Chapter 3

Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

2011-9-20 1
 Balancing Chemical Equations

A balanced chemical equation shows that the law of

conservation of mass is adhered to.

In a balanced chemical equation, the numbers and

kinds of atoms on both sides of the reaction arrow
are identical.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
left side: right side:

2 Na 2 Na
2 Cl 2 Cl
Chapter 3/2
Balancing Chemical Equations

Hg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

left side: right side:

1 Hg 1 Hg
2N 2I
6O 2K
2K 2N
2I 6O

Chapter 3/3
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the unbalanced equation using the correct

chemical formula for each reactant and product.
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)

2. Find suitable coefficientsthe numbers placed

before formulas to indicate how many formula
units of each substance are required to balance
the equation.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Chapter 3/4
 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Reduce the coefficients to their smallest whole-

number values, if necessary, by dividing them all
by a common divisor.
4H2(g) + 2O2(g) 4H2O(l)

divide all by 2

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Chapter 3/5
 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Check your answer by making sure that the numbers

and kinds of atoms are the same on both sides of
the equation.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
left side: right side:

4H 4H
2O 2O

Chapter 3/6
Example 3.1 Balancing a Chemical Equation
Propane, C3H8, is a colorless, odorless gas often used as a heating and cooking fuel in campers and rural homes.
Write a balanced equation for the combustion reaction of propane with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water.

Solution
Step 1. Write the unbalanced equation using correct chemical formulas for all substances:
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O Unbalanced

Step 2. Find coefficients to balance the equation. Its usually best to begin with the most complex
substancein this case C3H8and to deal with one element at a time.
C3H8 + O2 3 CO2 + H2O Balanced for C

Next, look at the number of hydrogen atoms.

C3H8 + O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Balanced for C and H

Finally, look at the number of oxygen atoms.

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Balanced for C, H, and O
Example 3.2 Balancing a Chemical Equation

The major ingredient in ordinary safety matches is potassium chlorate, KClO 3, a substance that can act as a source
of oxygen in combustion reactions. Its reaction with ordinary table sugar (sucrose, C 12H22O11), for example, occurs
violently to yield potassium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

Solution
Write the unbalanced equation, making sure the formulas for all substances are correct:

KClO3 + C12H22O11 KCl + CO2 + H2O Unbalanced

Find coefficients to balance the equation by starting with the most complex substance (sucrose)
and considering one element at a time.

KClO3 + C12H22O11 KCl + 12 CO2 + H2O Balanced for C

KClO3 + C12H22O11 KCl + 12 CO2 + 11 H2O Balanced for C and H

8 KClO3 + C12H22O11 KCl + 12 CO2 + 11 H2O Balanced for C, H, and O

8 KClO3 + C12H22O11 8 KCl + 12 CO2 + 11 H2O Balanced for C, H, O, K, and Cl

Example 3.3 Balancing a Chemical Equation

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of element A (red spheres) with element B (blue spheres) as
represented below:

Solution
3 A2 + 9 B2 6 AB3 or A2 + 3 B2 2 AB3
 Representing Chemistry on
Different Levels
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

microscopic: 2 molecules of hydrogen gas react

with 1 molecule of oxygen gas to
yield 2 molecules of liquid water.

Chapter 3/10
 Representing Chemistry on
Different Levels
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

microscopic: 2 molecules of hydrogen gas react

with 1 molecule of oxygen gas to
yield 2 molecules of liquid water.

macroscopic: 2 moles of hydrogen gas react with

1 mole of oxygen gas to yield 2
moles of liquid water.

Chapter 3/11
 Chemical Arithmetic:
Stoichiometry
Molecular Mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms
in a molecule (also called molecular weights)

Formula Mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in

a formula unit of any compound, molecular or ionic

HCl: 1.0 amu + 35.5 amu = 36.5 amu

C2H4: 2(12.0 amu) + 4(1.0 amu) = 28.0 amu

Chapter 3/12
 Chemical Arithmetic:
Stoichiometry
HCl: 1 mole = 36.5 g

6.022 x 1023 molecules = 36.5 g

C2H4: 1 mole = 28.0 g

6.022 x 1023 molecules = 28.0 g

Chapter 3/13
 Chemical Arithmetic:
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry: The chemical arithmetic needed
for mole-mass conversions

aA + bB cC + dD

Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of

A A B B

Molar Mole Ratio Molar

Mass of A Between Mass of B
A and B
(Coefficients)
Chapter 3/14
 Chemical Arithmetic:
Stoichiometry
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

How many grams of NaOH are needed to react with

25.0 g Cl2?

Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of

Cl2 Cl2 NaOH NaOH

Molar Mole Ratio Molar

Mass of Between Mass of
Cl2 Cl2 and NaOH NaOH

Chapter 3/15
 Chemical Arithmetic:
Stoichiometry
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

How many grams of NaOH are needed to react with

25.0 g Cl2?

1 mol Cl2 2 mol NaOH 40.0 g NaOH

25.0 g Cl2 x x x
70.9 g Cl2 1 mol Cl2 1 mol NaOH

= 28.2 g NaOH

Chapter 3/16
Example 3.4 Calculating a Molecular Mass
What is the molecular mass of table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11), and what is its molar mass in g/mol?

Solution
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of the constituent atoms.
C (12.0 amu); H (1.0 amu); O (16.0 amu)

Because one molecule of sucrose has a mass of 342.0 amu, 1 mol of sucrose has a mass of 342.0 g.
Thus, the molar mass of sucrose is 342.0 g/mol.
Example 3.5 Converting Mass To Moles
How many moles of sucrose are in a tablespoon of sugar containing 2.85 g? (the molar mass of sucrose,
C12H22O11, was calculated in Example 3.4)

Solution

mass-to-mole conversion
Example 3.6 Converting Moles To Mass
How many grams are in 0.0626 mol of NaHCO3?

Solution
mole-to-mass conversion

Formula mass of NaHCO3 = 23.0 amu + 1.0 amu + 12.0 amu + (3 16.0 amu)
= 84.0 amu

Molar mass of NaHCO3 = 84.0 g/mol

 Example 3.7 Finding the Mass of One Reactant, Given
the Mass of Another

Aqueous solutions of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), best known as household bleach, are prepared by reaction
of sodium hydroxide with chlorine. How many grams of NaOH are needed to react with 25.0 g of Cl 2?
2 NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Solution
Finding the relationship between numbers of reactant formula units.
First, find out how many moles of Cl2 are in 25.0 g of Cl2.

Next, look at the coefficients in the balanced equation

carry out a mole-to-gram conversion

combining the steps

 Yields of Chemical Reactions

Actual Yield:The amount actually formed in a reaction

Theoretical Yield:The amount predicted by calculations

Actual yield of product

Percent Yield = x 100%
Theoretical yield of product

Chapter 3/21
Example 3.8 Calculating a Percent Yield
Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE, C5H12O), a gasoline additive now being phased out in many places because of
health concerns, can be made by reaction of isobutylene (C 4H8) with methanol (CH4O). What is the percent yield
of the reaction if 32.8 g of methyl tert-butyl ether is obtained from reaction of 26.3 g of isobutylene with
sufficient methanol?

Solution
Isobutylene, C4H8: Molecular mass = (4 12.0 amu) + (8 1.0 amu) = 56.0 amu

MTBE, C5H12O: Molecular mass = (5 12.0 amu) + (12 1.0 amu) + 16.0 amu
= 88.0 amu

To calculate the amount of MTBE that could theoretically be produced from 26.3 g of isobutylene,

According to the balanced equation, 1 mol of product is produced per mol of reactant
a mole-to-mass conversion

Dividing the actual amount by the theoretical amount and multiplying by 100% gives the percent yield:
Example 3.9 Calculating a Yield In Grams, Given a Percent Yield
Diethyl ether (C4H10O), the ether used medically as an anesthetic, is prepared commercially by treatment of ethyl
alcohol (C2H6O) with an acid. How many grams of diethyl ether would you obtain from 40.0 g of ethyl alcohol if
the percent yield of the reaction is 87%?

Solution
First, calculate the molar masses of the reactant and product:
Ethyl alcohol, C2H6O: Molecular mass = (2 12.0 amu) + (6 1.0 amu) + 16.0 amu
= 46.0 amu

Diethyl ether, C4H10O: Molecular mass = (4 12.0 amu) + (10 1.0 amu) + 16.0 amu
= 74.0 amu

Next, find how many moles of ethyl alcohol are in 40.0 g

Finally, we have to multiply the theoretical amount of product by the observed yield (87% = 0.87 ) to
find how much diethyl ether is actually formed:
32.2 g diethyl ether 0.87 = 28 g diethyl ether
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
Limiting Reactant: The reactant that is present in
limiting amount. The extent to which a chemical
reaction takes place depends on the limiting reactant.

Excess Reactant: Any of the other reactants still

present after determination of the limiting reactant

Chapter 3/24
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
At a high temperature, ethylene oxide reacts with
water to form ethylene glycol which is an automobile
antifreeze and a starting material in the preparation of
polyester polymers:
C2H4O(aq) + H2O(l) C2H6O2(l)
Because water is so cheap and abundant, it is used in
excess when compared to ethylene oxide. This
ensures that all of the relatively expensive ethylene
oxide is entirely consumed.

Chapter 3/25
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
At a high temperature, ethylene oxide reacts with water to
form ethylene glycol which is an automobile antifreeze and
a starting material in the preparation of polyester polymers:
C2H4O(aq) + H2O(l) C2H6O2(l)

If 3 moles of ethylene oxide react with 5 moles of water,

which reactant is limiting and which reactant is present
in excess? Chapter 3/26
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
At a high temperature, ethylene oxide reacts with
water to form ethylene glycol which is an automobile
antifreeze and a starting material in the preparation of
polyester polymers:
C2H4O(aq) + H2O(l) C2H6O2(l)

Chapter 3/27
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
Lithium oxide is used aboard the space shuttle to
remove water from the air supply according to the
equation:
Li2O(s) + H2O(g) 2LiOH(s)

If 80.0 g of water are to be removed and 65.0 g of

Li2O are available, which reactant is limiting? How
many grams of excess reactant remain? How many
grams of LiOH are produced?

Chapter 3/28
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
Li2O(s) + H2O(g) 2LiOH(s)
Which reactant is limiting?
Amount of H2O that will react with 65.0 g Li2O:

1 mol Li2O 1 mol H2O

65.0 g Li2O x x = 2.17 moles H2O
29.9 g Li2O 1 mol Li2O
Amount of H2O given:
1 mol H2O
80.0 g H2O x = 4.44 moles H2O
18.0 g H2O
Li2O is limiting
Chapter 3/29
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
Li2O(s) + H2O(g) 2LiOH(s)
How many grams of excess H2O remain?

18.0 g H2O
2.17 mol H2O x = 39.1 g H2O (consumed)
1 mol H2O

80.0 g H2O - 39.1 g H2O = 40.9 g H2O

initial consumed remaining

Chapter 3/30
 Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants
Li2O(s) + H2O(g) 2LiOH(s)
How many grams of LiOH are produced?

2 mol LiOH 23.9 g LiOH

2.17 mol H2O x x = 104 g LiOH
1 mol H2O 1 mol LiOH

Chapter 3/31
Example 3.10 Calculating the Amount of an Excess Reactant

Cisplatin, an anticancer agent used for the treatment of solid tumors, is prepared by the reaction of ammonia with
potassium tetrachloroplatinate. Assume that 10.0 g of K2PtCl4 and 10.0 g of NH3 are allowed to react.

(a) Which reactant is limiting, and which is in excess?

(b) How many grams of the excess reactant are consumed, and how many grams remain?
(c) How many grams of cisplatin are formed?
Worked Example 3.10 Calculating the Amount of an Excess Reactant

Solution
(a) Finding the molar amounts of reactants always begins by calculating formula masses and
using molar masses as conversion factors:

Thus, a large excess of NH3 is present, and K2PtCl4 is the limiting reactant.
Worked Example 3.10 Calculating the Amount of an Excess Reactant

(b)

(c)
 Concentrations of Reactants in
Solution: Molarity
Molarity: The number of moles of a substance dissolved
in each liter of solution

Solution: A homogeneous mixture

Solute: The dissolved substance in a solution

Solvent: The major component in a solution

Chapter 3/35
Concentrations of Reactants in
Solution: Molarity

Chapter 3/36
Concentrations of Reactants in
Solution: Molarity
Molarity converts between mole of solute and
liters of solution:
Moles of solute
Molarity =
Volume of solution (L)

1.00 mol of sodium chloride placed in enough

water to make 1.00 L of solution would have a
concentration equal to:
1.00 mol mol
= 1.00 or 1.00 M
1.00 L L

Chapter 3/37
Concentrations of Reactants in
Solution: Molarity
How many grams of solute would you use to
prepare 1.50 L of 0.250 M glucose, C6H12O6?

Molar mass C6H12O6 = 180.0 g/mol

0.250 mol
1.50 L x = 0.275 mol
1L

180.0 g
0.275 mol x = 49.5 g
1 mol

Chapter 3/38
Example 3.11 Calculating the Molarity of a Solution
What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.355 g of sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) in water and diluting to
a final volume of 50.0 mL?

Solution

The solution has a sulfuric acid concentration of 0.480 M.

Example 3.12 Calculating the Number of Moles of Solute in a Solution

Hydrochloric acid is sold commercially as a 12.0 M aqueous solution. How many moles of HCl are in
300.0 mL of 12.0 M solution?
.

Solution

There are 3.60 mol of HCl in 300.0 mL of 12.0 M solution

 Diluting Concentrated
Solutions
concentrated solution + solvent dilute solution

initial final
Mi V i = Mf V f

Since the number of moles of solute remains

constant, all that changes is the volume of solution
by adding more solvent.

Chapter 3/41
Diluting Concentrated
Solutions

Chapter 3/42
 Diluting Concentrated
Solutions
Sulfuric acid is normally purchased at a concentration
of 18.0 M. How would you prepare 250.0 mL of 0.500
M aqueous H2SO4?
Mi = 18.0 M Mf = 0.500 M

Vi = ? mL Vf = 250.0 mL

Mf V f 0.500 M
Vi = = x 250.0 mL = 6.94 mL
Mi 18.0 M
Add 6.94 mL 18.0 M sulfuric acid to enough water
to make 250.0 mL of 0.500 M solution.
Chapter 3/43
Example 3.13 Diluting a Solution
How would you prepare 500.0 mL of 0.2500 M NaOH solution starting from a concentration of 1.000 M?

Solution

We need to place 125.0 mL of 1.000 M NaOH solution in a 500.0 mL volumetric flask and fill to the
calibration mark with water.
 Solution Stoichiometry

aA + bB cC + dD

Volume of Moles of Moles of Volume of

Solution of A A B Solution of B

Molarity of Mole Ratio Molarity of

A Between B
A and B
(Coefficients)

Chapter 3/45
 Solution Stoichiometry

What volume of 0.250 M H2SO4 is needed to react

with 50.0 mL of 0.100 M NaOH?
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Volume of Moles of Moles of Volume of

Solution of H2SO4 H2SO4 NaOH Solution of NaOH

Molarity of Mole Ratio Molarity of

H2SO4 Between NaOH
H2SO4 and
NaOH
Chapter 3/46
 Solution Stoichiometry

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Moles of NaOH available:
0.100 mol 1L
50.0 mL NaOH x x = 0.00500 mol NaOH
1L 1000 mL
Volume of H2SO4 needed:
1 mol H2SO4 1 L solution 1000 mL
0.00500 mol NaOH x x x
2 mol NaOH 0.250 mol H2SO4 1L

10.0 mL solution (0.250 M H2SO4)

Chapter 3/47
Example 3.14 Reaction Stoichiometry in Solution

Stomach acid, a dilute solution of HCl in water, can be neutralized by reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate,
NaHCO3, according to the equation
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
How many milliliters of 0.125 M NaHCO3 solution are needed to neutralize 18.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl?

Solution

Thus, 14.4 mL of the 0.125 M NaHCO3 solution is needed to

neutralize 18.0 mL of the 0.100 M HCl solution.
 Titration

Titration: A procedure for determining the concentration

of a solution by allowing a measured volume of that
solution to react with a second solution of another
substance (the standard solution) whose concentration
is known.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Once the reaction is complete you can calculate the

concentration of the unknown solution.
How can you tell when the reaction is complete?

Chapter 3/49
Titration

Chapter 3/50
 Titration

48.6 mL of a 0.100 M NaOH solution is needed to react

with 20.0 mL of an unknown HCl concentration. What is
the concentration of the HCl solution?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Volume of Moles of Moles of Volume of
Solution of NaOH NaOH HCl Solution of HCl

Molarity of Mole Ratio Molarity of

NaOH Between HCl
NaOH and HCl
Chapter 3/51
 Titration

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Moles of NaOH available:
0.100 mol 1L
48.6 mL NaOH x x = 0.00486 mol NaOH
1L 1000 mL
Moles of HCl reacted:
1 mol HCl
0.00486 mol NaOH x = 0.00486 mol HCl
1 mol NaOH
Concentration of HCl solution:
0.00486 mol HCl 1000 mL
x = 0.243 M HCl
20.0 mL solution 1L
Chapter 3/52
 Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas
Percent Composition: Expressed by identifying the
elements present and giving the mass percent of each

Empirical Formula: It tells the smallest whole-number

ratios of the atoms in the compound.

Molecular Formula: It tells the actual numbers of

atoms in a compound. It can be either the empirical
formula or a multiple of it.
Molecular mass
Multiple =
Empirical formula mass
Chapter 3/53
 Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas
A colorless liquid has a composition of 84.1 % carbon
and 15.9 % hydrogen by mass. Determine the
empirical formula. Also, assuming the molar mass of
this compound is 114.2 g/mol, determine the molecular
formula of this compound.
Mass percents Moles Mole ratios Subscripts

Molar Relative
masses mole ratios

Chapter 3/54
 Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas
Assume 100.0 g of the substance:
Mole of carbon:
1 mol C
84.1 g C x = 7.01 mol C
12.0 g C
Mole of hydrogen:
1 mol H
15.9 g H x = 15.9 mol H
1.0 g H

Chapter 3/55
 Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas
Empirical formula:
C7.01H15.9 C7.01H15.9 = C1H2.27
7.01 7.01
smallest value for the ratio

C1H2.27 C1x4H2.27x4 = C4H9

need whole numbers

Molecular formula:
114.2
multiple = =2 C4x2H9x2 = C8H18
57.0
Chapter 3/56
Example 3.15 Calculating an Empirical Formula from a Percent
Composition

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula
of ascorbic acid?

Solution
1. Assume that you have 100.00 g of ascorbic acid.

2. Dividing each of the three numbers by the smallest (3.41 mol)

gives a C:H:O mole ratio of 1:1.33:1 and a temporary formula of C1H1.33O1.

3. Multiplying the subscripts by small integers in a trial-and-error procedure

until whole numbers are found then gives the empirical formula:
C(3 1)H(3 1.33)O(3 1) = C3H4O3
Example 3.16 Calculating a Percent Composition from a Formula
Glucose, or blood sugar, has the molecular formula C6H12O6. What is the empirical formula, and what is the
percent composition of glucose?

Solution
1. dividing the subscripts by 6 reduces C6H12O6 to CH2O.
2. converted into a mass ratio by assuming that we have 1 mol of compound and carrying out mole-to-
gram conversions:

3. Dividing the mass of each element by the total mass, and multiplying by 100%, gives the percent
composition. Note that the sum of the mass percentages is 100%.

4. Total mass of 1 mol glucose = 72.0 g + 12.1 g + 96.0 g = 180.1 g

 Determining Empirical
Formulas: Elemental Analysis
Combustion Analysis: A compound of unknown
composition is burned with oxygen to produce the
volatile combustion products CO2 and H2O, which are
separated and have their amounts determined by an
automated instrument.
hydrocarbon + O2(g) xCO2(g) + yH2O(g)

carbon
hydrogen

Chapter 3/59
Worked Example 3.17 Calculating an Empirical Formula and a
Molecular Formula from a Combustion Analysis

Caproic acid, the substance responsible for the aroma of goats, dirty socks, and oldshoes, contains carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. On combustion analysis, a 0.450 g sample of caproic acid gives 0.418 g of H 2O and
1.023 g of CO2. What is the empirical formula of caproic acid? If the molecular mass of caproic acid is
116.2 amu, what is the molecular formula?

Solution
1. First, find the molar amounts of C and H in the sample:

2. Next, find the number of grams of C and H in the sample:

3. Subtracting the masses of C and H from the mass of the starting sample
indicates that 0.124 g is unaccounted for:
0.450 g (0.2791 g + 0.0469 g) = 0.124 g
Worked Example 3.17 Calculating an Empirical Formula and a
Molecular Formula from a Combustion Analysis
Continued

5. Because we are told that oxygen is also present in the sample, the missing mass must be due to
oxygen, which cant be detected by combustion. We therefore need to find the number of
moles of oxygen in the sample:

6. Knowing the relative numbers of moles of all three elements, C, H, and O, we divide the three numbers
of moles by the smallest number (0.007 75 mol of oxygen) to arrive at a C:H:O ratio of 3:6:1.

7. The empirical formula of caproic acid is therefore C3H6O, and the empirical formula mass is 58.1 amu.
Because the molecular mass of caproic acid is 116.2, or twice the empirical formula mass, the
molecular formula of caproic acid must be C(2 3)H(2 6)O(2 1) = C6H12O2
Determining Molecular Masses:
Mass Spectrometry

Chapter 3/62