UNIT 1

Computer Languages | Types of Computer Languages

Around the world language is a source of communication among human beings.
Similarly, in
order to communicate with computer user also needs to have a language, that should
be
understandable by the computers. For the purpose different languages are developed
for
performing different types of work on the computer.

Mainly there are two types of computer languages.

Low Level Computer Languages

These are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand instruction
given in high
level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute instructions
given in the form
of machine languages i.e. the binary number 0 and 1. There are two types of low
level computer
language.

Machine Language
The lowest and most elementary language and was the first type of programming
language to
be developed. Mache language is basically the only language which computer can
understand.
In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine
code, which
is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The
symbol 0 stand
for the absence of an electric pulse and 1 for the presence of an electric pulse.
Since a computer
is capable of recognizing electric signals, therefore, it understands machine
language.

The set of binary codes which can be recognize by the computer is known as the
machine code
instruction set. A machine language instruction consists of an operation code one
or more
operands. The operation code specifies that operation that is to be performed e.g.
read, record
etc. the operands identify the quantities to be operated on e.g. the numbers to be
added or the
locations where data are stored. But, it is almost impossible to write programs
directly in
machine code. For this reason, programs are normally written in assembly or high
level
languages and then are translated in the machine language by different translators.

Advantages

1.It makes fast and efficient use of the computer

2.It requires no translator to translate the code i.e. directly understood by the
computer.
Disadvantages

1.All operation codes have to be remembered

2.All memory addresses have to be remembered
3.It is hard to amend or find errors in a program written in the machine language
4.These languages are machine dependent i.e. a particular machine language can be
used

on only one type of computer.

Assembly Languages
It was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine language.
This is
another low level but a very important language in which operation codes and
operands are

given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0s and 1s. These

alphanumeric symbols

will be known as mnemonic codes and can have maximum up to 5 letter combinations
e.g.
ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START LABEL etc. because of this feature it
is also

known as Symbolic Programming Language. This language is very difficult and needs
a lot

of practice to master it because very small English support is given. This symbolic
language
helps in compiler orientations. The instructions of the assembly language will also
be converted
to machine codes by language translator to be executed by the computer

Advantages

1.It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language

2.It is easy to locate and correct errors
3.It is modified easily

Disadvantages

1.Like machine language it is also machine dependent

2.Since it is machine dependent, there programmer should have the knowledge of he
hardware also.
Computer High Level Languages
High level computer languages give formats close to English language and the
purpose of
developing high level languages is to enable people to write programs easily and in
their own
native language environment (English). High-level languages are basically symbolic
languages
that use English words and/or mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each

instruction in the high level language is translated into many machine language
instructions

thus showing one-to-many translation.

.
Problem-Oriented Language: These are languages used for handling specialized
types of data processing problems where programmer only specifies the input/output
requirements and other relative information of the problem, that are to be solved.
The
programmer does not have to specify the procedure to be followed in solving that
particular problem.
.
Procedural Language: These are general purpose languages that are designed to
express the logic of a data processing problem.

.
Non-procedural Language: Computer Programming Languages that allow users and
professional programmers to specify the results they want without specifying how to

solve the problem.

Selection of a Computer Language

There are many high-level languages in use today. The choice of language depends on
type
and complexity of the problem.

1.Purpose e.g. business, educational, scientific.

2.Facilities provided e.g. meaningful variable names, control and data structures,
error

checking facilities.
3.Ease of learning and use.
4.Portability -if a program is to he used on or in more than one system.
5.Popularity -availability of compilers/interpreters.
6.Documentation provided.

Types of High Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving different variety of tasks, some
are fairly
specialized others are quite general purpose. These are categorized according to
their use as:

Algebraic Formula-Type Processing. These languages are oriented towards the

computational procedures for solving mathematical and statistical problems.

Examples are
1.BASIC (Basic All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
2.FORTRAN (Formula Translation).
3.PL/1 (Programming Language, Version 1).
4.ALGOL (Algorithmic Language).
5.APL (A Programming Language).

Business Data Processing. These languages emphasize their capabilities for

maintaining data

processing procedures and files handling problems. Examples are:

1.COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
2.RPG (Report Program Generator).

String and List Processing. These are used for string manipulation including search
for
patterns, inserting and deleting characters. Examples are: LISP (List Processing).
Multipurpose Language. A general purpose language used for algebraic procedures,
data and

string processing. Examples are:

1.Pascal (after the name of Blaise Pascal).
2.PL/1 (Programming Language, version 1).

3.C language.
Simulation: These may be written in algebraic or multipurpose languages. Examples
are:
1.SPSS (Statistical Package System Simulator).
2.GPSS (General Purpose System Simulator).

Advantages: Following are the advantages of a high level language:

1.User-friendly (people based)
2.Similar to English with vocabulary of words awl symbols therefore it is easier to
learn.
3.They require less time to write
4.They are easier to maintain
5.Problem oriented' rather than 'machine' based
6.Shorter than their low-level equivalents. One statement translates into many
machine

code instructions.

7.Program written in a high-level equivalent can he translated into many machine

language and therefore can run on every computer for which there exists an
appropriate translator.

8.It is independent of the machine on which it used i.e. programs developed in high
level

language can be run on any computer.

Disadvantages: There are certain disadvantages also Inspite these disadvantages
high-level
languages have proved their worth. The advantages out-weigh the disadvantages by
far, for
most applications. These are:

1.A high-level language has to be translated into the -machine language by a

translator
and thus a price in computer time is paid.
2.The
object code generated by a translator might be inefficient compared to an
equivalent assembly language program

Flow Chart Defined

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in

the process is
represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process
step. The flow
chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction.

Common Flowchart Symbols

Different flow chart symbols have different meanings. The most common flow chart
symbols
are:

.
Terminator: An oval flow chart shape indicating the start or end of the process.
.
Process: A rectangular flow chart shape indicating a normal process flow step.
.
Decision: A diamond flow chart shape indication a branch in the process flow.
.
Connector: A small, labeled, circular flow chart shape used to indicate a jump in
the process

flow. (Shown as the circle with the letter A, below.)

.
Data: A parallelogram that indicates data input or output (I/O) for a process.
.
Document: Used to indicate a document or report (see image in sample flow chart
below).

(A complete list of flow chart symbols can be found in the flowchart symbol
definitions article.)

A simple flow chart showing the symbols described above can be seen below:
Process / Operation Symbols

SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Process
Show a Process or action step. This is the most common
symbol in both process flowcharts and process maps.
SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Predefined
Process
(Subroutine)
A Predefined Process symbol is a marker for another process
step or series of process flow steps that are formally defined
elsewhere. This shape commonly depicts sub-processes (or
subroutines in programming flowcharts). If the sub-process is
considered "known" but not actually defined in a process
procedure, work instruction, or some other process flowchart
or documentation, then it is best not to use this symbol since it
implies a formally defined process.
Alternate
Process
As the shape name suggests, this flowchart symbol is used
when the process flow step is an alternate to the normal process
step. Flow lines into an alternate process flow step are typically
dashed.
Delay
The Delay flowchart symbol depicts any waiting period that is
part of a process. Delay shapes are common in process
mapping.
Preparation
As the names states, any process step that is a Preparation
process flow step, such as a set-up operation.
Manual
Operation
Manual Operations flowchart shapes show which process steps
are not automated. In data processing flowcharts, this data flow
shape indicates a looping operation along with a loop limit
symbol (which is not supported by Microsoft Office, but a
Manual Operation symbol rotated 180 will do the trick.)
Branching and Control of Flow Symbols

SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Flow Line
(Arrow,
Connector)
Flow line connectors show the direction that the process
flows.
Terminator
(Terminal
Point, Oval)
Terminators show the start and stop points in a process.
When used as a Start symbol, terminators depict a trigger
action that sets the process flow into motion.
Decision
Indicates a question or branch in the process flow.
Typically, a Decision flowchart shape is used when there
are 2 options (Yes/No, No/No-Go, etc.)
Connector
(Inspection)
Flowchart: In flowcharts, this symbol is typically small
and is used as a Connector to show a jump from one point
in the process flow to another. Connectors are usually
labeled with capital letters (A, B, AA) to show matching
jump points. They are handy for avoiding flow lines that
cross other shapes and flow lines. They are also handy for
jumping to and from a sub-processes defined in a separate
area than the main flowchart.
Process Mapping: In process maps, this symbol is full
sized and shows an Inspection point in the process flow.
SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
[Just to confuse things further, some people will use a
circle to indicate an operation and a square to indicate
an inspection. That's why it's important to include a
symbol key in the flowchart.]
Off-Page
Connector
Off-Page Connector shows continuation of a process
flowchart onto another page. When using them in
conjunction with Connectors, it's best to differentiate the
labels, e.g. use numbers for Off-Page Connectors and
capital letters for Connectors. In actual practice, most
flowcharts just use the Connect shape for both on-page
and off-page references.
Merge
(Storage)
Flowchart: Shows the merging of multiple processes or
information into one.
Process Mapping: commonly indicates storage of raw
materials.
Extract
(Measurement)
Flowchart: Shows when a process splits into parallel
paths. Also commonly indicates a Measurement, with a
capital 'M' inside the symbol.
SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Process Mapping: commonly indicates storage of
finished goods.
Or
The logical Or symbol shows when a process diverges -
usually for more than 2 branches. When using this
symbol, it is important to label the out-going flow lines
to indicate the criteria to follow each branch.
Summing
Junction
The logical Summing Junction flowchart shape is shows
when multiple branches converge into a single process.
The merge symbol is more common for this use, though.
This symbol and the Or symbol are really more relevant
in data processing flow diagrams than in process
flowcharts.
Input and Output Symbols

SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Data
(I/O)
The Data flowchart shape indicates inputs to and outputs from a
process. As such, the shape is more often referred to as an I/O
shape than a Data shape.
SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Document
Pretty self explanatory -the Document flowchart symbol is for a
process step that produces a document.
Multi-
Document
Same as Document, except, well, multiple documents. This shape
is not as commonly used as the Document flowchart shape, even
when multiple documents are implied.
Display
Indicates a process step where information is displayed to a person
(e.g., PC user, machine operator).
Manual
Input
Manual Input flowchart shapes show process steps where the
operator/ user is prompted for information that must be manually
input into a system.
Card
This is the companion to the punched tape flowchart shapes. This
shape is seldom used.
Punched
Tape
If you're very good at stretching all the life out of a machine, you
may still have use for the Punched Tape symbol used
for input
into old computers and CNC machines.
File and Information Storage Symbols

SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Stored Data
A general Data Storage flowchart shape used for any process
step that stores data (as opposed to the more specific shapes
to follow next in this table).
Magnetic Disk
(Database)
The most universally recognizable symbol for a data storage
location, this flowchart shape depicts a database.
Direct Access
Storage
Direct Access Storage is a fancy way of saying Hard Drive.
Internal Storage
Used in programming flowcharts to mean information
stored in memory, as opposed to on a file.
Sequential
Access Storage
(Magnetic
Tape)
Although it looks like a 'Q', the symbol is supposed to look
like a reel of tape.
Data Processing Symbols

SYMBOL
NAME
(ALIAS)
DESCRIPTION
Collate
The Collate flowchart shape indicates a process step that requires
organizing data, information, or materials according into a standard
format or arrangement.
Sort
Indicates the sorting of data, information, materials into some predefined
order.
Examples of flowchart


SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

1. Planning
This is the first phase in the systems development process. It identifies whether
or not there is
the need for a new system to achieve a business"s strategic objectives. This is a
preliminary
plan (or a feasibility study) for a company"s business initiative to acquire the
resources to build
on an infrastructure to modify or improve a service. The company might be trying to
meet or
exceed expectations for their employees, customers and stakeholders too. The
purpose of this
step is to find out the scope of the problem and determine solutions. Resources,
costs, time,
benefits and other items should be considered at this stage.

2. Systems Analysis and Requirements

The second phase is where businesses will work on the source of their problem or
the need for
a change. In the event of a problem, possible solutions are submitted and analyzed
to identify
the best fit for the ultimate goal(s) of the project. This is where teams consider
the functional
requirements of the project or solution. It is also where system analysis takes
placeor
analyzing the needs of the end users to ensure the new system can meet their
expectations.
Systems analysis is vital in determining what a business"s needs are, as well as
how they can
be met, who will be responsible for individual pieces of the project, and what sort
of timeline
should be expected.

There are several tools businesses can use that are specific to the second phase.
They include:

.
CASE (Computer Aided Systems/Software Engineering)
.
Requirements gathering
.
Structured analysis

3. Systems Design
The third phase describes, in detail, the necessary specifications, features and
operations that
will satisfy the functional requirements of the proposed system which will be in
place. This is
the step for end users to discuss and determine their specific business information
needs for the
proposed system. It"s during this phase that they will consider the essential
components
(hardware and/or software) structure (networking capabilities), processing and
procedures for
the system to accomplish its objectives.

4. Development
The fourth phase is when the real work beginsin particular, when a programmer,
network
engineer and/or database developer are brought on to do the major work on the
project. This
work includes using a flow chart to ensure that the process of the system is
properly organized.
The development phase marks the end of the initial section of the process.
Additionally, this
phase signifies the start of production. The development stage is also
characterized by
instillation and change. Focusing on training can be a huge benefit during this
phase.

5. Integration and Testing

The fifth phase involves systems integration and system testing (of programs and
procedures)normally carried out by a Quality Assurance (QA) professionalto
determine if
the proposed design meets the initial set of business goals. Testing may be
repeated,
specifically to check for errors, bugs and interoperability. This testing will be
performed until
the end user finds it acceptable. Another part of this phase is verification and
validation, both
of which will help ensure the program"s successful completion.
6. Implementation
The sixth phase is when the majority of the code for the program is written.
Additionally, this
phase involves the actual installation of the newly-developed system. This step
puts the project
into production by moving the data and components from the old system and placing
them in
the new system via a direct cutover. While this can be a risky (and complicated)
move, the
cutover typically happens during off-peak hours, thus minimizing the risk. Both
system
analysts and end-users should now see the realization of the project that has
implemented
changes.

7. Operations and Maintenance

The seventh and final phase involves maintenance and regular required updates. This
step is
when end users can fine-tune the system, if they wish, to boost performance, add
new
capabilities or meet additional user requirements.

Importance of the SDLC

If a business determines a change is needed during any phase of the SDLC, the
company might
have to proceed through all the above life cycle phases again. The life cycle
approach of any
project is a time-consuming process. Even though some steps are more difficult than
others,
none are to be overlooked. An oversight could prevent the entire system from
functioning as
planned.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

The history of the computer goes back several decades however and there are five
definable
generations of computers.

Each generation is defined by a significant technological development that changes

fundamentally how computers operate leading to more compact, less expensive, but
more
powerful, efficient and robust machines.

1940

1956: First Generation

Vacuum Tubes

These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
As a
result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing a fortune
to run. These
were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat, sucked huge electricity
and
subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused ongoing breakdowns.

These first generation computers relied on machine language (which is the most
basic

programming language that can be understood by computers). These computers were

limited
to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape.
Output
came out on print-outs. The two notable machines of this era were the UNIVAC and
ENIAC
machines the UNIVAC is the first every commercial computer which was purchased in
1951
by a business the US Census Bureau.

Advantages

.
Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.

.
Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.

.
These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

.
The computers were very large in size.

.
They consumed a large amount of energy.

.
They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.

.
They were not very reliable.

.
Air conditioning was required.
.
Constant maintenance was required.
.
Non-portable.
.
Costly commercial production.
.
Limited commercial use.
.
Very slow speed.
.
Limited programming capabilities.
.
Used machine language only.
.
Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
.
Used punch cards for input.
.
Not versatile and very faulty.

1956

1963: Second Generation

Transistors

The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second
generation of
computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors werent used significantly
in computers
until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement over the vacuum tube,
despite still
subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat. However they were hugely superior
to the
vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper and less heavy on
electricity use.
They still relied on punched card for input/printouts.

The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (assembly)

languages. This

meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the same time high
level
programming languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN).
Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to store instructions into
their memories

moving from magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The early versions of
these
machines were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Advantages

.
Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
.
The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
.
Used less energy and were not heated.
.
Wider commercial use
.
Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
.
Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
.
Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
.
Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
.
Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages
.
Cooling system was required
.
Constant maintenance was required
.
Commercial production was difficult
.
Only used for specific purposes
.
Costly and not versatile
.
Puch cards were used for input.

1964

1971: Third Generation

Integrated Circuits

By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips
(called
semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these
machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and
monitors
which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the punch
cards and
printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at once using a
central
program which functioned to monitor memory.

As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new
mass

market of users emerged during the 60s.

Advantages

.
Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
.
More reliable.
.
Used less energy
.
Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
.
Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
.
Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
.
Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.
.
Totally general purpose
.
Could be used for high-level languages.
.
Good storage
.
Versatile to an extent
.
Less expensive
.
Better accuracy
.
Commercial production increased.
.
Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages
.
Air conditioning was required.
.
Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

1972

2010: Fourth Generation

Microprocessors

This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the
Intel 4004
chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory, input/output
controls)
onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel
chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981 saw the first ever
computer (IBM)
specifically designed for home use and 1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple.
Microprocessors even moved beyond the realm of computers and into an increasing
number of
everyday products.
The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating
networks.
Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the Internet.
Other major
advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse
and more
recently the astounding advances in lap-top capability and hand-held devices.

Advantages

.
More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
.
Small in size
.
Fast processing power with less power consumption
.
Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
.
No air conditioning required.
.
Totally general purpose
.
Commercial production
.
Less need of repair.
.
Cheapest among all generations
.
All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

.
The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

2010-: Fifth Generation

Artificial Intelligence

Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of
these
technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.

AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors.

Leaning to the
future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and
nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately
create machines
which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability to learn and
organise
themselves.

MS-DOS & WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Short for Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS is a non-graphical command line
operating system derived from 86-DOS that was created for IBM compatible computers.
MSDOS
originally written by Tim Paterson and introduced by Microsoft in August 1981 and
was
last updated in 1994 when MS-DOS 6.22 was released. MS-DOS allows the user to
navigate,
open, and otherwise manipulate files on their computer from a command line instead
of
a GUI like Windows.

Today, MS-DOS is no longer used; however, the command shell, more commonly known as

the Windows command lineis still used by many users. The picture to the right, is
an example
of what an MS-DOS window more appropriately referred to as the Windows command line

looks like running under Microsoft Windows.

Most computer users are only familiar with how to navigate Microsoft Windows using
the mouse. Unlike Windows, MS-DOS is a command-line and is navigated by using MS-
DOS
commands. For example, if you wanted to see all the files in a folder in Windows
you would
double-click the folder to open the folder in Windows Explorer. In MS-DOS, to view
that same
folder you would navigate to the folder using the cd commandand then list the files
in that
folder using the dir command.

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

Originally developed by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system

for IBM-compatible personal computers. The initial versions of DOS were very simple
and
resembled another operating system called CP/M. Subsequent versions have become
increasingly sophisticated as they incorporated features of minicomputer operating
systems.

Windows 1.0

2.0 (1985-1992)

Introduced in 1985, Microsoft Windows 1.0 was named due to the computing boxes, or
"windows" that represented a fundamental aspect of the operating system. Instead of

typing MS-DOS commands, windows 1.0 allowed users to point and click to access the
windows.
In 1987 Microsoft released Windows 2.0, which was designed for the designed for the
Intel
286 processor. This version added desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved
graphics
support.

Windows 3.0

3.1 (19901994)

Windows 3.0 was released in May, 1900 offering better icons, performance and
advanced
graphics with 16 colors designed for Intel 386 processors. This version is the
first release that
provides the standard "look and feel" of Microsoft Windows for many years to come.
Windows

3.0 included Program Manager, File Manager and Print Manager and games (Hearts,
Minesweeper and Solitaire). Microsoft released Windows 3.1 in 1992.
Windows 95 (August 1995)

Windows 95 was released in 1995 and was a major upgrade to the Windows operating
system.
This OS was a significant advancement over its precursor, Windows 3.1. In addition
to sporting
a new user interface, Windows 95 also includes a number of important internal
improvements.
Perhaps most important, it supports 32-bit applications, which means that
applications written
specifically for this operating system should run much faster.
Although Windows 95 can run older Windows and DOS applications, it has essentially
removed DOS as the underlying platform. This has meant removal of many of the old
DOS
limitations, such as 640K of main memory and 8-character filenames. Other important
features
in this operating system are the ability to automatically detect and configure
installed hardware
(plug and play).

Windows 98 (June 1998)

Windows 98 offers support for a number of new technologies, including FAT32, AGP,
MMX,
USB, DVD, and ACPI. Its most visible feature, though, is the Active Desktop, which
integrates
the Web browser (Internet Explorer) with the operating system. From the user's
point of view,
there is no difference between accessing a document residing locally on the user's
hard disk or
on a Web server halfway around the world.
Windows ME -Millennium Edition (September 2000)
The Windows Millennium Edition, called "Windows Me" was an update to the Windows 98
core and included some features of the Windows 2000 operating system. This version
also
removed the "boot in DOS" option.

Windows NT 31. -4.0 (1993-1996)

A version of the Windows operating system. Windows NT (New Technology) is a 32-bit

operating system that supports preemptive multitasking. There are actually two
versions of
Windows NT: Windows NT Server, designed to act as a server in networks, and Windows
NT
Workstation for stand-alone or client workstations.

Windows 2000 (February 2000)

Often abbreviated as "W2K," Windows 2000 is an operating system for business

desktop and
laptop systems to run software applications, connect to Internet and intranet
sites, and access
files, printers, and network resources. Microsoft released four versions of Windows
2000:
Professional (for business desktop and laptop systems), Server (both a Web server
and an office
server), Advanced Server (for line-of-business applications) and Datacenter Server
(for high-
traffic computer networks).
Windows XP (October 2001)

Windows XP was released in 2001. Along with a redesigned look and feel to the user
interface,
the new operating system is built on the Windows 2000 kernel, giving the user a
more stable
and reliable environment than previous versions of Windows. Windows XP comes in two

versions, Home and Professional. Microsoft focused on mobility for both editions,
including
plug and play features for connecting to wireless networks. The operating system
also utilizes
the 802.11x wireless security standard. Windows XP is one of Microsoft's best-
selling
products.

Windows Vista (November 2006)

Windows Vista offered an advancement in reliability, security, ease of deployment,

performance and manageability over Windows XP. New in this version was capabilities
to
detect hardware problems before they occur, security features to protect against
the latest
generation of threats, faster start-up time and low power consumption of the new
sleep state.
In many cases, Windows Vista is noticeably more responsive than Windows XP on
identical
hardware. Windows Vista simplifies and centralizes desktop configuration
management,
reducing the cost of keeping systems updated.

Windows 7 (October, 2009)

Windows 7 was released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009 as the latest in the 25-
year-old line
of Windows operating systems and as the successor to Windows Vista (which itself
had
followed Windows XP). Windows 7 was released in conjunction with Windows Server
2008
R2, Windows 7's server counterpart. Enhancements and new features in Windows 7
include
multi-touch support, Internet Explorer 8, improved performance and start-up time,
Aero Snap,
Aero Shake, support for virtual hard disks, a new and improved Windows Media
Center, and
improved security.
Windows 8

Windows 8 was released on August. 1, 2012 and is a completely redesigned operating

system
that's been developed from the ground up with touchscreen use in mind as well as
near-instanton
capabilities that enable a Windows 8 PC to load and start up in a matter of seconds
rather
than in minutes.
Windows 8 will replace the more traditional Microsoft Windows OS look and feel with
a new
"Metro" design system interface that first debuted in the Windows Phone 7 mobile
operating
system. The Metro user interface primarily consists of a "Start screen" made up of
"Live Tiles,"
which are links to applications and features that are dynamic and update in real
time. Windows
8 supports both x86 PCs and ARM processors.

Windows 10

Windows 10 is Microsoft's Windows successor to Windows 8. Windows 10 debuted on

July
29, 2015, following a "technical preview" beta release of the new operating system
that arrived
in Fall 2014 and a "consumer preview" beta in early 2015. Microsoft claims Windows
10
features fast start up and resume, built-in security and the return of the Start
Menu in an
expanded form. This version of Windows will also feature Microsoft Edge,
Microsoft's new
browser. Any qualified device (such as tablets, PCs, smartphones and Xbox consoles)
can
upgrade to Windows 10, including those with pirated copies of Windows.

Microsoft Operating Systems for Servers and Mobile Devices

Aside from operating systems designed for use on personal computers (PCs) and
laptops,
Microsoft has also developed operating systems for services, handheld devices, and
mobile
phones.

Windows Server (March 2003)

Windows Server is a series of Microsoft server operating systems. Windows servers

are more
powerful versions of their desktop operating system counterparts and are designed
to more
efficiently handle corporate networking, Internet/intranet hosting, databases,
enterprise-scale
messaging and similar functions. The Windows Server name made its debut with the
release
of Windows Server 2003 and continues with the current release, Windows Server 2008
R2,
which shares its codebase with Windows 7. Windows Server 2008 R2 debuted in October
2009.

Windows Home Server ( January 2007)

Announced in January 2007, Windows Home Server (WHS) is a "consumer server"

designed
to use with multiple computers connected in the home. Home Server allows you to
share files
such as digital photos and media files, and also allows you to automatically backup
your home
networked computers. Through Windows Media Connect, Windows Home Server lets you
share any media located on your WHS with compatible devices.

Windows CE (November 2006)

A version of the Windows operating system designed for small devices such as
personal digital
assistants (PDAs) (or Handheld PCs in the Microsoft vernacular). The Windows CE
graphical
user interface (GUI) is very similar to Windows 95 so devices running Windows CE
should be
easy to operate for anyone familiar with Windows 95.

Windows Mobile (April 2000)

A mobile operating system for smartphones and mobile devices from Microsoft based
on the
Windows CE kernel and designed to look and operate similar to desktop versions of
Microsoft
Windows. Windows Mobile has largely been supplanted by Windows Phone 7, although
Microsoft did release, in 2011, Windows Embedded Handheld 6.5, a mobile OS
compatible
with Windows Mobile 6.5 that's designed for enterprise mobile and handheld
computing
devices.
Windows Phone (November 2010)

A mobile operating system for smartphones and mobile devices that serves as the
successor to
Microsoft's initial mobile OS platform system, Windows Mobile. Unlike Windows
Mobile, Windows Phone 7 (also referred to as WinPhone7) is targeted more to the
consumer
market than the enterprise market, and it replaces the more traditional Microsoft
Windows OS
look and feel with a new "Metro" design system user interface.
Windows Phone 7 features a multi-tab Internet Explorer Mobile Web browser that uses
a
rendering engine based on Internet Explorer 9 as well Microsoft Office Mobile, a
version of

Microsoft Office thats tailored for mobile devices. Its successors include Windows
Phone 8

and Windows 10 Mobile.