REVIEW PAPER

ADIABATIC ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY L.AYERS:

A REVlEW AND ANALYSlS OF DATA FROM
THE PERlOD 1SW1972

f. cctusrwxr
Central Electricit!, Research Laboratories, Learhsrhead. Surrey IX1 SE

Many inconsistencies are ShoWI to have rxisttd in earlier prssent3rions and r2uiews. particutaric
with respect to quantifying the power indices and turbuiencs intensities ~pprupriar- to row&er terrains.
and the variation of ths WbthGe length scales with height and Wrain type- These are resolved
by defining from the data four distinct terrain types. The variation of the pour index. tu~bLllencc
intensity and Reynolds stresses with thee terrain types is shown 10 fol10~ the Qrne law. It is also
shown thal the longitudinal length scale of rurbuience decreases uirh increase OCterrain roughness:
a simple law is also propound for its variation with both hrighr and xrrain ttx.

constant in Iongitudinal turbulsnce eqtra-

_-
tion
c5nstant in veiocity profie tog-law
constant in larerai turbuience equation
constant in velocity profile log-law
constant in vertical turbtilcnee rquatiarr
drag cocficient. 2 Ejii:
consfant in velocity profile. linear taw
zero-plane displacement. m
Coriolis parameter. s- L
normalised power spectral function s-
non-ditiensionat frequency, nr;7i
non-dimensional frequency correspond-
ing to peak 11S(n)
or II f,,(flI
roughness height. m
wave number. 2 xrr%Xm-
Wave number corresponding to peak at
nS{n),m .. C prim2 denotes a iiucIuating contribudon.
Van Karmans constant
constant in Davenport and Harris power
spectra eyuations. m
longitudinal turbulence length scales. m
[Lu, derived Cram autocorrefatron or After the cotfapw of thr Ferrybridge cooling tovzers
spectrai date: Gt, and Ltr, are Eulerian in 1965 a wind tunnel programme was initiated at
isngth scales]
vertica1 turbuience length scale. m C.E,R,L. p3xitral Electricity Research Laboratoriesf
frequency. s- to investigate ths stresscts in model cooling towers
correlation coefficient arising from mean and punctuating wind loads. The
auto-correlation coefficient highest wind loads occur in the strong winds in
separation distance. m
~CXWXspectral density at freqtrcnc:v in), which the efkct of buognccy forces is small and
m$- mecIxGc&~y produced ~u~~~~enc~ ~~edorn~n~~e~.
power cospecrwl densit]: at frequencr (nf. Thsretbre. in order that mod4 loads should be repre-
mJs-I
sentative of fuli-scale loads. it is essential that such
free-stream or gradient velocity m S-I
tests should tx carried out in a tk~ which is a
friction vclocit~, \, : p
realistic model of an adiabatic boundary layer.
* This review is based orx Part I of thesis submittrd The pro&m of simuiaring the boundary layer Row
for degree of Ph.D.. the City University. London {March over rural terrain, where most power stations are
i97-t) sit&. was considered first. For this case there existed
\- J. COC
up-to-date full scale data from which the general
properties of rural boundary labers could be deduced.
and on which the subsequent simulation was
modelled.
The problem of detining a typical urban boundary
laysr was morr: diticult since the available data
appearsd to be sparse and uncorrelated. in addition.
the literature showed that various anomalies existed.
both in published data and their analyses. with re-
spect to most terrain types. Many of these anomalies
could be attributed to the following.
(a) Truly adiabatic conditions are infrequently com-
pletely established.
(b) If such conditions are established initially, they
may change during any test when data are being
recorded.
(c) Lack of suficient fetch to establish true bound-
ary layer equilibrium.
Therefore. a thorough review and analysis of the
available literature was undertaken. with the object
of producing a consistent picture of the structure of
adiabatic boundary layers.
In the revisvv some effort has been made to avoid
inconsistencies arising from the above. and other fac-
tors. by using the following procedures. The data con-
sidered were those which were specified as applying
to adiabatic or near-adiabatic conditions. When such
conditions were not specified. or temperature profiles
were not measured, then only data for wind speeds
in excess of Sm 5-l. at z = IOm. were considered.
Mhsre details of the test site fetch were not given.
it was assumed that an adequate fetch was one of
the f;tctors taken into account when choosing the site.
It was also considered that an assessment of all
the relevant data. would help to isolate any that were
invalid. In addition. it was intended to present all
the data as a function of the roughness length for
simplicity of application and to bring some order to
the subject. This is not in complete agreement with
theoretical treatments which require some data pre-
sented as a function of the Rossby number. However.
vartations in the Rossby number in strong winds are
almost entirely due to variations in the roughness
length.
1. .ADIAB.ATIC BOLSDARY L.AIER CHARACTERISTICS
In the following text. each of the more important
boundary layer quantities is considered separately. In
this way. the gradual accumulation of knowledge on
the various quantities can be described in chronologi-
cal order.
Some of the main advances in quantifying the
properties of adiabatic boundary layers were made
in the period IdSO--1959. Therefore. the treatment of
that period vviill be more detailed than that of the
more recent literature. The subsequent period. from
I9hCr1973. is noteworthy for the accumulation of a
considerable amount of measurements from various
sites and for attempts by many authors (e.g. Daven-
port. Harris. Panofsky and Pasquill) to describe
i[HAL
various aspects of the boundary layer by empirical
formulas.
2. I. 1 Prrioti ISY@l959. Early ideas on the struc-
ture of the flow near the Earths surface u'srz derived
from observations of cloud and particle movements.
Rawson (1913) commented on the presence of
motions which could be described as non-periodic or
turbulent. These motions decreased in intensity with
increase of height. Shaw (191-t) showed how the
character of turbulence changed as it encountered
large obstructions and illustrated its degree of ran-
domness.
Taylor (1915) attempted to describe this tlow theor-
etically by considering the average effect of a collec-
tion of eddies rather than the complex mathematical
problem of individual eddies. Richardson (1920)
showed that the kinetic energy of eddying* vvas
extracted from the mean wind by the work done by
the eddy stresses on the rate of mean strain; this can
be defined as the rate at which the mean wind gives
LIP energy to these eddies in the production of turbu-
lence. The analysis of turbulence by statistical
methods was later expanded by Taylor (1921) who
introduced the concept of describing the Row struc-
ture by correlation measurements.
where .Yis the distance traversed by a particle in time
7: This reduced the problem of turbulent diffusion
to the consideration of one quantity. namely the
Lagrangian correlation coefficient R<. which is also
relevant to the study of the structure of turbulence.
Observations by Goldie (193) showed that the air
near the ground consisted of partially formed. rapidly
disintegrating eddies. It was initially thought that the
eddy velocities were isotropic. Becker (19301. Sherlock
and Stout (1932) and Giblett (1932) investigated the
validity of this concept. Giblett. in demonstrating the
random motion of the air. also showed that its struc-
ture was dependent on the state of atmospheric ther-
mal stratification. Durst deduced from Gibletts data
that the shear in the flow resulted in the formation
of -rolled-up eddies with their axes across the
stream. Best (1935) demonstrated that the longitudi-
nal. lateral and vertical eddy velocities were not the
same in magnitude; he also showed that the flow con-
sisted of eddies of various sizes. The production of
turbulence was assumed to be a maximum at ground
level and its magnitude was recognised as being a
function of the ground roughness. Schmidt (1935) sug-
gested that this turbulence. in the form of vortices
at ground level. vvas spread upwards in the boundary
layer. It was shown later (see Section 2.12) that these
vortices were in fact projected into the main flow
above the ground. thus distributing the turbulence
from ground level into the upper part of the boundary
layer (see also Pagon. 1935).
 .L\diatxrx atmospheric boundq lakers

The uji: of a power spectrum had also been sug-

gested b> Schmidt (19X) as a method of indicating
the energy content of the various eddy sizes. The basic
theorq relating the power spectrum to the correlations
was subxqurntl> derived by TirlOr (1938). The
hypothesis of Kolmogoroff (1941) showed the simi-
farit! of the strtlcture of the turbulence at high
Reynolds numbers. that is the similarit: of the small
scale turbulent eddies associated with the high fre-
quency end of the spectrum. It was generally accepted
that the eddy sties represented in the spectrum could
be divided into three regions as follows: t, _.----.
h ,,/(;>--, \
(a) x low frequency range. containing most of the
turbulent energ! : this energ! being transferred by in-
_/yek_._;
ertial forces to higher frequencies.
(b) An intermediate range. or vertical subrange.
which follows Kolmogoroffs - $0 law. and
(c) A high frequency. dissipation range.
Townsend ( 1931). from work on Hat-plate boundary
layers, suggested that the size of large eddies in the
Row approached the boundary layer height. He also
proposed that rhc boundary layer could be divided Fig. I. Structure of boundark layer tlow lirom Townsend.
into (a) an outer laqer. in which non-turbulent fluid 1957).
was entrained from the mran flow by the large eddies.
(h) an inner later in which turbulent energy was shear instabilities in the main flow (cf. Durst. 19.32).
created. and that they rotated relatively slowly ha\ing vertical
Pricstley and Sheppard (1952) illustrated how mergq velocities of the order of 0.10 c,,. It \\as also shown
was transferred through the different frequency ranges by Panofsky and Singer (1965) that gust fronts have
of a power spectrum. Panofsky and McCormick a slope of the order of one due to the xsrtical cvind
(1951) showed that spectral shapes were generally in- shear.
dependent of terrain roughness. They also showed From studies on fiat-plarz boundary la)ers. Kline
that the structure of longitudinal turbulence differed lr nl. (1967) demonstrated the presence oi secondary
from that of vertical turbulence since its length scales. vorticitp (that is the large eddies proposed hq
or eddy sizes. lqere greater than those of the vertical Townsend. 19571 in the lower part of the boundary
turbulence. The rsistence of eddies of various sizes layer. The> suggested that the action of these on the
was also demonstrated by Deacon (1955a). spanu-ise vorticity formed wall streaks. The resultant
Extending his previous analysis. Townsend (1957) ejection of Huid from the Ivail region was considered
suggested that boundary layer flows had contra-rotat- to be the main mechanism for turbulent transfer
ing vortex pairs. moving with the Row. and having bebeen the inner and outer layers (cf. Schmidt. 1935).
their axes parallel to the flow direction (Fig. I). Sets In contrast. ths work of Tritton (1967) did not verify
of large eddies were assumed to exist both in the inner the existence in the boundary layer of the large eddy
and the outer section of the boundary layer. Extensive structure proposed by Townsend. He supgssted that
meas~irements in flat-plate boundary la-er flow by the separate descriptions of large eddies for inner and
Grant (19%) showed the existence of targe eddies in outer layers mat- be inappropriate. Bradshaw (196s)
the Row and the increase of eddy size with increase proposed that the sizes of the large sddies were in
of distance from the wall. Finally. Panofsky er al. fact of the same order of magnitude as the boundarc
(1958) verified Taylors hypothesis concerning the layer thickness. He agreed with Faller (19651concerning
transport of eddies at the same speed as the local the origin of these large eddies and that they consisted
mean wind speed. of a slow rotational drift of fluid ha\-ing ti: z 010
lo ~~{t~z~7ff~~~~:
Although a broad picture of the Row Gf,.
structure had now emerged. its detailed flow patterns Panofsky (1969) pointed out that the boundary
were still undefined. layer flow over the sea produced very large
2.1.2 Prriofl 1960-197~. It had been shotvn that the longitudinal eddies near the surface and suggested
lenpth scal& of turbulence increase. with increase of that over rough ground such eddies were likely to
distance from the ground. e.g. Blackadar (1962) pro- be broken LIP (see Section 3.10).
posed that the) increased in proportion to k: To sl~~t~/~iff~i~~~:
There is relatively little information
&= Van Karmans constant) close to the ground and available on the detailed Row structure of the
approachedfixed values higher up in the boundary layer boundary layer and some disagreement exists between
(that is for r > XC-XXI m). Failer (1965) suggested the work published by various authors. However. it
that the large eddies in adiabatic flows resulted from has been established that large scale motions are
present in the boundar\- la;er (i.e. large eddies exist)
u hose orientation is a function of the shear in the
mean How and whose degree of rotation is reiativefy
slow. The size of these large :ddies is also a function
of surface roughness and this will be considered later.
ths height of the adiabatic boundary IaFer. However.
most of them involve the use of empirical constants
or coeficients whose preciw values have not been
agreed. For practical purposes. measurements are
therefore to be preferred and conseqL]ent~y the
majority of the references considered below deal with
tither observed or measured data.
1 I P&.X/ l&80-1959. Some of the earliest data
-._.
ivere contained in Dobson (1914) who showed that
the boundary layer height a-as CIJ. 4%?-6OOm. with
little turbulence esisting abovs a height of about 600
m. In addition Taylor (1917). Schmidt (1918) and
Giblett (1932) all suggested heights in the range of
4%600 m.
Pagon (1935) derived theoretical values for rural
and urban boundary layer heights. of 325 and 525
m respectively. by assuming an eddy siscosity which
s\as constant with height. Later in this period
Sheppard (1922) and Sheppard and Omar (1952)
quoted measured boundary layer heights of ND.and
45@600 m respectively. Most other observations
made in this period quoted heights around 600 m.
1 Period
_.-._ 196Cr1972. From Section 2.2.1 a
height of 600 m appeared to be an acceptable average
value for adiabatic boundary layers. However,
Davenport (1961b) suggested that this height was a
function of terrain type and proposed;
EWfl ill 6(il?j cf. 6(tlTj Pagon (1935)
Rural 273 i75
--c
Urban 518 [ 525 I
.Although no reference for the values was quoted. they
are very similar to those given by Pagon (I 935) which
are based on approximate theoretical assumptions
only. The value of around 300 m suggested for a rural
boundary layer is not supported by any previous
meteorological data. In addition. it was found later
(Counihan. 1970) that if atmospheric and Hat-plate
boundary layer data are compared on the basis of
non-dimensional height (i.e. 6. for d = 3Om) very
little agreement was obtained. whereas a height of
600 m gives very good agreement.
Blackadar (I 962) suggested that the ~undar~ layer
height was affected very little by changes in terrain
roughness; this was further supported by Shellard
(1963) who also assumed a mean boundary layer
height of 500 m. In addition. Shellards (1967) data
showed that the height of rural terrain boundary
layers was in excess of 300-400 m.
Theoretical methods of estimating boundary layer
heights. for various types of thermal stratification.
were extensively reviewed by Hanna (1969). For
adiabatic conditions he found that the boundary layer
height was generally WI-700 m based on empirical
formulae of the form.
d = 0.006 Cc1
-._
F
where F is the Coriolis parameter (rad s- ).
Theoretical estimates from Smith (1970) gave heights
around 800 m. Finally. Pasquill (1972) suggested that
the mechanical production of energ!. tended to
approach zero at a height of 600 m and therefore,
for adiabatic conditions. it is reasonable to assume
that this height should be coincident w?th the top
of the boundary layer.
To ~777777~~~~~~~: In choosing what ma! be considered
as a practical and typical boundary layer height. some
compromises must be made. e.g. the height is clearly
a function of both the gradient wind speed and the
surface roughness. On the basis of the reviewed data
for high wind speeds (iit > j--7 m s-) which
produce adiabatic or near adiabatic conditions. a
value of 600 m is recommended as representing the
average height of both rural and urban boundary
layers.
2.3 Hright 0Jthr cowfualrtskfzr strrss itrwi
23.1 Prriod 158@1972. This height is of interest
since it defines the region in which the mean wind
profile follows a log-law. From mean bvind
measurements in this layer the surface roughness
length can be defined.
The earlier data suggest values for this height
consistently within the range of 30-50 m. However.
much higher values have been quoted in more recent
papers. particularly in the case of flow over urban
terrain. Byzova (1963). for example. suggested a height
of about 75 m and Soma (1964) a height of at least
200 m for an urban area. This implies that the log-law
can be expected to apply over a greater height range
for urban areas and hence it could be more difficult
to establish a representative power law for such
terrain. These findings were supported by Yamamoto
and Shimanuki (1964) and by Lappe i 1965) who
suggested that the log-law could be applied up to
a height of about 140 m and that it was aiso more
applicable as the terrain roughness increased.
Constant stress layer heights of about 100 m were
also suggested by Deland and Binkouski (1966).
Estoque (1967) and Panofsky (1969).
By assuming the constant stress layer to apply up
to a height of about 200 m. Blackadar and Chaplin
(1967) produced a modified version of the log-law
which effectively linearised. when plotted. mean
velocity measurements which had been measured
outside the normally accepted constant shear stress
layer. However. it was suggested by Davenport (1967)
that such theoretical approaches towards defining the
mean velocity profile are suspect because of the
assumptions involved in their development, More
recently. Panofsky and Petersen (1972) suggested that
the constant stress layer could be assumed to have
a height of about 100 m.
 .Ad~abarlc atmospheric boundary ia)crs x:j

To s~~rn~~ri:~~: It can be concluded that 100 m is The main problems involved in the measurement
a reasonable value for the average height of the of mean velocit! profiles were adequateI> assessed h>
constant shear stress layer. Chapman (1919). Although he concluded that most
of the data could best be represented b> a log-law
3.4 T/W 1t7m7 cdocifj~ projilr of the form.
2.41 Period lYS~l95%rrt~7l
rrmir7. \fanj laws
u = II log : + h.
for the variation of the mean velocity with height
have been suggested. One of the earliest was that of a power law provides an equally good tit to most
Stevenson ( 1880) who proposed a parabolic law. of the data considered. particularly in the case of high
winds. Other variations of the log-law vvere suggested
later. but these were not generally adopted as they
involved the use of empirical parameters Lvhich were
where 7i7 and U,_ are the mean velocities (m s-r) functions of both wind speed and atmosphsric
at arbitrary heights 1, (w) and z1 (VI) respectively. thermal equilibrium. e.g. Geiger (1927). Sutton (1932)
This law did not apply to the lower IO m of the and Ali (1932).
measured velocity profiles. By assuming the By utilizing the Hat-plate boundary la!sr theor) of
application of a power law. power indices of between Prandtl and Van Karman. a more refined version of
0,143 and 0.167 can be deduced from Stevensons the log-law vvas produced by Sverdrup I 193-t).
results for the various rural terrain types considered.
A power law representation was later proposed by
.Archibald ( 1885)having the form.
Ii/Ii> = (I ,,i-_$ a. This \vas assumed to be applicable for adiabatic
equilibrium. up to a height of about IO m and
Later, Shaw (1909) predicted a linear variation with
provided a method of determining the relative
height.
roughness of the terrain considered. However.
ci+c
7i7/L7 = -.
C
Ii, \
Sverdrup also pointed out that a Ian of the form.
II

where c is a function of the ground roughness.

Mean velocity measurements by Dobson (1914)
-=
I??
_ !I--1
._l, (i.e. a power lau-I.

were shown to follow a power law having an index could be applied equally well to most meteorological
of 0.143. .A theoretical mean wind profile estimated conditions. Since the power la\< could be
b> Taylor (1915) generally agreed with Dobsons mathematically manipulated more easil:. than the
measurements (Fig. 2). log-law, it tended to be used more often in
meteorological problems; 1:~ was taken as an
indication of the amount of turbulence present.
Generally. a value of 0.143 was regarded as applicable
to rural terrain. e.g. see Sutton (193-t). Rossbq and
Montgomery (1935) and Pagon (1935).
Paeschke (1927) quoted extensive data on povver
indes values for flows over man> t>pes of terrain.
However. these appear to be mostl) overestimated
because the! were based on measurements made too
close to the ground. This type of ovsrsstimate is
common to many papers, especially in the analysis
1 ,4 6 .a IO 200 100 0 of measurements of mean velocities in urban areas.
WIND VELOClTY INFRACTIONS OF WIN0 DIRECTION
GRADIENT
Further support for an index of 0.143 for rural areas
was given in Frost (1947) and Sheppard i 1947). The
most important modification to the above laws was
indicated by Sutton (1949) as.
u : - tf
- =;1og..-.
c* -n
which took into account the zero plane displacement
(d) when considering large roughness slements (see
also Paeschke. 1937).
Generally. in the period 1950-1959 I I = 0.143 was
quoted extensively as applying to rural terrain. The
most relevant data were included in Collins (1955).
3 2 4 6 8 IO 11 II 16 100 100 0

WIND VELOCITY IN METRES PER SECOND WHO OlRECTlON

Deacon (1955,) and Kamei (19%) with more detailed
Fig. 2. Theoretical and measured mean velocityprofiles data on one site included in Lettau and Davidson
(from Taylor. 1915). (1959).
t-6 1.
Th2 choice appears arbitrary as to whether th2
mean vslocity profils is representsd by a log-law or
a power-lava. Thz lower ?@jO m of the boundary
layer is b2tter reprrsrnted by a log-lava. and it is
clearly incorrect to try to d2duce a power-law index
from m2asurements made in this height range.
Hovcsvsr. ths power law seems to give a better fit
to most of the data ovsr a greatzr height range and
for high wind conditions, Hsncr it was decided to
adopt the povver-law for the final presentation of the
data in this rzview.
To SUUIWW~X: The power index for flow over rural
terrains lies m the rang2 of O.IJ.1-tII67. A value of
(1.14.: is the most liksly value for typical rural
terrain.
2.-t.? Prriotl I960- 197?-r1& rerrairl. A consider-
nbl2 amount of data is available from rural terrain
slt2s in this period. However. they will not be
considered in detail here since th2y do not alter
the conclusions previously reached. Th2 data are
tsbulatcd in 4ppendi.x 2 and are included in the final
prsssntation of all th2 results.
3.4.3 Prriotl I YSG 1959~rfrharr a/fd or/w rerrai~~
The ass2ssment of mean velocity msasurements from
urban and other rough trrrains is more difficult
because: (a) Results for such conditions are scarce.
tb) Many of the available results represrnt local
topographical effects rather than particular typrs of
tsrrain.
.LIeasursmsnts mad2 by Mildnsr (1933) near
Leipzig vvtlre among the earliest made in rough
terrain. They may be taken as typical of a suburban
site and a power indes in the range of 0.X-0.35 gives
;I good fit to the data. An urban case referred to by
Rossby and Montgomery (1935) was best represented
by an indes of about 010. Values of 0.36 for
Strasburg and 0.40 for Tokyo were suggested by
Paeschke (1935) and Shiotani and Yamamoto (1948)
respsctively. However there is insufficient detail
pressnted as to the instrument siting relative to the
local topography for a reliable assessment to be made
of these measurements.
Hellermann (1953) suggested a value of 033 for a
typical city site and Kamsi (1955) the same value for
Japanese towns. In the latter case it is probable that
ths measuremrnts were influsnced by the presence of
nearby buildings. The same criticism applies to the
Copenhagen msasurements of Jensen (3953) from
which a power index in the rang2 of 0.34-0.35 was
dsducrd for th2 city centre. An esample of an
overestimate of the power index for the Brookhaven
sit2 can b2 deduced from De Marrais (1959) and
Singer and Smith (1959). Although a valus of 0.28
IS prrsently taken to rrpresent this site. a closer
examination of the data suggests that power index
of 0.30-0.23 is more applicablz. The site consists of
soms woodland having trees LIP to about 10 m in
h2ight. and this can b2 regarded as being similar to
a suburban site
TO .s1rm17ari:~: Although it was not entitely clear
vvhat was the bsst pousr index for a typical urban
COL>IH.A\
area. the range for urban and rough terrains was
0.2 I-040.
2.4.1 Prriotl I36c 1972-1lrha~ crjrtl or/~/. rc~rrah.
Suburban and urban terrains w2re considered by
Davenport ( 1961b. 196-t. 1967) who has specified
indices of 0.28 and 0.40 respectively: his most recent
data suggested 0.36 for an urban area. However.
Shellard (19631 suggested that these high indices were
neither realistic nor representative of urban areas. The
most rscent data presented in the E.S.D.U. data
sheets 72026 (1971) again suggested 0.35 as being
repressntative of an urban area. However. the
majority of th2 urban data asssssed here suggest fairly
conclusively that the power ind2s for a typical urban
area should be about 0.%0.30: as an example. the
following data ar2 quoted.
I,% I%
London 0.29 Nsw Orleans : 0~231
Louisville : 0.16 Philadelphia : 0.28
Minneapolis : 0.3I St. Louis : D2Y
iMontreal : 0.2SY Tokyo : i>IYj
To .summari~~~: The appropriate power indices for
the various terrain types can only be detzrmined by
considering all of the available data. The data suggest
a power index of 0.21-0,?3 for a suburban area and
a valus of 0.28 for urban areas.
2.5 71~ rougIm05 /r,rgtir
The magnituds of the roughness length can be
derived simply by use of the log-law.
-_ d
1( L.* = I/k log<,:-
-0
Reliablz estimates are difficult to obtain since the
roughness lengths are a function of f2tch. atmospheric
thermal stratification. to some sxtent. and of wind
speed. unless.
However. thers is some evidence that this criterion
is a function of the type of roughness being
considsred and therefore it cannot be taken as a
definitr guide.
2.5. I Pcviorl IWI& 1959~-I.urd rerraiu. Thers are
sufficient data available her2 to deduce typical values.
This is particularly true of mars recent data when
factors such as fstch etc. were usually taken into
account. However. it is of intsrest to look at some
of the earlier data. For esample. it is possible to
obtain typical rural values from the measurements of
Stevenson (I 580):
Terrain z,(m)
Open Ground 0~001-1
Corn (/I, = 0.3m) 0.07
Corn (ii, = 1m) 0.048
which are indepsndent of wind spred. Values derived
by Sverdrup (193-I). although the terrain description
 .Aduhatic atmospheric houndarb la!zrj \,-..

ij not \erL expiicit. hake the same order of 3.3 Pt~rioti 196O-i9~1. Rather than deai
magnitude: individuali! with the large amount of dara from this
Tstrain :&ml period. which hat? been tabulated in ,Appendix II. just
some of the more interesting bvork and conclusions
Short mown grass will be noted here reparding the roughness length and
;:g
Open Grassland its measurement in both rural and urban tsrrains.
R&itivel~ cairn WJ o&9
Some theoretical estimates of roughness lengths
The estznsivs data presented by Pacschke (1937) werr presented by Panofskl. Blxkadar and McNeil1
allowsd for the effect of the zero-plane displacement (1960) which v\ill be considered in Section 3.1. Jensen
in sstimating the roughness lengths. He quoted. (1961) classified the roughness length and the
displacement thickness as a function of vegetation
height. Rauner (1961) showed that the roughness
for terrain a.ar>ing from snow-covered ground to length of a forest was a function of wind sped. due
fields of beet and cereal crops. Frost (1947) quoted to the fact that at higher wind speeds the wind
values of 001 and 0.026 m for sea and open country penetrates mars through the trees. He also
respectiveI>. Sheppard (I 947) and Deacon (1948) determined the relative roughness of a forest with and
summarised most of the available data on roughness without foliage. ,An empirical form of the variation
lengths from uhich it can be deduced that for rural of the roughness length with terrain tbpc \cas
terrain, suggested b\ Davenport (1963).
The work of Oliphant and PanoBkg (1965)
illustrated a point of interest obsr\ed when
In a further example of allowing for the zero-plane determining thz roughness length of the BrookhaLen
displacement Pasquill (1950) determined a roughness site. Their data shoived how t\\o separate estimates
length of OXI m for grass 0.15 m tall. Shiotani
of this length could he derived from measurements
(1950) presented data for terrain covered by grass and
at the same site position. One estimate >,:pe:tred to
tegztables as.
be appropriate to the IocaI flat gro~md. and the
second one to the wooded area upstream: data from
both estimates were used to obtain a mean site
Data quoted by Deacon (1953). Sutton (195jy and
roughness length.
Lettau (1959) also lie in the range of values alread) Barry (1966) indicated that it teas posjlbie to obtain
quoted. Deacon (1957) suggested that Nikuradses
wide variations in estimates of the roughness length
criterion. when applied to grass roughness. should be
for any particular site. The data he as=swd appear
modified to.
to apply to a very restricted height range and
L.*-0 therefore his conclusions cannot be taken as being
- > 40.
I completely reliable. It is also considered that large
but no other data to support this have been found. discrepancies are possible in estimates of the
From the above data it is possible to deduce roughness Iength made by using the modified log-law
reliahls roughness lengths for particular sites; e.g. derived. on a theoretical basis. and proposed b>
Site : Cardmgton : ONeill : Brookhaven Blackadar and Chaplin (1967). This should be
particularly noted when considering the rcssnt papers
:,,(ml : OQG2 : O-01 : IGO.
of Harris (1972) and E.S.D.U. 72016 (19-Z).
for these sites the power law indices were aiso known. Fichtl (196Sa) in analysing data from the Kenned!
To SMWIW~:~:rural area roughness lengths should Space Centre. noted that when there ax variations
fall in the range. in the local terrain it is essential that the roughness
length should be defined as a function of wind
direction. With regard to urban areas. \funn (1968)
2.52 Periotl I SSO-1959-&a/I rerrni~. One of the drew attention to the problem of dctrrmining realistic
first values quoted for urban terrain was I m by roughness lengths and pointed out ths importance of
Rossby and Montgomery (1935); they also suggested choosing measuring sites which were not intluencsd
a value of 3-Z m for large roughness. Shiotani and by local efIects. The available data indicated that the
Yamamoto (19%) quoted a value of 4 m for Tokyo. roughness len_gthcould be assumed to be independent
They also suggested that for urban areas. of atmospheric thermal stratification. r.g. Blackadar
if a/. (1969).
The dependence of the roughness length on ths
Later. Kamei (19%) gave a value of 1.5 m for the density distribution of roughness elsmsnts vlas
roughness length of Tokyo. considered by Lettau (1969) and in more detail by
To .~~~~~IJII~~~~~~,: from data of this period. only an Wooding iit ai. (1969): however. the c&t of fetch
approximate guide for urban areas can be derived. was not considered. Both of these quantities are of
importance in the definition of suburban or urban
Ia Q I(, (111),< 4.0.
areas. Helli~~rll (1970) przsentsd furthsr data on the
(but see summark to 25.3). variation of the roughness length ivith terrain t>pe:
s-s J. COC VIH.4.

in this case the urban roughness length of 0.75 m

quoted was particularI> low and seems more
applicable to a suburban area. In addition. thz uork
of Harris (1972) and the E.S.D.U. (1972) quotsd very
low roughness lengths for the terrain types they
considered. This is probabl! due to use of the
modified log-law as suggested b> Blackadar and
Chaplin ( 1967).
To smttwix: typical roughness lengths for THE VARIATION OF THE DRAG COEFFICIENT OF A
GRASS SURFACE WITH ~8~40 SPEE0
suburban and urban areas are about I m and Z-3
Fig. 3. Variation of Reynolds stress with wind speed (from
m respectively. Deacon. 1957).

2.6 T/w Rrrttoitl~ .strc,sscs

The data quoted above refer mostly to rural terrain.
This is one of the most diticult quantities to assess
However. Deland and Panofsky (1957). comparing
since the available data ars not vsry extensive. and
data from Brookhaven (I,, = 1 m) and ONeill
in the case of urban areas are particularly sparse.
(:-(, = 0.01 m). suggested that the Reynolds stresses
However. If it is assumed that the variation of the
based on local velocity vary by about a factor of 10
stresses through the boundary layer is similar to that
between these two sites; Lsttau and Davidson (1957)
of a Hat-plate boundar! layer. then sufficient
quoted a value of 00017 for the ONill site. Finally.
information is available to define their order of
in this period Vinogradova (1959) gdw a value of
magnitude in the constant stress la>er for rural and
OGOO4 for the stresses on a water surface.
moderately rough terrains. It is then possible to define
To sztttmmix: neglecting the svtreme cases of the
bb extrapolation. with some degree of reliability. the
above data. it is suggested that rural stress values
stresses associated with urban terrain.
should lie in the range
2.6.1 Prriod lSStbl9j9. The earliest assessments of
- 7,
the ground level Reynolds stresses were included in 0~00~0 < - UWL ;, < 0~0030.
TIlylor (1916). which gave
at or near ground level.
- 7,
oGO11 < - II\\. I ; < 0~0020. -- 2.62 Period 196G1972. Data from urban sites
remained sparse (see Appendix 4). but some broad
These values are applicable to open countryside
generalizations are possible.
\vhere the velocit! rs,,is assumed to occur at a height
There was some evidence that the scatter of the
of 600 m. Scrase (1930) dsrived a value of approx.
available data increased as the roughness length
00315 at a height of 19 m above the ground: this
increased. This seems plausible. since the larger
can also be regarded as the appro.ximate value at
roughness elements would be expected to produce
ground level. since the Reynolds stress was considered
greater local variations from a mean value of the
to be constant (to within ccl. 6 per cent) up to a height
Reynolds stress. For rough terrain the data of
of about 50 m above ground level (e.g. see Calder.
Davenport (I 964). based on the free-stream velocity,
1939).
indicated that the Reynolds stress decreased with
Further measurements were presented by
Increase of the roughness length, in the range of
Sheppard (1947) in the form of a drag coefficient.
roughness appropriate to an urban terrain: no reason
C,, = 2 (-Z/ii;). can be suggested for this.
Pasquill (1970). from accumulated data on the
mhere Ir, is a reference velocity. The range of stresses Reynolds stresses. showed that this quantity increased
generally applicable to rural terrain can be deduced with increase of roughness length up to at least 1
from the above data as, m. and was not very sensitive to variations in the
free-stream velocity co. From this paper, or from
Smith (1970). the ratio of urban to rural stresses can
be determined as 1.46-1.56. for roughness lengths of
For Row over short grass and sea. values as low
23 and 0.10 m respectively. and so the existing data
as 00010 were quoted by Pasquill (1950) and
could be extrapolated to obtain Reynolds stresses for
Sheppard (1952) and a value of OGO2-1 by Shiotani
urban areas (i.e. 2 < Z,) (111)6 3).
(19%). Hay ( 1959) gave a value as low as 0.006 for
To srrmmvix: from the combined data. the range
How over the sea and Monin and Obukhov (1954)
of Reynolds stresses applicable to rural and sea areas
suggested a mean value of 00325 for rural terrain.
can be defined respectively as.
.A value of O-C005 was given by Rider (1954) for a
mown grass surface. which agreed with the data given - 7,
09020 ,< - 1rbv:C.i) d 0003
in Pasquill (I 950). Further ralues for open country
were given in Ellison (1956) and Deacon (1957) of and.
OX013 and OQO22 respectively; Deacons data also
showed the degree of scatter to which these
measurements are subject (Fig. 3). where r,, is assumed to occur at 600 m
 s2e also Robinson (19531. Thz ratio of th2 vsrticaI
to longitudinal turbulenc2 intensity of 0.5 vvas dsrived
from JlcCrsady (1353) and others. whoa turbulence:
m2asurements also fall in ths rangss alrsady quot2d.
Shiotani (1953) for snow-covsr2d terrain gave

0.10 G ~ (2) !1 < 0.16

Ti smvnmizc: longitudinal turbulsncs intensitirs

for rural arsas fall in the range.
LATERAL
-SPREPD
0.10 $ \ (Z, ti $ 0.70
L = 1 1 METRES

for httights betwssn 3 m and 30 m abovs ground Isvel.

1.7.2 Period I SSt)- I9j%t&m trvnirl. Som2 of th2
first m2asuremsnts of longitudinal turbulrnce
intznsity made in an urban area wer2 przsented in
Shiotani and Yamamoto (1912). These m2asuremsnts
fall in the range.
L = 18 MElRES
0.20 d , (Z) u < 0.30.
TlPlCAL DIAGRAMS Ol?TAlNED WITH A SMALL
BI.DIRECTIOHAL VANE AT OIFFERENT HEIGHTS
ABOVE THE GROUND
A valus of longitudinal turbulence intsnsity of 0.5,
near ground level. can be drrived from Cramer (1951)
Fig. -1. Variation ofgust structur? with height (from Scrasr.
for an ar2a having large roughness. On th2 basis
19301.
of the vsry few data from this psriod it can be
assumed that urban turbulence intensities should Ii2
2.7 7-/M,irltol.sirl~ of tlrrhirlerfct in the range.
Th2 rat2 of production of turbulence and its intensity
0.20 < ~ (LI.z),li < 0.35.
is a function of ths Reynolds stresses and the mean
velocity profile of the flow being considered. - Howevsr. th2 above data wer2 considerably
2.7. I Prriotl I SS@I959-ixral fWxi/l. It was augmsntzd during 1960-1977. AI1 of the data on these
rzcognissd in ths sarly literature that turbulrnce was measursmcnts are pres2ntsd in Appendi\ 3.
a function of both surface roughness and h2ight abovs 2.7.3 Period 1960-1971. The data from this psriod
ground level (Fig. -I). It was also assumed that all (see Appsndix 3) gsnrrally confirmed th: conclusions
three components of turbulencr wer2 of equal drawn from the earli2r measurements. Ttxrefore only
magnitude. Howevsr. Scrasl (1930) showed that the some general points of interest concsrning th2
ratio of thr three componsnts was as follovvs. measur2msnts and sstimation of turbulsncs intensity
will be considered here.
, F:, F:, II..? = 1:0.73:0.46.
It had bezn shown (2.7.). that ths variations of
(c.f. typical Hat-plate data which gives ratios of turbulsncs intensity with height were comparabls to
I :0.75 :O.W). These: ratios applied from about ground those of flat-plate boundary layers; th2 atmosphsric
12vel up to th2 hsight of 0 m considersd. Th2 data was then only available for a rsstricted height
magnitud2 of ths longitudinal component was rangr. This similarity was verified o\:r a grratrr
establishrd by Best (1935) as. height range by ths work of Swanson and Cramer
(1965). who showsd that both the longitudinal and
\ (?)!U - 0~1~5-0~16.
lateral intznsitiss of turbulcncc dscrsased with
for op2n country-side. Hence. the corr2sponding increax of height up to IO m abovs ground level.
values of the othsr two componsnts could be derived. Pritchard (1966) showed that the vertical turbulence
Up to the bright Best considerld, the ratios and intensity was approximately constant aith incrsass
variations of the components agreed with the pip2 of height up to about 370 m: he also assumed that
tlow m2asurem2nts of Fag2 and Townsnd (1932). the turbulence was isotropic at and abox this bright.
Many other authors at this time also dcriced the ratio Moors (1967) also demonstrated that ths turbulence
of thr lateral to vsrtical turbulence intensity as being was isotropic. for short wavelengths. above a height
I.Cl.6. of about 200 m.
Shiotani and Yamamoto (1932) quotsd values of Ths data of Harris (1972) shovvsd that th2
about 0.13 for rural terrain longitudinal turbulence longitudinal turbulence (, ?) was strictly not
intensity. Additional data for rural terrain were invariant with height. in th2 height range of IS0 m
presznted by Shiotani (1950) which fsll in ths rang2 considered. This fact is of particular rrIe\ance in ths
0~1~0~11. .A valus of the turbulence intensity over application of th2 first of thz following sxpressions.
water of 0.19 was quoted by Sheppard (1952).
\ (71 c:* = 4. ~ (7)/L.* = 5. \ (7) L:, = C.
Fairly eutensivs mrasurements of lateral turbulence
given by Friedman (1953) vsrified that the ratio of which are used est2nsively to obtain estimates of the
lateral to longitudinal turbulence intensity was 0.7j. turbulence intensities. A comparison of estimates.
3YO J. COCNIHAL
using these sspressions. with measured data show
thar they arc reason&l>- rzliahlc. However it should
be noted that the measured data wers mainly those
available for flat and rural terrains. Lumley and
Panofskl (1964) suggested that such estimates were
accurate to 420 psr cent. and that although the
values of the constants .-I. B and C. in the above
expressions. should be independent of height. that
they may be dependent on terrain type. It is assumed
here that this independent-of-height condition can
only apply in ths constant shear stress layer. where
it is abo usuall> assumed that the turbulence
components are reasonably invariant with height.
This dependence of .-Lon terrain type. or roughness
length. was shown to some e.stcnt by the work of
Zubkovski and Kravchenko (1967) who demonstrated
some decrease of .-I as surface roughness increased.
On this basis. the abox expressions can b? expected
to overestimate the turbulence intensities associated
with large roughness lengths. Panofskv (1969) later
pointed out that both rt and B had shown a
systematic variation from site to site which suggested
that roughness a&ct?d their bchaviour. Teunissrn
(1970) used the above expressions to estimate the
turbulence intensities through the full boundary layer
depth. for v;irious degrees of surface roughness. but
such estimates should probably he restricted to the
constant stress layer. _. .
The mean vaiues oi these constants derived from
all the reviewed data are.
.-I = 2.5. 5 = 1375. C = I .Ei
from which.
X3.1 Prriorl IYSO-19j~~o/~~~fIl~~~}~~6 c~~~?~o~I~~lf. the slope of the spectrum was appros. -50 at the
The work involved in defining the form of the power
spectral density of the three velocity components did theorem: confirmation was also obtained from the
not progress as rapidly as that on the measurement
of other quantities.
After the work of Scrase (1930) it was suggested
by Giblett (1932) that the energy of eddies having
various time periods could be represented by an
energy spectrum. Some attempts were made by
Schmidt (1935) to define the high frequency end of available on laterai spectra; that available on the
such a spectrum. This concept of a power spectrum
was defined in more detail by Taylor (1935) who comparisons with the longitudinal
suggested that it could be resolved into harmonic
components and that its integrated value i>) could
be regarded as being the sum of contributions from
all frequencies (0); he defined F(U) such that
I
F(n) d/l = I.
i0
where F({7) is the normalised poiver spectral fxxction.
The high frequency end of the spectrum u-as defined
by Koimogoroff (1941) and was shown to obe) his
similarity law such that.
r7.977) % 17-1: 3,
The ralidit! of the above theories b&as checked by
the sxperimental work oi Drkden { 1943) who
measured the power spectra of wind tunnel
turbulsnce.
The shape of the spsctrum was eventually defined
b- Von Karman (19-E) in a form which has not been
notabiy impro%sd on.
It was generally agreed that the greater part of the
turbulent energy was contained in the low frequency
range of the spectrum. i.e. in the large eddy sizes.
The energ! transfer processes through the complete
turbulence spectrum were later defined in physical
terms. e.g. see Priestley and Sheppard (1952).
The existence of a spectral gap which
consenienti> separated the mean and turbulent
motions in the m~cromct~orological. or gust. range
of frequencies was initial!) shown h> Panofsky and
van dcr Haven (1955). Deland and Panofsky (1957)
subssquzntly showed that the longitudinal spectra
were approsimatzly invariant with height. Eventually
a complete spectrum of the longitudinal velocity (Fig.
5) was presented by tan der Hoven (1957) which
covered the micro and mesometeorolog~cal ranges.
This is now thz classical spectrum shown in most
papers uhich refer to the atmospheric boundary layer.
It showed that averaging periods of I i-30 min should
be sufficiently long for measurement of representative
mean wind velocities. It was also suggested that the
spectral gap occurred at higher frequencies in fiows
over rougher terrain: this implies a reduction in the
length scales of turbulence with increase of terrain
roughness.
The majority of the available data confirmed that
high frsqucncy end. in agreement with Kolmogoroffs
Right measurements of Notes (1957. 1959) and of
Henry ( 1959).
To s11177177wI:~~: The general form and characteristics
of the longitudinal spectrum had been established,
2.52 PLG%~ lS~~~9j~~~~~~ff~ rlltfi crrtirni
co~r7pm7r77rs. There is little worthwhile information
vertical spectra has in many instances been used in
spectra. For
Fig. 5. Horizontal wind-speed spectrum at Brookhaven
Satlonal Laboratory at about 100 m height.
 \d~abntic atmospheric boundar! labers SSI

e\ampl<. from measurements at Brook-haven. ( 1968) established the presence of more low frequent!
Punofsk) and McCormick (19511defined some ot the tnergq than in similar measurements o\sr land; this
general propcrties of the longitudinal and vertical was further supported bq the data of Shiotani (1968).
jp<CtlX. In particular. the> showed that at IOM Some additional forms for the longitudinal spectrum
fr-quencics there was comparativeI> little energy in were proposed at this time by various authors. Harris
the vertical spectrum in comparison to that in the (1968) suggested the form.
longitudinal spectrum: both spectra were shown to
be similar at high frequsncies. It was implied that
ths eddy sizes associatsd with the vertical component
increased with increase of distance from the ground. which is similar to that proposed b> \.on Karman
1.e the \ertlcal spectra ivill not be invariant with (194). Another form was proposed b> Fichtl and
height. McVehil (1969) as followx
Deland and Panofskb (1957) suggested that the
b?rtical spectrum shape could be represented bb.

(where L is a length scale dsrived semi+mpirically)

It was concluded b\ Panofsky (1969) that. due to
.-\p,tin most of the available data confirmed that the
the wide variation in spectral shapes. ths application
jlopes at the high frequency end of the spectra were
of an> empirical spectral form to a particular site
approu. -5 3.
could onI\ be approximate. Pasquiil (1970)
i% .SII~JWI~W~X: a general form for the vertical
recommended the use of a more simpl: spectrum
spectrum had been established.
expression which would appl! mainI> to the inertial
23.3 Pt,r~otl 196~-1972-lo/1yitlrtli,1n1 CON~OW/I~.
sub-range and for heights up to about ILWm.
There was a considerable increase in the measurement
and anal\& of po\ver spectral densities in this period:
rhe more interesting points only are discussed here
L* \L1 1

since po\vsr spectral data has generally been

pr:viousl! rsviewed. e.g. Kaimal er nl. (1972). -- He suggested that the power spectral densities at
From the work of Davenport (1961a. b) the lower frequencies \vere too variable to define
longitudinal spectrum lvas expressed in a revised form accurately; a possible esplanation for this iariabilitk
a.3. was given by Owen (197 I). Finally. thr most recent
spectral data for the longitudinal component wfre
given in Kaimal et al. (1971): their proposed form
was shown to agree \\ith the full-scale data
This form of the spectrum underestimates the energ) considered. However. these data. having been
in the IOU- frequency range and therefore does not presented only recently in the literature. have not
agree completely with full-scale spectral been fully assessed here but are noted for
measuremsnts; the invariance of the spectrum with completeness of the revielv.
hsight was also assumed. 2.8.1 PetGtl l960- 1971-_(arr~I nd wrricd

Pond (1966) demonstrated thdt Kolmogoroffs law COI~I~~I~~I~S. T/w lafrr-tr/ ,fimuclri~7q tdocir!.: There are
applied to power spectra over the sea down to values verv few data available on this po\ver spectral density.
of yii as low as 0.0082 m- and various power This is mainly due to the fact that there was not
spectral msasuremcnts showed that this law was very much interest in this component in structural
applicable over a much wider range of frequencies problems. However. the general charactsristics which
than anticipated. Elderkin (1967) established can be defined are outlined in ths follo\ving text.
applicability of the law down to 11,Ti= 0.029 m- for Elderkin 11967) sho\ved that the -5 3 law could
tlow over flat terrain. On the basis of this and other be applied to the available measurements in the
data it appears that the frequency range over which the inertial subrange. Singer et [II. ( 1967) showed that the
above law applied is a function of terrain roughness. lateral spectrum. in terms of energy contsnt. lay in
This seems plausible since some re-distribution of an intermediate position betbvsen the spectra of the
snergq would be expected to occur as surface longitudinal and vertical velocities. This point was
roughness increased. However. measuring techniques also adequately verified by the data of Fichtl and
are probabl) not capable of detecting these spectral $lcVehil (1969). In addition. Panoijky (1969)
dit%rences and Davenport (1967) concluded that suggested that these spectra should be invariant with
qWXI:l measured over rural and urban terrain were height. as Ivere the longitudinal spectra. The most
basicall) similar. up-to-date are contained in Kaimal rt al. I 1972).
Singer. Busch and Frizzola (1967) adequateI> 71~ L.L,I.IIC(II,~IICIII(IIIJI~ wlocir!,: The form proposed
established the invariance of the longitudinal by Panofskq and McCormick (1960) aas basicall)
spectrum ivith height. that is the fact that the peak similar to that previously given bv Deland and
Lalue of 11iT is independent of height. E.\tensive Panofskg (1957): this showed that thi spxtrum was
measurements over the sea by Busch and Panofsk! height dsprndsnt. Various other forms of this
532 J. cOL\IHA\

spectrum were proposed mainiy b> authors concsrncd anallsed b? Panofsk! and ?ilares I I%) who derived
rvith the ana&sis of vertical gust loads on aircraft. an expression for the cospectraf shape.
e.g. Zbrozsk f 1961) and tappe f 1963). Elderkin (1967)
establlshed the peak value of the reduced frequency
to be about O4O. compared to about O.O3 for
longitudinal spectra: this implies that the nx$ority of The quantity L. which is the value of the reduced
the energy associated with vertical spectra is at higher
frequency at the cospectrum peak. was taken as 0.08
frequencies. The measurements of Kaimal and
for adiabatic conditions. This quantit!. however. was
Haugen (1967) generally supported the findings of
found to be subject to a considerable degree of scatter
Elderkin: they also showed that these spectra were
which covered the range.
height dependent in as much as the peak frequency
decreased with increase of distance from the ground.
This implies that as the effect of ground proximity
The most recent data of :\/Iiyake vc rri. (1970) and
decreases. the vertical scale of the eddies can increase.
Sitaraman (1970) verified the validity of the cospectrai
i.e. reduced frequent> (rr:,,:ii)would increase with
form proposed by Panofskb and Mares (1968). The
height. Finally, Busch and Panofsky (1968) presented
above form of the cospectrum is generally used.
a slightly modified version of the spectral form
although its applicability for heights greater than
previously suggested b> Panofsky.
about 50 m has yet to be established. fhs more recent
data of Kaimal rrni. (1972) suggested.

rvhere _/, 2 0.32 for adiabatic conditions. This is the

form of the vertical spectrum most often ussd. The which is similar to that proposed by Panofsky and
most recent form has been given in Kaimal rf ai. Nares.
(1972).

2. IO.I Prrid I SSC 1959. The mean eddy size in the

longitudinal direction (LuJ NX deduced initially b)
The relevance of the Reynolds stress cospectrum. Taylor (1915) to be about 70 m at a height of 10
in the context of defining the Earths boundar) layer. m. Extrapolation of more recent data would suggest
is that ir indicates the frequency band in which these a value of the order of 100 m at this height. which
stresses are of importance. gives fair agreement with Taylors estimate. He also
2.9.1 Prriotl I88@-1959. Early discussions on the deduced that the mean cddq size increased with
cospectrum are included in Panofsky and McCormick increase of height above the ground. for the simple
(1954) and Panofsky and van der Woven (1955). reascm that they have more room to gJ0~. His later
Deacon (19Sj.b) showed that most of the cospectral work. Taylor (1920). on the concept of correlation
energ! was contained in the range. m~asur~mcnts. showed that turbulence scales could
be determined from.
-r
LL/.,= u R(r) dr.
and this has been adequately verified by recent i (1
measurements (see Panofsky and Mares. 1968). It also showed how a regular eddy pattsrn in a Row
Deland and Panofsky (1957) suggested that as the could be distinguished from such data.
height of observation increased there was an increase Most of the later data on length scales supported
of energy at low frequencies and a decrease at high TayIors deduction regarding the increase of length
frequencies. This is consistent with the data of Kaimal scale with height. e.g. Giblett (1932) gave Llr, as about
and Haugen (1967) concerning the characteristics of I20 m at a height of 15 m. One of the few values
vertical spectra. Panofskv and Deland (1959) further of the vertical scale of turbulence (Lu,) was
showed the expected rapid decrease in the energy determined by Schmidt (1935) as being of the order
content of the cospectrum at the frequencies where of 15 m at heights iess than 6 m. Additional
there was very little low frequency energy in the theoretical work by Taylor (1938) provided a
spectrum of the vertical velocity component. relationship betwern power spectra and the
2.92 Prriotl 1960-1972. This period produced correlation coefficients.
suFIicient data for the cospectrum to be defined. at
least over a restricted height range. The first relevant
data were presented in Monin t 1962) who confirmed
the findings of Deacon (1955b) regarding the /
nrr\-
frequency range of the cospectral energy. This was R(s) cos - ds.
also verified by Elderkin (1965). The majority of the ii
available data. for heights less than about 50 m. were where R(s) = correlation coefficient and f(n) = power
 .Adiabatic atmospheric bounder) lalers $83

spectral density. Hence. when z = 0. the mean largest The maJorit> of ths data were concerned with the
eddy size is defined as. lsngth scalt Lu,~ and Pasquill (1961) showed that these
could be derived from spectral measurements since.

The nest significant length scale measurements

were those of Shiotani and Yamamoto (1915) who
determined. or ~22. 2.g. Pasquill and Butler (196-I). This was
derived bq assuming an exponential form for
correlation curves: in practice the exponential form
for heights up to 50 m In rural terrain: the! also
has been found to apply more often than not. The
quoted a value of the order of 100 m for urban
main difticult> can occur in defining the spectral
terrain. From Hat-plate boundary laher work Laufer
peak: however. checking estimates from the above
(1950) suggested that ths length scales should increase
expression against length scales derived from auto or
with increase of height up to ca. 0.X-0.60 of the
space correlations has shown its validity. From some
boundary layer height. Examples of other published
of the available data Pasquill also deduced.
data on length scales from various sites were:
LUr I -_.
LllJrnl Am) Source
II.5 z Sheppard (1952) Blackadar (1962) assumed that LI, increased with
12-15 2.5 Cramer (1952) increase of height LIP to CLI.200-300 m and that it
30 IO Shiotani (1953) was of the order of I00 m at greater heights. ,A
70 35 Webb(l955). reference to the length scale was contained in Singer
Most of the available data were reviewed b) Webb ( 1964) u ho suggested that.
(1955) who suggested that the variation of the length
Llfr = 0.3 Ll&
scale with height should follow the lau.
It can be shown fairly conclusively from analysis
of the data presented bq Berman (1965). and others.
up to a height of about 100 m (Fig. 61. A conssrvative that Lir, decreases as surface roughness increases, 2.g.
extrapolation of the measurements available ~rp~to Site -(Am) Llc,(m) AmI
this time suggestsd that IJI, should be about 200 m Cardmgton : 0.01 I5
s?.
at a height of ICH)m. Shiotani (1953) suggested that Round Hill : 0~04-0~
IO 55 16
the three dimensional form of individual eddies Brookhaven : 140 36 I6
should result in.
In addition to the laws noted previously. several
Lu, > L.11,> ,!A, others were proposed for the variation of Lu, with
height.
in the lower section of the boundary lajer.
La\\ Source
Many other values of the length scale IA,, at
Lll, % 1 z4 Berman (1965)
various heights. can be sstracted from. e.g. PriestIe!
LU< % Pn Panofsky and Singer (1965)
(1952). Robinson (1953). Taylor (1955) and Hay and Ll,, T 1 Zbrozek (1965).
Pasquill (1954). Since these measurements agree with
previous data ths law proposed by Webb (1955) was It was also suggested by Zbrozek (1965) that Lu,
representative of the data from this period. However. increased as the height increased up to about 300
it included effects due to variation in surface m. The wide Lariety of indices observed is no doubt
roughnesses benveen the sites considered. due to the fact that the length scale was not
2.102 Prr-iotf 1960-1971. 7hr le,~grh x&s Lu,. Lu, considered to be a function of surface roughness.
a& Lu,: FairI! extensive data on the turbulence The rslativs sizes of other length scales of
length scales were obtained during this period. Some turbulence were deduced in a gznsralised form by
of those data and the laws relating to them are Pritchard (1966) as.
considered below.

He also assumed that these length scales were

Fig. 6. Variation of length scale with height (from Webb.
1955).
functions only of height and thermal stratification.
but pointed out that some authors assumed that
greater roughness produced greater length scales.
which is Cledr!y inconsistent with the reanalysed data
of Berman and other workers.
Close to the ground the variation of IA, with height
cannot be expected to follow any of the above laws
because. as shown by Smith (1967). it decreases very
rapidly near the surface.
 Reliable data concerning ths variation of f.lr, with remained constant with further incease of height.
surface rouphnzss can be deduced from Busch and Pritchard ( 1966) sugersted that Lbv., increased with
Panofsky (1968). r\nothsr law. concerning its hsight up to about 120 m about: ground Ie~el. and
cariation Lvlth height. kvas glvsn b> Fichtl (196s) as. then remained constant 1~Ith further increase of height
up to about 370 m. Kaimal and Haugen (1967)
proposed that LK, should sither remain constant or
Fichtl and McVehil (1969) suggested that LID,
decrease uith increase of height abotz ca. 200 m.
decreased at heights grsatsr than 100 m and showed
For heights in the range of U-50 m. Singer <r al.
the validity of sstimating f.u, from.
( 1967) shousd that LIV, increased linear]! with height;
L[, = L at yeatrr heights its rate of increase was less. This
2n il I1 p, \h. result was supported bq the data of Panofsky (1969).
Finally. the general revieu by Teunissen (1970)
Finally. the recent work of Colmrr (1971) propoxd.
proposed.

L\r, - 04 Z, (cf. Pasquill. I96 1)

In ths more recent literature. various other
and this was later confirmed by the data ot Karner
contlicting opinions have appeared regarding the
(197).
effects of surface roughness on the scales of
jr, swmurix: Lw, is insensitive to chanpes in
turbulence. In particular. the review paper of
terrain roughness: the variation with height can be
Teunissen (1970) stated that change of surface
taken as.
roughness had little effect on the length LUG, but that
large scale non-uniformities of the Earths surface L,r, % z.
tended to increase them: the latter statement is
in the constant shear stress Iaher.
plausible and is supported to a certain extent in some
of the literature. He also concluded that. for heights
greater than about 300 m. the length scales were
independent of terrain type. However. no reason was
given for the wide scatter of data below this height.
In contrast to the above conclusions. the f%-plate
It is convenient to be able to e.xpress the
data of Antonia and LLlston (1971) showed that
probabilit) density distributions of the fluctuating
increased surface roughness resulted in reduced length
velocities in terms of a normal or Gaussian
scales. The semi-empirical theories of Davenport
distribution.
(1961) and Harris (1971) predicted that Lu, increased
Some of ths earliest data ucrc contained in Giblett
as both roughness and height increased
(1932) and later in Shiotani (19501. Cramer (1951).
monotonically: neither of those predictions agrees
McCreadq (1953) and Sutton (1953). .4lthough man)
with the measurements.
of the measured distributions had some degree of
Harris ( 197 I ) assumed. from homogeneous
positive or negative skew. there ivas no consistent bias
isotropic turbulence theory. that the following
either way. Measurements made b! Press (1957)
relationship could be applied to atmospheric
indicated the validity of Gaussian distributions up to
turbulence.
moderate values of the standard det,iation:
Lu, = hr = 0.5 LUG
however. at e.xtreme values. the measursmrnts varied
However the available data, e.g. Shiotani (1967) and from that predicted by the Gaussian distribution. In
Deacon (1971). showed that more appropriately. the period ISS@l959 the available data applied to
rural terrain. and it had to be assumsd that urban
LU, = 0.3 - 04 ,$
distributions are similar.
and The theoretical work of Novikoi and Stewart
(1964) suggested that the probability distributions
may vary irom the normal form. but no data wsre
To summmix: Lu, decreases with increase ot given in support of this. However. msasurements
surface roughness. increases with increase of height LIP presented by Singer (1964) and Davsnport (1967)
to ca. 2C+300 m. and thereafter decreases for further confirmed that the distributions i+ere normal or
increases of height. becoming independent of surface Gaussian. Finally. Blackadar. Dutton. Panofsky and
roughness. Chaplin ( I9691 proposed normal distributions for
T/W Irngfh SC& Lbr,: Some data were also available measurements in the range &3ri: for greater (3 the)
on the variation of the length scale ZJV, as a function sugsestcd that there was a tsndsnc! for a higher
of height. Pasquill (1961) using data from various proportion of larger gusts than indicated by the Gaus-
sites. derived. sian distribution. The above conclusions are generally
supported b> other data a\ailablc from this period.
TiI V/UWKW~TL,:In the range 536. a normal
Lumley and Panofsky (1964) suggested that Lw~ distribution is satisfactory: above + -3~ there is some
increased with height up to ca. 100-200 m. and then evidence that this distribution is not applicable.
 Idlatxtlc atmospheric boerA:> labers

MODERATELY ROUP ROUGH VERY ROUGH

Fig. -. Drfinitlon of main ~::rain t>pzs.

2. cxsE~.iL CHARAC-TERISTICS s STRC~LRE 0~ to adiabatic atmospheric conditions. as discussed in

AThlOSPHERIC ADI;\B.\TICBOI_JDAR\' L.\YERS Section I. have been included. In all cases the free
The major characteristics. of adiabatic boundar! stream vslocit! is assumed to be reached at 600 m.
lavers can be defined from the data of the I YSO--1959
period. The four main terrain t>pes defined in Fig.
7 are;
Terrain t!ps All of the known available data art prssentcd in
I. Smooth Ice. mud. show. sea Fig. ?: tht iour terrain types are indicated on the
3. !vIoderately rough : Short grass. grass,crops. rural roughn<js length scale. \\hers possible. a method of
3 Rough RuralYwoods. woods. suburbs
analvsing msan velocity data was carried out which
4. Lrr) rough Lrban.
was intended to minimize the effects of doubtful data:
The s\tsnsive data obtained by the end of 1972 this consisted of estimating power indices from each
has enabled the properties of the above. and pair oi velocit! readings. at consecutive heights. from
intermediate. terrain types to be defined vvith some an! site. .A mean povvsr inds\: was then estimated.
precision. In the data finally presented. some attempt Hovv:v:r. in some cases somt degree of
has been made to make some allowances for errors over-estimation could not be avoided.
such as: adiabatic conditions not completeI> It can be seen from Fig. S that the scatter is such.
established. or changing. during any particular test: that ixorrect trends could easily be deduced if
measurements affected bq local topography or insuE&nt data are considered. The amount of
buildings: insufficient fetch for equilibrium flow to be scatter tends to increase with increase of the
established. roughness length. This is to be expected. since these
The quantities considered in the following test have data. in addition to other errors, will be more subject
been presented as functions of the roughness length to errors arising from insufficient fetch being available
and all of the data which Were considered to apply for sclrilibrium Bow to be established. for these

CURVE SOURCE
I

A PPNOFSKY ET AL - ,960
04
B DAVENPORT - ,961

C DAVENPORT - ,967

0 HELLIWELL - ipi0
0,
E ESDU -1972

0
iI0
I ,I/,/,
0 001
/,,,I
0.0 1 00 ROUGHNESS LENGTH _ IO 0
i I I zor) +
TERRAIN TYPE

Fig. 8. lariation of the pou-sr Index with roughness length.

SS6 .I. cot \IIHA>

reasons. a regression analvsis has not been applied
here or to the data of the Wfollowing figures.
The proposed variation of the power index with
the roughness length is not a mean curve through
the data but has been offset downwards since most
of the sources of error tend to produce over-estimates
of the power indes. The amount of offset was partially
based on those data which were considered to be the
most accurate and reliable. These data were used as
a guide in producing the proposed curve; the data
presented in other figures were treated similarly.
Clearly. an analysis of this form is subjective to some
extent; therefore the proposed variation of the povver
index with the roughness length (Fig. 8) is the authors
interpretation of the most accurate representation
all the data. The dotted lines are probable upper and
lower scatter limits; data falling outside these lines
can be considered as unreliable.
Other proposals for the variation of the power
index aith the surface roughness can now be
considered and are shown plotted also on Fig. 8. It
can be seen that the curve proposed here falls behveen
the two more recent curves. i.e. from Helliwell (1970)
and E.S.D.U. (1972). for terrain types I and 2 and
for part of terrain type 3. Generally the E.S.D.U.
curve falls near the upper scatter band limit and. like
all the remaining curves. over-estimates the power
indices relative to the curve proposed here. In general.
it can be concluded that for roughness lengths greater
than CA.0.10 m. the curves suggested by other authors
lie outside the upper scatter band of the data and
are therefore not considered to be satisfactory.
Therefore, the variation of the power index with the
roughness length suggested here is considered to be
the most reliable.
All of the available data on these measurements
are presented in Fig. 9. The reference height of 30
m was chosen on the basis that measurements made
at this height should be free irom ver! local intluences
but still be representative of the local terrain. The
height of IO m commoni! adopted for meteorological
reference measurements is thought to be too low for
man! sites. For sstremel! rough conditions s\sn n
height of 30m may still bc too IoM.. but is to be
regarded as a reasonable compromise.
The scatter of these data ts considerably less than
that of the mean velocit> measurements: therefore.
this may be the best quantity to measure at a site
and to us2 as a reference quantity in determining the
other flow characteristics. Hovvever. the most
important point to be noted here. is that the variation
of the power inde\: and the turbulence intensit) with
of roughness length follow the same lavv. Therefore. if
the value of a site power index is knon-n. then the
magnitude of the turbulence intsnsit! 2t the site. at
a height of 30 m. is also knovvn.
The estimated variation of turbulence intsnsitk as
a function of roughness length is also shown in Fig.
9. This was derived from.
-T; I I
, (if -),li = -. or = 2.5 k ___ .
log,: 10 i\ log. : 1,)!
and it can be seen that this expression over-estimates
the turbulence intensity for roughness I:ngths greater
than about 0.10 m. The above slpression was derived
on the basis that.
, (II -) C., - 2.5. i.e. ,-I = T.5.
Therefore. the data of Fig. 9 suggest that ,-i should
be reduced as the roughness length is increased: this
reduction becoming significant for terrain types 3 and
4. If the roughness length is in this range. then an
estimate of the modified value of .-I can be deduced
from the two curves in Fig. 9.
Although more data are needed for terrain types
3 and 4. the proposed variation of the turbulence
intensity as a function of roughness length is
suggested to be the most representative available.

EST FROM - 0,; = I/la: z~,zo,

(E INDICATES ESTIMATE1
0.4
d
.7 r )iiij 1

w
02 -
*

z
r
1
1
z 0. I I,,I,,
z 0.001 0.01 0.10 ,1,1,,III' 1
1 I/!/,,I, 1.00 ROUGHNESS LENGTH 10.0

t I/ 2 I 3 / G- 4 4
I
TERRAIN TYPE

Fig. 9 Variation of turbulence intensity with roughness length.

 under-cztimatc the Reynolds strews for terrain t!pc
_.
For stmplicitq. one could thcrsfor~ USC the
The a~nilable data on Reynolds stresses are rclations:
prsentsd as 3 function of roughness length in Fig
I ii.
In cornp~~rison to the other quantities considered.
the availabk Reynolds stress measurements ar? For arbitrar! values of z,, . SLICK as z;, 1;;. etc. the
relati\el> fen- and. as can be seen. are subject to abo\s espression gives.
considerable scatter. Some of the scatter is no doubt
-,lm) I % (\ (Z, Ii)),), (II.i\ i*;)lo:
due to the inhswnt diHiculti<s in measuring the
Reynolds stresses. caused. for esampie. by instrument 2, 0.12 O-12 0.12
rni~~l~~nrnent and bad siting. It is again etident that _
-:, 076 0.26 0.36
incorrect trends can be deduced hq being selective - etc.
-,I ..
or restrictice regarding the measurements considered.
.Although the data of Fig. IO have been represented
h> a straight line. this representation is possibly open
IU doubt (see Section .?A). especially for roughness The available data on the length scale. Lxx. are
lengths greater than about I m where the data are presented in Fig. I I. which shoxvs its Lariation \vith
scarce and not particularly reliable. As in the case height (> l@m, and roughness length. Below a height
of the data previously presented. the more reliable of ccl. _%lOm it can be assumed that LIP, ivill decrease
stress measurements have been used as a guide in more rapidI> with decrease of height. due to the
determining the curve best fitted to the data. Other
forms for the Lariation of the Reynolds stress lsith
roughness lsngh have been given by Davenport
I196-4)and Pasquill (1970) and are also shown on Fig
11). Since these these curves are biased towards thz c
L
loww range of the stress measurements they do not L

appear to be representative of all the available data.

Thw is also no apparent reason uhq the stress.
presented in this form. should decrease at high
roushnsss lengths as suggested by Davenport (1964.
Thus is a ver) obvious need for more
measurements particularI> in the case of terrain t)pss
3 and 4. In the meantime. the proposed variation as
shou-n in Fig. IO. is suggested as a possible
compromise (see Section 3.-i).

3.4 Conhitwti ii&r Off the pow irules. rd?Liluw

iiirrv.\ir I irid Rc~~w/t/.~.wLwc5

Figures S and 9 shou that the variation of the

poww index and the turbulence intensit! with
roughness length follow the same law. The data of
Fio= ICI could also be represented by the same law
within the scatter band of the data. but will tend to
 J. COC \IHA\

:QOQ _

1
r AVIOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER STRUCTURE

ATI REF OF IOm Lu, = 1Q8(l/zol6

Fig. 12. Lariation of length scale with roughness length and hsight.

pro\imit> of the ground. Figure I3 in which hf., at then decrease ivith further increase of height. this is
the reference height of 30 m, is plotted as a function assumed to be caused by the intermittency.
of the roughness Isngth. may be compared tvith Figs. It was noted in the previous section that Lu, was
s- 10. regarded. in some literature. as being independent of
Figurs 1I shows that the measurements are subject terrain roughness; this is not shown to be supported
to much scatter. The positions of the lines. for various here. In addition. it was seen that the empirical
~.alues of the roughness lengths. were again based on theories of Davenport and Harris predicted that LL~,
the data that were considered to be most a-&rate should increase both as the roughness increased and
and reliable. It was assumed that these lines should as the height continuously increased: the reviewed
tend to converge at some height. and that above this data shows that these predictions are not acceptable.
height LU would be indepsndent of terrain If the height range IC-210 m is considered. then the
roughness. This height was assumed to be in the length scale at any height in this range. and for any
region where the intrrrnittency factor begins to roughness length. can be derived simply from.
decrease in calus from unity; this is of the order of
Lll, = C($
140 m for a boundary IaFer of height 600 m. This
also agrees with the suggestion in the literature that The values of C and I./K for any particular roughness
LUG should increase with increase of height up to length. can be obtained from Fig. 13.
7OG300 m and is reasonably well supportsd by the It is concluded that the variations of Lu, with
measurements shown in Fig. I I. The few roughness length and height deduced here are the
measurements above 240 m agree with flat-plate data most consistent and reliable based on the available
which indicate that the turbulence length scale should data. despite the lack of agreement with previous
predictions.
With regard to the length scales Lu, and Lu,. it
has been sholvn that these can be derived from a
knowledge of Llr,. The remaining length scale of
importance, Lit.,. and its variation with height has
been adequatei! established by other authors.
Several equations have been derived which can
represent all of the data considered in the previous
sections. the process of obtaining a boundary layer
structure from these and other equations is
summarised in Appendix I,

r
It has been shown in the reviewed literature. that
adequate expressions have besn derived by other
authors for the forms of the longitudinal and vertical
spectra of the fluctuating velocities. In addition. since
hr, can now be defined for any terrain type. the
Fi:. I;_. Variatron of C and 1,~ with roughness length. position of the peak wavelength can be fivsd on the
 .Adiabattc atmospheric boundar? la)ers SN

frtquenc\ scak. to date this represents the degree of The variation oi the longitudinal turbulence tntenstttes m

accurac> to which spectra can be defined. However. the constant shear stress layer:

as stated in the reviewed literature. the detailed

spectral shapes at low frequencies should not be
considered as being accurately defined. since the data
where -t = 2.5 for 0.01 < z0 IN < @IO
from the various sites are subject to a large degree
of scatter. and 2.5 > .-I > 1.60 for O.IOO < :,,nr < j-00.

For IO0 < z(m) < 6W assume a turbulence intensit) of

-I. coYcL~sIoss about @Ol at 6OOm. and extrapolate to this value from
the top of the constant shear stress laher.
(a) \arious anomalies have been found to exist in The Reynolds stress in the constant stress lahsr:
the published literature on both the interpretation of
rull-SCalC measurements and on the theoretical
= 2.75 x IO-+ 6 x IO-log,,,:,,. (5)
predictions of some boundary layer characteristics.
(b) The major anomalies occur with respect to the The length scale of turbulence, Lrr,. at a height of 30 m:
definition of both the power indices and turbulence
LU I = IOY(;:,) b. (6)
intensities for rougher terrain and with respect to the
variation of the length scale. LIP,, as a function of or as a function of height from,
terrain type.
I&, = C (I) Ii)
(c) The analbsed data show that for any value of
the roughness length the main boundary layer for. IO < r(m) < 310.

characteristics can be derived simply from two figures and where. C and VII are obtained from Fig. 13.
and one equation. The length scales Lu, and LUG:

Ill, = @3 _ 04 L1r,
~c~Jro~~/l,t/yerlll,Jlr.s-Thc uork was carried out at the
Central Electricit) Research Laboratories and the paper 1X)
is published b> permission of the Central Electricity
Generating Board. .Acknouledgemcnts are also due to Dr
D. J. Moore for considerable assistance in preparation of
the final version of this paper.
From homogeneous isotroprc turbulence theor) :
L? = LA, = LA, 3 19)
.APPEhDIS 1 for 710 < r(m) G 600.

Thts adiabatic houndarq layer structure is represented The length scale Lw,:
b! the following equations.
Roughness length can be derived from. mean velocity. LLL., = 040 :. t 10)
measurements for 1.5/t, < :(m) < 100;
in the constant sheer stress layer.

The power spectra and co-spectrum densIt> forms:

(H here tl is neglected for terrain types I and 2). (II)

The msan velocity power index and the turbulence
tntsnsit> : where. .U = ~Yri,,,. Y = IS00 m

I.075(~jjtn),,*1
Ks,(lI) = (1)
I i I3(j/m)' 3'
= O.O96log,,:, i @016(log,,~,) + 0.24.
where. fm or 0.32
(applicable for OGlIl g z,, 11, < 5.0 III).

The lateral and vertical turbulence intensities; (13)

where. ~;JI 2 -0.08

Source Site I1 -,,lm)

Stevenson (IYSO) Open terrain 0.143 04014

Cereal 0.166 0.04
Dines ( I9 I?- 19I-3) Farnborough 0.33
\\ing (1921) Ball) bunion @I30 0.0 I I
Scrase (1930) Salisbury Plain 0.I :+o. I43 O-OI
He>wood ( I93 I ) Leafield 0.17 0.60
Giblctt (1932) Cardington 0. I Y-0. I13
Best (1935) @I30 o-o I
Colrrilllrcd
 Sourer Sits I I -,lml
-
Frost ( 1946) 0.113 0.0 I
0.113 0.026
Frost I 1917~ Cardington 0.15 0.0 I
Huss and Portman (IWS) Akron @22
Shiotant (i9-H) Tokyo 040
Franck2nbergrr (1919) Quickborn 0.20s
Lettat (1950) Leipzig 0.23
Shsppard (195)
Sea 0.122
Hat (19551 >
Sherlock (195.3) ,Ann .Arbor 0.093
Juul (19511 Sea + Islands 0105
Rtdrr (1954) Cardington
Deacon (1953) Sale 0. I 6-o.I :
Kamci (1955) Tokyo 0.3;
.Vau(1956) Sea + Land 0,236
Goptarsv (1957) Caspian Sea 003 I
Lettau (1957) ONeill 0.17
Paol~k\ (1957) ONeill
Brookhaven 0.73-0.35
Jensen (19581 Copenhagen 0.36
Hojer 0.1 I
Frerslau 0. I 52
De Marrais 11959) Hanford 0.12
Harwell 0.08
Idaho 0.16
Smger 11959) Brookhaven 0.21
-\r~el LI nl. (I 960) Leningrad 0.32
Blackadar cf al. (19601
ONeill 0. I 6-O. I:
Takcuchi (1961)
Durst (1960) > Cardington-
Davenport ( 1960) Sale 0.176
Cardington 0, I19
New York 0.39
Leipzig 0.33
Ciraham and Hudson (1960) Brookhaven 0.3
New Orleans 0.384
Washington 0.2.3g
Water 0.1 I4
Ibanov (1961) Moscow 0.303
Pasquill (1961) Round Hill
Downlands
Taksuchl (1961) CSNeill 0, I 6-0. I 7
Deacon ( 1962) Open Sea 0.10
Londo ( 1962) Sendai Airfield.
Cardington
Saito er nl. (I 961) Tokyo 0.33
Pasauill (19621 Porton
Shiotani i 1963) Tokyo Suburbs 0.25
Bb7ova (1963) Rural. Flat 0.30 0.015
Panofsky (I 963) ONeill 0. I b0. I 7 OOOS
Kawanabe (I 964) Tokyo 0.35 -J:-
- _>-
Coast 0.1 17 OGU
Lumley and Panofsk! (196-l) Round Hill 0.10
Slngcr (1961) Brookhaven 0.22 I .o
Soma (196-t) Tokyo 0.302 ,.T
_ .>_
Thullisr and Lappa (1964) Cedar Hill 0.143 0.03
Yamomoto and Shimanuki (1964) Tokyo 0.302 I .-IS I ,Yj
Berman (1965) Round Hill 0. I COG4
Cardington 0.149 0.0 I
Sale 0. I 76 0.05
Blackadar (1965) Hanford 0.1
Davenport (1965) London (Ont.1 0.36
Dcland and Binkowski (1966) Minneapolis @?I
Louisville 0.26
Elderkin (19661 Hanford 0. I 1
Kraus (1966) Sea 0.10
DaLenport (1967) St. Louis 0.X
Montreal 0.28
Eldsrkin (1967) Hanford 0.13
Librral
 Adtabatrc atmospheric boundary layers %Yl

Source Site Ix z.,(ml

Fixzola (1967) Brookhaven

Paulson I 1967) Sea
Shcilard (1967) Mend&ham
Shiotani 11967) %a
Volkovitska>a and ivanov i 1967)
Harris (I9681 Rugby
Jones tr al. (19681 Liverpool
Munn (1968) New rork
Blackadar (jr al. (1969) White Sands
Fichtl and McVehii (1969) Kenned!. SC.
Pasquill i 1969) Urban
Slade (1969) ~hiIad~lphia
Colmsr (1971) RAE. (Bedford)
Dutton (1971) Kenned) SC.
Harris II971 I Rugby
Harris (1971) Cranficld
Rugb)
Suburbs

Where sufficient data are not available from which to (b) : = 7.5 m
interpolate the value of the turbulence intensity at a height
of .:O m. the followtng method of estimation is used. The
data of Shiotani (1953) are used as an example since
sutftcient informatiol~ is given from which a value of
turbulence intensity can bc interpolated graphically, and
hence the estimated values checked. _.
I
Sate: Snow covered ,I&=-----
_;; log, I300.00I I
-(m) \ (II _)!ir
._ [, (2)i.it],om 2 0499.
7.5 0.156
IL 0.10 Mean values from (a) and (b) are:
75 0.063

la) I = II m [, C&&,> , = 0,103: :(, = 04)OlYm.

(c) Graphical interpolation of turbulence intensity at

3 = 30 m gives:

log,. : = s.34. [\ (7) ii],, , I= O,Ioo - 0~105

-0 !VOfi,
Giving In the following tabulated data (5) either indicates:
r. = 09026 m 2, estimated from given turbulence data or

at 3 = 30 ml [, (F),ti],,, estimated from a given roughness length,

The range of roughness lengths over which such estimates
are consrdered to apply is discussed in the main text. The
other values of turbulence intensity at I = .;O m have been
obtained by either interpolation or a moderate degree of
extrapolation of available msasurrmznts.

Source Site II,(z) L41j01, zolml

Best (1935) Rural @lOY MI

Shiotani (19-8) snow (T) 04297 O-WI(E)
Cramer (1952) Shrubs etc. 0.112 (mean) 0.0_6 (E)
0.I Y1 (max.) O.I:O(E)
Sheppard ( 1952) Water O.I:! O-00 I
McCready (19 j3) Trees. etc. @I56 0.05(E)
Shiotani (1953) Snow 0.103 tIM119(E)
Lettau and Davidson (1957) Rural. flat o-l34 O.#iT
Dursr ( J960) Rural. flat 0.128 @0065
Davenport (1961) Rural. Rat @l-t5 0~02
Ivanov and Klinov (1961 J Urban 0.275 3W
Pasquill (1961) Downland @15(E) 0.01
 Air&Id 0.1 IUE)
Rural Hat 0.1 IS(E)
Rural Hat o- I I q E )
Pasqulll (19621 Rural. flat 0.122(E)
Shiotanl (19621 Suburbs 0,2?(E,
B>zo\a (I9631 Rural. flat 0.1-1
LJu-anahs (13Mj Lrban O.<YI(E)
Coast @152(E)
Lumle! and Panofsky (196-J) Woods 0.2-10
Singer ( 1964) Woods 0235
Soma ( I Y6JI Urban 0.30,39E,
1amamoto and Shimanuki (1964) Urban ().:-IS(E)
Su-anson and Cramer (I9651 Brush. sand
0.70
dunes
Eldcrkin (19661 Rural. Hat @II
Davenport and Is)umo\ 11967) Woods 0.27
Shsllard (1967) Rural
Shlorani and .Arai (1967) Coast
Graham (1968)
Harw ( 1968)
Urban
Rural
KS 1

O.I-lj
Kaimal and Haugen (19691 Rural @17(E)
Slade I 1969) Urban 0.30
Calmer ( I971 I Rural 0.17
Harris ( 1971) Rural 0. I 75
Harris I 1972) Rural. Hat 0~131

Source Site -,dml

-
Taylor (1916) Rural. Hat oal I10~00~0 @OIlassumed)
Scrase ( 1930) Grassland 0~001j_0~0017 0.01
Sheppard ( 1947) Rural @CO30 (mean) 0.05 I mean)
Pasquill (1950) Grass OOOIO 0.0()66
Shlotani (1950) Grass. vegetation ONQ-1 0,035
Sheppard (I 952) Sea OIX~ I I 0Ixl I
Sheppard and Omar (1952) Water @oooJ O~COI~assumed)
Deacon (1953) Grass oGQ2I 0.015
Ha! (19%) Water OooO6 oJ2l IO
Monin and Obukhov (195-1) Rural OOOI!j
Rider ( 1954) Rural. flat OQOO83 04012
EllIson (1956) Rural 0.001:
Deacon (1957) Rural 0.0022
Lettau and DavIdson (1957) Rural. flat OQOl7 0.01 I
Linogradova (1959) Sea OOOiI5
Deacon ( 1962) Sea OOCO5
Bhzoba (I963 Rural. Hat OQOl7 0.01:
Siryr (I 964) Woods. OX!O32 I 011
Soma ( 1964) Urban ON2 7.33
-_-
Thullier and Lappe (1964, Rural O~OOlJ5 0.0.:
Berman (1965) Rural 0.003 0.0;
Blackadar tr al. (1965) Woods OQO25 I .oo
Rural OOOl2 0.0
Davenport (1965) Urban 0@116 -7.17_
Elderkin (1966) Rural O+UIl65 0.025
Kraus (1966) Sea O+NQ36 03txl I
Fri7zola cr al. (1967) Woods OQO25 I .O
Paulson (19671 Sea O.OCiI6 O.UIO6
Smith (1967) Sea O.o00.;5
Keilcr and Burling (1967) Sea ON)052
Gibson and L\illiams (1969) Sea 0.003
Hasse er a/. (I 969) Sea O~OOO4Y
 Idtabatic atmospheric houndsr) labers

Taylor (1915) Rural

Giblstt (1932) Rural. Hat
Shiotani (1948) Rural

Shiotani (IUSO) Grass. vegetation

Cramer (1952) Trees. bushes
Priestlq (1957) Rural
Sheppard i 195) Uatrr
\lcCready (1953) Rural

Robinson (1951) Rural

Shiotani (1953) Snow

Tablor (1955, Rural

\Vebb (1955) Rural

Ha! and Pasquill (1959) Downland
Davenport (196la) Rural. Rat
Woods

Rural

I~anob and Klinov (1961) Urban

Pa%Jtlill (1961) Rural

Panofsky C1961) Rural

.:O
Soma (I Y6-Q Urban 26
67
107
I73
33
Berman ( 1965) Various sites 7
;
I2
15
16
23
30
46
64
91
Woods 16
64
Rural. flat I5
Rural 16
46
Eldrrkin (1966) Rural .;
6.1
Davenport f 1967) Urban 76
Elderkin (1967) Rural 3
6.1
3
6.1
Frizola tr al. (1967) Woods 1:
;b
9
Shiotani (1967) Coast 10
s9-I J. COC LIH.t\

Source Sits rlnll Lu,lml

Slngrr ir ai. f 1967) L\oodr

Smith f 1967) Sea

ioiko\itska)a and I\ano\ I 1967) Rural()

Busch and Panofskt (19651 Grass

Koods

Rural
Sea

Harris I1965 t Rural

Fichtl and McVehil i 19691 Shrubs. trees

Gunter (1969)

.-\ntonia and Luxton (19-I) w T. Tests

Calmer ( I97 I 1 Rural

Harris (1971) Rural

Harris (lY72) Rural. Hat

Rural I27
I <s:
30
50
-_

The follo\ving References are in chronological order: the! Van E\erlnpdon E. (1909) Lber die Ermlttlun_e drs Win-
art: in alphabetical order for each qcar. kels Zul-ichcn gradient und windrichtung. .I/,r. Z. 26.
75.
REFERESCES
Shau ii. N. (IYIN) Details of wind structuw -\d\isorq
Stevenson T. (I YYO) Rsport on the simultaneous obssrva- Committee for .&ronautics. R. & M.. Ko. 9.
tions of thz force of the \vind at different heights abovr Dines J. S. (19131 Structure of the wind. 3rd Report to
the yound. J. Scar. wr. Sot. 5. 3lS&?jl. the .-\dvisor> Corn. for ,Aeronautics. R S: M 47.
Guldberg C. M. and Mohn H. (1883) Srfrtlics ~/r/rtj :Llor<,- Dints I\\. H. (1913] The vertical distribution of Tsmpcra-
~twr.s o/. r/w .-Irmo.sphw. (Translated by Clr~sland) ture in ths atmosphere and the work required to alter
.Abbs-Smithsonian Miscel. Collection 1910. it. Q. J. R. 1!7~t. Sot. 29. IS5-192.
Archibald \V. (ISSjl An account of some prsliminar! Rawson H. E. ( 191.:) ,Atmospheric bales. eddies and vor-
experiments \~~th Birams anemometers. attached to kite [Ices. .-lrwmr~~rJ. Ii. 2455256.
striny. .~~~rwr. 31. 66. Dobson G. &LL.8. I lYl-1) Pilot balloon ascents at th? central
Ekman \. \\. (1905) On the intlucnce of the Earths Hying school. Lpavon during the !car 1~13. Q. J. K.
rotation on ocean currents. .Arkir. mrcir~t7riX. mw0170fi1i IllCi. sot. -lo I ?.:-I 35,
OCII. frsik. Shaw \\.. N. (19141 Wind gusts and the structure of aerial
.Akerblow F. (190s) Rechsrchss sur Ies courants les plus disturbances. .4cwmrur J. 18. l7?-203.
has de latmosphcrs au-dcsus de Paris. .Voc. .-lcrtz Taylor G. I. (19151 Eddy motion m the atmosphere. P/I;/.
Scb~irr. (L~pstrh) 2 Ser. 4. So. 2. TWIIS. R. SW. 215. l-36.
 Ieric boundar! laqers

T,~!lor G I. I 19161 Skin frlctlon of the wind on the Earths Sutton 0. G. (1931) Notes on the variation of ~lnd with
surixe. P rr>~ Ro). SOL.. 4. 92, Scar-1. hrlght. Q. J. R. r~wt Sm. 33. X%33
Taylor G. I. j I\)171 Observations and speculations on the Durst C. S. (1933) Notes on the variations of the structure
nature of turbulent motion. R. & &I. No. 314 /ne\v series) of wind ober dit%rent sur&~s. Q. j. R. mtr. SK. 39.
SJI. Corn. for Xero. 36 l-71.
T,I!lor G. I. 1i9lYI Phenomena associated with turbulence Sutton 0. G. (1931) \Vind structure and txtporatron in a
in the lower atmosphere. Proc. R. Sot. 93. 137-l 55. turbulent atmosphere. Pm. R. Sot. Lad. 146. 701-727.
Schmidt %. I 19151 .\usfullcnd< im Smne des Druckgefalles Sverdrup H. L:. (1934)Momentum exhange and stabilit!
bsrlanfende Luftrstromungen unter vrrschiedenen in the lowest air layers. .Urr. Z. 53. IO-1 5.
Breiten. .-lr~fr. H\x/rog Mar. .Mworol. 5cst ,A. C. (1935) Transfer of heat and momentum in the
Doqlas C. K. \I. (IYiii The iapse-line and its relation lowest layers of the atmosphere. Csoph>s. Mem. 1*Iet.
to cloud forrn~~~ion. J. Scrir. .iltr. Soc. 17. Office. 40. 65.
Chapman C. E. (1919) The variation of wind velocity with* Pagon W. W. (1935) Vortices. sddies and turbulence as
height Prof. Not+!vlct. Ot?ice So. 6. experienced in air movemsnts. Er~yy .Lc+~.F RL*coI.~/11-I.
582-6 IO.
JctTre>s H (iU3.))On thl: r~4atlon between wind and distri- Pagon LV. W. (1935) Engineering meteorology. Etiy1xj
hutton of pressure. PIYK. R. SW. .-I 96. 233-149. 5~s Rrcortl 11-t. 66_L_66y.
\\hipple F. ( 1920) The laws of approach to the pzostrophic Pagon LV. W. (1935) Wind velocity in relation to height
kvind. 0. f. R. wit. Sot. 11. 6. above ground. Engrrg SC,~S Rerurti i 14.742-715.
Richardson L. F. (1920) Atrnoy>l?ct-c d!!r ing measured bt Rossb; C. G. and ~ontgorn~r~ R. B. I 1935)The ia>crs
precipitation. Proc. R. SW. 4. Lor~d. 96. IO. of frictional influence in wind and ocean currents Papers
Richardson L. F. f IYXNThe suppI> of energy to and from in Ph.~s. CJC~I. .Mcr.. M.I.T. and Woods Hole Ocean.
atmospheric eddies. Proc,. R. Sot. .A. Ld. 97. 35C373. and Met. Inst. 3. No. 3.
Richardson L. F. I 1910) Some measurements of atmospheric Schmidt LV. (1935) Turbulence near the ground. J. R.
turbulence. Pllil. Titrr~s. R. Sot. 4. 221. I-X .-i~~~~rt.Sm. 39. 335.
Ta>l<>r G. 1 (191 i DitTusion b> continuous movements. Irmingsr J. 0. V. and Nokktntved E. (1936) LVind pres-
Pltx Lu,lli. .LfLiiil. sot. 2 (10). l9&111. surcs on buildinps--rind Series.
Goidie 4. H. R. ! 1975)Gustiness of wind in particular Sutclifle R. C. (1936) Surface resistance in atmospheric
cases. Q. J. R. JW~. SUC. 51. 216: 357. flows. Q. j. R. ttwf. SW. 62. 3-l 2.
Prandtl L. and Tollmicn \V. (195) Die Windverteilung Sutton 0. G. (1936) The log-law of wind structure near
tiher dem Erdbodrn. crrechnetaus den Gesctzen der the ground. Q. J. R. wr. Sot. 62. 124.
Rohrstrbmung. Z. Gmph!.sik Jo/q I. 47-55. Sverdrup H. U. (1936) Note on the log-law of wmd struc-
Simpson G. C. ( lY36) The velocity equi\slents OT the Beau- ture near the ground. Q. J. R. wr. Sot. 62. 161-4611.
fort Scale. Met. Off. Prof. Notes. X0. -1-t. Paeschke W. (1937) Enperimentalle Cntersuchungcn 2.
Ekmnn \. CV. (1927) Eddy viscosity and skin fric&n in Rauhigkeits und Stabilit~tsprobi~m an der bodernen
the dynamics of winds and ocean currents. Sl~~tri. R. .Uer. Luftschicht. &itr. Php. .-tmos. 24. 167-IF.
Sot.. 1. 120). I61 172. Sherlock R. H. and Stout Xl. B. 11937) )Vind structurr
T:l!ior G. I. (I\)111 Ditlusion by continuous movements. in byinter storms. J. Arrmr. Sci. 5. 53-61.
1111 211. Sutton 0. G. (1937) The loo--law of wind structure near
Hcsselhsrg Th. and B_iorkdzl W. (1929) Ubrr das Vertai- the ground, h. J. R. wr. .?oc. 63. IOi---IO.
Iungseestz der LVindunruhe. &irr. Phy. .trf,tos. 15. Reichardt H. (1938) Messungen turbulentcr Schwan-
121-1-33. kungen. .\;artrrlviss 26. 404.
Rlch~rdson L. F. i 1939) .+, search for the law of atmos- Sherlock R. H. and Stout XI. B. (19%) The relation
pheric di%usion. Brir,. Ploys. .-Ltrms. 15. 24-39. between wind velocity and height during a Winter storm.
Schmidt W. ( 19391 Diz struktur des xvindrs. Il-ir,~. Sir-_her. \rlt Irurr. Coy. .Appl. .Vtdr. 436.
.-lk. Iti.5.5. II a. 135. Taylor G. I. (19%) The spectrum of turbulence. Proc. R.
six. .A. 161. 476490.
Becker R. (1930) investigation of the small scale structure Caldcr K. L. (1939) A note on the constanch of horizontal
of the wind b) means of a matrix of wind vanes. Bcirw. turbulent shearins stress in the lowest IaFers of thz
P/ITS. .-lmos. 16. 271. atmosphere. Q. J. R. ~rer. Sot. 65, 537-541.
Irmiriger J. 0. V. and Nokkentved E. (1970) &md pressure Sverdrup H. U. (1939) Second note on the log-Ian of wind
on buildings: Euper. Resexches. (1st series): Trans. b> structure near the _eround. Q. J. R. twf Sot. 65. 57-60.
Jarlis and Nielsen-Danmarks Naturvidsnsk~~belize Ssm-
fund. Copenhagen. Kolmogoroff N. (1941) The local structure of turbulence
Scrare F. J. (1930) Some characteristics of eddy motion in an incompressiblcl fluid for very large wave numbsrs.
in the atmosphere. Geoph!s. ;LIem. No. 52. C. R. .4cad. Sci. U.S.S.R.. 30, 301.
Bryant 4. (1951) ,+ds. Comm. for Aero. R R: hl. 80. l@!i. Thornthwaite C. W. and Halstrad F. (IYJL) Note on the
He>wood G. S. P. (1931) Wind structure near the ground variation of wind with height in the la>er nrar the
and its relation to temperature gradient. Q. J. R. tncr. ground. Fans. ~-lrn. GWD~IIX. L~rziurt 239-255.
Sot. 57. 433. Calder K. L. (1943) Sam; measurements of the vertical
.-\li B. I I9321 Variation of wind with height. Q. J. R. ,jTbr. gradient of wind speed and air temperature over a Hat
Sot. -58. X5-%. desert surface. Chem. Def. Res. Estab. India-Rep. 268.
Fage -\. and Townend H. (1972) Pipe How measurements. Carruthers X. (1943) Variations in wind velocity near the
Pm~. R. Sot. 1. 135. 656. ground Q. J. R. mu. Sot. 69. X9-301.
Fujwara S. (1932) On ihe preponderance of horizontal Dryden H. (l9-13) A review of the statistical theor> of tur-
motion in the Earths atmosphere. B&r. Phys. -imo.r. buience. 9. j. appt. .Uariz. I. 742.
I9 20. l-6. Thornthwalte C. tV. and K&r P. (1913) Wind gradient
Gihlstt F. (1932) Structure ofwind o\er Ievcl country. Geo- observations 7in~r.s. .4tr1. G~opl~j~\.iililrri I& 152.
ph!s. Uern. So. 54. hlcetham F. (1945) Atmospheric pollution In Leicestsr.
blildner P. (I9)i?1 Lbrr Reibung in eincr spezicllen Luft- D.S.I.R. Tech. paper. Xo. 1. H.M.S.O.. London.
masse. &ill.. Plrj~s. .Arwxs. 19. 151. Frost R. (1946) Turbulence and diffusion in the lowest
Sherlock R. H. and Stout ht. B. (19>?) Picturing the struc- atmosphere. Proc. R. Sot. .-i. I86.2@-35.
ture of the \ttnd. Cir. &~ry 214). 225-36_?.
Sutton 0. C. (1937) .a\ theorq of edd) di&sion in the Frost R. (1947) The veiocitt profile in the lobvest 100 ft.
atmosphere. Proc. R. Sot. 4. 135. l43-lfj5. .U=,r. .Uuy. Lor~ri. 76. IS95). I11 7.
SY6 J. COL \IHA\

Pettcrsen T. .md Suinbank IV. C. (1947) On the appli- Laufer J. (19301 In\est+ttron ot turbulent flow in a 2-D
canon of the RIchardson criterion to large seal< turhu- channel. S..-\.C..\. T.5. 3133.
lence In the free atmospher-. Q. J. R. u~~r. SK 73. Lettau H. 119501 .-\ re-examination of the Leipzig
325-2-1;. hind profile considering some relations between YI ind
Priestie) C. H. B. and Swinbank It. C. I 19471 Iertical and turbulence in the frictional laber. ~&.s 2. 125-
transport of heat bk turbulrnce in the atmosphere. Proc. I?).
R. SOc. Lmtl. A. 189. 543-561. Pasqulll F. (I9501 The asrodtnamic drag of grassland.
Sheppard P. .A. (19-17) The aerodynamic drag of the Earths Pvoc. R. Sot. .4. 202. 11:*153.
surface and value of van Karmans constant in the lower Shiotani Xl. (1950) Turbulence in the louest lavers of the
ntmosphsrs. Proc. R. Sm. Lomb. .A. 188. 3X-227. atmosphere. Sci. Rep. of the Tohuku L-niv. 5th Series.
Sutton 0. G. (1947) The problems of diffusion in the lower Vol. 2 No. 3.
atmosphere. Q. J. R. twr. Sot. 72. 257. Singer I. ,A. and Smith M. E. (1950) Variations of rvmd
vclocit> and gusts N tth height. .A.S.C.E. Proc. Ssparate
Durst C. S. (1949~ The fine structure of bvind in the free
D-116.
air. Q. J. R. mr. Sot. 74, 349%60.
Thornthwaite C. W. (1950) Micrometeorolog> of the sur-
Frost R. (1943) Atmospheric turbulence. Q. J. R. nlcr. Sot. face layers of the atmosphere. Lab. of Climatology. Publ.
74. 36lm365. In Ch7roloy!~. Vol. 2. Nos. I-4: Vol. 2. Sos. l-j.
Huss P. 0. and Portman D. J. (1938) Stud> of natural
wind and computation of the Austausch turbulence con- Drfant F. (I 95 I ) focnl wr~rls. Colrtyi,!ftiilrm 01 .~lcrrO~o/Og!~.
stant. Guggenheim .Airship Inst. Rep. Xo. 156. pp. 65s672. .4,,1. wr. Sot.. Boston. Mass.
Shiotani M. and Yamamoto G. (1938) ,Atmospheric turbu-
Francis J. R. D. (1931) The nsrodknamic drag of a free
Iencr over a large city: turbulence in the free atmosphere water surface. Pvoc. R. Sot.. Se. .Lltrrhcm Php-. Sci. 206
-2. Geoyi1rs. ,Lfng. 21. 2. (1086). 387-106.
Thornthwaits C. u. (1918) Micrometeorology of the sur-
Halstead hl. H. (1951) The rclationshlp between wind
face lasr of the atmosphere. John Hopkins Cniv. Lab.
structure and turbulencr near the ground. Climroiog~
of Climatology. Interim Rep. 4. 4. 48.
Iamamoto G. and Shiotani M. (1945) Turbulence in the
Lowry P. H. (1951) The wind and trmperatux in the low-
free atmosphere-l. Gropll~s .\lny. 20. 1. est 100 m at B.N.L. during the storm of hoc. 25. 1950.
Yumamoto G. and Shiotani M. (194X) Turbulence in the
.4tn. vicar. SOC. .v. Y.
free atmosphere--2. Grophys .Lljz(l. 20, 2%. Obukhov A. &l. and Yaglom I. (1951) The microstructure
\on Karman T. (19-18) Progress In the statistical theory
of turbulent How. Prikl. Mor~m. .Llekh. IS. 136.
of turbulence. Proc. .Vur. .-lctrti. SC;.. II&I. 3-l. 530-539.
Smith M. (1951) The forecasting of micrometeorological
Calder K. L. (1949) Eddy diffusion and abaporation in How variables. .\f,rcor. .Uofrogr. I (41.XL55
over aerodynamically smooth and rough surfaces. 0. J. Townsend .A. .A. (1951) The structure of the turbulent
--- boundar) la)cr. Pwc. Cm~h. Phii. 50c. Twns. 17. 37C3Yj.
R. III<~ Sot. 15. 21*X5.
Calder K. L. (1949) The criterion of turbulence in a field
of variable densit! with particular rrferencs to condi- Cramer H. E. (1952) Preliminar> results of a programme
for measuring the structure of turbulent How near the
tions in the atmosphere. Q. J. R. mcr. Sot. 75. 71.
ground. Gcopirs. Rvs. Pap. 19. L.S.. r\.F.C.R.C.
Deacon E. L. ( 1949) Vsrtical diffusion in the lowest layers
of the atmosphere. Q. J. R. mr. Sm. 75. 89-103. Edinger 1. G. (1952) A technique for measurmp the detailed
structure of atmospheric How. Gsophys. R:j. Paper. 19,
Durst C. S. (1949) On surface friction and turbulence in
X-262.
the ocean. .UOU. .Vur. R. Am Sot.. Gt~opl~,tx S~rppL 5.
-769-373. Ellison T. H. (1952) .Atmospheric turbulcnc:. Dissertation
for Ph.D. degree, Camb. Univ.
Franckrnbergcr E. and Rudloff W. (1949) Met. N. W.
Deutsch. Hamburg. Forchtgott J. (199) lMechanica1 turbulence. Letrcka Met.
(Aeron. Met.) Prague.
Konstantinov .A. R. (1949) Studies of eddy structure of the
wmd in the surface layer of the atmosphere. 7io~s. ;Mah Gordon A. H. (1952) Angle of deviation bstnecn the winds
GC~O~/IKT. Ohs. (Trudy G.G.O.) 16 (78). at 50 ft and 2000 ft over the North Atlantic Ocean.
Laikhtman D. L. and Chudnovsky 4. V. (1949) Physics Mcr. Mug. 81. 59.
of the surface layer of the atmosphere State Inst. of For- Laikhtman D. L. (1952) A new method for determination
est Tech. (G.I.T.T.L.). of the coefficient of turbulent viscosity in the boundary
Lettau H. (1949) Isotropic and non-Isotropic turbulence layer of the atmosphere. Trudy G.G.O. So. 37(99).
m the atmospheric surface laker. Geophks. Rss. Paper. Lettau H. (1952) The present position of selected turbu-
I .S.. A.F.C.R.C. No. I. lence problems in atmospheric boundark laber. Geoph.
Pasquill F. (1949) Edd! diffusion of water vapour and heat Res. Paper 19. U.S.. .A.F.C.R.C.
near the ground. Proc. R. Sot. .A. 198. 116-110. Ogura Y. (1952) Relation between length oi time under
Sutton 0. G. ( 1949) -lrmsp/wrc Ehrlcm~. Mrthuen. analysis and the statistical quantities of the atmospheric
London. turbulence. J. mer. Sot. Jap. 30. 103.
Thornthwaite C. W. (1949) Micrometeorology of the sur- Prirstley C. H. B. (1957) Atmospheric turbulence in the
face layer of the atmosphere. Johns Hopkins Univ. Lab. boundary layer: an appraisal of the present position.
of Climatology. Rep. No. 5. Geophys. Res. Paper N. 19. U.S.. .A.F.C.R.C.
van Karman T. and Lin C. C. (1949) On the concept of Priestley C. H. B. and Sheppard P. .A. (1952) Turbulence
similarity in the theory of isotropic turbulsnce. Rrr. and transfer processes in the atmosphere. Q. J. R. mcr.
.Llod. P/t,n 21. 5I c-5 19. Sot. 78. 488-529.
Sheppard P. .A. (1952) Current research at Imperial Col.
Blackadar .A. K. (1950) The transformation of energq by on the structure of turbulent How. Geophys. Res. Paper
the large scale eddy stresses in the atmosphere. Meteor. 19. U.S.. A.F.C.R.C.
Paper. N.Y. Univ. I (4). I Sheppard P. .A.. Charnock H. and Francis J. R. D. (1952)
Clementson G. G. (1950) An investigation of the Dobver Observations of the westerlies over the sea. Q J. R. met.
spec. densit! of atmospheric turbulence. D. Sc. Thesis Sot. 78. 563-582.
1l.I.T. ATI-80319. Sheppard P. A. and Omar T. (19511 The wind stress over
Jennr D. E. and Hilst G. R. (1950) Meteorological and the ocean from obserrations in the trades. Q. J. R. mtr.
cllmatological investigations of the Hanford works area. Sot. 78. 583-589.
Gen. Else. Sucleonics Dept.. Hanford Works. Richland. Sherlock R. H. (19521 Variation of wind velocit! and gusts
\Vash. H\\.- 19723. with height. Proc. A.S.C.E. 75. Separate So. 126.
 -\diahatic atmosphetlc bounder! la)erj

Sre\\art H. J. and \LcCrzsd> P. B. t IY~ZI Report on Jtmos- Buslngcr J. 4. Il355i On the ztructuri oi the atmosphcrlc
pherlc turbulenw C.I.T. Contract So. CHb.-3115 with surface l;lbsr. J !It,r. 12. I-ii
U.S %tather Bureau Charnock H. ilY551 I\ md stress on a \vatcr suriace. Q
T.l!lor R. J. 1195?1 The dissipation of kinetic encrgq in .I R. mr SW. 81. 63Y.
the lo\reit la>crs of the atmosphere. Q. J. R. ~rwr. Sot. 78. Collins C. 119551 Dewmmmg basic wmd loads 4.S.C.E.
l-Y-Is.5 Separate So. sZ5.s I I
Cramer H. E. and Rxord F. -\ 113551 Poucr socctra oi
the edd! \clocit) componcntr. J. .U<,r. 12. I-16:
Deacon E. L. (19531 Vertical profiles of mean umd m the
Deacon E. L. (1955al Gust Lariation aith hclght up to
surtacc lahers otthc atmosphere. Met Off. Geoph. ?vlem.
I50 m. 0. J. R. rtwr. Sec. 81. 5h? 573.
91
Deacon E. L. (1955hlThe turbulent transfer oi momentum
Friedman 0. G (1953) The height variation of lateral
in the lottest Ia>ers of the atmosphere C.S.1.R 0. DIV.
gustiness and its effect on lateral dilfiision. J. .llei. IO.
Met. Phks. Tech. Paper -1.
i
Giflord F. t 1955) -\ simultaneous Lagran_elan-Etllerian tur-
Hsllerman G. (1953)Pollution of tit! air b> smoke. TN+-
bulence experiment. .Llodd!~ II;uih~ RL,[,. 83. No. 12.
U/k 8 I I).
Kamcl I. (1955) Studxs on natural wind pressur? on build-
1lcCread) P. B. (1933al r\tmospherlc turbulence measure-
lngs and other structures. Ref. I6 of Buil. R:s. Inst. Min.
mcnts and anal>&. J. hlc,t. i0 (5). 32_<327.
of Construe. Tokho.
>lcCrcad\ P. B. i 1952b) The structure of atmosnheric tur-
Ogura Y. 4. (I9551 Supplementary note on the relation
bulcnc~. J. l/et. IO (5). -l3S-J-&9.
between the space and time correlation IunctIons in a
UcDoupaI R. L.. Coleman T. L. and Smith P. L. (1953)
turbulent tlow. J. ~wr. Ser. Jrrp. 33 ( 1).
The variation of atmospheric turbulence and its effect
Panofskb H. A. and \an der Hocen 1. (1955) Spectra and
on airplane gust loads. N.A.C..A. Rep. R.M. L53Gl5a.
cross-qwctra of \elocit> components of the micro-
Panofskl H. .A. (1953) Statistical properties of the vertical
meteorological range. 0. J. R. IIIC~. SW. 81. -351).
tlur and kinetic cncrpy at IO0 m. Penn. St. Coll.. Div.
Sxinbank W. C. (1955) An c.xpcrimentnl stud! of edd!
&let. Sci. Rep. 2.
transports in the lower atmosphere. Tech. Paper. ho
Perspelkina .A. L. (1953)Some results of an investigation
3. C. S. I. R. 0. blct. Phl;s.
of turbulent pulsations of temperature and the vertical
Taylor R. 1. (1955) Some observations of \r~nd velocity
component of wind speed. /:r. .&ad. .\a~rk. S.S.S.R. yco-
and auto-corrclat1ons in the lo%cst lakers of the atmos-
6: 6. 76_il78.
phere. -t~r.sr. J. P/I!.s. 8. -I.
Robinson G. 0. (1953) Some cxnmplcs of the energy spec-
Nebb E. K. (1955) .\uto-correlations and energ) spectra
trum of turbulence in the atmosphsre near the ground.
of atmospheric turbulence. C.S.I.R.O. Div >let. Phys.
Net. Res. Corn.. Lond. Xlct. Rcs. Paper SOS.
Tech. Paper 5.
Singer I. 4. and Smith M. E. (1953) Relation of gustiness
to other meteorological parameters. J. ,Llc,t. IO. 11,
Batchclor G. K. and Proudman 1. 11956) The large-scale
Shiotani 11. i 1953) Some notes of the structure of xind in
structure of homopsncous turbulence. Phd. ~YOIIS. .-I
the lotvest layers of the atmosphere. J. wt. Sot. Jnp.
248. 369.
31, 317.-335.
Charnock H.. FrancIs J. R. 0. and Sheppard P. A. (1956)
Sutton 0. G. (1953) .\fic~o~~~rrro~olog~. blcGraw-Hill. Neu
*An in\cstigation of wind structure in the trades: Ane-
York.
geda 1953. PM. T,am. R. Sot. A. 2-19. 963,
Davidson B. and Barad M. L. (1956) Some comments on
Corrsin S. and Kistler .4. L. (1954) The free-stream boun- the Deacon profile. Tmns. .-11n. G~opl~xs. c r:in,l 37. 16%
daries of turbulent How. S.A.C.A. Tech. Note 3 133. Deacon E. L.. Sheppard P. A. and Webb E. K I 1956) Wind
Duck\\orth F. S. and Sandberg J. S. The effect of cities profiles over the sea and drag at the sea surface. .4usr.
upon horizontal and vertical temperature gradients. Bull. J. Ph!,s. 9. 5 I I-541.
.&I. wf. Sot. 35. 198-707. Ellison T. H. (19561 ;\tmospheric turbulence. In SIII.L.~,~S
Ha! J. S. (195-11 Some measurements of vertical profiles i/l Jlecl~a~ics (Edited by Batchelor and Daws). Cam-
of wind speed and gustiness over the sea. Porton Tech. bridge Univ. Press. London.
Paper. -128. lnoue E. (1956) Structure of turbulence in the atmospheric
Lettau H. (195-l) A stud) of the mass momentum and surface layer. Jap. Sat. Congess. App. Xlech. 313-325.
energ! budget of the atmosphere. .-lrcl~. .\fer.. Nirrl. ser. Kratzrr J. (1956) Dtrs Srutltkli/rlo Niswd~oji. Braunschewlg
.-1. 7. 133. Enghsh Translation Am. Met. Sot.. Boston.
&larshall i+. A. L. (19%) Comparison of the wind recorded Laikhtman D. L. (1956) Some characteristics of the bound-
b! an anemograph with the geostrophic wind. Prof. ary lahcr of the atmosphere. Trud) G.G.O. So. 56 (I 18).
notes. &let. Off. Lond. No. 10% Landsberg H. E. (1956) The climate of touns. In Ma~s
Uonin ,A. S. and Obukhov .A. M. (1954) Basic regularity role ijr CJrc~t~gu~g rlw Facr oj ~/IL,Earth. pp. 535-606. l_Vni-
in turbulent mi.sing in the surface layer of the atmos- versitk of Chicago Press. Chxapo.
phere. Eng. trans-Amer. IMet. Sot. T-R-iX,\.F.l9(6011)- McCready P. B. (1956) Final Rep. UX4.F. Project 19
1936. 16M)-I 107.
Panofskk H. A. and McCormick R. A. (1951) Properties Panofsky H. A. and Van der Hovcn I. (19%) Srructure of
of the spectrum of atmospheric turbulence at IO0 m. small scale and middle scale turbulence at Brookhaven.
Q. .I. R. wt. Sot. 80. 557-j%. Sci. Rep. I. A.F.l9(603)-1027 .A.F.C.R.C..TS 56-254.
Portman D. J. (IYSJ) Measursment of air temperature pro- Press H.. Meadows 41. T. and Hadlock 1. (19561 ,-\ revalua-
files. In Cliwlrofoyy. pp. 250-260. Johns Hopkins tini\. tion of data on atmospheric turbulence and airplane
Press. Baltimore. Gust loads for application in spectral talcs. N.A.C.A.
Rider \. E. (195-Q Eddy diffilsion of momentum. water Rep. 1272.
tapour and heat near the ground. Phil. Tinm. R. SOC. Shiotani M. (1956) On the statistics of Huctuations of wind
.A. 246. -IY l-50 I. vclocit>. in the lowest atmosphere. Pvoc. 6tl1 Jap. .Vnt.
Ste\cart X. G.. Gale H. J. and Crooks R. N. (195-I) The Corq ./or .Appl. .\fKll.
atmospheric diffusion of gases discharged from the chim- Stewart R. W. (1956) ;\ new look at the Rqnolds stresses.
ney of the Harwll pile. Atom. Energy. R. E. HP R. I-l52. Cw. J. P/IJS. 3-l. 722-725.
Harwell.
ynn der Hoben 1. and Panofsky H. .A. (19%) Statistical Blackadar A. K. (1957) Boundary Layer wind maxima and
properties ofthe vertical How and kinetic energ at 100 m. their significance for the gou-th of nocturnal inversions.
Final Rq. Penn. St. L nlv. Bull. +,I. wt. Sot. 283-290.
SOS J Cor hIHA\

Charnock H. and RobInson G D. (19571

Spectral cstlmates The rAtIon bet\bp<n Eulerian time and space spectra.
from subdlbided metreorologlial series. .Alr Minijtrh 41e:t. 0. .I R. i,,ci. Sc>c~.8(. 2-O--3.
Res. Corn. 41.R P. So. 1062. DcTlcon E. L. ( I9591The measurement of rarbulent tl-an&r
Corrsin S. 1IY5l Some curr;nt problem5 in rurbulent in the lo\\er atmosphere. 4ci1.. &o/>i~i,). 6. 21 l-22-1.
shear tlous Chap. 15.. Sakal Hkdromcchanics Publ. 515. De Xlarrals C. A. \bind speed profiles ,tt Brookhaven
hat. -\rJd SCI.. \.R.C. \atlonal Laborutorb J. .!I, I 16. lyl- 130
Cramer H. E. (195-1 A pracrical method ior csttmatlng Franczshml G. -\ (IYS?, Xlxromcteorologlcal obser\ations
the dtspersctl of atmospheric contaminants. Proc. Iif. oter non-idcal surt:,Iccs. Sa. Rep I. Conr. -\.F. IY 160-l)-
.Vc~r. Co/!). 4ppl. .Ift,r.. Harriord. Connecticut. 1150. Texas .A & XI College.
Deacon E. L. (l9T71 I\ ind profiles and the shearing strcjs- Gitrord F. (1959) The Inrerpretation of metcorologicn~
an anomal) rcsol\ed. 0. J. R. ~cf. Sot. 83. S37-j-IO. spectra and correlations. J. .\fc,r. 16. AU .3-16.
Deland R. J. and Panoisky H. -\. (I9571 Structure of turbu- Hab J. S. and Pajquill F. I 19591Difuslon from a con-
lcncc at ONe~ll %brasLa and its relation to the struc- tinuous sounx in relation to spectrum and scctk of tur-
ture at Brookhaien. Sci. R:p. 2. Contract No. ;\.F. bulence. .-ltl~,. &o:+..s. 6. 345 365.
Is, 6W-1017. Henri R. M. (19SV) .-\ stud! of the etlects of LLmd speed.
Halstcad XI. H.. Richman R. L.. Cove) I\. and Merryman lapie rate and altitude 04 tb.e spectrum of atmospheric
J. .A. (1357) ,A prellminar) report on the design of a turbulence at loa altitude. I..-\.5 Rep. 53 43.
computer for micrometsorolog2. J. .1/~,f. 14. 3OS. Johnson 0. IlYS9j -In c\amination OT the v?rticnl wind
Jones R. .A. (19571 Studies of sddk structure in the first profile in the lo\\<st Inhers of the atmosphere. J. Afar.
few thousand feetoftheatmospherr-a prrliminar) c\am- i6. I-l-c- 1-M.
ination of rhe spectrum and scale of the vcr[xal com- Jones J. I. P. and Pusquill F (19591An c\perimentai sqs-
ponent at 3COO ft. k1.R.P. IWI. S.C. II I 231 (Porton tern for directI) rxordino statistics oi the intensitv of
Tech. Paper MI atmospheric tu&ulence. 6. J. R. imr. 5~~. 85. 2X-736.
Jones J. 1. P. and Butler H. E. ( lY3-i) Studies of eddy stl-uc- Lettau H. (1959,) \\ind profile. surf&e s[r:js and :costro-
ture in rhe first ic\k thousand feet 01 the stmosphcre- phic drag coeticicnt in the .~tmospheric surface layer.
mcasuremrnt of th? vertical and horizontal components. .4,/r. Gvopl~~. 6. 2-11-157.
M.R.P. IO:S. S. C. I I 1229. Lettau H. (1959b) Studies of the .;-D slructur? of the plane-
Lcttau H. and Dat idson B. I 1957) E \-/~/or~fry I/I<> E~fi1.3 tar! bounder! layer. .Ann. Rep. D..~.-~h-019-~C-S01S
.4rn1o.~~Av1~. I YI .!f~/~,. 2 Vols. Pergamon Press. Oxford. U.S. Army Elcc. proovlng ground
Uotess C. B. (lY57) \ jtud! oi rhe nature of atmospheric Notcss C. B. (1959) -\nalqsis of turhulcnce data measured
turbulence based on [light measurements of the rust \el- in flight at altitudes up to I600 ft. nh~\e three different
ocit) components. \\.-\.D.C. Ttch. Rep. 57 356 -\STI-\ types of terrain. Cornell Aero. Rep. T.E.-I 215-F-I.
Dot. So. -\DI Ib3-l: L.S..-\.F. Panofsk) H. -\. and Deland R. J. I 19591I-D spectra of
Press H. (1957) Atmospheric turbulent cnbironmcnt \+ith turbulence in the lowest IOOm. .4tlr. G++~s. 6. 41-62.
spcclfic reference to continuous turbulcncc. R?p. 115. Panoisk) H. .A. and McCormick R. .A. 11919) The spcc-
-\.G..A.R.D. N..A.T.O. (Paris). trum of vertical \clocitx near the sul-face. I..A.S. Report.
Tallor R. J. (1957) Space and tlmc correlations in aind No. 59 6.
velocit\. J. Md. 1-l. 37% PriestIe! C. H. B. (1959) T&Av~r Tr~!slir ~JI tin Lotrrsr
Townsenh A. .A. (19571 The turbulent boundary lay. Pwc. .-Iruroiphw. Cniiersitl of Chicago Press. Chicago.
f,L.T..4..\f. SLUI. 011 Bowtl. Ltrwr Rrs.. Springer. Berlin. PriestIe! C. H. B. I 1959) Esnmation of s:!rtlcc stress and
\ an der Hoben 1. (1957) Po\\ir spectrcim ol horizontal heat tluv from protile data. 0. J. R. mr. Soz 85. JI5--&IS.
uind speed in the frequcnc! range from QOOO7 10 900 Robinson G. D. (lY5Y) Vertical motion and the transfer
cb, hr. J. .Ifc,r. 14. 160. of heat and momcntum near the ground. 4tlt. G<,oph~.s.
6. 7% 268.
Barad Xl. L. (Editor] I 1958) Proj~t Prtririr Grass. h Field Singer 1. -\. and Ra!nor G. S. (1959) ;\ stud) of the wind
Programme in DitTuslon Lol. 1. II. profile In the louest 400 ft. of the armospherc. Prog.
Bullen XL. 1. (19%) The distribution of gusts in the atmos- Rep. 1. Brookhaven National Lab.
phere; an integration of L.K. and LS, data. A.R.C.. C.P. Vlnogrado\a 0. P. (1959) Tangential wind stress above
No. 119. a disturbed sea surblcc Bull. 40/t/. Sci. I S.S.R. Gcoph~x
Elliott A. P. (19%) The growth of the atmospheric internal SC,. II (Trans. b> .-\m. Geophi. L nion).
boundar) lajer. ?ix~\. .~uI. Gro/~h.s. IIIWI 39. IO-W Yamamoto G. (1959) Theorq of turbulent transfer in non-
I OjJ. neutral conditions. J. .\fl,r. Svc. ./up. 37. 6(>~69.
El\ R. P. (1958) Spectral .-\nallsls of rhe L-component Stewart R. !V. (I 951)) The natul-al occurr:nc: of turbulence.
J. qcopl~~~. Rc,.s. 6-i. 2 I I Z--JI Ii

.yc~rl~r.cl/ CC;NI/. pp. I21 -I 28. Int. Edit:. Vol. 1. No. 4. Aricl S. A. and Kliuchniko\a L. .A. (IS&I) Wind over
Danish Technical Prsss. Copenhagen. a Cit). (Vetcr Vuslo\unkhgaroda) L.S.S.R. Gla\ naie.
Johnson 0. (1958) The relation between wind \elocit! at Geofiz. Obserb. in A. I. Valiko\a: Trud) v>pusk. 9-I pp.
Xt.. -1Oft.. IO00 ft. and its dep<ndance on atmospheric 29-32.
stability. Ralston. -\lherta. Sutield Euper Stn. Tech. Blackadar .A. K. i 19601 .A sur\cb of uind charactct-ljtlcs
Paper I I6 below IX0 ft. .\fL,r. .Lfoiroy. Aj.
Jones R. A. I 19%) Porton Tech. Paper. 635. Blackadar -\. K.. Panoisk) H. .A. !vIclehil G. E. and Iiol-
Jones J. I. P. and Butler H. E. 11958) The measurement &ton S. H. ~I9601 Final report on structure of turbu-
of gustin<ss in the tirst few thousand feet of the atmos- lences and mean aind protiles wlthin rhe atmospheric
phcrc. Q. J. K. 11i1r.Sot. 84. Ii-24 boundark Ia)cr. Dept. of &let.. Penn. State Cniv. Cont.
Grant H. L. 11958) The large eddies of turbulent motion. ivo. .-\Fl9(6M)-5231.
J. F/u,d .lfcc/r. 4. I-19. Cramer H. E. (19601 Engineering estimates of the power
blintz Y. (195s) .An empiricall) determined suriace stress spectra of the horizontal componcntj of rhe wind vel-
coetliclcnt for numerical forecasting experiments. Proc. ocit!. .:rd ConI: of .App. &let.. Santa Barbara.
SIri! G,,u. 4s.~. in Toronto. Canada-Int. Ass. of Meteor. Cramer H. E. (1960) Cse of po\ver spectra and scales of
and .Atmos. Phbs. ILondon). turbulcncc in estimating u ind loads. .\f(,r. .\fouog. 4. I?-
P,lnofsk\ H. A. and Brier 1. (19id) Some upplicarlons of DaLcnport A. G (1960) Rationale for dererrnming design
statistics to meteorology COIL of Mineral Industries. wind velocities. J. Srvuc. Dir. P,oc. .4.S.C.E. 86. 39.
Penn. St. Lnic. Durst C. S. (1960) U.ind speed o\er short periods of time.
Panofsk) H. .A.. Cramer H. E. and Rao 1;. R. K. I 19%) .\fc,r. .\/rrc/. 89. I YI.
 -\dl,lbatlc Jtmosphr xic boundary la)srs 9YY

of a turbulent !cloclt> field In the lamer ?011 m laher

oi the atmosphere. Ix. Groph!_s. Srr. 13. 15&-157.
Graham H. E. ,\nd Hudson G. \. (141601 Surface \hlnds JLnscn hl. I 19611 .Shirt~ &fl(,cr Danish Tsch. Pr<ss.
n-ar the ccntx of hurricanes iand other ckclonesl. Xat. Copenhagen.
Hurricane Res. Pro!. Rtp. 39. Dept. of Comm. C.S.U .B. Lalhhtman D. L. I 19611 Ph>stcs oi the boundsr! la)cr oi
Islltzer N. F ( IY6UI &leteoroloycal parameters of ditTusion. thf :ttmosphsrc. Gitiror,lt,rcorI[/[lr.
[Translat:d bb I\I. . (
DIK Climatolog> of the Satlonal Rractor Testing Stn.. Prog. ior SC!. Trans I lY61).]
1 s. \lcCol-mlck R. .A. (EdItor) (I9611 S\mposlum. -\lr o\ir
Ktzanskii .A. B. and &lonln A S. I 19601 -\ turbulent regime cltxs. Tech. Rep. NO. -\62-5. C S. Pubiic Health Ser\tce.
above the ground dtmosphcric laker. /:t. G~v/~/I! 5. SL,I.. Connecticut.
so. I. III-III. Panofsk) H. A. (1961) An alternative dcrl\ntlon of the dla-
Panofsk! H. .A Blsckadar \. K. and Mclchii G. E. II9601 batlc wind profile. 0. J. R. rrwr. Sec. 87. IWI I I.
The diabatic ivtnd protilc. 0. J. R. wr. Sot. 86. 390. Pasquill F. (I961 I The statistics of turbulence In the lower
Panofsk! H. -\. and 4LcCormlck R. ,A. (19601 The spectrum part of the atmosphere. Paper -1. Sbmp. on -\tmos. Turh
oi vertical lcloclt> near the surface. 0. J. R. ~wr. SW. and its Rslatton to .Aircraft. R..A.E. Farnborough.
86. -19% Rauner yu. L. (1961) On the heat budget of a deciduous
Saunders K. D. (1960) Interim report on the technical forest in ninter /:r. fccltl. So. I.S..S.R. G~oy. .>c,vic*_1.
analysis of the B-668 IOU Ietel gust stud> Rep. No. SM- S?mYO.
5973.. Doug. .Aircraft Co. Ltd. Saunders K. D. (1961) B-666 low lr\el gust stud!--Vol.
Singer 1. .A. (I 960) .A stud! oi ths \\ md protile in the lowest I. W..A.D.C. Txh. Rep. 60-.:05 I\.right-Pat. .A F. Base.
100 ft of the atmosphsre. Pro!. Rep. 5.. Brookhaven Sat. Ohio.
Lab. Stuart R. IV. (1961) The wabs drag of wind o\ir water.
Taylor R. J. (1960) -\ new approach to measurement of J. F Illi/ .)I ?C/I. IO. IS)- 194.
turbulent tluws in the lower atmosphere. J. Fluid .\luch Takcuchi K. ( 1961) On the structure of the turbulence ticid
10. 449%-I%. in the surface boundar) layer. J. mr SK Jifp. 39. X-
Taylor R. J. I 1960) Slmilarit! theory In the relation -167.
hctwecn Hu\cs and gradients in the lower atmosphere. Zbrozck J. K. (1961) Aircraft and atmospherx turbulence
0. J. R. ml-r Sot. 86. 67-X R.A.E. Bedford. T.N. Iero. 3790.
Taylor R. J. f 19601 Form of \\ ind protile in the near @round Zilitlnkevich S. S. ( lY6l) Turbulence rqions in the surface
la\er of the ntmosohere. 1:r. .-l<wl. SC;. L2i.S.R. Groah~x labtr of a transient air-stream. Trudy \oes. Nauch.
s,:r. 12. ls:I-ls2i. c Meteor. Sovrsch. Leningrad 7. pp j-10.
U.S. Public Health Service I 1960) 3rd ,Atr Pollution RLIS
Seminar. Rep. 7% pp. 1173--i lS9.
\\an-Chang Chiu (1960) The spectra of large scale turbu- Blackadar .A. K. (1962) The \ertlcal distrthurwn of uind
lent transfer of momentum and heat. J. .LIt,r. 17.71;C and tul-bulcnt exchange in a neutral atmosphsr?. J. y,w
-1-11. /dn Rcs. 67. .;OYj_lO2.
\Vilkins E. M. (I9601 Diwpation of ensrg! b> atmospheric Chandler T. J. 11962) Londons urban climate &~y J. 127.
turbulence. J. .\f~,r<o~. 17. Y 1-92. ?79- 30.
NIppermann F. U. and Klug M. (19601 Schornsteinmm- Cramer H. E.. Record F. A. and Tillman J. E. (19611
desthohen lhrc Bestimmung atls Gesetzmassigkelten der Studtcs of the spectra of the vertical Ru\cs of momen-
turhulentr ditTusion in der .Atmospherc. L.D.E. tum. heat and moisture in the atmospheric boundar!
Zbrozek J. K. I lY60) The relattonship beween the discreet layer. Final Rep. D.A.. 3A9Y-27-005-0X. Cont. D.A.-.;6-
gust and pov\cr spectra presentation of atmorphcric tur- O3Y-SC-SOW. blst. Dept. M.I.T.
bulence x~th a sugsestrd model of ION altitude turbu- Crosslq A. F. 11962) Extremes of wind shear. &tet. Off.
lence. R & 51. No. 3216. Sci. Paper 17. London.
Zbrozsk J. K. and Ridland D. M. (1960) A measured Deacon E. L. (1967) Aerodvnamic roqhness of the sea.
po\bcr spectrum of the vertical component of atmos- J. Grophy~. RLs. 67. 3 167-j 172.
pheric turbulence R.,\.E. T.S. ,Aero 26SI. Deacon E. L. and IV&b E. K. (1962) Interchange of
properties between ssa and air. C.S.I.R.O. !.lct. Phhs.
Abbott P. F. and Smith F. B. (1961) Statistics of lateral No. I.
gustiness at I6 m above the gound. 0. J. R. mr. Sac. GitTord F. A. (1963) The vertical variation of atmospheric
87. 519~ 561. eddy energ) dissipation. J. Mcrm. 19. ZO%?Oh.
Ball F. K. (1961) \lscous dissipation in the atmosphere. Gurvich A\. S. (lY63) Spectra of pulsations in the vertical
J. .Cfcr. IS. 553-557. wind velocity component and their relation to microme-
Businger J. A. 11961) On the relation bct%rcn ths spectrum teorological conditions. Trans. (Trudy) Inst. -\tm. Ph)s.
of turbulence and the dlabatlc wind profile. J. qropir!x Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. No. -1.
Res. 66. 2-W-2109. Hall J. C. (1962) -\ re-analysis of existing gust data using
Cramer H. E.. Record F. .A.. TIllman J. E. and Iaughan the Power Spxtrum method. De Havilland .Asro. Rep.
H. C. (1961) Studies of the spectra of the vertical Husrs 3287 (A.R.C. 24397).
of momentum heat and moisture in the atmospheric Johnson W. B. (1962) Seasonal and regional wiations of
boundaq la)er. -\nnual Rq. hl.1.T. Round Hill Field the atmospheric boundar! layr parameters and enew
Stn. dissipation dsribed from Greg& serological survey of
Dalr)mplc P. C. (I961 ) South pole micrometeorolog) pro- the U.S. MS. Thesis. Univ. of &isconsin.
gramme. Tech. Rep. E.S.-2. Quartermaster Res. Centre. Klassen I\. (lY61 Xlicrometeorological ohserxations in the
Sotick. Mass. North Saskatchewan River Valley at Edmonton. Rep.
DaLenport A. G. (196la) .Appllcation of statwlcal concepts No. Tee. 40% Met. Off: Toronto (CIR-3651).
to the windloading of structures. Pm-. /KC Cir.. EMJIT KolmogoroH .A X. (1962) .A refinement oi a previous
19. 119~372. hypothesis concerning the local structure of turbulence.
Dakenport .A. G (lY6lb) The spectrum of horwontal .gusti- J. F loid ,Ilr,ch. 13. S2-85.
ness near the ground in high winds. 0. J. R. mr. SOC Kondo J. (1962) Observations on wind and temperature
87. IYA--I I. profiles near the ground. Sci. Rep. Tohuku Cniv. Szr.
De ,Varrais G. .A. II961 I \crtlcal tempsraturs diffusion 5. Geophg. IA. pp. -11-56.
observed over an urban area. &r/l. .-IvI. vwr. Sec. 11. Lettau H. (19621 Theoretical wind spirals in ths boundar!
i-h-554. la!cr of a baroclinic atmosphere. Brir. Z. PilJsik. .-Imro.s.
Ixanov V. N. and Klinob F. Ya I 1961) Some charactsrlstlcs 3s. I95 212.
900 J Cot. XIH.A\r

Lettau H. t 1961 Studies of the 3-D structure oi the planr- -\ u~nd tunnel tn\estigatton oi ground ~tnd loads on
tar) boundary laker Univ. Aisconsm. Cont. D A.-X- a\\-symmetric launch \?hxlcs. S A.S.4. T\DlxY:.
I i
039-sC-wu. Burns .A. (I9631Power jpectm oflo~-lc~el turbulence mea-
XlcCready H. (1962)Th? incrttal subrangc of atmojphertc sured from an atrcraft. R .A.E. T.\. Structures 32Y.
turbulence. J. ${~wyir!x Rrs. 67. 105I- 1059 Burns 4. ilY6.:1 Pobcr spectra 01 the vertical component
>lcCrcady H. (1962) Turbulence measurements by satI of atmosphertc turbulence ohtamed from concurrent
plane. J. yt@t.n. RCS. 67. I(Wl 1050. mzasuremcnts on an aircraft and at fixed points. R.,A.E..
Montn ,A. S. (1362) Empirical data on turbulence in the T.S. Structures 325.
surface layer of the atmosphere. J. qwphp Rtjs. 67. 3 IO?- Byzova .U. L. (Editor) (1963r Inwsttgatton of the bottom
21 I I. 300 m laysr of the atmosphere. Acad. SKI.. L.S.S.R.
Monin ,A. S. (1962) Structure of fields of ~tnd velocity [Translated by Israel Pros. for Sa. Trans.. Jerusalem
and temperature tn the atmosphertc boundary la!er near (1WJ.J
the ground Trudy .A. N. S.S.S.R. Inst. Piz. -\tmos. 1. Cermak J. E I lY65) Lagrangian similartt) hypothesis
pp c?O. applied to dtffusion in turbulent shear flow. J. fluid
Naito T.. Nasu Z.. Takeuchi .\I. and Kubota G. (IY61) !LlLCII.15. 49-h-l.
Construction and vibrational characteristics of the Davcnoort A. G. (196.1) The r:lattonship oi wtnd structure
Tokyo Towr. Bull. Sci. Eng. Lab. Wascda Lni\. Vol.
19. -1.1 .,

Obukhov ,A. IM. (lY62) Somr special features oi atmos- Fitzgerald L. .II. (1963) L\ind induced stresses on water
pheric turbulence. J. y~wph~~.s.Rcs. 67. 301 I --301-1. surfaces: a \\ind tunnrl study. .&a. J. P/ILL 16. -17C-189.
Panofsky H. .A. I 1962)The budget of turbulent energy in Gibson C. H. and Schu-arz IV. H. (1963) The uniwrsal
the lowest IO0 m. J. yrop/r.tx RCT. 67. 3 I6 I-3 166. equilibrium spzctra of turbulent kclocities and scalar
Panofsky H. .A. (1963) Scale analysis of atmospheric turbu- fields. J. Fluid .Urch. 16. .X-N.
lence at 2 m. 0. J. R. trier. Sot. 88. 57-69. Goddard W. B. (1963) Introductory measurements of shear
Pasquill F. (1963) -Ir~to.rp/rcric D~fiiwo~r. \an Nostrand. stress across rye-grass sod. Final RLI~ D-\-36-039-X-
Sew Jersey. 803.X pp. 119-157.
Pasquill F. (1962) Recent broad band spectral measure- Inoue E. (196.:) On the turbulent structure of airtlow
ments of turbulence in the lower atmosphere. J. /caplr!% within crop canopies. J. .\lct. k. Jq,. II. 3 I7~?25.
Rr.7. 67 . 305-303.
_ Jensen Xl. and Franck S. ( 1963) .!loci,i TI\r\ 1117idwlr~~r
Rsiter E. R. (1967) The atmospheric micro-structur? and Ili~rct-/. Pir~~ito111~1~7Lkpdwr oit r/k II iutl Sped.
its bearing on C..A.T. Color. St. Lntv. ,Atmos. Et. Tech Danish Tech. Press. Copenhagen.
Rea. No.-39. N.\\.R.F. 1%1062-069. N,AS.A-$6.:-IOJYY. Lappe C. 0. and Davidson 8. (196.:) On the range of
,A I5289 350. Lalidity ofTaylors hypothesis and and ths Kolmogorotf
Singer I. A. and haglr C. M. (1962) A study of the wind spectral law. J. .-lrr~to.s. SC;. 20. 56Y-576.
profile in the lowest -100 ft of the atmospheR: Final Lappc c. 0.. Thuillier R. H. and Rec\es R. M. (196.3)
Rep. Brookhaten Nat. Lab.. .-\ssoc. Lniv. Inc. S.Y. D~vslopment ofa IOU altitude turbulence model for esti-
Shiotani M. (1962) The rslationship bctueen w tnd profiles mattng gust loads on aircraft. Tech. Dot. ASD-TDR-63-
and stabilities of the air layer in the outskirts of the 31% Wright Pat. -\.F. Bass. Ohio.
tit). J. .Wc,r. Sot. Jtrp. Scr II. 10. 3 I j-:29. Lemon E. R. (196.:) Theoretical constderatton of acrody-
Swanson R. X;. and Hoidale M. M. I lY62) LOW level wtnd nnmtc exchange in a turbulent boundar) lay. L.S.
profile prediction techniques. Prog. Rep. -1. LS Army 4pric. Res. Sev. Prod. Res. Rep. 71
Signal Misstls Supp. Agency. M:hitc Sands Mtssile Lemon E. R. (1963) The energy budset at the Earths sur-
Range. N. Me.s~co. face-11. Prod. Rrs. Rep. 2. .Agrtc. Res. Service.. U.S.
Takeuchi K. (1962) On the non-dimensional rate of dissi- Dept. of Agriculture.
pation of turbulent energy in the surface boundary layer. Lettau H. (1963) Studies oi the cllects of variations in
.I. .\fL,r. Sot. Jnp. Ser. II 40. 117-125. boundary condittons in the atmosphere. Inic. Niscon-
Taylor R. J. (1962) Small scale advection and the neutral sin. .Ann. Rep. 6.3. .AD. 429. 496(2).
profile. J. Fhid .Ild~ 13. 529-539. Markse E. H. (1963) On the relationships of range to stan-
Tourin ,M. H. and Hoidale M. M. (1963) Low Iebel turbu- dard deviation of ivind tluctuations. .\lwrrir/~~ Il>urlw
lence characteristics at White Sands hlissile Range. RH. 91. 83-87.
Tech. Rep. 131. U.S. Army Signal Miss. Supply Agency. Munn R. E. (1963) .A re-appraisal of Suttons parameter
Uhitc Sands Missile Range. N. Mexico. 1,. J. trppl. ,\lrr. 2. -+-LO.
Tounsend ,A. A. (1962) Natural convection in the Earths Munn R. E. and Richards T. L. 1196;) The micromrtsor-
boundary layer Q. J. R. mer. Sot. 88. 51-56. olog of Douglas Point Ont. Rep. TEC-455. Xl&. Branch.
U.S.4.F. (1962) Procrrtiirrys of (1 ,Vrrtiorml S,wrposirr~ir o/r Toronto.
CC~irr~is for .Aero.spr~ce CL/tic/e Drsi<gv. U.S.A.F. Gcophy. Panofskh H. .A. and Pasquill F. (1963~ The constant of
Res. Div. A.F. Surveys in Geophys. No. I-10. the Kolmogoroff Law. Q. J. R. mc~. Sot. 89. 55&551.
Wilson R. (1961) A note on severe turbulence at Renfreu Panofsk) H. .A. (1963) Determmation of stress from wind
between 5O@lOOO ft. on 26th Jan. 1961. .LIc,r. .1/q. 91. and trmprrature mcasursments Q. J. R. wr. Sot. 89.
131-13-1. Sj-94
Zubkdiskii S. L. (1962) Frequent\ spectra pulsations of Poolrr F. i 196.3) i\irtlou o\er a tit) in terrain of moderate
the horizontal components of wind wloctty in th< sur- relief. J. c~/T/J/..UtJr. 35. U&-t56.
face layer. Ixt~sri~z .-I. S. L~.S.S.R. Ceoph~:. SW.. 1.425. Semenova L. G. and Solomatina I. I. (1963) Some results
of microclimatic survebs undzr ruezrd relief conditions,
Translated b) Tech.. Scr\ices. -\t.ashin,oton. Soviet
Brocks K. and Hasse L. (1963) Fluctuation measurements investiz. of atmos. pollution. J.P.R.S.: 27. 279 Nov. 6-t.
made at sea with a gyroscopic stabilisrd Hoating mast. OTS:6-I-65l535.
Abst. m Proc. ljrlr Grh. .Assrr~rh/~. I.L:.G.G.-I.,\.~I.A.P.
Bark. Calif. p. I I?.
Brook F. A. (1963) Investigation of rnrrgq and mass
transfers near the ground including the intluence oi the Takeuchi K. (1963) Some studies on the tluctuations of
soil-plant-atmosphere system. Final Rep. Task. 3.A99-27- irind direction near the ground. J. IW~. Ser. Jap. 41. -10.
005-08. Lniv. of Calif., Davis. California. Cont. D.A-76- Taylor R. J. (196.:) .An analysis of some wind profiles in
039-w.-80331. the atmospheric uind friction la!?r. Met. Proj. 7655.
Buell D.. hfcCullough G. B. and Steinmetz t\. J. (1963) .A.F.C.R.C.. Hanscom Field. Mass.
 Idlabatlc atmo spheric boundary lahers WI

Angcll J K;. I 196-l) \leasurcments of Lagrunglan and

Eulerian properties of turbulence at 500 ft. Q J R.
,,lrl. sot. 90. 57-,I.
-\pplcb\ J. F. and Ohmstcde I\. D. (196-1) Sumertcal solu-
non of the distribution of ~md and turbulence in the Davenport II3.H.J. Iibrld Tml~, Cmrw-iI id
-\. G. I 19651
planetary houndar~ Ia)er. Ilet. Res. Note Y. \tet. Dept Pmyw~r~ R~,pl,r. (Unpubl~shcd) \\.orthlngton. Skelling.
L.S..A.E.R.D..~. Fort Huschuca. .Arlz. Helle R: Jackson. New York.
DaLcnport .\. G. (196-1) The buffeting of large superficial Dexon E. L. (1965) Wind gust spdj: aLerapIng time rela-
structures b) atmospheric turbulence. Reprinted from tionship. -III<?. .W<,r. !&lay. 51. 11~ I-!
4~1. .v.): icail. Szr. 116. I3%l19. Failer -\. J. (1965) Large eddIes In the atmospheric bound-
Houbolt J. C.. Steiner R. and Pratt K. G. (196-1) Dynamic ary laker and their posslblr role m the iormaflon of
response of airplarxs to atmospheric turbulence mclud- cloud rows. J. 4r1rro.x SC;. 22. 176114.
lng flight data on input and response. N..A.S..\. T.R. R. Gurvich .A. 5 (1965) Vertical temperature and \\md \el-
199. ocit\ profiles in the atmospheric sui-face laber. /:I
Katvanabe Y. ( 1964) Vertical wind profile. Bull. k&c,. .\[(I!.. .trmo.s. Octvm Ph~s. I. 3l-.:6 (Eng. Edn.).
Ohs. 172. 9F I 18. Ivanov V. N. (1965) Certain characteristics of the structure
Laikhtmann D. L. (196-L) PI~~slcx of rllr Bo~r&ry L~IJCI of the atmospheric boundark layer. T,.~rt/\. .4kirti. .\~:i,.
qf rlir .Ir~,lo.spllrr~. (Trans. b!. Israel Program. for S.S.S.R. Imr. P~~iklndmi Gtdi:. 2. 121..
Scien. Trans.) Jerusalem. Johnson N B. (1965) Boundarl lager dynamics over for-
Lumlek J. L. and Panofsky H. .A. J/w Srmrm qt .-lrrnos- ests. Dept. of &let.. Univ. L\insconsin. Final Rep. Cont.
~~WW Ti&~l~cc. IVlley. Neu York. D.-\-~6-039-.~~lC-OOY7S(E) I_.5 A.E.R.D:\. Ft. Hua-
Maher G. and McRac J. (196-l) Lpper wind statistics (Aus- chuca. Ariz.
tralia) surface to 5500 ft. from June j-i-Ma> 61. Com- Joppe R. G. (1965) .A proposed model of lo\\ altttud:
mon. Bur. &let.. Melbourne. atmospheric turbulence for use in V-STOL aircraft
McIehil Ci. E. (196-l)Nind and temperature profiles near handling qualities studies. Boerng Co.. 03.-\-BC. R-
the ground in stable stratification. Q. J. R. rrlcr. Sot. ADO59570 DOC. NO. DG.-10-38.
90. 136. Kaufman J. hl. and Kerns L. F. (1965) \\S.-\s IS0 m
Munn R. E. (1961) Turbulence statistics at Douglas Point tower located at Cape Kennedy. Florida. \..+,.S..\. T.R.
J. cippl. .t/t,r. 3. 771-779. TMX-53259.
So\ ikov E. ,A. and Ste\vart R. I\. (1964) The intermittency Klug W. (1965) Diabatic intluence on turbulent ulnd Rus-
of turbulence and spectrum of energy dissipation Huctua- tuations. Q. J. R. wr. Sm. 91. 3S7.
tions. Buii. .4cuti. Sci. L.S.S.R. GLYI~/I!~s.So. 3 1OS-413. Koprov B. M. (1965) Spectra of turbulent pulsations In
(Translated by ,Am. Geoph>s. Lnion.) the vertical component of the wind \elocttk in the
Panofsky H. .A. and Townsend .A. A. (196-l) Change of boundary laker of the atmosphere under conducti\? con-
terrain roughness and the uind profile. Q. J. RT-,ncr. ditions. 1~1.. .4..V.S.S.R. Gropk!,:. SN. Il. I I-1.
sac. 90. 117m 135. Lappe I. 0. I 1965) A low altttudc Yust model for estimAt-
Pasquill F. and Butler H. E. (196-l) A note on determining ini gust loads on a c. A.l.i\..A. P&r 6Cll.
the scale of turbulence. Q. J. R. mtr Sot. 90. 79. Miles J. W. 11965) A note on the interaction bet\\een
Singer I. .A. (196-l) \iind gust spectra .V.I: .4ccrrl. Sci. lol surface waves and wind profiles. J. Florid .\l~/l. 22. 81.:-
116. 116-133. s77.
Soma S. (196-1) The properties of atmospheric turbulence Monin .A. S. (1965) Structure of the atmospheric bounder!
in high winds. J. wt. Sot. Jup. 12. 372. laver. .4m1os. Ocmn. Ph vs. I. 158-265.
Suinbank W. C. (1964) The s\ponential wind profile. Q. Monin A. S. (1965) On the sbmmetrv properties of turbu-
J. R. rwr. Sot. 90. I l9- 13% lence in the surface layer dt the ai;. .4cc1tf. Sci. L-.S.S.R.
Ta! lor J. (I 961) .Llmrcrirl WI ._(i~rafi Locds. Pergamon Press. I. Arms. Oc~m. P/IFS. (Translated b> Am. Gcoph>s.
Oxford. Union.)
Thullier R. H and Lappe I. 0. (196-1) CVind and tcmpcra- Monin A. S. and Yaglom A. hl. (1965) Srclrisricd H~dmw.
ture profile characteristics from observations on I-to0 chic.s-I. .\Idrtulic.s ot Ti~irhthrcc. (Translated b)
ft tower. J. nppi. .Uer. 3, 99%>06. Joint Publ. Res. Services. U.S. Dept. oi Commerce.)
Turner D. B. (1963) ,A diffusion model for an urban area. Nauka Press. Sloscow.
J. trppl. .Iler. 3. 83-9 I. OBrten J. J. (1965) .An investigation of the diabatic aind
Walker E. R. ( 1964) Atmospheric turbulence characteristics profile of ths Atmospheric boundary la)sr. J. gro,dtis.
measured at Suffield Experimental Station. Brirr. Ph,n. Rc,.s. 70. 2277.
-Irims. 31. 33-52. Oliphant J. E. and Panofskq H. .A. (1965) The e&t of
Yamamoto G. and Shimanuki A. (1961) Profiles of wind a lar ge change of roughness on ~\ind profiles obser\:d
and temperature in the lowest 250 m. in Tokyo. Sci. at Brookhattn. Final Rep. Cont. AF(6Ctit.66-11. Penn.
Reo. Tohuku Lniv.. 5th Series Geoohbs 1%:). St. Univ.
Zilitinkcvitch S. S. (1964) Vertical turbulent exchange in Panofsky H. ,A. (1965) Reanalqsls of Swinbanks Kerang
the atmospheric surface layer. Leningrad. Trudy Glav. observations. Final Rep. Cont. xo. A.F. (601)-6641.
Geoiiz. Ohs. x0. 150. pp. 21-35. Panofsky H. A. (1965) Flux of heat and momsntum in
planetary boundary layer of the atmosphere. Final Rep
Berman S. (1965) Estimating the longitudinal wind spectrm A.F.C.R.L. -65-331. Penn. St. Univ.
near the ground. 0. J. K. wr. So;. 91. 301. 317. Panofsk) H. .A. and Prasad B. (1965) SimilarIt! theories
Blackadar .A. K. (196;) A single Iaver theorb of the vertical and diffusion. [/IL. J. rliv Ilu. Polillr. 9. -!IL)--I?O.
distribution of wind in a barociinic ncutial atmospheric Panofsky H. .A. and Singer I. .A. (1965) Vertical structure
boundar) la)er. Final Rep.. Cont. AF(6W)-6641. Pen. of turbulence. Q. J. R. tw. Sot. 91. 339-ul.
St. Um\. Pettitt E. J. and Rost P. (1965) Vertical wind shear in the
Blackadar .A. K. (1965) I simplified two-lavcr model of boundary layer. C.I.R. 1345, TEC 590. &let. Branch.
the baroclinic neutl-al atmospheric bounda;? laler. Final Toronto.
Rep. Cont. AF(60-1)-66-11. Penn. St. Univ. Plate E. J. and Quarishi A. A. (1965) Nodelling of velocn>
Blackadar .A. K.. Panofsk) H. .A. and Berman S. (1964) distributions inside and above tall crops. .I. crppi. .\/zr.
Flux of heat and momentum in the planetar! boundar! 1. -lw1os.
laler of the atmosphere. Penn. State Univ. kiln. Indus. Roll H. W. (1965) Physics qt t/w Mn~%rc .4rrno.sy/~rrt~. \ca-
Exper. Stn.. Dept. of Met. Rep. AF.C.R.L. Cont. dsmic Press. Sew York.
.AF(601)-66-I I I. S&sac J. (1965) Distribution of the energy of atmospheric
901 J. Cot hIHA\

Bani, oi -\mcrxa. llorld H Q Bu~lci;::~ Plrt II. \V~nd

Tunxl Stud>. Txh. Ret: C-ERhh-6:RD\I-JEC 1~1.col-
Shekter F. N. (1965) Solution of the problem of the orado St. Ln11
atmosphsnc boundar) la>?r structure taking radiatl!c UorduSorlch H. I and Tlisng L. R 119661 Direct
brat exhsnze into account. Trudv Guofi:. Ohs. 167. measurement oi turbulent %NI~ .tt t\\o hetghts in the
29-37. atmospheric ground laher. 1::. -Irilk~\ Ol~~~iiii P/I!, 2.
Shiotani Il. -\ral H. and Hakashida C. (136iJ Vertical 1--m\&
distribution of i+lnd \elocitles and Iertical structures of Payne F. R and Lumls) J. L. I i366) I-D Srectra d?rl\cd
gusts in strong winds. Rallwah Tech. Res. Inst. Jap. Nat. from an airborne H.N..A 0. J R I;~: SIC 92. :I)?.
Rl>s. Rep 514. Pond S.. Smith S. D.. Hambl:n P. F. .!nd Burllng R. I\
Suanson R. N. and Cramer H. E. (1965) .A stud> of lateral (1966) Spectra 0i b?locit> and temperature tluctuations
,md longitudinal intensities of turbulence. J. ~~ppl. .\ltjr. in the atmospheric boun&r) Ia)cr ?\:r the sc,l. J.
1. -1OY--I I 7. .-Irmos. So. 23. i-&3X6.
Tavlor J. ( 1965) .!frrr~ru/ of a.c hrt/\. N ;\.T.O.. .A.G.,A.R.D. Pooler F. J. (I9661 Tracer d:sperjlon o\ir .I clt>. J 4r1,
s3. Pergamon Press. Okford. Polltir. Coruroi .4x 16. 677-6s i.
Townssnd A. -\. (1965) The response of a turbulmt bound- Pritchard F. E. (19661 -\ statiirlcd model oi atmospheric
ary la)cr to abrupt changes in surface conditions. J. turbulence and a review oi the assum:tlons necsssar)
FlUill .\/,,/I. 22. 799. for its use, A.G..-\.R.D. Meetiny on Stabllit> and Control.
T>ldsle! J. B and \\allington C. (1965) The effect of wind Cambridge l_ nil.. Cambridz. L .K.
shear and \crtical diffusion on horizontal dispersion. 0. Pritchard F. E. (1966) The turi!llencc and terrain cn~iron-
J. R. i~ltr. Sot. 91. 158-I 7-t. ments atlectinn loo altitude High Sneed Flleht. Cornell
I S. l.ihrar> of Congress (1965) Sorirr .\li~~o,,ri,r~oro/o~/~. Asro Lab. Ref: FD4I 39.:. - _
-\ compilation of abstracts. .Aerospace Tech. Div. ATD Tkachcnko A. \ (1966) Cocr?icxnt of tt!rhulencc in the
Rep. pp. 65-i S. atmospheric boundar) Iabe:. I .S..-\.F. S.C Transl FTD-
Zbrozck J. K. (1965) .Atmospheric gusts: present state of MT-6-1-396 pp. Y.:- I UJ.
the art and iurthcr research. J. R. .4muo~cr. Sot. 69. Tourin H. M. and Shrn I\. C. (I9661 Deciduous forest
51; _. dirfilsion stud!. Fmal Rep. \ ol. I DIP. 19 J decid. forest.
Zimmermann S. P. (1965) Turbulent atmospheric para- Appl. Sci. Di\.. Litton Systems Inc. Sl:rneapolls. &Lin.
meters h) contamrnant deposltion. J. .4/~/11..\f,,r. 4. 279 Vaughan I\. W. ( 1966) Consldcratlons ani! Phllosophh 01
sx. ground ulnds criteria foundztlon. S..\.S.-\. Asro--\stro-
dynamic Res. Rsb. No. 5 pa. 146 15:.
Barry P. J. (1966) The wind profile X.E.C.L. 25-4. A.E.C.
Ltd.. Chalk Riier. Ontario. Blackadar A. K. (1967) E\tsrxl paramct::-1 of the mean
Calder K. L. (1966) Concernlnp the slmilarit! theory of wind How in the barotropx 5oundarjr !l!:r and Isrge-
Monin and ObukhoR ior the turbulent structure-of the scale atmospheric a<rod>namlcs. Stud! Conf. G..\.R.P
thermally stratiticd surface la)sr of the atmosphere. Q. (I.C.S.L. 1.L.G.G.. %.M.O and G.O.SP..\ R.). Stock-
J. R. wr. Socc 92. holm.
Cramer H. E.. Record F. .A. and Tillman J. E. (19661 Round Blackadar .A. K. and Chaplin .A. S. (196-r \\ind protiles.
hlll turbulence measurcmcnts. M.I.T. Camb. Dep. of spectra and cross-spectra o\er homoyrn<ous terrain.
Met Cont. D.~--\.MC-3Y-OJ.:-6j-GIO. Tech. Rep. E.C.O.\I.-Ol.XS-i I \D~S-I-III Penn. St. L nib.
Davenport .A. G. (1966) An approach to aind tunnel Charnock H. and Elhson T. H. I 136) The boundar> 1a)er
modclling of the response of structures to the nautral in relation to large-scale motions of the &tmosphcre and
v. ind. Proc. Mrrriuy 011 Growrti CYid Load Prohlrms in ocean. Study Conf. G..A.R.P.. II.C.S.U I.L.G.G.). Stock-
Rehiou to Law~ch Vel~icks. NASA. Langley Res. holm.
Centre. 7-Y June. Cramer H. E. er d. (1967) Investigation of IOU Ie\el turbu-
Davenport ,A. C. (1966) The treatment of uind loading lence structure for various surhce roushnexxs and gross
on tall buildings. Proc. Swp. ot7 ToI/ Builti~~~gs.pp. 44l- meteorological circulations. \I I.T. Cont. D,A 19-09?-
456 Pergamon Press. Oxford. ARO-66.
Deland R. J. and Binkowski F. S. (1966) Comparison of Davenport .A\. G. (1967) The dspsndenc: of wind loads
wind at 500 ft over Minneapolis and Louisville with the on meteorolop~cal paramets:s. Paper _. COUP: 0,~ Ili~ti
geostrophic wind. J. Air Pohr. Corlrrol Ass. 16. 107-41 I. Lo&s 011 Brrildmyx -Univ. Toronto Press. Toronto.
Elderkin G. E. (1966) Experimental investigation of the Davenport A. G. and Is>umo\ S. ( lY67a) The application
turbulence structure in the lower atmosphers. Battelle- of the boundary laker wind tunnel to the prediction of
Northwest. Rep. 329. Pacific N.W. Lab. Richland. Wash- uind loading. Paper 7. CO~I]. <JI: Ili~~tl LIU& 011 Bllil[ii~~y.s.
ington. Univ. Toronto Press. Toronto.
Findlater J.. Harrower T. N. S.. Howkins G. A. and Wright Davenport .A. G. and Is\umo\ S. C196Yb1 -\ u md tunnel
H. L. (1966) Surface and 900 mb. relationships. Sci. stud! for the L.S. Steel Bulldmg. Ens. Sci. Res. Rep.
Paper. Met. Off. Xo. 23 H.ILl.S.0.. London. B.L.W.T.-5-67-Univ. M. Ontario.
Gurvich A. S. and Meleshkm B. N. (1966) The determina- Davidson B. (1967) .A summar> of the S.\r. urban air pol-
tion of the micro-scale of turbulence from Ilght intensity lution dynamics Rcssarch Programme. J. 4ir Pohr.
Huctuations. I:r. .4rms. and Ocra17. Phxs. 1. 68%694. Courrol 4s.~. 17. I %lIX.
Haugen D. .A. i 1966) Some Lagrangian propcrtiss of turbu- Elderkin C. E. (1967) Comparison of the turbulence spectra
lence deduced from atmospheric experiments. J. appl. from Hanford. Uashington and Liberal. Kansas.
.\[a. 5. 616-652. L.S..-\.E.C. Met. Info. meeting. Chal; RILer. Ont..
Koloseus H. J. and Davldson J. (1966) Free surface instabi- Canada (Cont. -\T(-l_i-I I-ISXII.
lity correlations and roughness-concentration effects on Estoque M. A. (1967) Appro\lmatlon to boundar! laber
tlow over hbdrod! namicall) rough surfacts. C.S.G.S. \vind profiles. Tt,/i~r.s 19. 56&56.
Water SuppI> paper l592-C.D. Frizrola 1. .A.. Sineer I. .A. and Busch b. E. I iY67) ,A sum-
Kraus E. B. (1966) .Acrod>namic roughness of the sea sur- mar! ofrecent turbulence measurements ;It Brookha\en.
face. J. 4rmo.s. SCI. 23. 1. BrookhaLen. B.S.L. I ISY9.
Lcttau H. (1966) Longitudinal versus lateral tdd) length Hanna S. R. (1967~ .A model oi rxtlcal turhui<nt transport
scales. J. .4rmos. Sot. 23. 151-158. in the atmosphere. Order So. 65-l I. 9Yh. Penn. St. Univ.
.LlcCrsad) P. B. (1966) Mean wind-speed measurements in Hass If.. A.. Hoccker IV. H.. Pack D. H. and -\n~cll J. K.
turbulence. J. oppl. .\fer. 5. 119-X5. (1967) .Analysis of IOU. level constant \alums balloon
Xlarshall R. D. and Cermak J. E. (1966) Wind studies of Qhts ot?r X.1. City. Q. J. R uwr. SOL.. 93. Q-493.
Jones P. 41. and \+ ~lsoa C. B. (196-l Wind tlow in an Zilitmkc\xh S. S. 2nd Laihhtman D. L. II%-i D!namxs
urbx arcx C.1 R I.x. Rss. Rep. IO: &id. SC!. 3. ?I. of the .ttmosphxx boundsr~ layer. fx irfriu,. O~~~~ztr.
Kaimal J. f. and Haugsn D. .4. (196) Charact-ristics of P /7!-5.3. I w- I9 1.
vertical vetocit\ RUCtu~tlOllS on a -IN m to\hir. 0. J. Zubko!ski S. L. and Kracchcnko T. (1967) Dtrcct mrasure-
R. ,,rct. Sec. 97. . !0_%3 1:. ment oi some charscterrstics ofatmosphericturbulence in
Kl~nc S. J.. Rtz>nolds I\ C Schraub F. -\. and Runstadlrr the near watcr Iaber. lx. 4rr~o.s. OCNI. P/IN 3. i!-.
P. \\. (19671 The structur: of turbulent boundar:. layers.
j. F!ifif ff4. 30. 41 m-73. Bra&\ E. F. il%i 4 micrometeorological stud.4 of \el-
Lsttau H (19671 Ne\\ hyothssis for the relationship octty profiles and surhce drag m the region modified
betnern <dd\ rind mian 5tatrS. P/I&s. FINiris iSrcp$. h! a change of surface roughness. Q. J. R. )wr. sot. 94
l967L 57% 5s.:. 361.
Lilt\ D. K. and Pnnofsk> Ii. .A. (19671 Summar) of pm-
& in research on atmospheric turbulence and diFfu-
&n. TIXUIS. 4r11.&oyl~xs. L.rriorl 48. &N-15?. Browning K. .a. and 1Vexler R. (I96S) The dsvrminntlon
.&lcldenhall H. I 1967) .A statistical stud\ of the friction wind of kmematx ptopertlcs oi 1 wind-field usmp Doppler
veeringin the planetar> boundar) lay. I. .Atmos. Ei. radar. j. ctppl. Zfc*r 7. iOCil!.
Paper. 90. 116.Color. St. Univ. Busch 5. E. and Pan&k!, H. A. (1968) Recznt spectra
hlonin -4. S. and Zilitmksvich S. S. (1967) Planetar> of atmospheric turbulence. Q. J. R. ttlur. SLX. 94. 132-IiY.
boundar! In!er and large-scale atmospheric dynamics. Busch S. E.. Friuola J. A. and Singer I. .\. 11968) The
Stud! ConT. on G..-\.R.P. Stockholm. micrometeorolog> of the turbulent tlou tisid in the
Moore D. J. (1967)Meteorological measurements on a I Y? atmospheric surt:xe boundary layer. .&xl Pol>tcch.
m tower. .4rJlrusyllr,ric Ellriro~r~llelfr I. X7-377. &and.. Ph>s. inc.. Nucleonics Ser. No. 59.
Ohukho\ A. iLz. and kaglom f\. hf. (1967) Progress in Chandler T. 1. I i%St Crhan climatoIog~-~inrentor) and
atmospheric turbulence in\sstigations. f:r. .4r/1zos. 0crir11 prospect. .S,UII:. 011 Cihail Chmrc.x u.M.O.. Brussels.
pi:ts. 3. 7%366. Davis F. K. and Xeustsin H. i 1968) The meteorology and
Pandfskv H. .A. and Prasad B. (1967) Similarit! theory and vcrtxal distribution of potltitnnts in air pollution ctpi-
ditiusibn. .-lir Ililr. Poiilrt. 9. 4l9-430. sodss in Philadelphia. ._(rjr!osp/tcsric E~tuir-~xunr~f 2. 55%
Pasquill F. (1967) Vertical components of turbulence at ii-l.
hctghts up to I NO m. .-lrrr~o.sp/tcrrc Eirrirort,urrlr I. 441
450.
Paulson C. 4. (1967) Profiles of wind speed. temperature
and htlmidit~ ober the sea. Sci. Rep.. Nat. Sci. Founda- Fichtl G. H. (196ba~ -Xn ansl>sis ol the roughness icngth
tion. G.P.-I-IIS. Uni\. of Washington. .associatrd with the X.4.S.A. 150 m. !+I& Tower.
Peterson J. and Panofsk\ H. A. (1967) The non-dimen- XA.S.;\. T.hI.S.-53690. G.C. Marshall Space Flight
sional wind shear over heterogeneous terrain. Sw.Me\- Centtt. Alabama
ice St. Univ. L/ryui~lt,~l Rock Bull~.~ric,s hlt,r. Cou/.. pp. Ftchtl C. H. (l%Sb~Charactzristics of turbulltncc observed
357360. at tht X,.&S..\. 1SOm XIet. Tcmcr. j. Lippi. .Clc~. 7.
Pinus X. A.. ReIter E. R.. Shur Ci. S. and Yinnichenko S?S.
N. K. (1967) Power spectra of turhuience in the free Gault J. D. and Guntetr D. E. (1968) Atmospheric turbu-
atmosphere. K$iits 19. X6-2 L3. lencs considerations ior future aircraft designed to opsr-
Prasad B. and Panofskv H. A. (19671 Properties or vari- arc at low altitudes. .A.l..X.-i. Paper No. 63-216.
ances of the meteordlogical properties at Round Hill. Graham I. R. (1368) .An analysis of turbulence statistics
Tech. Rep. U.S. Arm) ECOM-0035P. at Fort Wn~nc. Indiana. J. r~ppl. ,\lrr. 7. 9?-9%
Reiter E. R. and Lester P. F. (1967) The dependence ot Harris R. I. (196s) Msasurtment of wind structure at
Ri on the scale length. Atmos. Sci. Paper So. I Il.. Dept. heights up to 5% it. aboLL2 = Oround level. Conf. on %ind
of Atmos. Sci. Colorado St Lniv. Loads on Buildings. Loughborough Gniv.
Shellard H. C. (1967) Results ol some recent special Harris R. 1. (1968) On ths spectrum and atito-correlation
measurements m the U.K. relevant to wind loading pro- function of gustiness in high winds. E.R.4 Tech. Rep.
blems. Paper 19. COJ$: 011 iti/rii Loncfs 0,~ BuiMimJs. j27?.
Univ. Toronto Press. Toronto. Haugsn D. ,A. and Kaimal J. C. (1968) Characteristics of
Shlotani M. and .Arai H. I 1967) Lateral structure of gusts vertical fluctuations obxrbed on a 430 m tower. Q. J.
m high winds. Paper 10. Co$ OII Ili~d Lotrdj 011 &ii& R. twr. Sot. 94. 412.
i,y.5, Cniv. Toronto Press. Toronto. Helliwell N. C. (1968) Some open scale measurements of
Singer I. A., Busch Xi. E. and Frizzola J. .%. (1967) The wind over central London. Symp. 011 C.&U Clifxarx
micrometeorology of the turbulent Row field in the t\;..5I.O.. Br\lssels.
atmospheric surface boundary lay. Paper 21. for$ ou H.M.S 0. i 1965) Tables of surface wind speed and direction
IC%tl Lo&s 011 Buiitlrmqs, Univ. Toronto Press. Toronto. o\er the U.K. Net. 0tY1c:. Met, 0,792.
Smith S. D. (1967) Thrust anemometer measurements of James K. \V. and bloore D. J. (1968) Thermal roughness.
wind velocit> spectra and of Reknolds stresses over a .Irrnojpllrric EItrirolrtnrrlr 2. 628.
coastal inlet. J. .Lfni-. Rcs. 25. 239-267. Jones P. M. rr c7i.(1965) Some measurements of urban
Swinbank \V. C. and Dy A. J. (1967) An erperimentat wind velocrt) profiles in the first 1000 ft. SUU~X ou L&III
stud) in micrometeorolog). Q. J, R. mr. SOC. 93. 19C Clittnrrfs. U.iit.0.. Brussels.
500. Lenschow D. H. and Johnson W. B. 11965) Current
Tritton D. J. (1967) Some new correlation measurements airplane and balloon measurements or atmospheric
in a turbulent boundary layer. J. Fluid .\fd~. 28, 439- boundary la)er structure over a forest. J. czypl. .\l~. 7.
462. 79-85.
Weiler H. S. and Burlington R. W. (1967) Direct measure- Lrttau H. (I9681 .:-D turbulence m uni-directional mean
ments of stress and spectra of turbulence in the bound- fio~. ECOM 66-G11-.A. Tech. Rep. 196667. Grant lie.
ar! layer over the sea. 1. .&t?ros. Sci. 24. 62:X,64. D4-12vIC-7Y-O4~-66- G24 pp. 127-116.Unir. of t\iscon-
W.hl.0. i 1967) Global atmospheric Research programme Gil.
(G..%R.P.). Report of Stud? Conf. McBean G. A. (196Yk rtn inlsstigation of turbulcncr within
VolkoLitskaya Z. I. and Ivanov V. i\;. (1967) The low fre- ths forest. J. appl. .\lrr. 7. 110416.
qurnc!. boundary ol the inertial interval in the atmos- hlsrons\ R. H. (1965) Characteristics of umd and turbu-
pheric boundary layer. 1~. -Irms. Ocrm. P/I~. 3. IO lencein and above model forests. J. trpfi. .\/dr. 7. 7S&
I English Edn). ?<V,u.
YCU J. COC\IHA\.

Kalmul J. C. I lYh91 \lcasurem<nt oi momrnt:lm and heat

tiu\ In the surf~lce houndar) labcr. R&lo &,I. -1. I IIT-
PJnoisk) H. .A. (196s) Survc> of current thought on wmd I 1-3.
propertiss rsls\ant for diffusion in the lowest I(X) m. Kaimal J. C. and Haugcn D. 4. I lY6Y) Somt errors in
.%mdla Corp. S!.~rry. 0,) 7i&1l<,~rc~, ~~rrtl Diffi,sro/~. the measurement of Reynolds stresses. J. Limp/. .\Icar. 8.
Panofsk> H. .A. and Mares E. (1968) Recent measurements 460-462.
of co-spectra for heat tluu and stress. 0. J. R. wr. Sot. Lettau H. (1969) Sote on the a<rod>namlc roughncss-para-
94. 53 IL%5 meter estimation on the basis of roughness-elemrnt de-
Pxrx F. J. and Krommrnlock D. H. (196s) Wall shear scription. J. clppi. .Cftr. 8. 8X
itresj diagnostic in 3-D turbulent boundary layers. Tech. Marsh K. J. and Hobkinson S. L. (19631 1leasuxments
Rep. 2. Cont. D04CO-t67c 008. Dept. Mech. Eng.. Virg. of air turbulence in Reading and their rclatton to
Polh. inst. Turners stabillth categories P/l//. Tin!~r. R. Sm. 265.4.
Shlotani IM. I 1%) Structure of gusts in hiqh winds. Int. IYI-195.
Rep. Part 2.. Phb. Set. Sci. Labs. Nihon Lnl\. Funabashi. Ma\nard H. ii. and McBride ;Ll. F. (19691 Spectrum of
lap. aimosphcric Huctuatlons ocrr a frequent) range of 0.~08
Shiotanl M. and Iwatani Y. 119681 The anal% of wind to 30 CL hr. L.S..A. Elec. Comm. .Atmos. Sci. Lab.. TR-
records obtained at Nakagawa. Nihon Univ. Phqs. Scl. ECOILC-6045 (-\D 6130 510).
Lab.. Int. Rep. Part 2. (TransL-Met. Off.) Pagliari M. (lY6Y) Experiments with pilot balloon sound-
Skelton G. B. (1968) Investigation of the effects of gusts ings at some power station sites. P/I//. Trlrrs. R. Sm.
on i STOL craft in transition and hover. AFFDL-TR- 26%. I S3- 190.
6%SS. Wright-Patt. A.F. Base, Ohio. Panofsky H. A. (IY69) The structure of atmospheric shear
St\ Inhank LV. C. and Dyer A. J. (196X) Micrometsorologi- Hews-Review. A.G.A.R.D.. C.P. -IS.
cal expeditions-1962-6-l. C.S.I.R.O. .Aust. Div. Met. Pasquill F. (1969) The prediction of dlHusion over an
Phhs. Tech. Paper 17. urban area-current practice and future prospects. S!.,rrp.
Uilson C. 6. (1968) Uind eflects on structures. Co/t.slllrirlg of :t/dripL~ SOIIKC Ii~hafr Difj .\/mkk CnIl of Nr. Car-
E~lgr.. pp. j-i-58 (March). olina.
Zllltlnkevich S. S. and Chalikov D. U. (1965) Determining Pielke R. (1969) Cross spectral characteristics oi tempera-
the universal wind velocity and temperature profiles in ture and longitudinal and lateral wind comyoncnts. XI.S.
the atmospheric boundary layer /:I.. ._(rmos. Oworr. P/ILX Thesis. Dept. of IMet. Penn. St. Lniv.
1. 165. 169. Roach \I. T. (1969) Some aircraft reports of high level
turbulence. .\/t,r. May. 98. 6_%iY.
Sladc D. H. (1969) Wind measurements on a tall toutr
Blackadar A. K. and Panofsky H. A. (1969) Wind profiles. in rough and inhomogeneous terrain. J. ti?pi. .llrt. 8.
spectra and cross-spectra over homogeneous terrain. 293.
CS. Army. ECOM Final Rep. DA-7Y-OJ3AMC- Wooding R. E.. Brad124 E. F. and .Marshall J. K. (1969~
t)i.%S(E). Drag due to regular arrays of roughness :i<ments of
Bl,xkadar A. K.. Dutton J. A.. Panofskl H. A. and Chaplin \.Jr)ing geometry. C.S.I.R.O. Plant Indust:> .Sote
-\. (1969) Investigation of the turbulence wind field Blessman J. (1970) Period of time to obtain the basic aind
belou I50 m altitude at the Eastern test range. N.A.S.A. velocity. Srjrlp. OJI Srrx. Locltli116l .\(lr.. Lnib. of TUCU-
Contractor Rep. NASA-CE-1410. Cont. NASS-11 I 40 man. .Arg. -PubI. IV. 5.
pp. -17-67. Penn. St. Univ. Brook R. R. and Spillane K. T. (1970) On the variation
Blom J. and Wartena H. (1969) The influence of changes of maximum Lvind gusts with height. J. appl. .\lrr. 9. 72-
in surface roughness on the development of the turbulent 97.
boundary laqer in the lowest layers of the atmosphere. Brustacrt W. and Yeh C. T. (1970) A power uind law for
J 4rm Sci. 26. 25s-265. turbulent transfer computations. Iti~rrr rt.xx~rc~s IIS, 6.
Borisenko M. M. and Klingo V. U. (1969) Variation of l?S7-1391.
uind direction with height in the lower layers of the Campbell G. S. and Henscn F. I. (( IY70) Turbulence data
atmosphere. Glav. Geof. Obs. T. Vyp. 246 (Transl. 34-t. derived from measurements on the 32 m toaer facilit>:
Met. 0fl.J White Sands Missile range. &H. Mexico. U.S. Arm!
Cermak J. E. and Arya S. P. S. (1969) Problems of atmos- Elec. Comm. R. and D. Tech. Rep. ECOM 5:l-I
pheric shear tlows and their laboratory simulation. (AD71 1852).
:\.G..-\.R.D.. C.P.IS. Counihan J. (1970) Further measurements in a simulated
Cermak J. E.. Sadeh W. Z. and Hsi G. (1969) Fluctuation atmospheric boundary layer. .-Ir~mp~~~ic E~;riromrtu 1.
moments on tall buildings produced bq wind loading. 39-275.
Tech. Meeting on wind loads on buildings. N.B.S. Gaith- Dolgusm 1. P. (1970) On the relationship between mean
crjhurg. Maryland. wind speed and separate gusts. Met. OR. Transl. 372.
Fxhtl G. H. and IMcVehil G. E. (1969) Longitudinal and Helliwcll I\]. C. (1970) Wind over London I_ npublished
lateral spectra of turbulence in the atmospheric bound- Note-Met. Ofl:
ar! laker. .-\.G.r\.R.D.. C.P. 48. Kaufmann H. W. and Alexander hl. B. (1970) ,Measure-
Fichtl G. H.. Kaufman J. W. and Vaughan IV. W. (1969) ments during 1966-68 from N..A.S..-\.s I50 m msteorolo-
Characteristics of atmospheric turbulence as related to gical to\ver facility at K.S.C. Florida. Buli. .4,x mer. Sot.
b md loads on tall structures. J. Spacron/i 6. 1396-1103. 51. 95?-Y53.
Gibson G. H. and \+illiams R. B. (1969) Turbulence struc- Krhstanov L. and lordanov D. (1970) Turbulence in the
ture in the atmospheric boundary layer over the open surface laker of the atmosphere. LS Dept. of Com-
ocean. .A.G..A.R.D.. C.P. 18. merce.. Env. Sci. Serv. Transl. IVB T-i 16.
Gunter D. E.. Jones G. W.. Jones J. M. and Monson K. Lettau H. (IY70) \ariangular hind spirals. B.L. .Ifrr. 1.
(1969) Low altitude atmosperic turbulence. Lo-Locat 679.
Phases I-2. ASD-TR-69-ij. Wright-Patt. A.F. Base. Mackay S. (I 970) Wind studies in Hong-Kong-some pre-
Ohio. liminary results. 11x/. ,4@~0. .4hsr. 1 (5). l-16.
Hanna S. R. (1969) The thickness of the planetary bound- Mibakr M.. Stewart R. W. and Burling R. IV. 11970) Sncc-
ar) lalsr. Ar~rmplwic Em%mrrrm 3. j 19%536: &a and co-spectra of turbulence oter the \!ater: i. J.
Hasss L.. Dunckel ICI. and Schriever D. ( 1969) Determina- R. UIL~. Sot. 96 (407). IX- 143.
tlon of vertical transport of momentum and heat and Pasquill F. (1970) Gind structure in the atmospheric
related spectra of turbulence in the maritime boundar) boundary lajer. Discus. on .-\rchit. .Aero. PIti/. Tio,~.s.
la>?r. -\.G.A.R.D. C.P. 18. R. Sot. A269. _;2 1-j j-l.
 Record F \. S\\.!n,on R. \.. Cramer H. F and Dum-
bot:id R. K. (19-111 .Anal\sl> oi lo!b?r atmospheric data
ior d!duslon studies. \.-\.S..\. CR-61-317.
R&r L J and Armenderv Xl. 1i97Ol lcrtical H md com-
ponent estimates up to 13 km above ground. J. ~ppi.
.!It,:. 9. 61-71.
S~tarsman V. I 19701 Spectra and co-spectra of turbulence In I.
the drmosphsric surface la\sr. 0. J. R. mcr. Sot. 96. 410. Oli\cr H. R. (1371) U ind protil~s in and ahnbc :L Ibrest
Smith F. B. (19-01 The p&file ;f shearing stress in the canopy. Q. J. R. wr. SOL.. 97. 111.
houndar\ la!?r ol the armosphers. Unpublished Sote- Owen P. R. (1971) Buildings In the Lvclnd. Q. J R. mcr.
blcr. Oticr. SW. 97. 114.
Smith S. D. I 1970)Thrust anemometer measurements on Panofsky H. .A. and hlarzola C. 11971) Variances and spec-
wind turbulence. Rqnolds Stresses and drag cosficiwt trn oi \srtical velocit) just above the surface I,i!er.
oter the sea. J. gLv~I~.s. Rt,z. 75. 6758-6770. B.L. .\frr. 2. X-37.
Stcu.irt R. IV.. \\llson J. R. and Burling R. I\. (IYX) Some Plate E. J. (1971) -\srod~namlc characterlstxs ~1 dtmos-
statistical properties of small scale turbulence in an phrric boundary labers. C S.. .\.E.C.. T~nwssee. -\.E C.
atmospheric boundar) la!er J f..LI. 41. 141-152. Critical Rev. Ser.
Suinhank M. C. ( 1970) Structure of the wind and the shear
strcsscs m the planetar) boundary laker. .-lrcl~. &/,r. Brook R. R. (1971) Wasurements of turbulcncc III :I clt!
Gvoy Boikl. Svi-. ;\.19. l-12. environment. J. Appi. .Ilc,r. 1 I. 443-50.
Teunlssen H. IV. I 1970) Characteristics ol the mean wind Denrdorff J. W. (1972) A 3-D numerical InLesiqtion of
and turbulence in the planetar! houndar) layer the idcalissd planetar) boundary laker. Geoyits. Filritl
1 .T.l .A.S. Rs\. Xo. 22 Dw 1. 377-110.
DeardorlT J. W. (1972) Numerical mkestigation of neutral
,Antonia R. A and Luuton R. E. (1971) The response of and unstable planstarq boundary lahrrs. J 4rmo.s. Ser.
a turbulent boundary laher to an upstanding change in 29. 91-l 15.
surlace roughness. 7?wr,. -I.S..U.E. J. f3tr.n;~. E~qmj. Donaldson C. du P. j 1977) Calculations UT turbulent shear
Paper So. X-FE- 17. tlows for atmospheric and Lortex motions. .A 1. 4..4. .J.
Colmsr Xl. J. (1971) Measurements of horizontal wind 10. + I'.
speed and gustiness made .It several le\sls on a 30m Ficdler F. and Panobk) H. .A. (1972) The yxtrophic dra:
mast R.4.E. (Bedford) Tech. Rep. 71211. coetticient and the rHectl\e roughness length. Q. J. R.
Deacon E. L. (191) The cross-wind scale 01 turbulence mr. Sm. 98. 2 I .3-2X
in strong winds. Sr~lp. CIir~i. r$cr.s 011 B~ii~liqs. Tokyo. Harris R. I. (1972) Msasurcments ol wind structure. Swp.
Dutton J 4.. Panofsk) H. -I.. Deawn D. C.. Kerman B. Ewmrl Flow.s. Bristol Cniversitb.
R and Mlrabcils V. (1971 I Statistical propcrtierof tur- Kaimal J. C.. %yngaard J. C.. Irumi y. and Cod 0. R.
hulcnc~ at the K.S.C. for aerospace vehicle design. i IY7l) Sprctrsl characteristics of surf&e la!cr turhu-
$.-\.S.A. Cont. Rep. C.R.-IS&Y. Icnce. 0. J. R. mtr. Sot. 98. 417.
Eaton K. J. and \Iajns J. R I 1971) Strain mcasur<mcnts Larrinapa bl. .A. B. dc (IY72) Some measurements or longs-
at the G.P.O. Tower. London. B.R.S.. C.P. 29 71. tudinal gust intenSi1) o\ir an urban aria. .-~iJilo~p/W~fC
Harris R. I. (1971 I The structux of the wind. Mod. des. Euwoumvr 6. 47-54,
01 \\ind scnsitl\i structures. C.I.R.I.A. Sjmp. Pasquill F. i 1972) Some aspects of boundnr! layer descrip-
Haugsn D. .A.. Kalmal J. C. and Bradley E. F. 119711 -\n tlon. 0. J. R. w. Sot. 98. 117.
s\perimcntal stud! of Rs)nolds stress and heat flux In Panofsky H. A. and Peterson E. L. f 1972) M Ind protilrs
ths atmosphenc surface la)cr. Q. J. R. jlllr. Sot. 97. 412 and change of terrain roughness at Rlso 0 J. R. mr.
Hlno 41. (1971) Spectrum of gusty wind Syrry. 011 ILi,l[l sot. 98. 41s.
Eff,vrs o11 Bd~~c~~y.s. Tokin. Royal Aeronautical Societ!. London (1971) E.S.D.U. Data
Lblcs L.. Disrud. L. ,A. and krauss R. K. (1971) Turbulence Sheet No. 71026.
intensltk as intlucnced by suriace roughness and mean Sundaram T. R.. Ludwig G. R. and Skinner G. T. (1Y77)
bclocit) in a umd tunnel boundary layr. (L.S.D..A.) Modelling of the turbulent structure of the atmospheric
Transl. A.S..A.E. I4 25-W. surface layer. .A./. -l..4. J. 10. 743-X).
,Varshall J. K. I IY7 I) Drag measurements in roughness Warner J. (1972) Ths structure and intensit\ of turbulence
arrays of Larking dsnsq and distribution. .+ic. .Mrr. m air over the sea. 0. J. R. Iwr. Sot. 98: 115.
8. 26%31. Zllitinkevich S. S. (1973) Determination of the height of
hlcBcan G. 1. 11971) The lariations of the statisws of the Ekman boundary laker. B. L. :\ftTr. 3. 141-l-15.