies the sand up to a
Background
classifying the piles is on the basis of the effect of Background
distance of about 3.5 times the diameter of the pile
Type of Piles installation of the pile on the soil. Based on this two Type of Piles measured from centre of pile.
- Installation Effect classes are there: - Installation Effect
-Material -Material
Compression leads to an increase in its angle of
Displacement piles: 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
shearing resistance within zone of influence.
3.0. GROUP ACTION if during the installation of pile, a large volume of soil is 3.0. GROUP ACTION
displaced laterally and upwards. In clays, large displacement piles remold the soil to a
distance of about twice the diameter of pile.
Non-displacement piles:
their installation does not lead to any displacement of
soil at all.
Displacement piles Displacement piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION During driving, very high pore water pressures are set
References There are some piles like the rolled-steel section piles, References
up around the pile and soil regains its initial strength
Background screw piles, open-ended hollow section piles etc. which Background
only after a period of time, when the excess pore water
Type of Piles
are classified as small displacement piles as on account Type of Piles
pressures are dissipated.
-Material
of their small cross-section, they produce small -Material
-Installation Mode displacement of soil. -Installation Mode
These are preferred for use in loose to medium sands
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION and not in dense sand or clay.
These are preferred when ground displacements and
disturbance are to be minimized. Driven and cast-in-situ, driven precast or prestressed
concrete piles, timber piles, etc. are examples of large
displacement piles.
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Non-displacement piles Non-displacement piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
A void is formed in the soil by boring or excavation and 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Length of these piles can easily be varied at site.
Background is then filed with concrete. Background
Type of Piles Type of Piles It is possible to install very long piles with very large
- Installation Effect The sides of the void can be unsupported or supported - Installation Effect diameters. Construction of enlarged ends up to about
-Material
either permanently by casing or temporarily by casing -Material
three times pile diameter, is possible in clays.
or drilling mud. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION This results in a substantial increase in point bearing
Example: bored cast-in-situ and bored precast piles. capacity owing to larger bearing area.
There is no ground heave in case of such piles. These The construction process enables inspection of the
can be installed without noise and vibration. excavated soil and its comparison with soil exploration
data.
Non-displacement piles Non-displacement piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
During the installation of piles, the soil on the sides of References
Bulb ends can not be made in granular soils.
Background the borehole softens due to contact with wet concrete Background
Type of Piles or due to water used in the borehole to facilitate Type of Piles It is essential that concrete is placed as soon as
- Installation Effect boring. This results into - Installation Effect
possible after the boring is done to minimize the
-Material -Material
softening of soil.
- Loosening of soil, if it is clay type 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION - Loss in shear strength and reduced pile bearing 3.0. GROUP ACTION
capacity, if it happens to be sand or gravel.
- There is difficulty of concreting under water and

likelihood of waisting or necking of concrete in
squeezing ground.
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Material of construction Timber piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
General characteristics of piles classified on the basis of 1.0. INTRODUCTION
An untreated pile above water table is likely to be eaten
Background material of construction: Background
away by insects, borers, termites, etc. and hence
Type of Piles Type of Piles chemical treatment is desirable.
- Installation Effect Timber Piles - Installation Effect
-Construction Material
Steel Piles -Construction Material
The allowable load on these piles varies from 100 to 250
Concrete Piles 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
kN per pile.
Steel piles Steel piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
These are small displacement piles. 1.0. INTRODUCTION Steel piles can be used to carry heavy loads.
Type of Piles Heave and ground displacement are minimal. Type of Piles
Splicing of these is also easy.
It may be a rolled section, a pipe or any fabricated shape. -Construction Material These are likely to be affected by corrosive action and
-Installation Mode -Installation Mode hence needed painting or encasement in concrete to
3.0. GROUP ACTION These require heavy equipment for driving. 3.0. GROUP ACTION resist corrosion.
The pipe piles are made of seamless or welded pipes and Commonly adopted length: up to 40 m.
are usually filled with concrete.
Allowable load up to 1800 kN.
These pipes may be driven close-ended with a driving
point or open ended.
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Mode of Installation Driven precast concrete piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Concrete piles: These are considered more or less 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Usually these are prismatic or circular in section.
Background
permanent. Based on mode of forming and mode of Background
Type of Piles installation usually divided into two categories: Type of Piles May be uniform diameter or tapered.
Driven precast concrete piles -Construction Material
Usually casted at a central casting yard, cured and
transported to construction site.
3.0. GROUP ACTION Cast-in-situ concrete piles 3.0. GROUP ACTION
As a precast concrete pile is usually in a state of

compression, no reinforcement is required from load
bearing considerations.
However, piles are reinforced to take care of handling

stresses.
Driven precast concrete piles Driven precast concrete piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Solid sections of 0.2 m to 0.3 m side are usually used. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
If the pile at the site proves to be too long, chopping off
the extra length is difficult and is likely to damage the
Type of Piles Precast, hollow cylindrical sections are also used where Type of Piles pile.
- Installation Effect large stiffness and higher bearing capacity is required. - Installation Effect
-Construction Material -Construction Material
Handling and driving requires heavy equipment.
Shorter piles can carry loads up to 600 kN, whereas, the 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP ACTION capacity of longer piles can, in some cases, be as large 3.0. GROUP ACTION Heave and disturbance of surrounding soil may also
as 2000 kN. cause difficulties.
Splicing is difficult.
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Cast-in-situ concrete piles Cast-in-situ concrete piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
This pile is formed by making a hole in the ground and 1.0. INTRODUCTION
This casing may be gradually withdrawn, in that case it
Background
filing it with concrete. Background
is termed as uncased pile.
- Installation Effect The hole may be formed by drilling as in caissons: bored - Installation Effect Uncased piles can be uniform diameter or may be
-Construction Material cast-in-situ. -Construction Material
provided with a enlarge end or a pedestal.
3.0. GROUP ACTION Usually it is formed by driving a metallic shell or a casing 3.0. GROUP ACTION
into the ground: driven cast-in-situ.
If during the process of concreting the hole, the casing is

left in position, then it is termed as cased pile.
Advantages of driven cast-in-situ piles Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
They can be driven to a predetermined set. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Heave of adjoining ground surface which could affect
the services or structures nearby.
Type of Piles Pile lengths are easily adjustable. Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect Lifting of previously driven piles where the
An enlarged base can be formed which will help in -Construction Material
penetration of the pile toes into the bearing stratum
generating much higher end bearing capacity in a granular 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
has not been sufficient.
3.0. GROUP ACTION bearing stratum. 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Possible damage to uncased piles by necking or

Reinforcement is not needed to take care of handling or waisting due to lateral forces when the concrete is
driving stresses. green.
Piles can be driven with a closed end so as to exclude the

effects of ground water.
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Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Concrete can not be inspected after completion. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Maximum pile length + 25 30m
Background Background Allowable loads = + 1500kN.
Type of Piles Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up Type of Piles
- Installation Effect the shaft of piles when the tube is withdrawn. - Installation Effect
Can not be driven where headroom is limited. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Limitation in length because of the lifting force

required to withdraw casing.
Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Very little displacement and no risk of ground heave. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
End enlargements of up to 2 or 3 shaft diameters are
Background Background possible in clays or soft rocks.
Type of Piles Length can be readily varied. Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect Can be installed without much noise and vibration and
Soil can be inspected and checked with soil -Construction Material
with limited head room.
investigation data. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Piles can be installed very great length and very large

diameters.
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Disadvantages of bored cast-in-situ piles Underreamed piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravelly soils. 1.0. INTRODUCTION An underreamed pile is a special type of bored pile
which is provided with a bulb/pedestal at the end.
Type of Piles Concreting under water will pose problems Type of Piles
- Installation Effect - Installation Effect It is constructed by making a hole in the ground by
Concrete can not be subsequently inspected. -Construction Material means of hand-operated auger.
3.0. GROUP ACTION Susceptible to waisting or necking in squeezing ground. 3.0. GROUP ACTION An underreamer is then lowered in the cleaned hole.
Enlarged bases can not be formed in granular soils. Underreamed is pressed down and rotated.
Underreamed piles Stages in construction of a single

underreamed pile
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Under pressure, the blades open up and due to rotation 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Background
action, the soil is cut and falls in the bucket. Background
- Installation Effect When the bucket is full, underreamer is pulled out and - Installation Effect
cleaned. -Construction Material
3.0. GROUP ACTION Underreamer is lowered again and the process is 3.0. GROUP ACTION
repeated.
After the enlarged end is formed, the reinforcement

cage is lowered and concreting is done.
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Underreamed piles Underreamed piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Usual size of piles : 150 to 200 mm shaft diameter. 1.0. INTRODUCTION
These are considered useful in expansive soils where
Background Background the use of shallow spread footings is ruled out due to
Type of Piles Usual length of piles : 3 to 4 m Type of Piles excessive shrinkage and swelling behavior of such soils.
Diameter of underreamed portion : 2 to 3 times the -Construction Material
When the number of bulbs is increased from one to
shaft diameter. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
two, the carrying capacity of the pile increases by
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION about 50%
These are considered useful in expansive soils where
the use of shallow spread footings is ruled out due to
excessive shrinkage and swelling behavior of such soils.
Pile driving rig Bore hole preparation

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Lowering of reinforcement cage in bore Reinforcement kept in position

hole
Welding in reinforcement cage Reinforcement cages

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Completed pile Group of piles

Chipping off piles from top using drilling Group of piles (how it looks above the
group)
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Group of piles (how it looks above the Pile load capacity in compression
ground)
References 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY General requirements for satisfactory behavior of pile
Background Static Pile load
foundations are adequate safety against shear failure and
Load Test
Type of Piles
Cyclic Pile Load test permissible settlement.
- Installation Effect
Pile Driving Formulae
-Construction Material Correlation N-Spt
-Installation Mode 3.0. GROUP ACTION The load capacity of the pile can be estimated by several
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY methods which may be grouped into several categories.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Methods for determination of pile load 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

capacity in compression
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
- When a compressive load (Q) is applied at the top of
Static Pile load 1. Static pile load formulae Static Pile load pile, the pile tend to move vertically downward
Load Test
- Sand
relative to the surrounding soil.
Cyclic Pile Load test
2. Pile Load test -Clay
-Examples
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3. Pile driving formulae Load Test
- This will cause shear stresses to develop between soil
and surface of shaft.
4. Correlation with penetration data Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
- As a result, applied load is distributed as friction load
along a certain length of pile measured from the top.
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1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

As the load at top is increased, the friction load 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
It is only when the load at the top of pile exceed Qf that
Static Pile load distribution will extend more and more towards the tip of Static Pile load the load in excess of Qf begins to be transferred to soil at
- Sand
-Clay
pile, till at a certain load level, the entire length of pile is - Sand
-Clay
the base of the pile.
-Examples involved in generating the frictional resistance. -Examples
Load Test
Load Test
This load, known as point load, goes on increasing till the
Pile Driving Formulae This is ultimate skin friction resistance of the pile, Qf Pile Driving Formulae soil at the base of pile fails by punching shear failure.
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt
The load in bearing at this stage is the ultimate point
load, Qpu

1.0. INTRODUCTION The maximum load which the pile can support through 1.0. INTRODUCTION The relative proportion of loads carried by point load and
Static Pile load
combined resistance of skin friction and point bearing is Static Pile load
skin friction depend on the shear strength and elasticity of
- Sand known as ultimate load capacity, Qu of the pile - Sand soil.
-Clay -Clay
-Examples
Qu = Qpu + Qf -Examples
Load Test Load Test Vertical movement of pile required to mobilize full skin
If Qpu >> Qf, Cyclic Pile Load test
friction resistance is much smaller than that required to
Correlation N-Spt the pile may be called a point bearing pile Correlation N-Spt mobilize full point bearing resistance.
If Qf >>Qpu,
the pile is called as a friction pile
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In clay and for driven piles in sand, the vertical movement 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY It has been observed that
Static Pile load required to fully mobilize the base resistance is about 10 Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
to 20% of the base diameter. - Sand
-Clay
a) When the ultimate skin friction resistance is mobilized,
-Examples -Examples only a fraction of the ultimate point load is mobilized.
Load Test
This usually implies that when piles are designed to carry Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae a working load equal to 1/3 to of the ultimate load, the Pile Driving Formulae b) When the ultimate point load is mobilized, the skin
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
chances are that the shaft resistance is fully mobilized at Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
friction resistance has decreased to a lower value than
this working load. its peak.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The general equation for unit point bearing resistance,
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Nc , Nq , NY = bearing capacity factors
Static Pile load qpu for a c - soil may be written in the form Static Pile load C = unit cohesion
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
L = length of embedment of pile
-Examples -Examples = effective unit weight of soil
Load Test Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae Where, Pile Driving Formulae In the deep foundation, the term 0.5BN is quite small
Correlation N-Spt
B = width of diameter of pile Correlation N-Spt
compared to Nq and hence is usually neglected
= effective overburden pressure at the tip of pile
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2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY The equation for qpu for a c- soil is thus reduces to 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The ultimate point load, Qpu can be expressed in the
Static Pile load qpu = cNc + Nq Static Pile load form
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
Qpu = qpu Ab
-Examples For a granular soil, c = c = 0; thus -Examples
Load Test
qpu = Nq
Load Test
where Ab = sectional area of pile at its base.
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
For a clay soil, c = cu and u = 0; thus Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The general equation for the ultimate skin friction
qpu = cubNc resistance, Qf may be written in the form
Qf = fs As
where cub = undrained shear strength of clay at the base
of pile tip

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Where, 1.0. INTRODUCTION
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY One of the first step in designing a single pile is to relate
Static Pile load fs = unit skin resistance and Static Pile load
qpu and fs to basic soil strength parameters.
- Sand
-Clay
As = surface area of the pile in contact with the soil. - Sand
-Clay
-Examples -Examples
For piles in granular soil, the design is based on an
Load Test
Thus, the ultimate load capacity, Qu can be expressed in Load Test
effective stress analysis.
Pile Driving Formulae the form Pile Driving Formulae
In clays, it is common to use a total stress analysis in
Qu = qpu Ab + fs As which the load capacity is related to the undrained shear
strength, cu
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Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Bearing capacity factor for
circular deep foundations
(after Kezdi, 1975)
Driven piles: 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load using the effective stress analysis, one can assume Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
c = 0 for a granular soil. The ultimate load capacity of a - Sand
-Clay
-Examples single pile, driven into a granular soil, is obtained by -Examples
Load Test Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae Qu = qpu Ab + fs As Pile Driving Formulae
Point bearing: In a granular soil, qpu = Nq
Relationship Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)

between Nq and '
(Poulos & Davis, 1980)
For driven piles in sand, a value of
Static Pile load Static Pile load = (1 + 40)/2 may be taken, where 1 is the in-situ
- Sand - Sand
-Clay -Clay
value of angle of shearing resistance.
-Examples -Examples
Load Test
Load Test
Thus, with known pile dimensions and soil
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae properties, the ultimate load capacity, Qpu can be
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
determined.
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Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)
It appears that the unit point resistance increase in direct 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The critical depth depends on the angle of shearing
Static Pile load proportion to the embedded length of the pile. However, Static Pile load resistance of the soil and the width ( or diameter) of the
- Sand
-Clay
several field observations indicate that these values - Sand
-Clay
pile.
-Examples increase only up to a limited depth, beyond which these -Examples
Load Test
values remain constant. This depth is called critical depth. Load Test
Its value may vary from about 15D in loose to medium
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae sands to 20D in dense sands, where D is the diameter or
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the arching Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
width of the pile.
action in the granular soil.
The critical depth concept is not applicable to piles
embedded in clay strata where arching action is absent
Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel) Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)
The maximum recommended value of unit point 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Code recommends that in working out pile capacities
Static Pile load resistance qps be limited to 11,000 kN/m in normal Static Pile load using static formula for piles longer than 15 to 20 pile
- Sand
-Clay
silica sand and 5,000 kN/m for calcareous sand. - Sand
-Clay
diameters, maximum effective overburden pressure
-Examples -Examples should correspond to pile lengths equal to 15 to 20
Load Test
Load Test
diameters.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
A factor of safety of 2.5 on the ultimate load capacity is
recommended for computing the safe load.
When piles are driven to refusal into a very dense

stratum or rock, the safe load on pile will be governed
by the strength of piles as a structural member than the
ultimate load capacity
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Skin friction Skin friction

The ultimate skin friction resistance, Qf is obtained from 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The soil pressure acting normal to pile surface, h is
Static Pile load Qf = fs As after determining the unit skin friction, fs. Static Pile load horizontal and is related to effective vertical overburden
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
pressure, by the equation h = K
-Examples The unit skin friction acting at any depth is equal to the -Examples
Load Test
soil pressure acting normal to the pile surface at that Load Test
where , K is lateral earth pressure coefficient.
Pile Driving Formulae depth multiplied by the coefficient of friction between Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
the soil and pile material (tan). Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Thus, fs = h tan = K tan
= angle of friction between pile and the soil.
Ultimate skin friction resistance, Qf is given by
Qf = fs(avg) As
Skin friction Values of K and for piles driven into

sand (Broms, 1966)
or, Qf = K av tan As 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load Static Pile load
- Sand
where, - Sand
-Clay
-Examples av = average effective overburden pressure over the
-Clay
-Examples
Pile Values of K
Load Test
embedded length of pile Load Test
material Loose Dense
Sand sand
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Code recommends a value of equal to . Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Steel 20 0.5 1.0
Concrete 0.75 1.0 2.0
Timber 0.67 1.5 4.0
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Skin friction Bored cast-in-situ piles

Although, it is clear from the expression for unit skin 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The load carrying capacity of a bored cast-in-situ pile will
Static Pile load friction resistance, fs that it increases continuously with Static Pile load be much smaller than that of a driven pile in sand.
- Sand
-Clay
depth, in reality it does so only up to the critical depth - Sand
-Clay
-Examples which varies from 15 to 20 times the pile diameter. -Examples The procedure used for a driven pile can be used for
Load Test
Load Test
bored piles also but the in-situ angle of shearing
Pile Driving Formulae Below the critical depth, the value of average effective Pile Driving Formulae resistance of the soil is reduced by 3, to account for the
Correlation N-Spt
overburden pressure and hence the value of fs remains Correlation N-Spt
loosening of sand due to drilling of hole
constant.
The maximum value of fs should be limited to 100 kN/m

for straight sided piles in normal silica sands and 20 kN/m
in calcareous sands.
Bored cast-in-situ piles Bored cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The lateral earth pressure coefficient K for a bored pile 1.0. INTRODUCTION
In general, bored piles have a unit point bearing
Static Pile load can be calculated approximately from expression : Static Pile load resistance which is one-half to one-third of the value in
- Sand
-Clay
K = 1 sin. - Sand
-Clay
driven piles.
-Examples -Examples
Load Test
The value of K generally varies from 0.3 to 0.75, with a Load Test
Bored cast-in-situ piles with an enlarged bulb at the base
Pile Driving Formulae median value of 0.5. Pile Driving Formulae show a unit point resistance about 1.5 to 2 times that of
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt a pile without the bulb.
can be taken as equal to for bored piles excavated in
dry soil and a reduced value of if a slurry has been
used during excavation.
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Driven cast-in-situ piles

For a driven cast-in-situ pile, the load carrying capacity is 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
If the concrete is not compacted, loose soil condition
Static Pile load calculated in the same manners as for a driven pile, if the Static Pile load may be assumed and if the concrete is compacted well,
- Sand
-Clay
steel tube that is driven is left in place. - Sand
-Clay
medium dense, soil condition may be assumed in
-Examples -Examples computation.
Load Test
If the steel tube is retracted while the concrete is being Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae poured, the calculation of skin friction resistance Pile Driving Formulae Where the bulb is formed at the end by compacting the
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
depends on the amount of compaction imparted to the Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
concrete, the increased area due to the formation of
concrete bulb shall be taken into account in working out the point
bearing resistance.
Allowable load on piles Piles in clay

The allowable load on piles, Qa is obtained from the 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Piles in cohesive soils, barring underreamed piles of
Static Pile load ultimate load, Qu from the relation, Qa = Qu / F, where F Static Pile load large diameter, generally carry most of the load by virtue
- Sand
-Clay
is the factor of safety. - Sand
-Clay
of the skin friction resistance developed on the pile
-Examples -Examples shaft.
Load Test
Usually a factor of safety of is adopted. Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae The bearing capacity is usually calculated using the local
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
stress approach, using undrained shear strength cu (u =
0).
22
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Piles in clay Piles in clay

The ultimate load capacity of the pile is estimated from 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load equation: Static Pile load
= adhesion factor, for a single pile, the contact is
- Sand - Sand
-Clay -Clay between pile and soil; hence the adhesion factor is
-Examples Qu= qpu Ab + fs As -Examples
used.
Load Test Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae In clays, qpu = cub Nc and fs = ca = cu; thus Pile Driving Formulae
cu = undrained cohesion in the embedded length of pile.
Qu= cub Nc Ab + cu As In clay soils, the contribution of point bearing is small
compared to that of shaft skin friction resistance.
where, Hence, an accurate determination of adhesion factor
cub = undrained cohesion at the base of pile becomes very important.
Nc = bearing capacity factor for a deep foundation
(usually is equal to 9).

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The value of depends on the undrained shear strength 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load of the soil. Static Pile load
- Sand - Sand
-Clay -Clay
-Examples Smaller the undrained strength, softer the consistency of -Examples
Load Test
soil and greater the tendency for the soil to adhere to Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae the pile. For this case, tends to get close to 1. Pile Driving Formulae
For very stiff clays, can be as low as 0.3.
Even though the adhesion factor is smaller in stiff or

overconsolidated clay, the overall skin friction resistance
is higher in stiff clay because of its much larger shear
strength.
23
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
When a pile is driven into a soft clay stratum, the soil 1.0. INTRODUCTION
In actual projects, the temporary loss in shear strength
Static Pile load gets remolded and loses some of its shear strength. Static Pile load does not affect the pile capacity because it usually takes
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
several months after driving for the piles to be loaded.
-Examples However, with passage of time, most of the strength so -Examples
Load Test
lost is regained due to reconsolidation of clay. Load Test
Pile load tests in soft clays should be conducted at least 30
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae days after the piles are driven.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
From experience, it is recommended that at least 30 days Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
should elapse after the driving of pile before it is loaded
so that pile shaft develops its full frictional resistance.
Piles in clay Values of reduction factor,

To determine skin friction capacity of bored and cast-in- 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY Consistency N value value
Static Pile load situ piles, Tomlinson recommended an average value of Static Pile load
- Sand
= 0.45 in firm to stiff clays with an upper limiting value of - Sand Bored Driven
-Clay -Clay
-Examples 1 kg/cm for unit skin friction resistance. -Examples
piles cast-in-
Load Test Load Test situ piles
Pile Driving Formulae In fissured clays, = 0.3 may be taken. Pile Driving Formulae
The recommended values of for different consistencies Soft to very <4 0.7 1.0
of clay have been summarized in table in subsequent soft
slide.
Medium 48 0.5 0.7
Stiff 8 15 0.4 0.4
Stiff to hard > 15 0.3 0.3
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Example 1
Code recommends that for working out the safe load, a 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
A 12 m long, 300 mm diameter pile is driven in a uniform
Static Pile load minimum factor of safety 2.5 should be used. Static Pile load deposit of sand ( = 40). The water table is at a great
- Sand
-Clay
- Sand
-Clay
depth and is not likely to rise. The average dry unit weight
-Examples Static load formula may be used only as a guide for load -Examples of sand is 18 kN/m. using Nq = 137, calculate the safe load
Load Test
capacity estimates. Load Test
capacity of pile with a factor of safety of 2.5.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
More reliance is to be placed on load test on piles. Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example 1 Example 1
For concrete piles, adopt = = 30 and K = 2.0 for 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The ultimate pile load capacity is given by
Static Pile load dense sand. Static Pile load Qu = qpu Ab + fs As
- Sand - Sand
-Clay -Clay
-Examples For L /D = 15, the critical depth of the pile -Examples
qpu = Nq
Load Test
= 15 x 0.3 = 4.5 m Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test fs(av) = (av) K tan
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Limiting vertical effective stress at 4.5 m Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION Skin friction resistance over length 4.5 m:
= 18 x 4.5 = 81 kN/m av = 81/2 = 40.5 kN/m
From 4.5 m to 12.0 m, unit point bearing resistance and fs(av) = av x 2 x tan 30 = 46.8 kN/m
skin friction remain constant at = 81 kN/m
Skin friction resistance = 46.8 x x 0.3 x 4.5
= 198 kN
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Example 1 Example 2
1.0. INTRODUCTION Skin friction resistance over the remaining length 1.0. INTRODUCTION
A 450 mm wide, square in section concrete pile, 15 m long,
Static Pile load
av = 81 kN/m Static Pile load is driven in a deep deposit of uniform clay. Laboratory
- Sand fs(av) = 81 x 2 x tan 30 = 93.5 kN/m - Sand
unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples
-Clay -Clay
-Examples -Examples indicate an average qu value of 75 kN/m. calculate the
Load Test Skin friction resistance = 93.5 x x 0.3 x 7.5 Load Test
ultimate load capacity of the pile.
= 661 kN Cyclic Pile Load test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qf = 198 + 661 = 859 kN 3.0. GROUP ACTION
qpu = Nq = 81 x 137 = 11097 kN/m

Qpu = 11097 x x (0.3) /4 = 784 kN
Qu = Qpu + Qf = 784 + 859 = 1643 kN
Qa = Qu / 2.5 = 1643 / 2.5 = 651 kN
Example 2 Example 2
For an unconfined compressive strength = 75 kN/m2, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Substituting the data in equation
Static Pile load the undrained cohesion value (Cu) = 75/2 = 37.5 kN/m2 Static Pile load
- Sand - Sand
-Clay
For Cu = 37.5 kN/m2, = 0.8 -Clay Qu= cub Nc Ab + cu As
-Examples -Examples
Load Test Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
Qu = (37.5 x 9 x 0.45 x 0.45) + (0.8 x 37.5 x 4 x 0.45 x 15)
3.0. GROUP ACTION 3.0. GROUP ACTION = 68 + 810
= 878 kN
26
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2.Load test on piles 2.Load test on piles

Pile load test is the only direct method for determining 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Generally, vertical load test (compression) is carried out
Static Pile load the allowable load on piles. Static Pile load to establish load-settlement relationship under
Pile Load Test
Pile Load Test
compression and determine allowable load on pile.
Pile Driving Formulae It is considered to be the most reliable of all the Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
approaches, primarily due to the fact that it is an in-situ Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Two categories of tests on piles, namely initial test and
test. routine test are usually carried out.
These are very useful for cohesionless soils. Initial test should be carried out on test piles to estimate
the allowable load, or to predict the settlement at a
In case of cohesive soils, the data from pile load test working load.
should be used with caution on account of disturbance
due to pile driving, development of pore pressure and Routine test is carried out as a check on working piles
inadequate time allowed for consolidation settlement. and to assess the displacement corresponding to the
working load.

Where specific information about the subsoil strata and 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The min. test load on such piles should be twice the
Static Pile load past experience is lacking, for a sizeable work involving Static Pile load safe load (calculated from static formula) or the load at
Pile Load Test
more than 200 piles, there should be a minimum of two Pile Load Test
which the total settlement attains a value of 10% of
Pile Driving Formulae initial tests. Pile Driving Formulae pile diameter in case of a single pile and 40 mm in case
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
of a pile group.
For routine test, the minimum number of tests should
be half percent of the piles used. These can vary up to A working pile is a pile which is driven or cast-in-situ
2% depending upon the nature of soil strata and along with other piles to carry load from the
importance of the structure. superstructure.
A test pile is a pile which is used only in a load test and The test load on such piles should be up to 1.5 times
does not carry the load of superstructure. the safe load or up to the load at which total settlement
attains a value of 12 mm for a single pile and 40 mm for
a group of piles, whichever is earlier.
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Test shall be carried out by applying a series of vertical 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Static Pile load downward loads on a RCC cap over the pile. Static Pile load
Pile Load Test Pile Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae The load shall preferably be applied by means of a Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
remote controlled hydraulic jack taking action against a Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
loaded platform.

28
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
The test load shall be applied in increments of about 1.0. INTRODUCTION
The allowable load on a single pile shall be lesser of the
Static Pile load 20% of the assumed safe load. Static Pile load following:
Pile Driving Formulae Settlement shall be recorded with at least three dial Pile Driving Formulae - Two-thirds the final load at which the total
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
gauges of sensitivity 0.02 mm. Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
settlement attains a value of 12 mm, unless it is
specified that a total settlement different from 12
Each stage of loading shall be maintained till the rate of mm is permissible in a given case on the basis of
movement of pile top is not more than 0.1 mm per the nature and type of structure. In the latter case,
hour. the allowable load shall correspond to the actual
permissible total settlement.
- Fifty percent of the final load at which the total

settlement equals to 10% of the pile diameter in
case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5% of bulb
diameter in case of underreamed piles.
2.Load test on piles 3.Cyclic pile load test

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The allowable load on a group of piles shall be lesser of 1.0. INTRODUCTION
The vertical cyclic pile load test is specially carried out
Static Pile load the following: Static Pile load when it is required to separate the pile load into skin
Pile Load Test
Pile Load Test
friction and point bearing on single pile of uniform
Pile Driving Formulae - Final load at which the total settlement attains a Pile Driving Formulae diameter.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
value of 25 mm, unless a total settlement different Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
form 25 mm is specified in a given case on the basis It is generally limited to initial tests only.
of the nature and type of structure.
The test set-up is similar to the one for initial test.
- Two-thirds the final load at which total settlement
attains a value of 40 mm. The load increment shall be applied in increments of
about 20% of the estimated safe load.
The procedure for routine test should be same as for an
initial test with maximum loading and settlement Loading and unloading should be carried out
requirements as mentioned earlier. alternately at each stage and the elastic rebound in the
pile should be measured by at least three dial gauges
of 0.02 mm sensitivity.
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3.Cyclic pile load test 3.Cyclic pile load test

The loading shall be continued up to two and a half 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The frictional load attains a maximum value at a certain
Static Pile load times the safe load or until the total settlement of pile Static Pile load load level and will not further increase upon increase in
Pile Load Test
top equals 10% of stem diameter, whichever is earlier. Pile Load Test
Q. Point load still keeps on increasing till the soil at the
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae base fails in local shear.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When a pile is loaded by an axial load Q at ground Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
level, initially the applied load will be distributed as Van Veele (1957) postulated that the point load Qp
friction load within certain length L1 of the pile increases linearly with the elastic compression of the
measured from its top. soil at the base. It is this principle that is used in
separating the frictional load from the point load.
It is only after the full length of pile develops frictional
resistance at a certain stage of loading, that a part of The total settlement (S) of a pile obtained from a pile
load is transferred to the soil at base as point load. load test comprises of two components, namely,
elastic settlement, (Se ) and plastic settlement, (Sp).
With the increase in load at the top after this stage,
both the frictional as well as point loads increase. S = Se + Sp

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The elastic settlement, (Se) is due to elastic recovery of 1.0. INTRODUCTION
The load transferred to base will compress the soil at
Static Pile load pile material and elastic recovery of soil at base of pile Static Pile load base of pile. Hence for Q > Qs
Pile Load Test
is Sc. Pile Load Test
Q = Qf + Qp
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
In cyclic loading procedure of pile load test, it is easy Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
to obtain elastic and plastic settlement at every stage
The total settlement of pile, S at any load level Q can be
of loading. written as
S = l + Sb
Where,
l = compression of pile &
Sb = compression of soil at base
Typical load settlement plot

from cyclic pile load test
30
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2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY Sb can be written as: Sb = Sc + Sb 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY The elastic compression at soil at base Sc can be
Static Pile load Static Pile load computed if Sp, Sb, Se and l are known.
Cyclic Pile Load test Where, Cyclic Pile Load test
Sc = elastic compression of soil at base Pile Driving Formulae From cyclic load test data, Sp and Se are obtained.
3.0. GROUP ACTION Sb = plastic compression of soil at base 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Sb is one component of the total plastic settlement Sp,
Thus, total settlement of the pile, the other component being the plastic settlement of
pile material.
S = l + Sc + Sb
If it is assumed that plastic settlement of pile material is
Further, S = Se + Sp negligible or Sp = Sb.
Therefore, Se + Sp = l + Sc + Sb
or, Sc = (Sp Sb) + Se - l

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Then, Sc = Se l
1.0. INTRODUCTION l cannot be determined from the above mentioned
expression till the frictional load Qf is known.
Since Se is known, Sc can be determined if l is Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae computed. Pile Driving Formulae
An indirect approach is obtained to determined Qp and
Correlation N-Spt Correlation N-Spt Qf. The involved steps are as follows:
l is given by the expression:
1. Assuming that there is no compression in the pile
l = (Q Qf/2)L / AE (i.e., l = 0) plot a graph between total elastic
recovery at pile head, Sc and the load on pile top
Where , Q as shown by curve I in subsequent figure.
Q = load on the pile Sc = Se
Qf = Frictional load
2. Draw a straight line parallel to straight portion of
L = length of the pile
Curve I to divide the load into two parts and
A = Average cross section area of pile
obtain the approximate values of point resistance,
E = modulus of elasticity of pile material
Qp and skin friction resistance, Qp.
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3. Using the approximate value of skin friction Qf for 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY The process may be repeated till reasonably accurate
Static Pile load different load levels, compute corresponding Static Pile load values of Qp and Qf are obtained.
Pile Load Test
elastic compression l of the pile. Pile Load Test
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae It has been seen that third trail give sufficiently accurate
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
4. Obtain the corresponding values of elastic Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
values for all practical purposes.
compression of soil at base of pile.
To obtain the safe pile capacity, a factor of safety of 2 on
5. Plot a new curve II using these new values of Se the ultimate skin friction resistance and 2.5 on the ultimate
against corresponding loads Q. point bearing resistance can be applied.
6. Draw a new straight line parallel to straight portion

of curve II.
7. Repeat the step 3 and 4 to obtain new values of Se

and then step 5 to obtain a new curve III.
Example 3 Example 3
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY The following data refers to a cyclic pile loadtest carried 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY From the data given, total settlement, net settlement and
Static Pile load out on a 300 mm diameter, 10m long pile. Plot the load Static Pile load elastic settlement for various loads have been computed
settlement curve and estimate the allowable load of the Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae pile . Pile Driving Formulae
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Example 3 4. Pile Driving/ Dynamic Pile Formulae

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY 2/3rd the loadcausing 12 mm settlement, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
These formulae are based on the laws governing the
Static Pile load Static Pile load impact of elastic bodies.
Qa = 2 x 500/3 = 333.33 kN Cyclic Pile Load test
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae The input energy of a hammer blow is equated to the
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
50% of load causing total settlement equal to 10% of Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
work done in overcoming the resistance of the ground
pile diameter, ex. A settlement of 30 mm. to the penetration of the pile.
Qa = 0.5 x 600 = 300 kN Allowance is made for losses of energy due to elastic
contraction of pile, pile cap and subsoil and losses due
to inertia of pile.
This is simplest and the most popular of the dynamic

pile formulae.
The dynamic resistance of soil, Qu is assumed to be

ultimate pile load capacity.
4.1. Engineering news Formula 4.1. Engineering news Formula

Equating the energy input and work done. 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
In metric units, the equation may be written as:
Pile Load Test
QuS = WH, from which the allowable pile load, Qs is Pile Load Test
i) Drop hammers: Qa = WH/6(S+2.5)
Pile Driving Formulae expressed as: Pile Driving Formulae ii) Single acting steam hammers:
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qa = WH/ 6 (S+0.25)
Qs = WH/ F(S+C)
Where,
Qa and W are expressed in kg;
Where, H ( fall of hammer or length of piston stroke) in cm.
W = weight of hammer falling through a height H. S is the final set in cm/blow,
S = real set per blow (usually taken as average penetration for the last 5
C =empirical factor, allowing reduction in the blows of a drop hammer, or 20 blows of a steam
theoretical set, due to energy loss hammer).
F = factor of safety, usually taken as 6.
The theoretical set, S = S + C
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4.1. Engineering news Formula 4.2. Modified Hiley Formula

1.0. INTRODUCTION The allowable pile load is also expressed in another 1.0. INTRODUCTION
It is considered to be superior to the engineering news
Static Pile load
form: Static Pile load Formula, as it takes into account various energy looses
Pile Load Test
Pile Load Test
during driving in a more realistic manner.
Pile Driving Formulae Qa = 166.64 E/ (S+2.54) Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Equating the available energy with useful work done
Where, and losses.
Qs = allowable pile load in kN R = Wh / (S + C/2)
E = energy per blow in kilo joules (kJ)
S = average penetration in mm per blow for the
= Wh / (S+ (C1+C2+C3)/2)
final 150 mm of driving
(minimum permissible value of S = 1.25 mm) Where,
R = ultimate driving resistance in tonnes. The safe load
Due to advantage that pile capacity can be is estimated by dividing the ultimate driving
conveniently worked out during driving and also due resistance by a factor of safety of 2.5.
to its simplicity. Engineering News Formula is
extensively used internationally. W = weight of hammer in tonnes.
4.2. Modified Hiley Formula 4.2. Modified Hiley Formula

= efficiency of the blow that represents the ratio of 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
S = the final set or penetration per blow in cm.
Static Pile load energy after impact to the striking energy of the Static Pile load C = total elastic compression = C1 +C2+C3
Pile Load Test
ram. Pile Load Test
C1 = temporary elastic compression of dolly and packing.
Pile Driving Formulae Pile Driving Formulae C2 = temporary elastic compression of pile.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
h = effective fall of hammer. It is equal to the height of Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
C3 = temporary elastic compression of soil
free fall of hammer in cm taken at its full value for
trigger operated drop hammers, 80% of the fall of
normally proportioned whinch-operated drop The values of C1, C2 and C3 can be obtained by using the
hammers, and 90% of the stroke for single acting equations below:
hammers. In case of McKiernan-terry type of double
acting hammers, 90% of the markers rated energy C1 = 1.77 R/A, where the driving is without dolly or helmet
in tonnes centimeter per blow be used for W h. the and cushion about 2.5 cm thick
set should be taken corresponding to maximum
speed of hammer. = 9.05 R/A, where the driving is with short dolly up to 60
cm long, helmet and cushion up to 7.5 cm thick.
34
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C2 = 0.657 RL/A 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
When W < P e and pile is driven into penetrable ground.
Static Pile load C3 = 3.55 R/A Static Pile load
Pile Driving Formulae Where, L = length of pile in meters Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
A = area of the pile in cm2 Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When W > P e and pile is driven into penetrable ground,
= (W+Pe2)/ (W+P) Where , P = weight of pile, anvil, helmet and follower ( if

any) in tonnes.
e = coefficient of restitution of material under impact.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
a) For steel ram of double- acting hammer striking on steel 1.0. INTRODUCTION
The value of in relation to e and to the ratio P/W has
Static Pile load anvil and driving reinforced concrete pile, e =0.5. Static Pile load been recommended.
Pile Driving Formulae b) For cast-iron ram of single acting or drop hammer Pile Driving Formulae If the pile finds refusal in rock. 0.5 P should be
Correlation N-Spt
striking on head of reinforced concrete pile, e = 0.4. Correlation N-Spt
substituted for P in the above expression for .
c) For single or drop hammer striking a well- conditioned Static cone penetration test data and standard
driving cap and helmet with hard wood dolly while penetration test data are often used to determine the
driving reinforced concrete piles or directly on head of pile load capacity.
timber pile, e = 0.25.
The static cone penetration test gives the variation of
d) For a deteriorated condition of the head of pile or of cone resistance value at the tip of the cone, qc and the
dolly, e = 0. skin friction resistance fc on the sleeve, with depth.
35
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4.3. Correlation with penetration test A. Driven piles in sand

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Standard penetration test yields the N values of the 1.0. INTRODUCTION
The unit resistance of driven piles qpu can be taken
Static Pile load subsoil strata at regular intervals of depth. Static Pile load equal to the static cone resistance, qc
Pile Driving Formulae We shall be discussing three cases: Pile Driving Formulae qc is to be taken as the average value of qc over a
Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
distance of 3 pile diameter (3D) above and one pile
A. Driven piles in sand diameter (D) below the level of the pile tip.
B. Bored and cast-in-situ piles in sand
C. Driven and cast-in-situ piles For the pile to attain its full point bearing resistance, it
should be driven at least 5D inside the bearing stratum.
The unit point resistance of driven piles in sand

including H piles, can also be determined using N
values according to equation
qpu = 40N (L/D) kN/m2
A. Driven piles in sand A. Driven piles in sand

Where, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Skin friction resistance for the driven piles can also be
Static Pile load Static Pile load obtained with the help of penetration test data by
Pile Load Test
N = The standard penetration resistances observed in the Pile Load Test
using Meyerhof (1956) correlations:
Pile Driving Formulae field for the bearing stratum without overburden Pile Driving Formulae
3.0. GROUP ACTION
correction. Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
For displacement piles, fs = qs(av) / 2 kN/m2
For H piles, fs = qs(av) / 4 kN/m2
L = the length of the pile.
D = the width or diameter of the pile. Where, qc(av) = average cone penetration test in kg/cm2
over the length of the pile.
For driven piles, the value of qpu is usually limited to
400N kN/m2
36
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A. Driven piles in sand B. Bored and cast-in-situ piles in sand

In terms of N values, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Point resistance and skin friction resistance of bored
Static Pile load For displacement piles, fs = 2 Nav kN/m2 Static Pile load piles in sand is considerably less than that of driven
Pile Load Test
For H piles, fs = Nav kN/m2 Pile Load Test
piles.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Where, Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
For initial estimates, the unit point resistance qpu and
Nav = average field value of N along the length unit skin friction resistance fs of a bored cast-in-situ pile
of the pile. in sand can be estimated by taking 1/3rd of qpu and half
of fs calculated from driven piles using SCPT and SPT
A maximum value of fs = 100 kN/m2 for displacement data.
piles and 50 kN/m2 for H piles is taken.
C. Driven and cast-in-situ piles C. Driven and cast-in-situ piles

If the steel tube driven into ground is left in place after 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
To estimate point bearing resistance, the enlarged area
Static Pile load the concrete is placed, the value of qpu and fs can be Static Pile load of the base is to be considered if a bulb is formed at
Pile Load Test
taken as those applicable for the driven piles. Pile Load Test
the base of pile by compacting the concrete.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
If the steel tube is withdrawn while the concrete is being Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
poured, the skin friction resistance developed would
depend on the amount of compaction applied to the
concrete.
If proper compacting is done then the soil around gets

densified and driven pile conditions would govern the
computation of fs.
If no compaction is done, the soil around would be in a

loose condition and the value of fs applicable for bored
cast-in-situ piles can be adopted
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4.3. Correlation with penetration test 4.3. Correlation with penetration test
1.0. INTRODUCTION qc = static cone resistance, fs = local side friction 1.0. INTRODUCTION
For non-homogeneous soils, the ultimate point
Static Pile load Static Pile load bearing capacity, qpu may be calculated using the
Pile Load Test Type of soil Local side friction, fs Pile Load Test
following relationship:
Pile Driving Formulae Clay and peats qc / 30 < fs < qc/10 Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation Penetration Test Correlation Penetration Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION Clays qc / 25 < fs 3.0. GROUP ACTION
Silty clays and silty sands qc / 100 < fs < qc/25

Sands qc / 100 < fs < qc/50
Coarse sands and gravels Fs< qc/150
4.3. Correlation with penetration test 5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES

Where, 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Piles are always used in a group. This is to ensure that
Static Pile load 3.0. GROUP ACTION the structural load from a member like a column or a
Pile Load Test
qco = average static cone resistance over a depth of 2D Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles
wall lies within the zone of influence of the foundation.
Pile Driving Formulae below the base level of pile. Failure
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Settlement
Examples
If a single driven pile is used as a foundation, one
qc1 = minimum static cone resistance over the same 2D cannot be certain that the pile would be located
below the pile tip centrally below the foundation element, as quite often
pile moves laterally during driving.
qc2 = average of minimum cone resistance values in the
diagram over a height of 8D above the base level of The resultant eccentricity of loading may result in the
pile. development of bending stresses in the pile and
consequently the pile may fail structurally.
D = diameter of pile base or equivalent diameter for a
non-circular cross-section
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5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES 5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES

Therefore, a minimum number of three piles is used 2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
The pile tops are connected together to the pile cap
3.0. GROUP ACTION under a column in a piles is used under a column in a 3.0. GROUP ACTION which helps the pile group act as an integral unit.
Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles
triangular pattern, even if the load does not warrant Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles
Failure the use of three piles. Failure The pile cap may either stand clearly above the ground
Settlement
Examples
Settlement
Examples
level or may rest on the soil, partially or fully buried
When the number of piles required is more than three, below ground level.
the piles are so arranged that they are symmetrical
with respect to the load. When pile cap stand clearly above the ground level, the
pile group is called free standing pile group.
Piles under a wall are arranged on the either side of the
centre line of the wall in a staggered formation. It referred to as piled foundation where the piles rest
on the soil.
The load is transferred to the piles in a group through a
reinforced slab or beam called the pile cap Free standing pile group may have to be used when it is
required to keep the pile cap away from direct contact
with an expansive soil.
5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES Ultimate load capacity of pile groups

1.0. INTRODUCTION The ultimate load capacity of a pile group is not
Under certain situation, as for example, when a fast INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY necessarily equal to the sum of individual load
3.0. GROUP ACTION current of water scours away the soil support below the GROUP ACTION
capacities of the piles in the group.
Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles
pile cap, a piled foundation may be transformed into a Ultimate Load Capacity
Failure free standing pile group. Spacing of Piles
Settlement Failure
The ratio of the ultimate load capacity of the pile group,
Examples
Settlement Qug to the sum of individual load capacities of piles in
In a piled foundation, the pile cap may, under certain Examples the group, is called the group efficiency, .
soil conditions, help transmit a part of the load to soil
on which it rests. = Qug / n Qu
When driving the piles in sand, it is advisable to begin at Where, n is the number of piles in group and Qu is
the centre of a group and then proceed outwards to the load capacity of one pile.
avoid problems of ground tightening.
Disturbance of soil during installation of piles and
Bored piles can be placed in vertical position fairly overlap of stresses between adjacent piles may cause
accurately and hence even one pile may be sufficient the group capacity to be less than the sum of individual
where the loads are light. capacities, i.e., < 1.
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Point bearing piles Friction Piles
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity

Spacing of Piles Spacing of Piles
Failure Failure
Settlement Settlement
Examples Examples
5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES 5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES
INTRODUCTION Generally, for smaller spacing between piles, < 1. INTRODUCTION When driven piles are spaced closely in dense soils or
in soft clays, the soil between the piles tends to move
Ultimate Load Capacity For larger spacing, the effect of pile interaction Ultimate Load Capacity upwards and the piles to be lifted up.
Spacing of Piles diminishes and approaches to unity. Spacing of Piles
Failure Failure
On the other hand, large spacing necessitate a bigger
Examples
In driven piles where the soil around the pile gets Examples
pile cap, which is uneconomical.
densified, as in loose to medium sand, may be even
more than 1. Bored cast-in-situ piles permit smaller spacing,
because their installation in the ground does not
The pile group tends to behave like a block or like an result in a densification of soil around piles.
equivalent pile circumscribing all the pile in the group.
The group efficiency, depends mainly on the spacing

between piles, type of soil in which the piles are
installed and the manner of pile installation, i.e., driven
or bored cast-in-situ.
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Spacing of Piles in Group Pile Groups in Clay
INTRODUCTION Code recommends a minimum spacing of 2.5 times the INTRODUCTION Experimental evidence has indicated that a group of piles
GROUP ACTION
shaft diameter for point bearing piles, 3 times the shaft GROUP ACTION
may fail in one of the following two ways:
Ultimate Load Capacity diameter for friction piles. Ultimate Load Capacity
A. By block failure
Failure
In loose sands or fill deposits, a minimum spacing of 2 Pile Failure
Examples
times the shaft diameter is suggested. Examples
B. By individual pile failure
A. Block Failure B. Block Failure
INTRODUCTION Block failure normally occurs when piles are spaced less INTRODUCTION where,
GROUP ACTION
than 2 to 3 pile diameter. GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity cub = undrained strength of clay at base of pile group.
Spacing of Piles In block failure, the soil bound by perimeter of the pile Spacing of Piles
cu = average undrained strength of clay along length of
Pile Failure
group and the embedded length of the pile acts as one Pile Failure
Settlement Settlement block.
Examples
unit or block. Examples
Nc = bearing capacity factor, taken as 9.
The ultimate load capacity of pile group by block failure, Ab = cross-sectional area of block.
Qug is given by
Pb = perimeter of the block.
Qug = cub Nc Ab + Pb L cu L = embedded length of the pile.
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B. Individual pile failure
INTRODUCTION Individual pile failure occurs for wider spacing,

PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
approaches unity when pile spacing is about 8 times the
Ultimate Load Capacity diameter.
Spacing of Piles
The ultimate load capacity of the group is taken as the
smaller of two values as obtained above.
Pile Failure
The ultimate load capacity of pile group by individual pile
Settlement
Examples
failure, Qug is given by
Qug = n Qu
where, Qu is the ultimate load capacity of individual

pile.
Pile groups in sand Pile groups in sand

If the piles overlie a compressible stratum, the stability of an
INTRODUCTION Value of for free standing pile groups in sand when the INTRODUCTION
equivalent footing placed at the level of the tip of piles has to
GROUP ACTION
piles are driven into the soil, is invariably greater than 1 GROUP ACTION be checked.
Ultimate Load Capacity for closer spacing and tends to approach unity when pile Ultimate Load Capacity
Spacing of Piles spacing is increased to 5 to 6 times the pile diameter. Spacing of Piles The load capacity of the pile group will now be governed by
Pile Failure Pile Failure
the shear strength and compressibility of weak soil and not by
Examples
However, in dense sand, can become less than 1. Examples
group efficiency within the sand stratum.
An efficiency factor of 1 is commonly assumed in design. The method of installation of bored cast-in-situ piles in sand
results in a general loosening of soil around the piles,
In piled foundation, the pile cap resting on the soil can especially when the boring is to be done below the water
mobilize additional support from the soil. For this table.
support to materialize, considerable downward
Further, the cleaning of the bottom of the borehole before
movement of pile cap is required and the restriction on
concreting is always difficult.
permissible settlement of the foundation may not allow
this.
As there is no compaction of soil around the soil, is never
more than unity.
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Settlement of pile group Pile groups in clay
INTRODUCTION The vertical movement that occurs at the level of pile cap is INTRODUCTION The settlement of a pile group in clay can not be
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
largely due to the settlement of the soil supporting the pile. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
estimated form the data of a load test on a single pile
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity because the time effect, the effect of remolding of soil
Spacing of Piles Those has to be restricted to a value within permissible Spacing of Piles due to pile driving and the scale effect are quite different
Pile Failure settlement for the structure in question. Pile Failure
for the single test pile and the group of piles.
Examples Examples
Settlement of pile group is more than the settlement of a The widely used approach for calculating the settlement
single pile even when the load on the single pile and the of a pile group in clay is the equivalent raft approach.
load on each pile of the pile group are the same.
In this method, the pile group is assumed to act as a
This is because of the fact that the zone of influence of a pile
single and large raft is assumed to be placed at some
group is much deeper than that of a single pile.
arbitrary depth inside the soil.
In case of driven piles in sand, the larger thickness of soil
contributing to settlement is also more compressible than
the soil below a single pile which can be regarded as pre-
compressed on account of pile driving.
Pile groups in clay Pile groups in clay
INTRODUCTION The piles are assumed to transfer the vertical load INTRODUCTION Assumptions for equivalent raft:
GROUP ACTION
acting on them, Q g to this depth and the settlement of GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity the raft is calculated. Ultimate Load Capacity 1) For the displacement piles or friction piles in
Spacing of Piles Spacing of Piles homogenous clay, the common practice is to assume
Pile Failure
Settlement of the pile group is taken as the Pile Failure
the equivalent raft at a depth of 2/3rd of pile length
Examples
settlement of this fictitious raft. Examples
over an area enclosed by the piles at the depth.
Depending on subsoil conditions, several assumptions The load Q g assumed to be transferred at this level, is
have been used to identify the location of equivalent then assumed to spread out at 2 vertical and 1
raft. horizontal distribution in order to work out the value
of stress increase at the mid-depth of clay stratum.
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Pile groups in clay Pile groups in sand
INTRODUCTION 2) For bored piles or end bearing piles bearing on firm INTRODUCTION For estimating the settlement of pile group in sand,
GROUP ACTION
stratum, the equivalent raft is assumed at the base of GROUP ACTION
the common practice is to extrapolate this from the
Ultimate Load Capacity the pile over an area enclosed by the piles at this Ultimate Load Capacity settlement of an individual test pile measured in a
Spacing of Piles depth. A load spread of 2:1 is assumed from this Spacing of Piles load test.
Pile Failure
depth. Pile Failure
Examples Examples
Skempton (1953) compared the settlements of a
3) This situation relates to piles driven into a firm or number of pile groups, consisting of driven piles, with
strong stratum through an overlying clay stratum. If the settlement of individual piles in sand, for the same
the length of piles embedded in the strong stratum is load per pile.
L, the load Q g is assumed to act at a depth equal to
2/3rd the length L below the top surface of the string The settlement of a pile group, Sg is expressed as
layer and spreading out at 2:1 slope. multiple of the settlement of an individual pile, Si.
Pile groups in sand Pile groups in sand
INTRODUCTION Sg / Si is called the settlement ratio (for the same average INTRODUCTION Meyerhof (1959) expressed the settlement ratio for
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
load Q per pile) and is expressed as PILE LOAD CAPACITY square pile groups in sand in the form:
Ultimate Load Capacity Ultimate Load Capacity

Pile Failure Pile Failure
Examples Examples
where, B = width of pile group in m.

where,
It has been observed that settlement ratio can have a s = ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter.
maximum value of 16 which means that the settlement r = number of rows in pile group.
of a pile group in sand can not be more than 16 times
that of an individual pile whatever be the width of the
pile group.
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Allowable load on a pile group
INTRODUCTION The safe pile load capacity of a pile group under

PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION vertical load is first determined on the basis of the
Ultimate Load Capacity shear failure criterion as discussed earlier.
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
The settlement of pile group under this load is then
Settlement
Examples
computed.
The settlement should not exceed the permissible

settlement.
The allowable load on a group of piles is the smaller

of the values calculated on the basis shear failure
criterion and the settlement criterion.
45

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12/4/2013

The manner in which soil resists stresses from shallow

End bearing Vertical uplift loads:

Piles are sometimes used to resist uplift loads and are

Piles can also be used to provide anchorage against

Types of Pile Types of Pile

Installation Effect Displacement piles

Displacement piles Displacement piles

Non-displacement piles Non-displacement piles

Non-displacement piles Non-displacement piles

capacity, if it happens to be sand or gravel.

- There is difficulty of concreting under water and

Material of construction Timber piles

Steel piles Steel piles

Mode of Installation Driven precast concrete piles

As a precast concrete pile is usually in a state of

However, piles are reinforced to take care of handling

Driven precast concrete piles Driven precast concrete piles

Cast-in-situ concrete piles Cast-in-situ concrete piles

into the ground: driven cast-in-situ.

If during the process of concreting the hole, the casing is

Advantages of driven cast-in-situ piles Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles

Possible damage to uncased piles by necking or

Piles can be driven with a closed end so as to exclude the

Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles

Limitation in length because of the lifting force

Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles

Piles can be installed very great length and very large

Disadvantages of bored cast-in-situ piles Underreamed piles

Underreamed piles Stages in construction of a single

After the enlarged end is formed, the reinforcement

Underreamed piles Underreamed piles

Pile driving rig Bore hole preparation

Lowering of reinforcement cage in bore Reinforcement kept in position

Welding in reinforcement cage Reinforcement cages

Completed pile Group of piles

Methods for determination of pile load 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static Pile Load Formulae 1. Static Pile Load Formulae

Relationship Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)

When piles are driven to refusal into a very dense

Skin friction Skin friction

= angle of friction between pile and the soil.

Ultimate skin friction resistance, Qf is given by

Skin friction Values of K and for piles driven into

Skin friction Bored cast-in-situ piles

The maximum value of fs should be limited to 100 kN/m

Bored cast-in-situ piles Bored cast-in-situ piles

Driven cast-in-situ piles

Allowable load on piles Piles in clay

Piles in clay Piles in clay

Piles in clay Piles in clay

Even though the adhesion factor is smaller in stiff or

Piles in clay Piles in clay

Piles in clay Values of reduction factor,

qpu = Nq = 81 x 137 = 11097 kN/m

Qu = Qpu + Qf = 784 + 859 = 1643 kN

Qa = Qu / 2.5 = 1643 / 2.5 = 651 kN

2.Load test on piles 2.Load test on piles

2.Load test on piles 2.Load test on piles