UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Histology
First Shifting Reviewer
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Histology: study of normal structure
Cell: functional unit of all living organisms
Eukaryote: have defined nucleus enclosed by a
membrane
Prokaryote: lacks membrane-bound organelles
Membrane Structure
Plasmalemma: outer limiting membrane
Davson and Danieli: Classical Model
o Trilaminar appearance of 2 protein
layers sandwiching a lipid layer
Singer and Nicholson: Fluid Mosaic Model
o Phospholipid amphipathic bilayer, with
a hydrophilic head and a non-polar
hydrophobic tail
o Polar head: glycerol conjugated to a
nitrogenous compound
o Non-polar tail: two long-chain fatty
acids (one unsaturated, one saturated)
o Fluidity and flexibility is due to
presence of unsaturated fatty acids
and cholesterol
Integral proteins
o Incorporated within the membrane
o Transmembrane if it spans the entire
thickness of the membrane
Peripheral proteins
o Held to inner and outer surfaces by
weak electrostatic forces
Glycocalyx
o Glycoproteins and glycolipids
projecting from the surface of the
bilayer forming an outer coating
involved in protection, cell recognition,
formation of intercellular adhesions,
and adsorption of molecules
o Role in histocompatibility
Functions
o Filtration barrier
o Ion permeability
o Receptor sites
o Cell recognition
o Pinocytosis/ phagocytosis/ exocytosis
Cytoplasm
Ground substance subdivided into:
o Endoplasm: manifest active streaming
with cell components carried along
o Exoplasm: gel-like
Nucleus
Largest organelle; found in all cells except RBC
Control center of the cell
Types:
o Pyknotic Nucleus: small, condensed
o Chromatic Nucleus: blotchy
o Vesicular Nucleus: cleared out
appearance
Contents:
o Chromatin
Contains DNA and proteins
Heterochromatin: tightly
coiled inactive chromatin
found in irregular clumps (in
females, Barr Body exist as
inactivated X chromosomes)
Euchromatin: electron-
luscent, active in RNA
synthesis
o Nucleoprotein
Synthesis in the cytoplasm
and imported to the nucleus
Histone proteins: LMW,
positively charged, bind
tightly to DNA and control
coiling and expression of
genes
Non-Histone: enzymes for
the synthesis of DNA and
RNA
o RNA
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Nucleolus and Protein Synthesis
Nucleoli are sites of RNA synthesis and ribosome
assembly
o Filamentous components: sites of
ribosomal RNA synthesis
o Granular components: sites of
ribosome assembly
Intensely basophilic
o Pars Amorpha/ Pars Fibrosa
Closely packed filaments on
interior
o Nucleolonema/ Pars Granulosa
Surrounds pars amorpha,
reticulum of anastomosing
strands
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 1
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Protein Synthesis Endoplasmic Reticulum

o Transcription: DNA template copied to Most abundant organelle
form a complementary mRNA May have flattened and tubular cisterns
o Introns (non-coding sequences) are
spliced out of the mRNA before Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
passing through the nuclear pore With ribosomes
complex Active in protein synthesis
o Translation: mRNA binds to ribosomes
that read the sequence and make a Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
chain of AAs for a particular protein Without ribosomes
Ribosomes Active in lipid synthesis and membrane synthesis
o Composed of a strand of RNA with and repair
associated ribosomal proteins
Synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids (FAs,
o Aligns mRNA so that tRNA will be
and triglycerides are synthesized in cytoplasm)
brought into position and AAs are
Found in the liver
added sequentially to form protein
o Rich in cytochrome P450 and plays a
o Polyribosomes: ribosomes attached to
role in the metabolism of glycogen and
mRNA
detoxification of metabolic by-
o Ribosomes in RER
products
Proteins are folded to form
Found in muscle
tertiary structure, intrachain
o Called sarcoplasmic reticulum
disulphide bonds are formed
o Involved in storage and release of
and first steps of
calcium
glycosylation take place
Lysosomal proteins, proteins
for export, and integral Golgi Apparatus
membrane proteins are Stacked, saucer-shaped, membrane-bound
made cisternae
o Free Ribosomes Cis: convex, forming face
Proteins destined for the Trans: concave, maturing face
cytoplasm, nucleus, and Process:
mitochondria are produced o Proteins synthesized in RER
transported to cis Golgi face in coated
Nuclear Envelope vesicles (coat protein is called COP II)
Thicker than cell membrane o Coat proteins disengage and fuse with
Consist of 2 membranes enclosing a narrow the cis face
perinuclear space that communicates with o Proteins are passed from cistern to
cisternae of RER cistern by COP I coat proteins
o Glycosylation of proteins is completed
Inner and outer layers have phospholipid bilayer
by sequential addition of sugar
with different integral proteins
residues and the proteins are packaged
Outer lipid bilayer
for transport to their final destination
o Continuous with RER
o At the trans face, proteins are sorted
Inner lipid bilayer
into secretory vesicles destined for
o Contains the nuclear lamina, a layer of
extracellular space, plasma membrane,
intermediate filaments that consist of
or other organelles
lamins that link inner membrane
o Secretory granules are liberated by
proteins and heterochromatin
exocytosis
Nuclear pore
o Contains a nuclear pore complex,
cylindrical structure consisting of 50
proteins forming a central pore
o Permit the exchange of metabolites,
macromolecules and ribosomal
subunits
o Hold together the two lipid bilayers

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 2

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Cell Transport o Process:

Passive Diffusion Cytoplasmic tail of receptor
Dependent on presence of concentration binds to clathrin coat protein
gradient in a coated pit
Lipids and lipid-soluble molecules Receptors with ligands are
In general, plasma membrane is impermeable to concentrated in the coated
hydrophilic molecules; however, water, urea, pit
and bicarbonate are able to pass through passive The pit buds off and forms
diffusion coated vesicle
Vesicles lose clathrin coat
Facilitated Diffusion and fuse with sorting
Concentration-dependent, requires presence of endosomes
protein carriers Sorting endosomes
dissociate receptor and
Example: Aquaporins
ligand (d/t acid PH)
o Allow water molecules to pass through
Membrane and receptors are
similar to passive diffusion
shuttled to recycling
endosomes
Active Transport
Sorting endosome containing
Operates against concentration gradient
the ligand converts into a
ATP is required
late endosome called a
multivesicular body
Bulk Transport
Multivesicular body moved
Mediated by subcellular, transient structures
to golgi to fuse with
known as coated vesicles
lysosomes
Transport proteins embedded in the membrane
Phagocytosis
of a vesicle or soluble cargo within the lumen of
o Cells of the defense system ingest and
the vesicle
kill pathogenic organisms
Dependent on the fluidity and deformability of o Process:
lipid membranes and mobility of intrinsic Bacterium binds to cell
membrane proteins receptors
Formation of a coat vesicle: Formation of pseudopodia
o Coat proteins bind to membrane and that extend around
induce it to form a bud that is pinched bacterium
off Enveloping pseudopodia
o Formed vesicle sheds coat proteins form a phagosome
and is moved by cytoskeleton to target Phagosome fuses with
site lysosome phagolysosome
Exocytosis Bacterium is broken down by
o Secretory granules dock with plasma lysosome enzymes
membrane at the cell apex forming a Dead bacteria may be
transient opening called a porosome released and maintained in
o Secretory product exits through the cytoplasm as residual body,
porosome or expelled from cell
o Secretory vesicle is recycled
o Regulated secretion Transmembrane Signalling
Dependent on signal Signalling molecules bind and activate
o Constitutive secretion membrane receptors (usually enzymes)
Continuous exocytosis
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
o Important in uptake of ligands that
bind to surface receptors
o Receptors: intrinsic membrane
proteins with extracellular and
cytoplasmic domains

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 3

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Mitochondria and Energy Production Peroxisomes/ Microbodies

Mitochondria Small, spherical, similar to lysosomes but contain
Elongated, cigar-shaped organelles different material
Very mobile, moves through microtubules Contain oxidases involved catabolic pathways
Localize at sites of maximum energy which result in formation of hydrogen peroxide
requirement Contain catalase that regulates hydrogen
Contains DNA and ribosomes resembling peroxide concentration
chromosomes and ribosomes of bacteria Nucleoid: central crystalloid structure that
Undergo self-replication and synthesize some of contains urate oxidase (not present in humans)
their own constituent proteins
Aerobic respiration takes place in the matrix and Annulate Lamellae
inner membrane Visible in Electron Microscopy
Marker: succinate dehydrogenase Parallel arrays of cisternae with small pores at
Four compartments: regular intervals along length
o Outer membrane Presence of diaphragms closing the pores
Contains porin which allows Functional significance not known
passage of small molecules
Contains enzymes that Cytoplasmic Inclusions
convert lipid substrates into
Pigments
forms that can be
Lipofuscin
metabolized within
o Represents an insoluble degradation
mitochondrion
product of organelle turnover
o Inner membrane
o Wear and Tear or age pigment
Forms the cristae
o Residual bodies (remnants of
o Mitochondrial Matrix
undigested molecules) may appear as
Contains dense matrix
brown lipofuscin granules
granules that are binding
Melanin
sites for calcium
o Responsible for skin color
Site of Krebs Cycle, protein
and lipid synthesis
Lipids
o Intramembranous Space
Precursor molecules: FAs, triglycerides, and
Contains a variety of
cholesterol
enzymes
Lipid droplets in the cell do not have limiting
Energy Production and Storage membranes
Cellular respiration: supplies energy stored in the Functions:
form of ATP o Maintain constant turn-over of cell
membranes
Main substrates are simple sugars and lipids
o Store excess energy
Glycolysis
o Begins in the cytosol where it is
Glycogen
degraded to form pyruvic acid
Present in large amounts in liver cells
o Pyruvic acid diffuses into mitochondria
where it is degraded to CO2 and H2O Glycogen granules are either:
o Beta Particles: irregular single granules
Fatty Acid
o Alpha Particles: glycogen rosettes
o Pass directly to mitochondria
Others
Lysosomes Crystals
Membrane-bound organelles containing Secretory granules
amorphous granular material
Vacuoles
Lysosomal enzymes: proteases, lipases,
nucleases, collectively known as acid hydrolases
that are optimally active at PH 5
Involved in degradation of bacteria
(heterophagy) and cellular organelles
(autophagy)

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 4

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Cytoskeleton Centrosome
Functions: Made up of a pair of centrioles (called
o Maintains the shape and polarity of diplosome) and centrosome matrix/
the cell pericentriolar material
o Movement Self-duplicating
o Contractility Centrioles: microtubule organizing center; nine
o Reorganization of constituents in cell triplets of microtubules
division Aster: microtubules radiate outwards from the
Microfilaments centrioles in a star-like arrangement
Extremely fine strands of actin <8nm Delta Tubulin Ring Complexes: nucleus for
Consist of two strings of bead-like subunits polymerization of microtubules
twisted together like a rope
Stabilized by calcium ions and associated with
ATP molecules to provide energy for contraction
Functions:
o Found in microvilli
o Together with filamin, forms the cell
cortex which protects the cell against
deformation
o Cell movement, pinocytosis, and
phagocytosis
o Contractile properties

Tonofilaments/ Intermediate Filaments

8-12 nm diameter
Purely structural function; not known to be
contractile
Examples:
o Cytokeratin: in epithelial supporting
network
o Vimentin: in cells of mesodermal origin
o Desmin: muscle cells
o Glial fibrillary acidic protein: glial cells
o Lamin: form layer in inner side of
nuclear membrane

Microtubules
Appear as a circle composed of 13 globular
subunits
Provide for alterations in cell shape and position
of organelles; element of spindle apparatus
Originate from centriole found in centrosome
Microtubule associated proteins: stabilize
tubular structure
o Capping Proteins
Stabilize growing ends of the
tubules
o Motor Proteins
Dynein
Kinesin

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 5

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

CELL CYCLE AND REPLICATION Interphase

Cell cycle: interval between mitotic divisions
S, G, M phases of the cell cycle are relatively
constant in duration; G1 phase is highly variable
Terminologies
Stem Cells
Labile cell
Relatively undifferentiated
Able to replace terminally differentiated cells
Terminally Differentiated Cells
Lost ability to undergo mitosis
Permanent cells arrested at G0 phase
Facultative Dividers
Do not normally divide but retain capacity to
undergo mitosis when the need arises
Arrested at G2 phase
Hypertrophy
Increase in bulk without multiplication of parts
Process in terminally differentiated cells
Examples: muscular hypertrophy, ventricular
hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Abnormal or unusual increase in cell number
Process in cells that retain capacity for mitosis
Common pre-neoplastic response to stimulus
Examples: endometrial hyperplasia, gingival
hyperplasia, adrenal hyperplasia, benign
prostatic hyperplasia
Atrophy
Decrease in size or wasting away of a tissue or
body part
May happen in arrested development or
progressive decline of cellular processes
Examples: atrophy of the thymus, muscleatrophy
Metaplasia
Transformation of one tissue to another or one
differentiated type of cell to another
differentiated type
Occurs for the body to be able to adapt better to
changing conditions
Usually reversible; when stimulus or
environmental condition that induced
metaplasia is removed
Example: barretts esophagus
G1 Phase
Between end of M phase and beginning of S
phase
Cells differentiate and perform specialized
functions
Usually the longest
S Phase
Synthesis phase when nuclear DNA is replicated
Completed before onset of mitosis
G2 Phase
Between end of S phase and beginning of M
phase
Cells prepare for mitotic division
Prolonged phase in facultative dividers
G0 Phase
State of continuous differentiated function
State of terminally differentiated cells; may last
for entire lifespan
Mitosis
Results in formation of two daughter cell
(diploid, genetically identical)
No duplication
Chromosomes
In humans, there are 46 chromosomes, paired in
22 homologous pairs called autosomes and 2 sex
chromosomes
Chromatids: identical chromosomes resulting
from S phase
Karyotyping: examination of chromosomes of
dividing cells
DNA
o Consist of a backbone containing
alternating deoxyribose and phosphate
moieties
o Deoxyribose: bound to a purine or
pyrimidine base; linked to a
complementary base on the other
strand
o Bases: adenine, cytosine, thymine,
guanine
o Genetic code: dependent on sequence
of bases
Bases are read in groups of
three called codons; each
codon codes for an AA

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 6

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Mitotic Apparatus
Comprises a spindle of longitudinally arranged
microtubules extending between a pair of
centrioles at each pole of the dividing cell
Visible only during the M phase; disaggregates
after mitosis is completed
Phases of Mitosis
Prophase
o Start: chromosomes first become
visible in nucleus
o Chromosomes become increasingly
condensed and shortened
o Nucleoli disappear
o Pairs of centriole migrate towards
opposite poles of the cell while the
spindle of microtubules is formed
o End: dissolution of nuclear envelope
Metaphase
o Mitotic spindle moves to nuclear area
and duplicated chromosomes attached
at the kinetochore to another group of
microtubules in the spindle
o Kinetochore
DNA and protein structure
on the chromosome located
at the centromere that binds
the duplicated chromosomes
(chromatids) together
Metaphase checkpoint:
kinetochore controls entry of
cell into the anaphase;
mitosis does not proceed
unless all chromatids are
aligned at the cell equator
o Chromosomes are arranged in the
metaphase plate
Anaphase
o Start: splitting of centromere
o Mitotic spindle lengthens
o Centrioles pulled apart and chromatids
are drawn to opposite ends of the
spindle
Telophase
o Chromosomes uncoil and regain
interphase conformation
o Nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli
become visible
o Cytokinesis: plane of division defined
by position of spindle equator,
formation of cleavage furrow
Meiosis
Produces gametes that contains haploid number
of chromosomes
Involves one reduplication of chromosomes
followed by two cell divisions
Process
o Duplication of chromosomes
o Chiasma formation: crossing over of
chromatids that provides genetic
variability
o First meiotic division: separation of
pairs of chromatids still joined at
centromere
o Second meiotic division: splitting of
chromatids by pulling apart
centromeres
In males: four gametes are produced and mature
into spermatozoon
In females: one large gamete matures into
ovum, while the other three gametes
degenerate and form polar bodies
Apoptosis
Highly controlled and ordered mechanism by
which cells are removed in a way that causes
minimal disruption in surrounding tissue
Active process that requires energy; may be
normal or pathologic
Different from necrosis, which is associated with
pathology and is characterized by the inability of
cells to produce ATP and maintain homeostasis
Process:
o Extracellular signal molecule binds to
Fas, the death receptor; OR
o Intracellular signals such as DNA
damage cytochrome C release from
mitochondria into cytoplasm triggers
the event
o Caspase cascade is activated: enzymes
cleave cellular proteins
Pyknosis: condensation of
nuclear chromatin
Cell shrinks away from
neighboring cells
Karryorhexis: nuclear
material is fragmented,
dissolution of nuclear
membrane
Karyolysis: entire cell breaks
up
Apoptotic Body: fragments that contain nuclear
material; phagocytosed by macrophages or
neighbouring cells
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 7
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

EPITHELIAL TISSUE Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Derived from ectoderm, mesoderm, and o Single layer of cells that conveys the
endoderm erroneous impression that there is
Endothelium in vessels and mesothelium in more than 1 layer
cavity linings are derived from mesoderm and o All cells rest on basement membrane
were not originally classified as epithelium but nuclei are disposed at different
Functions polarities
o Cover or line body surfaces o Found in the airways of the respiratory
o Selective diffusion system
o Absorption or secretion o Different from TRUE stratified epithelia
o Physical protection and containment in two aspects:
Majority contain the intermediate filament, Pseudostratified cells exhibit
cytokeratin polarity of nuclei, mainly
Critically dependent on diffusion of oxygen and confined in basal 2/3 of
metabolites from supporting tissue because epithelium
basement membrane is not penetrated by blood Cilia never present in true
vessels stratified epithelia

Stratified Epithelia
Classification of Epithelia has two or more layers of cells
Traditionally classified according to
Functions mainly for protection
morphological characteristics:
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
o Number of cell layers
o Found in uterine cervix and epidermis
o Shape of component cells
of the skin
o Surface specializations
Basal layer: cuboidal
Intermediate layer:
Simple Epithelia
polygonal
Single layer of cells
Surface layer: flattened
Functions in selective diffusion, absorption, and o Withstand abrasion but not
secretion desiccation
Simple Squamous Epithelium Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
o Flattened, irregularly shaped o Thin, stratified layers (2-3) of cuboidal
o Sometimes termed as pavemented cells
epithelium o Found in lining of the larger excretory
o Found in lining surfaces involved in ducts of the exocrine glands
diffusion of gases or fluids (eg. vessels
Transitional Epithelium
and cavity linings)
o Found only in urinary tract
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Basal layer: cuboidal
o Square, but polygonal in surface view Intermediate layer:
o Nucleus usually round and centrally polygonal
located Surface layer: umbrella cells
o Found in small ducts or tubules (eg. that may contain 2 nuclei
renal tubules) In the stretched state,
Simple Columnar Epithelium intermediate and surface
o Taller and columnar cells layers are flattened
o Nuclei are elongated and may be o Accommodate stretch and withstand
located towards base, center, or apex toxicity of urine
(polarity) Neuroepithelium
o Found in lining of absorptive surfaces o Chief cell surrounded by supporting
in the small intestine or secretory cells made up of columnar and basal
surfaces in the stomach (eg. cells
gallbladder)
Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium
o Found mainly in female reproductive
tract
o Have surface specializations called cilia
(discussed later)

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 8

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Glandular Epithelia
Invaginations of epithelial cell surfaces
Exocrine
o Connected to a surface epithelium by a
branching system of ducts
Endocrine
o Lost connection to epithelial surface
and release secretions directly into
blood
Membrane Specializations
Intercellular surface specializations function to
form a continuous cohesive layer of epithelia
and also for cell communication
Luminal surface specializations function for
secretion, absorption, and mobilization
Basal surface specializations provide anchorage
and structural support
Intercellular Junctions
Junctional Complex
o Composed of tight junction, zonula
adherens, and desmosomes
Zonula Occludens
o Also called tight junctions
o Forms a continuous circumferential
band that:
Block passage of molecules
Separate apical and
basolateral plasma
membrane compartments
o Sealing strands stitch membranes
together, with each strand comprising
of two molecules of claudin on the
plasma membrane and actin on the
cytoplasm
o Fascia Ocludens: structurally similar
but discontinuous strips of tight
junctions that are found in blood
vessels
Zonula Adherens
o Form a contractile circumferential
band
o Transmembrane protein: cadherin
o Anchoring proteins: catenin, vinculin,
alpha actinin)
o Bind to actin molecules
Macula Adherens
o Also called desmosomes
o Transmembrane protein: cadherin
o Anchoring protein: desmoplakin,
plakoglobin)
o Bind to intermediate filaments
Gap Junctions
o Conduit for passage of small molecules
between adjacent cells; large
molecules and negative ions are
denied passage
o Important in the control of growth,
development, cell recognition, and
differentiation
o Contains transmembrane channels
called connexons, made up of 6
connexin proteins
Hemidesmosomes
Variant of desmosomes that bind intermediate
filaments linking the basement of the cell to the
basement membrane
Transmembrane protein: integrins
Anchoring protein: plectin
Bind to intermediate filament
Extracellular binding site: laminins in BM
Cilia
Beat in wave-like synchronous pattern
Function in propelling mucus or fluid in a
consistent direction over the epithelial surface
Axoneme: central core consisting of 20
microtubules arranged as a central pair
surrounded by 9 peripheral doublets
Basal Body: nine microtubule triplets continuous
with the base of the cilium
Dynein: ATPase that fuels ciliary movement
Microvilli
Minute finger-like projections on luminal plasma
membrane
Termed as brush borders in light microscopy
Core contains actin microfilaments which insert
into the terminal web anchored to the zonula
adherens
Stereocilia
Extremely long microvilli found in the male
reproductive tract
Facilitate absorptive processes
Goblet Cell
Modified columnar epithelial cells that
synthesize and secrete mucus
Contains aggregation of mucigen granules which
are released through exocytosis and combines
with water to form mucus
Mucigen: mix of acidic and neutral proteoglycans
RER and Golgi apparatus are prominent
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 9
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Keratin 2 types of secretory cells

Occurs in Stratified Squamous Epithelium Mucous
During maturation, cells accumulate cross-linked o Tubular
cytokeratin resulting in the formation of a tough, o Acidophilic
non-living surface layer of squames consisting of o Striated granular
a protein called keratin o With canaliculi
In the keratin layer nuclei become pyknotic then o Bounded nucleus and narrow lumen
disappear Serous:
o Acinar and demilunes
Exocrine Glands o Basophilic
Classification by Means of Secretion o Reticulated
Merocrine (Eccrine) o No canaliculi
o Most common form of secretion o Flattened nucleus, wide lumen
through exocytosis
Apocrine Endocrine Glands
o Discharge of free, unbroken, Consist of clusters or cords of secretory cells
membrane-bound vesicles surrounded by a rich network of blood vessels
o In lipid secreting glands in the breasts Most release more than one hormone
and some sweat glands Some consist of more than one type of secretory
Holocrine cell
o Discharge of whole secretory cells with Hormone secretion is controlled by metabolic
subsequent disintegration of cells to factors, the nervous system, and other
release the product hormones
o In sebaceous glands
Follicular Endocrine Gland
Morphological Classification Seen in thyroid gland
Simple Tubular Stores hormone in spherical cavities enclosed by
o Single, straight, tubular secretory cells
o In large intestine
Simple Coiled Tubular
o Single, coiled in 3D
o In sweat glands
Simple Branched Tubular
o Several tubulosecretory portions that
converge in a single unbranched duct
o In the stomach
Compound Branched Tubular
o In the duodenum
Simple Acinar
o Rounded exocrine secretory unit
o In penile urethra
Simple Branched Acinar
o Several secretory acini empyting into a
single excretory duct
o In sebaceous glands
Compound Acinar
o Acinar secretory units draining into a
branched duct system
o In pancreas
Compound Tubuloacinar
o Branched tubular, branched acinar,
and branched tubular with acinar end
pieces called demilunes
o In submandibular gland

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 10

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Mesodermal in origin
o Mesencymal cells are stellate or
spindle-shaped with cytoplasmic
extensions; differentiate into all cell
types found in mature supporting
tissue
Functions
o Structural and metabolic support
o Exchange of nutrients and metabolites
o Protection and tissue repair
o Insulation
o Hematopoietic and immunologic
Connective Tissue Cells
Fibroblast
Secrete ECM in most tissues
Dominant RER and Golgi Apparatus reflecting
dominant protein-secreting function
Maintain integrity of supporting tissues by
continuous slow turnover of ECM constituents
Chondrocytes and Osteocytes
Secrete ECM in cartilage and bone
Myofibrolasts
Have additional contractile properties
Adipocytes
Storage of metabolism and fat
Defense Cells of Supporting Tissue
May be fixed (macrophages and mast cells) or
wandering (leukocytes)
Reticuloendothelial system
o Refers to phagocytic cell network
located in the marrow, spleen, lymph
node, and liver that have a supporting
framework of reticular fibers
Mast Cells
o Found in skin, GI lining, blood vessels,
and lining of peritoneal cavity.
o Similar to basophils with some
differentiating properties:
Less condensed chromatin
More uniform distribution of
processes
> cytoplasmic filaments and
granules
Lack of glycogen granules
o Mast cell degranulation results in the
release of histamine and other
vasoactive mediators which induce
immediate hypersensitivity and
anaphylactic shock
Macrophages
o Active cells exhibit irregular
cytoplasmic projections or
pseudopodia which are involved in
amoeboid movement and
phagocytosis
o Functions:
Tissue scavengers
Antigen presenting cells
during opsonisation
Cytokine secretion that
enhances immune response
Lymphokines: increase the
metabolic and phagocytic
activity of macrophages
Connective Tissue Fibers
Collagen Fibers
Most abundant protein in the body
Most notable function is tensile strength
Secreted in the form of tropocollagen that
polymerize in the ECM to form collagen
Types:
o Type I: in fibrous supporting tissue,
dermis of the skin, tendons, ligaments,
and bone
o Type II: hyaline cartilage
o Type III: reticulin, found in highly
cellular tisues
also called argyrophillic
fibers because it is stained
through silver impregnation
o Type IV: basement membrane
o Type VII: anchoring fibrils for basement
membrane
Elastin Fibers
Has stretch and elasticity
Secreted in the form of tropoelastin
Deposition of elastin as fibers requires that
presence of fibrillin (structural glycoprotein)
Found in lungs, skin, urinary bladder, and blood
vessels
Ground Substance
Consist of GAGs or mucopolysacharrides
GAG: double sugar units usually uronic acid and
amino acid sugar (N-acetylglucosamin and N-
acetylgalactosamine)
Hyaluronic Acid: predominant GAG, without
sulphate side groups
Other GAGs: chondroitin-4 and 6- sulphate,
dermatan sulphate, heparin and heparin
sulphate, and keratin sulphate
GAGs are hydrophilic ECF confers turgor
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 11
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Structural Glycoproteins Adult Connective Tissue

Fibrillary: fibrillin, fibronectin Loose Areolar Connective Tissue
Non-Fibrillary: laminin, entactin, tenascin Few collagen fibers present
Function as links between cells and ECM Found in lamina propria, superficial and deep
fascia
Fibrillin
Enhance adhesion between other extracellular Dense Regular Connective Tissue
constituents and deposition of fibers in elastin Compact collagen fibers oriented
unidirectionally
Fibronectin Found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeurosis
Control deposition and orientation of collagen in
ECM Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Enhance binding of cell to extracellular material Compact collagen fibers oriented
multidirectionally
Laminin Found in GIT, dermis, periosteum,
Form links between cell membranes and perichondrium
basement membrane
Elastic Connective Tissue
Entactin Contain elastin fibers, slender and refractile
Bind laminin to Type IV collagen in basement Found in wall of hollow organs, blood vessels,
membrane trachea, bronchi, yellow ligaments, suspensory
ligaments
Tenascin
Binds to integrins and play a role in embryonic Reticular Connective Tissue
nerve cell growth Contains reticulin fibers
Supporting framework of hematopoietic and
Basement Membrane lymphoid organs
Sheet-like arrangements of ECM that act as
interface between support tissues and Adipose Connective Tissue
parenchymal cells Adipocytes
Main constituents: heparin sulphate, collagen o Adapted for storage of fat in lipid
type IV, fibronectin, laminin, and entactin droplets
Functions: o Derived from mesenchymal cells that
o Metabolic support develop as lipoblasts
o Control of epithelial growth and o Signet-ring appearance with the
differentiation nucleus at the periphery
o Regulation of permeability o Secrete adipocytokines that modulate
Layers: energy metabolism
o Lamina Lucida o Generally has a rich blood supply
Electron lucent o Have receptors for insulin,
Mainly type IV collagen glucocorticoids, growth hormone and
bound to basal plasma noradrenaline
membrane by laminin Stored fat from:
Entactin mediates binding of o Triglycerides from liver
laminin to collagen o Circulating dietary fat
o Lamina Densa o Triglycerides from glucose within
Electron dense, intermediate adipocytes
layer Types:
o Lamina Fibroreticularis o White Adipose Tissue
Merges with underlying Unilocular
supporting tissue Energy store, thermal
Mainly type III collagen insulator, and cushion
bound to integrin of o Brown Adipose Tissue
parenchymal basal Multilocular
membrane by fibronectin Found in newborns and
hibernating mammals

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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Function in body
temperature regulation: non-
shivering thermogenesis
induced by cold stress
Contains thermogenin which
uncouples mitochondrial
metabolism from production
of ATP to produce heat
Cytochrome accounts for the
brown color of adipocytes

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Mesencymal Connective Tissue
With capacity for differentiation

Mucuous Connective Tissue

Formed by primitive fibroblasts (spindle-
shaped/stellate)
Whartons jelly of umbilical cord

Specialized Connective Tissue

Cartilage, bone, and blood to be discussed in a
later section

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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
SKELETAL TISSUES
Mesodermal in origin
Rigid form of connective tissue due to
calcification of ground substance
Inorganic elements: Mg, Ca, Na
Organic elements: calcified matrix
Functions:
o Internal support
o Attachment of muscles and tendons
o Contains bone marrow
o Protect vital organs
o Calcium storage
Cartilage
provides smooth articular surface and structural
support; also important in bone formation
made up to extracellular matrix: ground
substance + fibers
Ground Substance
o Made up of proteoglycans
o Accound for solid and flexible
properties of cartilage
o Sulphated GAGs predominate such as
chondrotin and keratin sulfate
Most are avascular thus exchange of metabolites
between chondrocytes and surrounding tissue
depends on diffusion through water solvation of
ground substance
Cartilage Formation
Primitive mesenchymal cells differentiate to
chondroblasts which synthesize ground
substance and fiber
Chondroblasts
o Separated by cartilaginous matrix and
undergo mitotic division in separate
areas, maturing into chondrocytes
Chondrocytes
o Maintain the integrity of the cartilage
matrix
o Arranged in clusters of 2-4 enclosed by
amorphous cartilage matrix
o Involved in synthesis of ground
substance and fibers of the ECM
o Have prominent RER and Golgi
Apparatus
Appositional Growth
o Through the perichondrium, a layer
surrounding mature cartilage
composed of fibers and spindle-shaped
cells
o Cells transform into chondroblasts and
produce new cartilage
Interstitiial Growth
o Occurs through further division of
chondrocytes trapped within mature
cartilage
o Mature cartilage has little capacity to
repair and regenerate due to poor
vascular supply
Hyaline Cartilage
Most common type
Found in nasal septum, larynx, tracheal rings,
articular surfaces
Precursor in the developing bone
Consists of collagen type II (except articular
cartilage)
Elastic Cartilage
Found in external ear, epiglottis, laryngeal
cartilage, and walls of Eustachian tube
Elasticity is derived from elastic fibers in the
cartilage matrix
Fibrocartilage
Found in intervertebral discs, articular cartilage,
and pubic symphysis, joint capsules, ligaments,
and tendons
Chondrocytes typically arranged in rows
between dense collagen layers
Bone
Provides a rigid protective and supporting
framework
Also serves as a calcium reservoir
Composed of cells and type I collagen called
osteoid, mineralized by deposition of calcium
hydroxypatite
Cells of the Bone
Osteoprogenitor
o Primitive mesenchymal cell line where
osteoblasts and osteoclasts originate
Osteoblasts
o Synthesize osteoid and mediate its
mineralization; lined up in bone
surfaces
o Inactive: spindle shaped; active:
cuboidal
Osteocytes
o Inactive osteoblasts embedded in
formed bone; assist in nutrition
Osteoclast
o Phagocytic, multi-nucleated cells that
erode bone for turnover and
refashioning; come from monocyte-
macrophage cell line
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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
o Found in Howships lacunae,
depressions of resorbed bone
o With a ruffled border formed by
microvilli that secrete organic acids
and proteolytic enzymes
Types of Bone According to Collagen Organization
Woven Bone
o Collagen fibers arranged randomly and
irregularly
o Fabricated during periods of rapid
bone growth: embryogenesis, reactive,
neoplastic
o Hypercellular with large osteocytes
and lacunae distributed in haphazard
fashion
o Prone to greenstick fracture
o Pleomorphic osteocytes
Lamellar Bone
o Collagen fibers arranged in parallel
o Synthesized more slowly; stronger
o Less cellular, small osteocytes and
lacunae
o Uniform osteocyte morphology
o May be compact or spongy
Compact Bone (Substantia Compacta)
Parallel columns made up of concentric bone
layers surrounding the haversian canal
Haversian System
o Haversian channel
Contains lymphatics, blood
vessels, nerves
o Volkmanns Canal
Connect neurovascular
bundles in haversian canals
with andosteum and
periosteum
o Lacunae
Containing ostecytes and are
seen in between lamella
o Canaliculi
Minute interconnecting
canals in between lacunae
containing cytoplasmic
extensions of osteocytes
Provide passage for
circulation of ECF and
diffusion of metabolites
between lacunae and vessels
of haversian canals
o Concentric Lamella
Internal/Endosteal Lamella
External/Periosteal Lamella
Interstitial Lamella: remnants
of resorbed lamellae no
longer surrounding haversian
canals
o Periosteum
Bound to underlying bone by
Sharpeys Fibers
Layer of condensed fibrous
tissue containing osteogenic
cells
Spongy Bone (Substantia Spongiosa)
Irregular branching bony spicules forming a
network of interconnecting spaces
With thin trabeculae made up of irregular
lamellae
Trabeculae is lined by thin endosteum containing
flat inactive osteoblasts
Number, thickness, and orientation are
dependent on the stresses to which the bone is
exposed
Contains red (hematopoietic) and yellow
(adipose) marrow
No haversian system
Types of Bone According to Structure
Long Bone
o Diaphysis
Mostly compact bone
o Epiphysis
Mostly spongy bone
o Epiphyseal Plate
In between epiphysis and
diaphysis
o Metaphysis
Transition connecting
epiphyseal plate and
diaphysis
o Periosteum and Endosteum
Lining of outside and inside
of bone
Flat Bone
o Made up of 2 layers of compact bone
(inner and outer tables) surrounding
spongy bone layer (diploe)
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 15
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Joints
Synovial Joint
Allows extensive movement
Also known as diarthroses
Articular cartilage
o Hyaline cartilage that covers articular
surfaces
o Infers resistance to compressive forces
Synovium
o Secretory cell layer that secretes
synovial fluid in the cavity to facilitate
smooth articulation
o May be fibrous (dense), areolar
(loose), or adipose (fat) synovium
o Synovial fluid contains:
Hyaluronic acid and
associated glycoproteins
from Type B Synoviocytes
Transudate from capillaries
Leucocytes and monocytes
o Type A Synoviocytes
With extensive golgi complex
and lysosomes
o Type B Synoviocytes
With extensive endoplasmic
reticulum
Cruciate ligaments
o Internal ligaments that limit joint
movement together with fibrous joint
capsule and external fibro-elastic
ligaments
Non-Synovial Joints
Have limited movement
No free articular surface, instead joined by dense
collagenous tissue
Types:
o Dense fibrous Tissue
Called syndesmoses that
transform to synostoses
when replaced by bone
Found in sutures of the skull
o Hyaline Cartilage
Called synchondrosis
Found in union of first rib
with sternum
o Fibrocartilage
Called symphyses
Found in pubic symphysis
and intervertebral discs
Tendon
Tough flexible straps that connect muscles to
bone
Composed of compact linear collagen fibers with
nuclei of inactive fibroblasts
Poorly vascularised and heals slowly
Anchor to muscle through myotendinous
junctions
Anchor to bone through the periosteum or
Sharpeys Fibers
Bone Development and Growth
Bone Matrix and Mineralization
70% inorganic salts
o Mainly calcium and phosphate in the
form of hydroxypatite crystals
o Magnesium carbonate
o Sodium
o Potassium
30% organic
o Type I collagen creates hole zones, the
initial site for mineralization
o Ground substance proteoglycans
consist of hyaluronic acid and
chondroitin sulphate
o Osteocalcin: involved in binding
calcium during mineralization
o Osteonectin: bridging function
between collagen and mineral
component
o Sialoprotein
Process
o Collagen and other organic
components synthesized from RER of
osteoblasts Golgi Apparatus
secreted as osteoids
o After maturation phase, calcium
phosphate salts precipitate in the hole
zones
o Pyrophosphate: inhibitor that controls
bone mineralization
o Alkaline Phosphatase: neutralize effect
of pyrophosphate
Intramembranous Ossification
Skull vault, maxilla, mandible
Occurs within membranes of condensed,
primitive mesenchymal tissue
Process:
o Mesenchymal cells differentiate into
osteoblasts that begin synthesis of
osteoid at centers of ossification
o Mineralization of osteoid
o Osteoblasts trapped in lacunae evolve
into osteocytes and cytoplasmic
extensions shrink and form canaliculi
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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

o Osteoprogenitor cells continue to form

osteoblasts
o Fusion of adjacent ossification centers
occurs
o Woven bone is remodelled by
osteoclastic activity and subsequent
osteoblastic deposition of mature
compact bone

Endochondral Ossification
Long bones, vertebrae, pelvis, skull base
Permits functional stress to be sustained during
skeletal growth
Process of Primary Ossification
o Zone of Reserve Cartilage
Cartilage model is first
formed in hyaline cartilage
o Zone of Proliferation
Appositional growth occurs
to form the different parts of
bone
o Zone of Maturation
Chondrocytes within the
model enlarge and resorb
the cartilage so as to leave
perforated trabeculae of
cartilage matrix
o Zone of Hypertrophy and Calcification
Cartilage matrix is ossified
o Zone of Cartilage Degeneration
Chondrocytes degenerate,
primitive mesenchymal cells
and blood vessels invade the
spaces occupied by
chondrocytes and
differentiate into osteoblasts
and hematopoietic cells
o Osteogenic Zone
Osteoblasts begin to form
woven bone
o Perichondrium develops osteogenic
potential and assumes the role of
periosteum
o Periosteum lays down a thin layer of
bone on the surface
o Results in bony diaphysial shaft with
cartilaginous epiphyses at each end
Process of Secondary Ossification
o Conversion of central epiphyseal
cartilage into bone

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 17