James Darel M.

Branzuela July 5, 2017

12- Euler Gen.
Chemisty

RADIOISOTOPES

What are radioisotopes?

Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of

several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are
unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form
of alpha, beta, and gamma rays.

Radioactive isotopes have many useful applications. In medicine, for example, cobalt-60
is extensively employed as a radiation source to arrest the development of cancer. Other
radioactive isotopes are used as tracers for diagnostic purposes as well as in research
on metabolic processes. When a radioactive isotope is added in small amounts to
comparatively large quantities of the stable element, it behaves exactly the same as the
ordinary isotope chemically; it can, however, be traced with a Geiger counter or other
detection device. Iodine-131 has proved effective in treating hyperthyroidism. Another
medically important radioactive isotope is carbon-14, which is used in a breath test to
detect the ulcer-causing bacteria Heliobacter pylori.

https://www.britannica.com/science/radioactive-isotope

How do radioisotopes occur?

Radioisotopes with very long half-lives. Uranium 235, for example, makes up about 0.7
percent of the naturally occurring uranium on the earth. The challenge is to separate this
very small amount from the much larger bulk of other forms of uranium. The difficulty is
that all these forms of uranium, because they all have the same number of electrons, will
have identical chemical behavior: they will bind in identical fashion to other atoms.
Chemical separation, developing a chemical reaction that will bind only uranium atoms,
will separate out uranium atoms, but not distinguish among different isotopes of uranium.
The only difference among the uranium isotopes is their atomic weight. A method had to
be developed that would sort atoms according to weight.

https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/research/reports/ACHRE/intro_9_4.html
Radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the

release of energy and matter from the nucleus. Remember that a radioisotope has
unstable nuclei that does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together.
Radioisotopes would like to be stable isotopes so they are constantly changing to try and
stabilize. In the process, they will release energy and matter from their nucleus and often
transform into a new element. This process, called transmutation, is the change of one
element into another as a result of changes within the nucleus. The radioactive decay
and transmutation process will continue until a new element is formed that has a stable
nucleus and is not radioactive. Transmutation can occur naturally or by artificial means.

https://www.nde-
ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiography/radioactivedecay.html

How are radioisotopes used?

Medical radioisotopes

Half-
Radioisotope Use
life
Chromium-51 27.7 Used to label red blood cells and quantify gastro-intestinal
days protein loss.
8.02 Used to diagnose and treat various diseases associated
Iodine-131
days with the human thyroid.
Supplied in wire form for use as an internal radiotherapy
73.83
Iridium-192 source for certain cancers, including those of the head and
days
breast.
Used as the parent in a generator to produce technetium-
66
Molybdenum-99 99m, the most widely used radioisotope in nuclear
hours
medicine.
14.28
Phosphorus-32 Used in the treatment of excess red blood cells.
days
46.7 Used to reduce the pain associated with bony metastases
Samarium-153
hours of primary tumours.
Used to image the brain, thyroid, lungs, liver, spleen,
Technetium- 6.01 kidney, gall bladder, skeleton, blood pool, bone marrow,
99m hours heart blood pool, salivary and lacrimal glands, and to detect
infection.
64
Yttrium-90 Used for liver cancer therapy.
hours

Cyclotron-produced medical radioisotopes

adioisotope Half-life Use

Copper-64 12.7 Used to study genetic disease affecting copper metabolism;
hours in Positron Emission Tomography; and also has potential
therapeutic uses.

78.25 Used in imaging to detect tumours and infections.

Gallium-67
hours
Used in imaging to monitor thyroid function and detect
13.2
Iodine-123 adrenal dysfunction.
hours
Used in imaging to detect the location of damaged heart
Thallium- 72.9
muscle.
201 hours
Carbon-11 These are used in Positron Emission Tomography to study
brain physiology and pathology; for detecting the location of
20.3
epileptic foci; and in dementia, and psychiatry and
minutes
neuropharmacology studies. They are also used to detect
heart problems and diagnose certain types of cancer.
10
Nitrogen-13
minutes
122
Oxygen-15
minutes
1.83
Fluorine-18
hours

Naturally occurring radioisotopes used in industry and science

Radioisotope Half-life Use

Carbon-14 5 715 Used to measure the age of organic material that is up
years to 50 000 years old.
301 000 Used to measure sources of chloride and the age of
Chlorine-36
years water that is up to 2 million years old
Used to date layers of sand and soil laid down up to 80
Lead-210 22.6 years
years ago.
Hydrogen-3 12.32 Used to measure the age of young groundwater (up
(tritium) years to 30 years old).

Artificially produced radioisotopes used in industry and science

Radioisotope Half-life Use

Americium-241 232.7 Used in neutron gauging and smoke
years detectors.

Cobalt-60 5.27 Used in gamma radiography, gauging,

years and commercial medical equipment
 sterilisation.

Caesium-137 30.07 Used in radiotracing to identify sources of

years soil erosion and depositing; also for
thickness gauging.

Gold-198 2.7 Used to trace factory waste causing ocean

days pollution, and to trace sand movement in
river beds and on ocean floors.

Gold- 2.7 days Used to study sewage and liquid waste

198 Technetium- 6.01 movements. Nb technetium-99m is
99m days generated from its reactor-produced
'parent', molybdenum-99.

Iridium-192 73.8 Used in gamma radiography

days
73.8 Used to trace sand to study coastal
Iridium-192
days erosion
Gold-198
2.7 days
Chromium-51
27.7
days
Tritiated water 12.32 Used as a tracer to study sewage and
years liquid wastes.

Ytterbium-169 32 Used in gamma radiography

days
Zinc-65 Manganese- 243.87 Used to predict the behaviour of heavy
54 days metal components in effluents from mining
312.1 waste water.
days

http://www.ansto.gov.au/NuclearFacts/AboutNuclearScience/Radioisotopes/UsingRadio
isotopes/index.html

What is a radioactive source?

A radioactive source or radiation source is a sample of a radionuclide, and emits ionizing

radiation (one or more of gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, and neutron
radiation). Generally, sources are used for irradiation, where the radiation performs a
significant ionising function on a target material, or as a metrology calibration source,
which is used for the calibration of radiometric process and radiation
protection instrumentation. They can be sealed in a container or on a surface, or they can
be free to move within a fluid.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_source
Radioisotopes in medicine

Radioisotopes are an essential part of medical diagnostic procedures. In combination with

imaging devices which register the gamma rays emitted from within, they can study the
dynamic processes taking place in various parts of the body.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-
applications/radioisotopes-research/radioisotopes-in-medicine.aspx

How are medical radioisotopes made?

Medical radioisotopes are made from materials bombarded by neutrons in a reactor, or

by protons in an accelerator called a cyclotron. ANSTO uses both methods.
Radioisotopes are an essential part of radiopharmaceuticals. Some hospitals have their
own cyclotrons, which are generally used to make radiopharmaceuticals with short half-
lives of seconds or minutes.

What are radiopharmaceuticals?

Radiopharmaceuticals are agents used to diagnose certain medical problems or treat

certain diseases. They may be given to the patient in several different ways. For example,
they may be given by mouth, given by injection, or placed into the eye or into the bladder.

http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/radiopharmaceutical-oral-
route/description/drg-20070231

Common radiopharmaceuticals

Abscess and infectionGallium Citrate Ga 67, Indium In 111 Oxyquinoline

Biliary tract blockageTechnetium Tc 99m Disofenin, Technetium Tc 99m
Lidofenin, Technetium Tc 99m Mebrofenin
Blood volume studiesRadioiodinated Albumin, Sodium Chromate Cr 51
Blood vessel diseasesSodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m
Blood vessel diseases of the brainAmmonia N 13, Iofetamine I 123, Technetium
Tc 99m Bicisate, Technetium Tc 99m Exametazime, Xenon Xe 133
Bone diseasesSodium Fluoride F 18, Technetium Tc 99m Medronate, Technetium
Tc 99m Oxidronate, Technetium Tc 99m Pyrophosphate, Technetium Tc 99m (Pyro-
and trimeta-) Phosphates
Bone marrow diseasesSodium Chromate Cr 51, Technetium Tc 99m Albumin
Colloid, Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid
Brain diseases and tumorsFludeoxyglucose F 18, Indium In 111 Pentetreotide,
Iofetamine I 123, Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m, Technetium Tc 99m Exametazime,
Technetium Tc 99m Gluceptate, Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate
 Cancer; tumorsFludeoxyglucose F 18, Gallium Citrate Ga 67, Indium In 111
Pentetreotide, Methionine C 11, Radioiodinated Iobenguane, Sodium Fluoride F 18,
Technetium Tc 99m Arcitumomab, Technetium Tc 99m Nofetumomab Merpentan
Colorectal diseaseTechnetium Tc 99m Arcitumomab
Disorders of iron metabolism and absorptionFerrous Citrate Fe 59
Heart diseaseAmmonia N 13, Fludeoxyglucose F 18, Rubidium Rb 82, Sodium
Pertechnetate Tc 99m, Technetium Tc 99m Albumin, Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi,
Technetium Tc 99m Teboroxime, Technetium Tc 99m Tetrofosmin, Thallous
Chloride Tl 201
Heart muscle damage (infarct)Ammonia N 13, Fludeoxyglucose F 18, Rubidium
Rb 82, Technetium Tc 99m Pyrophosphate, Technetium Tc 99m (Pyro- and trimeta-)
Phosphates, Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi, Technetium Tc 99m Teboroxime,
Technetium Tc 99m Tetrofosmin, Thallous Chloride Tl 201
Impaired flow of cerebrospinal fluid in brainIndium In 111 Pentetate
Kidney diseasesIodohippurate Sodium I 123, Iodohippurate Sodium I 131,
Iothalamate Sodium I 125, Technetium Tc 99m Gluceptate, Technetium Tc 99m
Mertiatide, Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate, Technetium Tc 99m Succimer
Liver diseasesAmmonia N 13, Fludeoxyglucose F 18, Technetium Tc 99m
Albumin Colloid, Technetium Tc 99m Disofenin, Technetium Tc 99m Lidofenin,
Technetium Tc 99m Mebrofenin, Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid
Lung diseasesKrypton Kr 81m, Technetium Tc 99m Albumin Aggregated,
Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate, Xenon Xe 127, Xenon Xe 133
Parathyroid diseases; parathyroid cancerTechnetium Tc 99m Sestamibi, Thallous
Chloride Tl 201
Pernicious anemia; improper absorption of vitamin B12 from intestines
Cyanocobalamin Co 57
Red blood cell diseasesSodium Chromate Cr 51
Salivary gland diseasesSodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m
Spleen diseasesSodium Chromate Cr 51, Technetium Tc 99m Albumin Colloid,
Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid
Stomach and intestinal bleedingSodium Chromate Cr 51, Sodium Pertechnetate
Tc 99m, Technetium Tc 99m (Pyro- and trimeta-) Phosphates, Technetium Tc 99m
Sulfur Colloid
Stomach problemsTechnetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid
Tear duct blockageSodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m
Thyroid diseases; thyroid cancerFludeoxyglucose F 18, Indium In 111
Pentetreotide, Radioiodinated Iobenguane, Sodium Iodide I 123, Sodium Iodide I
131, Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m, Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi
Urinary bladder diseasesSodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m

http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/radiopharmaceutical-oral-
route/description/drg-20070231

Nuclear imaging
Nuclear imaging is a technique that uses radioisotopes that emit gamma rays from within
the body.

How is nuclear imaging different to other imaging systems?

There is a significant difference between nuclear imaging and other medical imaging
systems such as CT (computerised tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) or
X-rays.

The main difference between nuclear imaging and other imaging systems is that, in
nuclear imaging, the source of the emitted radiation is within the body. Nuclear imaging
shows the position and concentration of the radioisotope. If very little of the radioisotope
has been taken up a cold spot will show on the screen indicating, perhaps, that blood is
not getting through. A hot spot on the other hand may indicate excess radioactivity
uptake in the tissue or organ that may be due to a diseased state, such as an infection or
cancer. Both bone and soft tissue can be imaged successfully with this system.

How does nuclear imaging work?

A radiopharmaceutical is given orally, injected or inhaled, and is detected by a gamma

camera which is used to create a computer-enhanced image that can be viewed by the
physician.
Nuclear imaging measures the function (by measuring blood flow, distribution or
accumulation of the radioisotope) of a part of the body and does not provide highly
resolved anatomical images of body structures.

Types of imaging equipment

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans

A widely used imaging technique for detecting cancers and examining metabolic activity
in humans and animals. A small amount of short-lived, positron-emitting radioactive
isotope is injected into the body on a carrier molecule such as glucose. Glucose carries
the positron emitter to areas of high metabolic activity, such as a growing cancer. The
positrons which are emitted quickly, form positronium with an electron from the bio-
molecules in the body and then annihilate producing gamma rays. Special detectors can
track this process and enables the detection of cancers or abnormalities in brain function.

Computed Tomography (CT) scans

A CT scan, sometimes called CAT (Computerised Axial Tomography) scan, uses special
X-ray equipment to obtain image data from hundreds of different angles around, or 'slices'
through, the body. The information is then processed to show a 3-D cross-section of body
tissues and organs. Since they provide views of the body slice by slice, CT scans provide
much more comprehensive information than conventional X-rays. CT imaging is
particularly useful because it can show several types of tissue - lung, bone, soft tissue
and blood vessels - with greater clarity than X-ray images.

PET scans are frequently combined with CT scans, with the PET scan providing
functional information (where the radioisotope has accumulated) and the CT scan refining
the location. The primary advantage of PET imaging is that it can provide the examining
physician with quantified data about the radiopharmaceutical distribution in the absorbing
tissue or organ.

What can nuclear imaging tell us?

The information obtained by nuclear imaging tells an experienced physician much about
how a given part of a persons body is functioning. By using nuclear imaging to obtain a
bone scan for example, physicians can detect the presence of secondary cancer spread
up to two years ahead of a standard X-ray. It highlights the almost microscopic
remodelling attempts of the skeleton as it fights the invading cancer cells.